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ENGLISH  SYNONTMES, 

WITH 

COPIOUS  ILLUSTRATIOINS  AND  EXPLANATIONS. 


DRAWN  FROM  THE- BEST  WRITERS. 


BY  BEORBE  CRABB,  M.A., 

AUTHOR  OF  THK  “U.VIVKRSAL  TECHNOLOGICAL  DICTIONARY,”  AND  THE  “UNIVERSAL 
HISTORICAL  DICTIONARY." 


dentil  Elrttton. 

FROM  THE  LAST  QUARTO  EDITION. 


NEW  YOU  K : 

HARPER  & BROTHERS,  PUBLISHERS, 
329  & 331  PEARL  STREET, 

FRANXLIK  St^UAKE. 

18G8. 


ZA/oJQ/  lap 


CS'^eld 


PREFACE 

TO 

THE  FIRST  EDITION. 


It  may  seem  surprising  that  the  English,  who  have  employed  then  talents 
successfully  in  every  branch  of  literature,  and  in  none  more  than  in  that  of 
I philology,  should  yet  have  fallen  below  other  nations  in  the  study  of  their 
synonymes : it  cannot  however  be  denied  that,  while  the  French  and  Germans 
have  had  several  considerable  works  on  the  subject,  we  have  not  a single  writer 
who  has  treated  it  in  a scientifick  manner  adequate  to  its  importance : not  that 
[ wish  by  this  remark  to  depreciate  the  labours  of  those  who  have  preceded 
me ; but  simply  to  assign  it  as  a reason  why  I have  now  been  induced  to  some 
forward  with  an  attempt  to  fill  up  what  is  considered  a chasm  in  English 
literature. 

In  the  prosecution  of  my  undertaking,  I have  profited  by  every  thing  which 
has  been  WTitten  in  any  language  upon  the  subject ; and  although  1 always 
pursued  my  own  train  of  thought,  yet  whenever  I met  with  any  thing  deserving 
of  notice,  I adopted  it,  and  referred  it  to  the  author  in  a note.  I had  not  pro- 
ceeded far  before  I found  it  necessary  te  restrict  myself  in  the  choice  of  my 
materials ; and  accordingly  laid  it  down  as  a rule  not  to  compare  any  w^ords 
together  which  were  sufficiently  distinguished  from  each  other  by  striking  fea- 
tures in  their  signification,  such  as  abandon  and  quit,  which  require  a compari- 
son wdth  others,  though  not  necessarily  with  themselves  ; for  the  same  reason  I 
thought  fit  to  limit  myself,  as  a rule,  to  one  authority  for  each  wmrd,  unless 
where  the  case  seemed  to  require  farther  exemplification. 

Although  a work  of  this  description  does  not  afibrd  much  scope  for  system 
and  arrangement,  yet  I laid  down  to  myself  the  plan  of  arranging  the  words 
according  to  the  extent  or  universality  of  their  acceptation,  placing  those  first 
which  had  the  most  general  sense  and  application,  and  the  rest  in  order.  By 
this  plan  I found  myself  greatly  aided  in  analyzing  their  difierences,  and  I trust 
vhat  the  reader  will  thereby  be  equally  benefited.  In  the  choice  of  authorities 
I have  been  guided  by  various  considerations  ; namely,  the  appropriateness  of 
the  examples  ; the  classick  purity  of  the  author ; the  justness  of  the  sentiment ; 
and,  last  of  all,  the  variety  of  the  writers : but  I am  persuaded  that  the  reader 
will  not  be  dissatisfied  to  lincl  that  I have  shown  a decided  preference  to  such 
authors  as  Addison,  Johnson,  Dryden,  Pope,  Milton,  <fec.  At  the  same  time  it 
is  but  just  to  observe  that  this  selection  of  authorities  has  been  made  by  an 
actual  perusal  of  the  authors,  without  the  assistance  of  Johnson’s  dictionary. 

For  the  sentiments  scattered  through  this  work  I offer  no  apology,  although  1 
am  aware  that  they  will  not  fall  in  with  the  views  of  many  who  may  be  com- 


467702 


n 


PREFACE. 


petfnt  to  decide  on  its  literary  merits.  I write  not  to  please  or  displease  any 
description  of  persons ; but  I trust  that  what  I have  written  according  to  the 
dictates  of  my  mind  will  meet  the  approbation  of  those  whose  good  opinion  I 
am  most  solicitous  to  obtain.  Should  any  object  to  the  introduction  of  morality 
in  a work  of  science,  I beg  them  to  consider,  that  a writer,  whose  business  it 
was  to  mark  the  nice  shades  of  distinction  between  words  closely  allied,  eould 
not  do  justice  to  liis  subject  without  entering  into  all  the  relations  of  society 
and  showing,  from  the  acknowledged  sense  of  many  moral  and  religious  terms, 
what  has  been  the  general  sense  of  mankind  on  many  of  the  most  important 
questions  which  have  agitated  the  world.  My  first  object  certainly  has  been 
to  assist  the  philological  inquirer  in  ascertaining  the  force  and  comprehension 
of  the  English  language;  yet  I should  have  thought  my  work  but  half  com- 
pleted had  I made  it  a mere  register  of  verbal  distinctions.  While  others  seize 
every  opportunity  imblushingly  to  avow  and  zealously  to  propagate  opinions 
destructive  of  good  order,  it  would  ill  become  any  individual  of  contrary  senti- 
ments to  shrmk  from  stating  his  convictions,  when  called  upon  as  he  seems  to  be 
by  an  occasion  like  that  which  has  now  offered  itself.  As  to  the  rest,  I thro.v 
myself  on  the  mdulgence  of  the  publick,  with  the  assurance  that,  having  used 
every  endeavour  to  deserve  their  approbation,  I shall  not  make  an  appeal  U 
their  candour  in  vam. 


ADVERTISEMENT 


TO  THE  LONDON  QUARTO  EDITION. 


A FOURTH  edition  of  the  English  SYNONVi-MEs  having  now  become  desirable, 
the  Author  has  for  some  time  past  occcupied  himself  in  making  such  additions 
and  improvements,  as  he  deems  calculated  materially  to  enhance  its,  value  as  a 
work  of  criticism.  The  alphabetical  arrangement  of  the  words  is  exchanged 
for  one  of  a more  scientifick  character,  arising  from  their  alliance  in  sense  or  from 
the  general  nature  of  the  subjects  : thus  affording  the  advantage  of  a more  con- 
nected explanation  of  terms,  more  or  less  allied  to  each  other.  At  the  same 
time  the  purpose  of  reference  is  more  fully  answered  by  an  index  so  copious 
that  the  reader  may  immediately  turn  to  the  particular  article  sought  for.  The 
subject  matter  of  several  articles  has  been  consideraldy  enlarged,  and  such 
amplifications  admkted  as  may  serve  to  place  the  Svnonvmes  in  a clearer  point 
of  view,  particularly  by  comparing  them  with  the  corresponding  words  in  the 
origmal  languages  whence  they  are  derived.  The  English  quotations  have 
liliewise  undergone  several  alterations  both  m their  number  and  order,  so  as  to 
adapt  them  to  the  other  changes  which  have  been  introduced  throughout  the 
vv  oik. 


IWBEX, 


Page 

rO  ABANDON— to  abandon,  desert,  forsake,  re- 


linquish   243 

TO  ABANDON— to  abandon,  resign,  renounce, 

abdicate 243 

TC  ABANDON— to  give  up,  abandon,  resign, 

forego 242 

ABANDONED— profligate,  abandoned,  reprobate  249 
TO  ABASE — to  abase,  humble,  degrade,  disgrace, 

debase IpG 

TO  ABASH— to  abash,  confound,  confuse 107 

TO  ABATE — to  abate,  lessen,  diminish,  decrease  351 

TO  ABATE— to  subside,  abate,  intermit 271 

TO  ABDICATE— to  abandon,  resign,  renounce, 

abdicate 243 

TO  ABDICATE — to  abdicate,  desert 253 

ABETTOR — abettor,  accessary,  accomplice 365 

TO  ABHOR — to  abhor,  detest,  abominate,  loathe  138 
TO  ABIDE— to  abide,  sojourn,  dwell,  reside,  in- 
habit   2C3 

ABILITY- ability,  capacity 67 

ABILITY — faculty,  ability,  talent 68 

ABILITY— dexterity,  address,  ability 68 

ABJECT— 4ovv,  mean,  abject 147 

TO  ABJURE — to  abjure,  recant,  retract,  revoke, 

recall 247 

TO  ABOLISH— to  abolish,  abrogate,  repeal,  re- 
voke, annul,  cancel 247 

ABOSIINABLE— abominable,  deteslable,  execra- 
ble   133 

TO  ABOMINATE — to  abhor,  detest,  abominate, 

loathe 138 

ABORTION — failure,  miscarriage,  abortion 125 

ABOVE— above,  over,  upon,  beyond 279 

TO  ABRIDGE — to  abridge,  curtail,  contract 178 

TO  ABRIDGE— to  deprive,  debar,  abridge 506 

TO  ABROGATE— to  abolish,  abrogate,  repeal, 

revoke,  annul,  cancel 247 

ABRUPT— abrupt,  rugged,  rough 201 

TO  ABSCOND— to  abscond,  steal  away,  secrete 

one’s  self 520 

ABSENT — absent,  abstracted,  diverted]  distracted  484 

TO  ABSOLVE— to  absolve,  acquit,  clear 182 

TO  ABSOLVE— to  forgive,  pardon,  absolve,  re- 
mit  87 

ABSOLUTE— absolute,  despotick,  arbitrary 188 

ABSOLUTE— positive,  absolute,  peremptory....  188 
TO  ABSORB — to  absorb,  swallow  up,  ingulf,  en- 
gross   509 

TO  ABSTAIN— to  abstain,  forbear,  refrain 244 

ABSTEMIOUS— abstinent,  sober,  abstemious, 

temperate 244 

ABSTINENCE— abstinence,  fast 87 

ABSTINENT— abstinent,  sober,  abstemious, 
lamperate  244 


TO  ABSTRACT— to  abstract,  separate,  distin- 
guish  420 

ABSTRACTED — absent,  abstracted,  diverted, 

distracted 484 

ABSURD— irrational,  ‘bnlisli,  absurd,  preposte- 
rous   91 

ABUNDANT— plentiful,  plenteous,  abundant,  co- 
pious, ample 311 

TO  ABUSE — to  abuse,  misuse 3S9 

ABUSE— abuse,  invective 109 

ABUSIVE — reproachful,  abusive,  scurrilous 109 

ABYSS— gulf,  abyss 403 

Academy— school,  academy 197 

TO  ACCEDE — to  accede,  consent,  comply,  acqui- 
esce, agree 151 

TO  ACCELERAl’E— to  hasten,  accelerate,  speed, 

expedite,  despatch 261 

ACCENT — stress,  strain,  emphasis,  accent 221 

TO  ACCEPT — to  take,  receive,  accept 233 

ACCEPTABLE — acceptable,  grateful,  welcome..  234 
ACCEPTANCE  ) 

ACCEPTATION  ^ ^‘^ceptance,  acceptation 234 

ACCESS— admittance,  access,  approach 23i 

ACCESSION— increase,  addition,  accession,  aug- 
mentation   34' 

ACCESSARY — abettor,  accessary,  accomplice. . . 365 

ACCIDENT— accident,  chance 171 

ACCIDENT — accident,  contingency,  casualty ...  172 
ACCIDENT— event,  incident,  accident,  adven- 
ture, occurrence 172 

ACCIDENTAL— accidental,  incidental,  casual, 

contingent 172 

ACCLAMATION— applause,  acclamation,  plau- 
dit   130 

TO  ACCOMMODATE— to  fit,  suit,  adapt,  accom- 
modate, adjust 154 

ACCOMPANIMENT— accompaniment,  compa- 
nion, concomitant 493 

TO  ACCOMPANY- to  accompany,  attend,  es- 
cort, wait  on 193 

ACCOMPLICE— abettor,  accessary,  accomplice.  365 
ACCOMPLICE— ally,  confederate,  accomplice . . 491 
TO  ACCOMPLISH— to  accomplish,  effect,  exe- 
cute, achieve 288 

TO  ACCOMPLISH — to  fulfil,  accomplish,  realize  289 

ACCOMPLISHED — accomplished,  perfect 288 

ACCOMPLISHMENT — qualification,  accom- 
plishment   289 

TO  ACCORD— to  agree,  accord,  suit 152 

ACCORDANCE — melody,  harmony,  accordance  155 
ACCORDANT— consonant,  accordant,  consistent  153 
ACCORDINGLY — therefore,  consequently,  ac- 
cordingly   274 

TO  ACCOST— to  accost, ‘•alute  address..  ..  ifil 


#111 


INDEX. 


Pa«e 


ACCOUNT'-acconnt,  reckoning,  bill 433 

.ACCOUNT— account,  narrative,  description 407 

ACCOUNT — sake,  account,  reason,  purpo.se,  end  535 
TO  ACCOUNT— to  calculate,  compute,  reckon, 

count  or  account,  number 432 

ACCOUITTABLE— answerable,  responsible,  ac- 
countable, amenable 483 

TO  ACCUMULATE— to  heap,  pile,  accumulate, 

amass 349 

ACCURATE— accurate,  exact,  precise 203 

AtJCURATE— correct,  accurate 202 

ACCUSATION— complaint,  accusation 112 

TO  ACCUSE— to  accuse,  charge,  impeach,  ar- 
raign  m 

TO  ACCUSE— to  accuse,  ceiusure 1 11 

ACHIEVE- to  accomplish,  effect, execute,  achieve  288 
ACHIEVEMENT— deed,  exploit,  achievement, 
feat 295 


ro  ACKNOWLEDGE— to  acknowledge,  own. 


confess,  avow 442 

TO  ACKNOWLEDGE— to  recognise,  acknow- 


ledge   

TO  ACQUAINT— to  inibrm,  make  known,  ac- 
quaint, apprize 

ACQUAINTANCE— acquaintance,  familiarity, 

intimacy 

TO  ACQUIESCE— to  accede,  consent,  comply, 

acquiesce,  agree 

TO  ACQUIRE— to  acquire,  obtain,  gain,  win. 


earn  

ro  ACQUIRE— to  acquire,  attain 

ACQUIREMENT  ? acquisition 

ACQUISITION  S 

TO  ACQUIT— to  absolve,  acquit,  clear 

A.CRIMONY— acrimony,  tartnoss,  asperity,  harsh- 


ness   

TO  ACT— to  make,  do,  act 


ACT 

ACTION 


action,  act,  deed 


442 

194 

195 

151 

39G 

396 

396 


383 

294 

294 


ACTION  -action,  gesture,  gesticulation,  posture, 

attitude 295 

ACTION— action,  agency,  operation 296 

ACTIVE— active,  diligent,  industrious,  assiduous, 

laborious 296 

ACTIVE— active,  brisk,  agile,  nimble 297 

•AC'rrVE- active,  busy,  officious 297 

ACTOR — actor,  agent 298 

ACTOR— actor,  player,  performer 298 

ACTUAL— actual,  real,  positive 298 

TO  ACTUATE— to  actuate,  impel,  induce 309 

ACUTE— acute,  keen,  shrewd 401 

ACUTE— sharp,  acute,  keen 402 

ACUTENESS— penetration,  acutenes.s, sagacity. . 401 
ADAGE— axiom,  maxim,  aphorism,  apophthegm, 

saying,  adage,  proverb,  by-word,  saw  210 

TO  ADAPT— to  fit,  suit,  adapt,  accommodate,  ad- 
just   454 

TO  ADD — to  add,  join,  unite,  coalesce 418 

ro  ADDICT- -to  addict,  devote,  apply 421 

ADDITION — increase,  addiffon,  accession,  aug- 
mentation   347 

TO  ADDRESS — to  accost,  salute,  address 461 

TO  ADDRESS— to  address,  apply 422 

ADDRESS— address,  speech,  harangue,  oration.  461 


ADDRESS— direction  address,  superscription.,,  . 213 


ADDRESS— dexterity,  address,  ability 68 

TO  ADDUCE — to  adduce,  allege,  assign,  advance  420 
ADEQUATE — proportionate,  commensurate,  ade 

quate 434 

TO  ADHERE — to  adhere,  attach 42G 

TO  ADHERE — to  stick,  cleave,  adhere 41£ 

ADHERENCE — adhesion,  adherence 42C 

ADHERENT — follower,  adherent,  partisan 419 

ADHESION — adhesion,  adherence 420 

ADJACENT— adjacent,  adjoining,  contiguous  . . . 420 

ADJECTIVE — epithet,  adjective 420 

ADJOINING — adjacent,  adjoining,  contiguous.. . 420 

TO  ADJOURN— to  prorogue,  adjourn 2GC 

TO  ADJUST — to  fit,  suit,  adapt,  accommodate, 

adjust 154 

TO  ADMINISTER— to  minister,  administer,  con- 
tribute   167 

A D.MINISTRATION— government,  administra- 
tion  207 

ADMIRATION — wonder,  admiration,  surprise, 

astonishment,  amazement 403 

ADMISSION— admittance,  admission 235 

TO  ADMIT— to  admit,  receive 235 

TO  ADMIT — to  admit,  allow,  permit,  suffer,  tole- 
rate   157 

TO  ADMIT — to  admit,  allow,  grant 157 

ADMITTANCE — admittance,  access,  approach  . 235 

ADMITTANCE — admittance,  admission 335 

TO  ADMONISH — to  admonish,  advise 193 

ADMONITION — admonition,  warning,  caution  . 93 

TO  ADORE — to  adore,  worship ?! 

TO  ADORE — to  adore,  reverence,  venerate,  re- 
vere   31 

TO  ADORN— to  adorn,  decorate,  embellish 

ADROIT— clever,  skilful,  expert,  dexterous,  adrok  69 
TO  ADULATE-toadulate, flatter, compliment..  526 

TO  ADVANCE- -to  advance,  proceed ....  301 

TO  ADVANCE — to  encourage,  advance,  promote, 

prefer,  forward 312 

TO  ADVANCE— to  adduce,  allege,  assign,  ad- 
vance   42C 

ADVANCE  1 progress,  progression’,  acl- 

ADVANCEMENT3  vance,  advancement 204 

ADVANTAGE— good,  benefit,  advantage 397 

ADVANTAGE — advantage,  profit 398 

ADVANTAGE— advantage,  benefit,  utility,  ser- 
vice, avail,  use 398 

ADVENTURE— event,  incident,  accident,  adven- 
ture, occurrence 172 

ADVENTUROUS— enterprising,  adventurous. . . 173 
ADVENTUROUS — foolhardy,  adventurous,  rash  321 
ADVERSARY — enemy,  foe,  adversary,  opjionent, 

antagonist 134 

ADVERSE— adverse,  contrary,  opposite 133 

ADVERSE — adverse,  inimical,  hostile,  repugnant  13£ 

ADVERSE— adverse,  averse 136 

ADVERSITY— adversity,  distress 40/ 

TO  ADVERTISE— to  announce,  proclaim,  pub- 
lish, advertise 443 

ADVICE— advice,  counsel,  instruction 194 

ADVICE— information,  intelligence,  notice,  ad- 
vice   195 

TO  ADVISE — to  admonish,  advise  193 


INDEX. 


rage 

ADVOCATE — ^Jifen.ler,  advocate,  pleader 180 

AFFABLE — affable,  courteous 200 

AFFAIR — affair,  business,  concern 332 

TO  AFFECT— to  affect,  concern 332 

TO  AFFEC'I'— to  affect,  assume . 230 

TO  AFFECT— to  affect,  pretend  to 229 

AFFECTING — moving,  affecting,  pathetick  — . SOI 

AFFECTION— affection,  love 378 

AFFECTION — attachment,  affection,  inclinatitn  3'9 

AFFECTIONATE — affectionate,  kind,  fond 379 

AFFINITY— alliance,  affinity 492 

AFFINITY— kindred,  relationship,  affinity,  con- 
sanguinity   497 

TO  AFFIRM — to  affirm,  asseverate,  assure,  vouch 

aver,  protest 441 

TO  AFFIRM — to  affirm,  assert 441 

TO  AFFIX— to  affix,  subjoin,  attach,  annex 419 

TO  AFFLICT — to  afflict,  distress,  trouble 408 

AFFLICTION— affliction,  grief,  sorrow 408 

A FJ  LUENCE— riches,  wealth,  opulence,  afflu- 
ence   340 

TO  AFFORD— to  afford,  yield,  produce 330 

TO  AFFORD— to  give,  afford,  spare 103 

AFFRAY— quarrel,  broil,  feud,  affray  or  fray 133 

AFFRONT— affront,  insult,  outrage 121 

AFFRONT — offence,  trespass,  transgression,  mis- 
demeanour, misdeed,  affront 120 

AFRAID — afraid,  fearful,  timorous,  timid 307 

AFTER— after,  behind 279 

AGE — generation,  age 270 

AGE — time,  period,  age,  date,  era,  epocha 267 

AGED— elderly,  aged,  old 269 

AGENCY— action,  agency,  operation 296 

AGENT— actor,  agent 298 

AGENT— minister,  agent 215 

AGENT— factor,  agent 336 

TO  AGGRAVATE — to  aggravate,  irritate,  pro- 
voke, exasperate,  tantalize 121 

TO  AGGRAVATE — to  heighten,  raise,  aggravate  355 

AGGRESSOR — aggressor,  assailant 116 

AGILE — active,  brisk,  agile,  nimble 297 

TO  AGITATE — to  shake,  agitate,  toss 304 

AGITATION — agitation,  emotion,  trepidation, 

tremour 308 

AGONY — distress,  anxiety,  anguish,  agony 407 

AGONY — pain,  pang,  agony,  anguish 407 

TO  AGREE — to  agree,  accord,  suit 152 

TO  AGREE — to  accede,  consent,  comply,  acqui- 
esce, agree 151 

TO  AGREE — to  agree,  coincide,  concur 151 

AGREEABLE — agreeable,  pleasant,  pleasing....  152 
AGREEABLE — conformable,  agreeable,  suitable  153 
AGREEMENT — agreement,  conlract,  covenant, 

compact,  bargain 152 

AGRICULTURIST — farmer,  husbandman,  agri- 
culturist   336 

TO  AID — to  help,  assist,  aid,  succour,  relieve. . . . 364 

AIM — aim,  object,  end 324 

AIM — tendency,  drift,  scope,  aim .325 

TO  AIM — to  aim,  point,  level 324 

TO  AIM — to  aim,  aspire 325 

TO  AIM — to  endeavour,  aim,  strive,  struggle 321 

AIR — air,  manner 193 

AIR — air,  mien  look 193 


IX 

AIR— appearance,  air,  aspec  478 

ALACRITY — alertness,  alacrity 297 

ALARM — alarm,  terrour,  fright,  consieinaiion 305 

ALERTNESS — alertness,  alacrity 297 

ALIEN  ) , . 

TO  ALIENATE  r”''"'”"’ 

ALIKE—equal,  even,  equable,  like  or  alike,  uni- 
form   435 

ALL— all,  whole 252 

ALL — all,  every,  each 252 

TO  ALLAY — to  allay,  sooth,  appease,  assuage, 

mitigate 361 

TO  ALLEGE — to  adduce,  allege,  assign,  advance  420 
ALLEGORY — figure,  metaphor,  allegory,  emblem, 

symbol,  type 531 

ALLEGORY — parable,  allegory 532 

TO  ALLEVIATE — to  alleviate,  relieve 361' 

ALLIANCE — alliance,  league,  confederacy 492 

ALLIANCE— alliance,  affinity 492 

TO  ALLOT — to  allot,  assign,  apportion,  distribute  168 

TO  ALLOT — to  allot,  appoint,  destine 169 

TO  ALLOW — to  give,  grant,  bestow,  allow 162 

TO  ALLOW — to  admit,  allow,  i)ermit,  suffer,  tole- 
rate   157 

TO  ALLOW — to  admit,  allow,  grant 157 

TO  ALLOW — to  consent,  permit,  allow 156 

ALLOWANCE — allowance,  stipend,  salary, 

wages,  hire,  pay 164 

TO  ALLUDE — to  allude,  refer,  hint,  suggest 32G 

TO  ALLUDE  TO— to  glance  at,  alludeto  327 

TO  ALLURE — to  allure,  tempt,  seduce,  entice, 

decoy 349 

TO  ALLURE— to  attract,  allure,  invite,  engage. . 313 

ALLUR  F.MENTS attractions,  allurements, 

charms 343 

ALLY — ally,  confederate,  accomplice 491 

ALMANACK — calendar,  almanack,  ephemeris  . . 134 

ALONE — alone,  solitary,  lonely 252 

ALSO — also,  likewise,  too 253 

TO  ALTER— to  change,  alter,  vary 283 

altercation — difference,  dispute,  altercation, 

quarrel 133 

ALTERNATE — successive,  alternate 272 

always — always,  at  all  times,  ever 258 

AMASS— to  heap,  pile,  accumulate,  amass 340 

AMAZEMENT— wonder,  admiration,  surprise, 

astonishment,  amazement 403 

AMBASSADOR — ambassador,  envoy,  plenipoten- 
tiary, deputy 214 

AMBIGUOUS — ambiguous,  equivocal 527 

AMENABLE — answerable,  responsible,  account- 
able, amenable 183 

TO  AMEND — to  amend,  correct,  reform,  rectify, 

emend,  improve,  mend,  better 2U1 

AMENDS — restoration,  restitution,  reparation, 

amends 43'j 

AMENDS — compensation,  satisfaction,  amends, 
remuneration, recompense,  requital,  reward..  438 

AMIABLE— amiable,  lovely,  beloved 378 

AMICABLE— amicable,  friendly 378 

AMOROUS — amorous,  loving,  fond 378 

AMPLE — ample,  spacious,  capacious 35(] 

AMPLE— plentiful,  plenteous,  abundant,  copious, 
ample 


34J 


X 


INDEX. 


TO  AMUSL— to  amuse,  cliveit,  c .itcrtaiii .390 

TO  AMUSE — to  amuse,  beguile 391 

AMUSEMENT— amusement,  entertainment,  di- 
version, sport,  recreation,  pastime 391 

ANATHEMA — malediction,  curse,  imprecation, 

execration,  .anathema  . . 82 

ANCESTORS — forefathers,  progenitors,  ancestors  269 
ANCIENT — old,  ancient,  antique,  antiquated, 

old-fashioned,  obsolete 268 

) formerly,  in  times  past,  old 
> times  or  days  of  yore,  an- 
3 ciently  or  in  ancient  times  209 

ANECDOTE — anecdote,  story,  tale 467 

ANECDOTES — anecdotes,  memoirs,  chronicles, 
annals 466 


ANCIENTLY 
ANCIENT  TIMES 


ANGER — anger,  resentment,  wrath,  ire,  indigna- 
tion  118 

ANGER — anger,  choler,  rage,  fury 119 

ANGER — displeasure,  anger,  disapprobation 118 

ANGLE — corner,  angle 499 

ANGRY — angry,  passionate,  hasty,  irascible 119 

ANGUISH— distress,  anxiety,  anguish,  agony. ...  407 

ANGUISH — pain,  pang,  agony,  anguish 407 

ANIMADVERSION — animadversion,  criticism, 
stricture 112 


TO  ANIMADVERT — to  censure,  animadvert, 

criticise Ill 

ANIMAL — animal,  brute,  beast 511 

TO  ANIMATE — to  animate,  inspire,  enliven, 

cheer,  exhilarate 355 

TO  ANIMATE— to  encourage,  animate,  incite, 

impel,  urge,  stimulate,  instigate 311 

ANIMATION — animation,  life,  vivacity,  spirit. . 356 

ANIMOSITY — enmity,  animosity,  hostility 135 

ANNALS— anecdotes,  memoirs,  chronicles,  annals  466 

TO  ANNEX— to  affix,  subjoin,  attach,  annex 419 

AI4NOTATION — remark,  observation,  comment, 

note,  annotation,  commentary 451 

TO  ANNOUNCE — to  announce,  proclaim,  pub- 
lish, advertise 443 

TO  ANNOY— to  inconvenience,  annoy,  molest. . 417 
TO  ANNUL — to  abolish,  abrogate,  repeal,  re- 
voke, annul,  cancel 247 

ANSWER— answer, reply,  rejoinder,  response...  460 
ANSIVERABLE — answerable,  responsible,  ac- 
countable, amenable 183 

.1NSWERABLE — correspondent,  answerable, 

suitable I55 

ANTAGONIST — enemy,  foe,  adversary,  oppo- 
nent, antagonist I34 


ANTECEDENT  ^ tintecedent,  picceding,  forego- 


ANTERIOR  ( ii'g,  previous,  anterior,  prior, 

) former 272 

ANTICIPATE — to  prevent,  anticipate 259 

ANTIPATHY— aversion,  antipathy,  dislike,  ha- 
tred, repugnance 136 

ANTIQUATED  ) old,  ancient,  antiquated,  an- 
ANTIQUE  5 tique,  old-fashioned,  obsolete  263 

ANXIETY— care,  solicitude,  anxiety 425 

ANXIETY— distress,  anxiety,  anguish,  agony 407 

ANY — some,  any 250 

APARTMENTS— lodgings,  apartments 499 

APATHY— indifference,  insensibility,  apathy 375 

ro  APE— to  imitate,  mimick,  mock,  ape 529 


PJUB 

APERTURE — opening,  aperture,  cavity 402 

APHORISM — axiom,  maxim,  aphorism,  apoph- 
thegm, saying,  adage,  proverb,  by-word,  saw  21G 
TO  APOLOGIZE — to  apologize,  defend,  justify, 

exculpate,  excuse,  plead 181 

APOPHTHEGM — axiom,  maxim,  aphorism, 
apophthegm,  saying,  adage,  proverb,  by- word, 

saw 21f 

TO  APPAL — to  dismay,  daunt,  appal 306 

APPAREL — apparel,  attire,  array 277 

APPARENT — apparent,  visible,  clear,  plain,  ob- 
vious, evident,  manifest 478 

APPARITION — vision,  apparition,  phantom, 

spectre,  ghost 479 

TO  APPEAR — to  look,  appear 481 

TO  APPEAR — to  seem,  appear 483 

APPEARANCE — appearance,  air,  aspect 478 

APPEARANCE — show,  outside,  appearance, 

semblance 4.53 

TO  APPEASE— to  appease,  calm,  pacify,  quiet, 

still 301 

TO  APPEASE — to  allay,  sooth,  appease,  assuage, 

mitigate 361 

APPELLATION — name,  appellation,  title,  deno- 
mination  47] 

TO  APPLAUD — to  praise,  commend,  applaud, 

extol 13G 

APPLAUSE — applause,  acclamation,  plaudit  ....  13(1 
APPLICATION — attention,  application,  study...  423 

TO  APPLY — to  addict,  devote,  apply 421 

TO  APPLY— to  address,  apply 422 

TO  APPOINT — to  allot,  appoint,  destine 169 

TO  APPOINT — to  appoint,  order,  prescribe,  ordain  1S4 
TO  APPOINT— to  constitute,  appoint,  depute... . 214 
TO  APPORTION — to  allot,  assign,  apportion,  dis- 
tribute  IffiJ 

TO  APPRAISE  I to  appraise  or  appreciate, 

TO  APPRECIATE  J estimate,  esteem 133 

TO  APPREHEND — to  apprehend,  fear,  dread. . 307 
TO  APPREHEND — to  conceive,  apprehend,  sup- 
pose, imagine 73 

TO  APPRIZE — to  inform,  make  known,  acquaint, 

apprize 194 

APPRIZED — aware,  on  one’s  guard,  apprized, 

conscious 426 

APPROACH — admittance,  access,  approach 235 

TO  APPROACH — to  approach,  approximate 235 

APPROBATION — assent,  consent,  approbation, 

concurrence 156 

APPROPRIATE — peculiJir,  appropriate,  parti- 
cular   231 

TO  APPROPRIATE — to  appropriate,  usurp,  arro- 
gate, assume,  ascribe 230 

TO  APPROPRIATE — to  appropriate,  impropriate  231 
TO  APPROXIMATE— to  approach,  approximate  235 

APT— ready,  apt,  prompt 297 

APT — fit,  apt,  meet ; 155 

ARBITER— judge,  umpire,  arbiter,  arbitrator 21 J 

ARBITRARY — absolute,  despotick,  arbitrary....  18^* 
ARBITRATOR— judge,  umpire,  arbiter,  arbitrator  211 

ARCHITECT— architect,  builder 49S 

ARCHIVE — record,  register,  archive 469 

ARDENT — hot,  fiery,  burning,  ardent 475 

ARDOUR— fervour,  ardour 475 

ARDUOUS — hard,  difficult,  arduous 3.6.* 


INDEX. 


XI 


Page 


ro  ARGUE— lo  argue  dispute,  debate 114 

ro  ARGUE— to  argue,  evince,  prove 77 

ARGUMENT— argument,  reason,  proof 77 

TO  ARISE— to  arise  or  rise,  mount,  ascend,  climb, 

scale 302 

ro  ARISE— to  arise,  proceed,  issue,  spring,  flow, 

emanate - 291 

ARMS— arms,  weapons 141 

ARMY— army,  host 141 

TO  ARRAIGN— to  accuse,charge,impeach,arraign  111 

ro  ARRANGE— to  class,  arrange,  range 277 

ro  ARRANGE— to  dispose,  arrange,  digest 277 

ARRAY— apparel,  attire,  array 277 

TO.ARRIVE — to  come,  arrive 301 

ARROGANCE— arrogance,  presumption 231 

ARROGANCE— haughtiness,  disdain,  arrogance  101 
TO  ARROGATE— to  appropriate,  usurp,  arrogate, 

assume,  ascribe 230 

ART — art,  cunning,  deceit 521 

ART — business,  trade,  profession,  art 331 

ARTFUL— artful,  artificial,  fictitious 521 

ARTICLE — article,  condition,  term 335 

TO  ARTICULATE — to  utter,  speak,  articulate, 

pronounce 459 

ARTIFICE — artifice,  trick,  finesse,  stratagem ....  521 

ARTIFICIAL — artful,  artificial,  fictitious 521 

ARTIFICER  ) 


ARTISAN  > artist,  artisan,  artificer,  mechanick  330 
ARTIST  i 

ASCENDANCY — influence,  authority,  ascend- 


ancy, sway 18G 

TO  ASCEND— to  arise  or  rise,  mount,  ascend, 

climb,  scale 302 

f O ASCRIBE — to  appropriate,  usurp,  arrogate, 

assume,  ascribe 230 

TO  ASCRIBE— to  ascribe,  attribute,  impute 231 

TO  ASK — to  ask,  beg,  request 157 

TO  ASK — to  ask  or  ask  for,  claim,  demand 228 

TO  ASK — to  ask,  inquire,  question,  interrogate  . . 97 

ASPECT— appearance,  air,  aspect 478 

ASPERITY — acrimony,  tartness,  asperity,  harsh- 
ness   383 

TO  ASPERSE — to  asperse,  detract,  defame,  slan- 
der, calumniate 105 

TO  ASPIRE — to  aim.  aspire 325 

TO  ASSAIL — to  attack,  assail,  assault,  encounter  IIG 

ASSAILANT — aggressor,  assailant IIG 

TO  ASSASSINATE — to  kill,  murder,  assassinate, 

slay  or  slaughter 510 

TO  ASSAULT — to  attack,  assail,  assault,  en- 
counter   116 

ASSAULT — attack,  assault,  encounter,  onset, 

charge HQ 

ASSEMBLAGE — assembly,  assemblage,  group, 

collection 490 

TO  ASSEMBLE — to  assemble,  muster,  collect 489 

Tt)  ASSEMBLE — to  assemble,  convene,  convoke  490 
ASSEMBLY — assembly,  assemblage,  group,  col- 
lection  490 

ASSEMBLY — assembly,  company,  meeting,  con- 
gregation, parliament,  diet,  congress,  conven- 
tion, synod,  convocation,  council 490 

ASSENT— assent,  consent,  approbation,  concur- 


Pag« 

TO  ASSERT— to  assert,  maintain,  vindicate...  441 

TO  ASSERT — to  aflirm,  assert 44r 

ASSESSMENT— tax,  rate,  assessment IfiS 

TO  ASSEVERATE— to  aflirm,  asseverate,  assure, 

vouch,  aver,  protest 44] 

ASSIDUOUS — active,  diligent,  industrious,  assi- 
duous, laborious 296 

ASSIDUOUS— sedulous,  diligent,  assiduous 297 

TO  ASSIGN— to  adduce,  allege,  assign,  advance  420 
TO  ASSIGN — to  allot,  assign,  apportion,  distribute  1G8 
TO  AiSSIST — to  help,  assist,  aid,  succour,  relieve  30-1 
ASSISTANT— colleague,  partner,  coadjutor,  as- 
sistant   49] 

ASSOCIATE— associate,  companion 48S 

ASSOCIATION— association,  society,  company, 

partnership 488 

ASSOCIATION — association,  combination 488 

TO  ASSUAGE — to  allay,  sooth,  appease,  as- 
suage, mitigate 31)] 

TO  ASSUME — to  affect,  assume 230 

TO  ASSUIME— to  appropriate,  usurp,  arrogate, 

• assume,  ascribe 230 

ASSURANCE — assurance,  confidence 415 

ASSURANCE — assurance,  impudence 4]5 

TO  ASSURE — to  affirm,  asseverate,  assure, 

vouch,  aver,  protest 44] 

ASTONISHMENT — wonder,  admiration,  sur- 
prise, astonishment,  amazement 403 

ASTROLOGY  ) 

ASTRONOMY  

ASYLUM — asylum,  refuge,  shelter,  retreat 518 

AT  ALL  TIMES — always,  at  all  times,  ever 258 

AT  LAST  , 

AT  LENGTH  5 

TO  ATONE  FOR— to  atone  for,  expiate 87 

ATROCIOUS — heinous,  ffagrant,  flagitious,  atro- 
cious   249 

TO  ATTACH — to  affix,  subjoin,  attach,  annex..  419 

TO  ATTACH— to  adhere,  attach 420 

ATTACHMENT — attachment,  affection,  inclina- 
tion   379 

TO  ATTACK — to  attack,  assail,  assault,  eti- 

countei- ] IG 

ATTACK — attack,  assault,  encounter,  onset, 

charge JIG 

TO  ATTACK — to  impugn,  attack UG 

TO  ATTAIN — to  acquire,  attain 301' 

ATTEMPT — attempt,  trial,  endeavour,  essay, 

effort 320 

ATTEMPT— attempt,  tindertaking,  ente'prise 320 

TO  ATTEND — to  accompany,  attend,  escort, 

wait  on 493 

TO  ATTEND  TO— to  attend  to,  m'.ul,  regard, 

heed,  notice 422 

TO  ATTEND— to  attend,  hearken,  listen 422 

ATTENTION — attention,  application,  study 423 

ATTENTION — heed,  care,  attention 42G 

ATTENTIVE — attentive,  careful 424 

ATTIRE— apparel,  attire,  array 277 

ATTITUDE — action,  gesture,  gesticulation,  pos- 
ture, attitude,  position 295 

TO  ATTRACT — to  attract,  allure,  'm  ite,  enga/,e  318 

ATTRACTIONS attractions,  a;iinsme;.il , 

charms 318 

TO  ATTRIBUTE — to  ascribe,  atU.'h.tf  ',,  Impute. 


Ill 


INDEX. 


P»gc, 


ATTRIBUTE— quality,  property,  attribute 232 

AVAIL — advantage,  benefit,  utility,  service,  avail, 

use 39S 

AVAIL — signification,  avail,  importance,  conse- 

ouence,  weight,  moment 456 

AVARICE— covetousness,  cupidity,,  avarice  ....  160 
AVARICIOUS — avaricious,  miserly,  parsimoni- 
ous, niggardly 161 

AUDACITY — audacity,  effrontery,  hardihood  or 

hardiness,  boldness 140 

TO  AVENGE — to  avenge,  revenge,  vindicate....  119 
TO  AVER — to  affirm,  asseverate,  assure,  vouch, 

aver,  protest 441 

AVERSE — adverse,  averse 136 

AVERSE — averse,  unwilling,  backward,  loath, 

reluctant 136 

AVERSION — aversion,  antipathy,  dislike,  hatred, 

repugnance 136 

AUGMENTATION— increase,  addition,  acces- 
sion, augmentation 348 

TO  AUGUR— to  augur,  presage,  forebode,  betoken, 

portend * 94 

AUGUST — magisterial,  majestick,  stately,  pom- 
pous, august,  dignified 454 

AVIDITY — avidity,  greediness,  eagerness 162 

AVOCATION — business,  occupation,  employ- 
ment, engagement,  avocation 331 

TO  AVOID — to  avoid,  eschew,  shun,  elude 527 

TO  AVOW — to  acknowledge,  awn,  confess,  avow  442 
AUSPICIOUS — favourable,  propitious,  auspicious  190 
AUSTERE — austere,  rigid,  severe,  rigorous,  stern  382 

AUTHOR — writer,  author 336 

AUTHORITATIV E — commanding,  imperative, 

imperious,  authoritative 185 

AUTHORITY — influence,  authority,  ascendancy, 

sway 186 

AUTHORITY — power,  strength,  force,  authority, 

dominion 186 

TO  AUTHORIZE — to  commission,  authorize,  em- 
power   186 

TO  AWAIT — to  await,  wait  for,  look  for,  expect  415 
TO  AWAKEN — to  awaken,  excite,  provoke, 

rouse,  stir  up 311 

AWARE — aware,  on  one’s  guard,  apprized,  con- 
scious   426 

AWE — awe,  reverence,  dread 307 

AWKWARD — awkward,  clumsy 315 

AWKWARD awkward,  cross,  untoward, 

crooked,  froward,  perverse  315 

AWRY — bent,  curved,  crooked,  awry 316 

AXIOM — axiom,  maxim,  aphorism,  apophthegm, 
saying,  adage,  proverb,  by- word,  saw 210 

TO  BABBLE — to  babble,  chatter,  chat,  prattle, 
prate 459 

BACKWARD  279 

BACKWARD — averse,  unwilling,  backward, 

loath,  reluctant 130 

BAD— bad,  wicked,  evil 127 

BADGE — mark,  badge,  stigma 441 

BADLY — badly,  ill 127 

TO  BAFFLE — to  baffle,  defeat,  disconcert,  con- 
found   143 


TO  BALANCE— to  poise,  balance . . . 370 

BALL— globe,  ball 500 

BAND — band,  company,  crew,  gang 492 

BAND — chain,  fetter,  band,  shackle 217 

BANE — bane,  pest,  ruin 503 

TO  BANISH — to  banish,  exile,  expel 205 

BANKRUPTCY — insolvency,  failure,  bankruptcy  125 
BANQUET — feast,  banquet,  carousal,  entertain- 
ment, treat 513 

TO  BANTER — to  deride,  mock,  ridicule,  rally, 

banter 103 

BARBAROUS — cruel,  inhuman,  barbarous,  bru- 
tal, savage 373 

BARE— bare,  naked,  uncovered 249 

BARE — bare,  scanty,  destitute 250 

BARE — bare,  mere 250 

BAREFACED— glaring,  barefaced  476 

BARGAIN — agreement,  contract,  covenant,  com- 
pact, bargain 152 

TO  BARGAIN — to  buy,  purchase,  bargain, 

cheapen 336 

TO  BARTER — to  change,  exchange,  barter,  sub- 
stitute  334 

TO  BARTER — to  exchange,  barter,  truck,  com- 
mute   335 

BASE— base,  vile,  mean 148 

BASIS — foundation,  ground,  basis 498 

BASHFUL — modest,  bashful,  diffident 148 

BATTLE — battle,  combat,  engagement 141 

TO  BE — to  be,  exist,  subsist 239 

TO  BE — to  be,  become,  grow 240 

TO  BE  ACQUAINTED  WITH— to  know,  be 

acquainted  with 196 

BEAM — gleam,  glimmer,  ray,  beam 476 

TO  BEAR— to  bear,  yield 339 

TO  BEAR — to  bear,  carry,  convey,  transport. . . . 330 

TO  BEAR — to  suffer,  bear,  endure,  support 149 

TO  BEAR  DOWN — to  overWar,  bear  down, 

overpower,  overwhelm,  subdue 144 

BEAST — animal,  brute,  beast 511 

TO  BEAT— to  beat,  strike,  hit  142 

TO  BEAT — to  beat,  defeat,  overpower,  rout,  over- 
throw  143 

BEATIFICATION — beatification,  canonization. . 85 

BEATITUDE — happiness,  felicity,  bliss,  blessed- 
ness, beatitude 394 

BEAU— gallant,  beau,  spark  381 

BEAUTIFUL— beautiful,  fine,  handsome,  pretty  313 

TO  BECOME — to  be,  become,  grow 240 

BECOMING— becoming,  decent,  seemly,  fit,  suit 

able 246 

BECOMING — becoming,  comely,  graceful 313 

TO  BE  CONSCIOUS— to  feel,  be  sensible,  be  con- 
scious   376 

TO  BE  DEFICIENT— to  fail,  fall  short,  be  defi- 
cient   125 

TO  BEDEW — to  sprinkle,  bedew 353 

TO  BEG— to  beg,  desire 158 

/I'D  BEG — to  beg,  beseech,  solicit,  ehtrexit,  suppli- 
cate, implore,  crave 158 

TO  BEG — to  ask,  beg,  request 167 

TO  BF.GIN— to  begin  commence,  enter  upon 292 

BEGINNING — origin,  original,  beginning,  rise, 
source 293 


INDEX. 


Page 

ro  beguile-  to  amuse,  beguile 391 

BEHAVIOUR — behaviour,  conduct,  carriage,  de- 
portment, demeanour 192 

BEHIND— after,  behind 279 

BEHIND — back,  backward,  behind 279 

TO  BEHOLD— to  look,  see,  behold,  view,  ere...  482 
BEHOLDER— looker-on,  spectator,  beholder,  ob- 
server   , ......  482 

BELIEF — belief,  credit,  trust,  faith 78 

TO  BELIEVE — to  think,  suppose,  imagine,  be- 
lieve, deem 75 

BELOVED— amiable,  lovely,  beloved 378 

BELOW — under,  below,  beneath 279 

TO  BEMOAN — to  bewail,  bemoan,  lament,  de- 
plore   410 

BEND— bend,  bent 316 

TO  BEND— to  lean,  incline,  bend 159 

TO  BEND — to  turn,  bend,  twist,  distort,  wring, 

wrest,  wrench 316 

BENEATH — under,  below,  beneath. 279 

BENEFACTION— gift,  present,  donation,  bene- 
faction   164 

BENEFICE — living,  benefice 239 

BENEFICENCE— benevolence,  beneficence 165 

BENEFICENT — beneficent,  bountiful  or  bounte- 
ous, munificent,  generous,  liberal 165 

BENEFIT — benefit,  favour,  kindness,  civility. .. . ICO 

BENEFIT— benefit,  service,  good  office ICO 

BENEFIT — advantage,  benefit,  utility,  service, 

avail,  use 398 

BENEFIT — good,  benefit,  advantage 397 

BENEVOLENCE — benevolence,  beneficence....  165 
BENEVOLENCE— benevolence,  benignity,  hu- 
manity, kindness,  tenderness 165 

BENIGNITY — benevolence,  benignity,  humanity, 

kindness,  tenderness 165 

BENT — bend,  bent 316 

BENT — bent,  curved,  crooked,  awry 316 

BENT-r-bent,  bias,  inclination,  prepossession  ....  159 

BENT — turn,  bent 316 

BENUMBED — numb,  benumbed,  torpid 372 

TO  BEQUEATH — to  devise,  bequeath 164 

TO  BEREAVE — to  bereave,  deprive,  strip  505 

to  guarantee,  be  secu- 
rity, be  responsible, 

warrant 183 

TO  BE  SENSIBLE — to  feel,  be  sensible,  con- 
scious   370 

TO  BESEECH — to  beg,  beseech,  solicit,  entreat, 

supplicate,  implore,  crave 158 

BESIDES — besides,  moreover 251 

BESIDES — besides,  except 251 

TO  BESTOW— to  give,  grant,  bestow,  allow....  162 

TO  BESTOW  —to  confer,  bestow 167 

BETIMES— soon,  early,  betimes 262 

TO  BETOKEN — to  augur,  presage,  forebode,  be- 
token, portend 94 

TO  BETTER — to  amend,  correct,  reform,  rec- 
tify, emend,  improve,  mend,  better 201 

TO  BEWAIL — to  bewail,  bemoan,  lament,  de- 
plore   410 

BEYOND— above,  over,  upon,  beyond 279 

BIAS— bent,  bias,  inclination,  prepossession 159 

BIAS— bias,  prepossession,  prejudice  ...  ....  160 


TO  BE  RESPONSIBLE 
TO  BE  SECURITY 


xiii 
Fag» 

TO  BID— to  call,  bid, summon,  invite...  , 46f 

TO  BID — to  offer,  bid,  tender,  propose 167 

TO  BID  ADIEU  ) to  leave,  take  leave,  bid 
TO  BID  FAREWELL  j farewell  or  adieu. . . 255 

BIG — great,  large,  big 349 

BILL — account,  reckoning,  bill 433 

BILLOW — wave,  billow,  surge,  breaker 153 

TO  BIND — to  bind,  tie 2lf 

TO  BIND — to  bind,  oblige,  engage 2lt 

BISHOPRICK — bishoprick,  diocess 85 

TO  BLAME — to  blame,  reprove,  reproach,  up- 
braid, censure,  condemn llff 

TO  BLAME — to  find  fault  with,  blame,  object  to  112 
BLAMELESS — blameless,  irreproachable,  un- 
blemished, unspotted  or  spotless 129 

BLAST — breeze,  gale,  blast,  gust,  storm,  tempest, 

hurricane 353 

TO  BLAZE— flame,  blaze,  flash,  flare,  glare  ....  476 

BLEMISH — blemish,  stain,  spot,  speck,  flaw 127 

BLEMISH— blemish,  defect,  fault 127 

TO  BLEND— to  mix,  mingle,  blend,  confound...  284 
BLESSEDNESS — happiness,  felicity,  bliss,  bless- 
edness, beatitude 394 

BLIND— cloak,  mask,  blind,  veil 51d 

BUSS— happiness,  felicity,  bliss,  blessedness,  bea- 
titude   394 

BLOODY  I sanguinary,  bloody,  blood-  . 

BLOOD-THIRSTY  \ thirsty 507 

TO  BLOT  OUT — to  blot  out,  expunge,  rase  or 

erase,  efface,  cancel,  obliterate 248 

BLOW — blow,  stroke 142 

BLUNDER — errour,  mistake,  blunder  126 

TO  BOAST — to  glory,  boast,  vaunt 526 

BOATMAN — waterman,  boatman,  ferryman  ....  337 

BODILY — corporal,  corporeal,  bodily 510 

BODY — body,  corpse,  carcass 510 

BOISTEROUS— violent,  furious,  boisterous,  vehe- 
ment, impetuous 219 

BOLD— bold,  fearless,  intrepid,  undaunted 306 

BOLD— dariiig,  bold 141 

BOLD — strenuous,  bold 141 

BOLDNESS — audacity,  effrontery,  hardihood  or 

hardiness,  boldness 140 

BOMBASTICK — turgid,  tumid,  bombastick 464 

BONDAGE — servitude,  slavery,  bondage 328 

BOOTY— booty,  spoil,  prey 50f 

BORDER— border,  edge,  rim  or  brim,  brink,  mar- 
gin, verge 176 

TO  BORE— to  penetrate,  pierce,  perforate,  bore. . 402 
TO  BOUND — to  bound,  limit,  confine,  circum- 
scribe, restrict 176 

BOUNDARY — bounds,  boundary 177 

BOUNDARY — term,  limit,  boundary 177 

BOUNDLESS— boundless,  unbounded,  unlimited, 

infinite 177 

BOUNDS — bounds,  boundary 177 

beneficent,  bountiful  or  bounte- 
ous, munificent,  generous,  li- 
beral  165 

BRACE — couple,  brace,  pair 434 

TO  BRAVE — to  brave,  defy,  dare,  challenge  ....  1.38 
BRAVERY  —bravery,  courage,  valour,  gallantry. . 139 
B REACT  ) , 

BREAK  ' lireak,  gap,  chasm 501 


BOUNTEOUS 

BOUNTIFUL 


aiv 


INDEX 


Page 

TC  BREAK— to  break,  rack,  rend,  tear 501 

TO  BREAK— to  break,  bruise,  squeeze,  pound, 

crush 501 

TO  BREAK — to  break,  burst,  crack,  split 502 

BREAKER — wave,  billow,  surge,  breaker 353 

TO  BREED — to  breed,  engender 497 

BREED — race,  generation,  breed 497 

BREEDING — education,  instruction,  breeding  ...  197 
BREEZE— breeze,  gale,  blast,  gust,  storm,  tem- 
pest, hurricane 353 

BRIEF — short,  brief,  concise,  succinct,  summary  28G 

BRIGHT — clear,  lucid,  bright,  vivid 470 

BRIGHTNESS  ) brightness,  lustre,  splendour, 

BRILLIANCY  ) brilliancy  474 

BRILLIANCY — radiance,  brilliancy 475 

BRIM — border,  edge,  rim  or  brim,  brink,  margin, 

verge 176 

TO  BRING — to  bring,  fetch,  carry 330 

BRINK— border,  edge,  rim  or  brim,  brink,  margin, 

verge 176 

’ BRISK— active,  brisk,  agile,  nimble 297 

BRITTLE— fragile,  frail,  brittle 502 

BROAD— large,  wide,  broad... 349 

BROIL — quarrel,  broil,  feud,  affray  or  fray 133 

TO  BRUISE — to  break,  bruise,  squeeze,  pound, 

crush 501 

BRUTAL — cruel,  inhuman,  barbarous,  brutal, 

savage 373 

BRUTE — animal,  brute,  beast 511 

TO  BUD— to  sprout,  bud 353 

BUFFOON- fool,  idiot,  buffoon 400 

TO  BUILD — to  build,  erect,  construct 498 

TO  BUILD — to  found,  ground,  rest,  build 498 

BULK — size,  magnitude,  greatness,  bulk 348 

BULKY — bulky,  massive  or  massy 348 

BURDEN— weight,  burden,  load 370 

BURDEN — freight,  cargo,  b-^tling,  load,  burden...  338 
BURDENSOME— heavy,  burdensome,  weighty, 

ponderous 370 

BURIAL — burial,  interment,  sepulture 84 

BURLESQUE — wit,  humour,  satire,  irony,  bur- 
lesque   69 

BURNING — hot,  fiery,  burning,  ardent 475 

TO  BURST— to  break,  burst,  crack,  split 502 

BUSINESS— business,  occupation,  employment, 

engagement,  avocation 331 

BUSINESS— business,  trade,  profession,  art 331 

BUSINESS— business,  office,  duty 331 

BUSINESS — affair,  business,  concern 332 

BUSTLE— bustle,  tumult,  uproar 220 

BUSY — active,  busy,  officious 297 

BUTCHERY — carnage,  slaughter,  butchery,  mas- 
sacre   510 

BUTT— mark,  butt 449 

TO  BUY — to  buy,  purchase,  bargain,  cheapen...  335 
BY-WORD— axiom,  maxim,  aphorism,  apoph- 
thegm, saying,  adage,  proverb,  by-word,  saw  210 

CABAL — combination,  cabal,  plot,  conspiracy. . . 489 
TO  CAJOLE — to  coax,  wheedle,  cajole,  fawn...  525  I 
CALAMITY— calamity,  disaster,  misfortune,  mis-  I 

chance  mishap 406 

rO  CALCULATE — to  calculate, compute,  reckon, 
count  or  account,  number 432 


P»«* 

CALEND  ‘ R-  calendar,  almanack,  ephenseris. . 434 

TO  CALL — to  call,  bid,  summon,  invite 469 

TO  CALL — to  cry,  exclaim,  call 470 

TO  CALL — to  name,  call 471 

CALLOUS— hard,  callous,  hardened,  obdurate  ..  373 

CALM — calm,  composed,  collected 362 

CALM — calm,  placid,  serene 362 

TO  CALM — to  appease,  calm,  pacify,  quiet, 

still 3G1 

CALM — peace,  quiet,  calm,  tranquillity 361 

TO  CALUMNIATE— to  asperse,  detract,  defame, 

slander,  calumniate lOS 

CAN — may,  can 324 

TO  CANCEL — to  abolish,  abrogate,  repeal,  re- 
voke, annul,  cancel 247 

TO  CANCEL — to  blot  out,  expunge,  rase  or  eras<^, 

efface,  cancel,  obliterate 248 

CANDID — candid,  open,  sincere 430 

CANDID — frank,  caiidid,  ingenuous,  free,  open, 

plain  431 

CANONIZATION— beatification,  canonization..  85 

CAPACIOUS — ample,  spacious,  capacious 350 

CAPACIOUSNESS  ) 

CAPACITY  j capacity,  capaciousness...  174 

CAPACITY— ability,  capacity 67 

CAPRICE — humour,  caprice 386 

CAPRICIOUS— fanciful,  fantastical,  whimsical, 

capricious 385 

CAPTIOUS— captious,  cross,  peevish,  petulant, 

fretful 315 

TO  captivate— to  charm,  enchant,  fascinate, 

enrapture,  captivate 317 

TO  CAPTIVATE — to  enslave,  captivate 318 

CAPTIVITY — confinement,  imprisonment,  capti- 
vity   178 

CAPTURE— capture,  seizure,  prize 506 

CARCASS— body,  corpse,  carcass 510 

CARE— care,  solicitude,  anxiety 425 

CARE— care,  concern,  regard 425 

CARE— care,  charge,  management 425 

CARE — heed,  care,  attention 426 

CAREFUL — careful,  cautious,  provident 425 

CAREFUL— attentive,  careful 424 

CARELESS — indolent,  supine,  listless,  careless..  300 
CARELESS— negligent,  remiss,  careless,  thought- 
less, heedless,  inattentive 424 

TO  CARESS— to  caress,  fondle 3/7 

CARGO— freight,  cargo,  lading,  load,  burden  ....  338 
CARNAGE- carnage,  slaughter,  butchery,  mas- 
sacre   510 

CAROUSAL— feast,  banquet,  carousal,  entertain- 
ment, treat 513 

TO  CARP — to  censure,  carp,  cavil 1J2 

CARRIAGE — carriage,  gait,  walk 192 

CARRIAGE — behaviour,  conduct,  carriage,  de- 
portment, demeanour 192 

TO  CARRY— to  bear,  carry,  convey,  transport. . . 330 

TO  CARRY— to  bring,  fetch,  carry 330 

CASE— case,  cause 280 

CASE— situation,  condition,  state,  predicament, 

plight,  case 279 

CASH— money,  cash 340 

TO  CAST— to  cast,  throw,  hurl 304 

CAST— cast,  turn,  description,  character 467 


INDEX. 


XV 


CASUAli  -accidental,  incidental,  casual,  contin- 
gent  

CASUAL — occasional,  casual 

CASUALTY— accident,  contingency,  casualty. . . 

CATAI.OGUE— list,  roll,  catalogue,  register 

TO  CATCH — to  lay  or  take  hold  of,  catch,  seize, 

snatch,  grasp,  gripe 

TO  CAVIL— to  censure,  carp,  cavil 

CAVITY — opening,  aperture,  cavity 

CAUSE — case,  cause 

CAUSE — cause,  r,eason,  motive 

TO  CAUSE — to  cause,  occasion,  create 

CAUTION — admonition,  warning,  caution 

CAUTIOUS— careful,  cautious,  provident 

CAUTIOUS — cautious,  wary,  circumspect 

TO  CEASE — to  cease,  leave  off,  discontinue,  desist 
TO  CEDE — to  give  up,  deliver,  surrender,  yield, 

cede,  concede 

CELEBRATED — famous,  celebrated,  renowned, 

illustrious 

CELERITY — quickness,  swiftness,  fleetness,  ce- 
lerity, rapidity,  velocity 

CELESTIAL — celestial,  heavenly 

TO  CENSURE — to  censure,  animadvert,  criticise 

TO  CENSURE — to  accuse,  censure 

TO  CENSURE — to  censure,  carp,  cavil 

TO  CENSURE — to  blaihe,  reprove,  reproach,  up- 
braid, censure,  condemn 

CEREMONIOUS — formal,  ceremonious 

CEREMONY — form,  ceremony,  rite,  observaTice 

CERTAIN— certain,  sure,  secure 

CESSATION — cessation,  stop,  rest,  intermission 

TO  CHAFE— to  rub,  chafe,  fret,  gall 

CHAGRIN — vexation,  mortification,  chagrin 

CHAIN— chain,  fetter,  band,  shackle 

TO  CHALLENGE— to  brave,  defy,  dare,  chal- 
lenge   

CHAMPION — combatant,  champion 

CHANCE — chance,  fortune,  fate 

CHANCE— chance,  probability .’. 

CHANCE — chance,  hazard 

CHANCE — accident,  chance 

TO  CHANCE — to  happen,  chance 

TO  CHANGE — to  change,  alter,  vary 

[ O CHANGE — to  change,  exchange,  barter,  sub- 

Btitute 

CHANGE — change,  variation,  vicissitude 

CHARACTER — character,  letter 

CHARACTER — cast,  turn,  description,  character 

CHARACTER — character,  reputation 

TO  CHARACTERIZE — to  name,  denominate, 

style,  entitle,  designate,  characterize 

CHARGE — care,  charge,  management 

CHARGE — attack,  assault,  encounter,  onset, 

charge 

CHARGE — cost,  expense,  price,  charge 

CHARGE — office,  place,  charge^  function 

TO  CHARGE — to  accuse,  charge,  impeach,  ar- 
raign   

OH  ARM — grace,  charm 

CHARM — pleasure,  joy,  delight,  charm 

CHARM — to  charm,  enchant,  fascinate,  en- 
rapture, captivate 

• .'HARMING — delightful,  charming 


Pas« 

CHARMS — attractions,  allurements,  charms 318 

CHASE — forest,  chase,  park 271 

CHASE— hunt,  chase 271 

CHASM — breach,  break,  gap,  chasm 501 

TO  CHASTEN- to  chasten,  chastise 204 

CHASTITY— chastity,  continence,  modesty  ...  . 245 

TO  CHASTISE— to  chasten,  chastise 204 

TO  CHAT— to  babble,  chatter,  chat,  prattle,  prate  459 
CHATTELS — goods,  furniture,  chattels,  mo\’ea- 

bles,  effects 339 

TO  CHATTER — to  babble,  chatter,  chat,  prattle, 

prate ^59 

TO  CHEAPEN to  »buy,  purchase,  bargain, 

cheapen 335 

TO  CHEAT— to  cheat,  defraud,  trick .525 

TO  CHECK— to  check,  curb,  control 222 

TO  CHECK — to  check,  chide,  reprimand,  re- 
prove, rebuke 110 

TO  CHECK— to  check,  stop 258 

TO  CHEER — to  animate,  inspire,  enliven,  cheer, 

exhilarate 3.55 

TO  CHEER — to  cheer,  encourage,  comfort 350 

CHEERFUL— cheerful,  merry,  sprightly,  gay  ...  389 

CHEERFUL — glad,  pleased,  joyful,  cheerful 393 

TO  CHERISH— to  nourish,  nurture,  cherish 377 

TO  CHERISH— to  foster,  cherish,  harbour,  in- 

j dulge 377 

I TO  CHIDE — to  check,  chide,  reprinia*'d,  reprove, 

, rebuke.. 110 

CHIEF — chief,  principal,  main 2()G 

CHIEF — chief,  leader,  chieftain,  head 206 

CHIEFLY — especially,  particularly,  principally. 

chiefly 206 

CHIEFTAIN— chief,  leader,  chieftain,  head 206 

CHILDISH— childish,  infantine 40] 

CHILL— chill,  cold 514 

TO  CHOKE — to  suffocate,  stifle,  smother,  choke  22 

CHOICE — option,  choice 234 

CHOLER— anger,  choler,  rage,  fury 119 

TO  CHOOSE— to  choose,  prefer -233 

TO  CHOOSE — to  choose,  pick,  select 234 

TO  CHOOSE— to  choose,  elect 234 

CHRONICLES — anecdotes,  memoirs,  chronicles, 

annals 466 

CHURCH— temple,  church 82 

CIRCLE— circle,  spliere,  orb,  globe 175 

CIRCUIT — circuit,  tour,  round 175 

TO  CIRCULATE— to  spread,  circulate,  propa- 

I gate,  disseminate 345 

I TO  CIRCUMSCRIBE — to  circumscribe,  enclose  175 
TO  CIRCUMSCRIBE — to  bound,  limit,  confine, 

circumscribe,  restrict 176 

CIRCUMSPECT — cautious,  wary,  circumspect. . 425 

CIRCUMSTANCE — circumstance,  situation 173 

CIRCUMSTANCE— incident,  fact 172 

CIRCUMSTANTIAL — circumstantial,  particu- 
lar, minute 173 

TO  CITE — to  cite,  quote 469 

TO  CITE — to  cite,  summon 469 

CIVIL— civii,  polite 198 

CIVIL — civil,  obliging,  complaisant 199 

CIVILITY — benefit,  favour,  kindness,  civility — 166 
CIVILIZATION — cultivation,  culture,  civiliza- 
tion, refinement 190 

CLAIM — right,  claim,  privilege 228 


Pa^a 

172 

418 

172 

468 

237 

112 

402 

280 

77 

294 

193 

425 

425 

257 

242 

473 

262 

81 

111 

111 

112 

110  I 

294  1 

83 

366 

257 

309 

122 

217 

138 

134 

170 

170 

170 

171 

171 

283 

334 

283 

197! 

4671 

472 

471 

425 

116 

436 

333 

111 

314 

393 

317 

313 


INDEX. 


*T1 


Page 


CLAIM— pi etension,  claim 229 

TO  CLAIM— to  ask,  or  ask  for,  claim,  demand. . 228 
CLAMOROUS — loud,  noisy,  high-sounding,  cla- 
morous   471 

CLAMOUR— noise,  cry,  outcry,  clamour 470 

CLANDESTINE — clandestine,  secret 520 

TO  CLASP  —to  clasp,  hug,  embrace 377 

CLASS— class,  order,  rank,  degree 276 

TO  CLASS — to  class,  arrange,  range 277 

CI.EAR— apparent,  visible,  clear,  plain,  obvious, 

evident,  manifest 478 

CLEAR — clear,  lucid,  bright,  vivid 476 

CLEAR — fair,  clear 477 

TO  CLEAR — to  absolve  .acquit,  clear 182 

CLEARLY — clearly,  distinctly 477 

CLEARNESS — clearness,  perspicuity 477 

TO  CLEAVE— to  stick,  cleave,  adhere 419 

CLEMENCY — clemency,  lenity,  mercy .q.'iS 

CLERGYMAN — clergyman,  parson,  priest,  minis 

ter 85 

CLEVER — clever,  skilful,  expert,  dexterous, 

adroit C9 

TO  CLIMB — to  arise  or  rise,  mount,  ascend,  climb, 

scale 302 

CLOAK — cloak,  mask,  blind,  veil 5J6 

TO  CLOG— to  clog,  load,  encumber 370 

CLOISTER — cloister,  convent,  monastery 86 

CLOSE — sequel,  close 284 

CliOSE- close,  compact 285 

CLOSE— close,  near,  nigh 285 

TO  CLOSE— to  close,  shut 286 

TO  CLOSE — to  close,  finish,  conclude 286 

TO  CLOSE— to  end,  close,  terminate 285 

CLOWN — countryman,  peasant,  swain,  hind,  rus- 

tick,  clown 336 

TO  CLOY— satisfy,  satiate,  glut,  cloy 383 

CLUMSY— awkward,  clumsy 315 

COADJUTOR— colleague,  partner,  coadjutor,  as- 
s;.stant 491 


TO  COALESCE — to  add,  join,  unite,  coalesce. . . 418 

COARSE — coarse,  rough,  rude 201 

COARSE — gross,  coarse 201 

TO  COAX— to  coax,  wheedle,  cajole,  fawn 525 

TO  COERCE — to  coerce,  restrain 220 

COEVAL — coeval,  contemporary 267 

COGENT — cogent,  forcible,  strong 220 

TO  COINCIDE — to  agree,  coincide,  concur 151 

COLD — chill,  cold 514 

COLD — cool,  cold,  frigid 514 

COLLEAGUE — colleague,  partner,  coadjutor,  as- 
sistant  491 

TO  COLLECT — to  assemble,  muster,  collect. .. . 489 

TO  COLLECT— to  gather,  collect 234 

COLLECTED — calm,  composed,  collected 362 

COLLECTION — assembly,  assemblage,  group, 

collection .•  490 

COLLOQUY — conversation,  dialogue,  colloquy,  ! 

conference 400 

TO  COLOUR — to  colour,  dye,  tinge,  stain 516  | 

COLOUR— colour,  hue,  tint .516 

COLOURABLE — colourable,  specious,  ostensible,  ! 

plausible,  feasible 516 

COLUMN — pillar,  column 499 

COMBAT— battle  combat,  engagement... 141 


COMBAT— conflict,  combat,  contest ]4v 

TO  COMBAT — to  combat,  oppose . ...  j:k 

COMBATANT — combatant,  champion 134 

COMBINATION — association,  combination 488 

COMBINATION — combination,  cabal,  plot,  con- 
spiracy   439 

TO  COMBINE — to  connect,  combine,  unite 419 

TO  COME — to  come,  arrive 3J] 

COMELY- becoming,  comely,  graceful 313 

COMELY — graceful,  comely,  elegant 315 

COMFORT — comfort,  pleasure 357 

TO  COMFORT — to  cheer,  encourage,  comfort. . . 356 

TO  COMFORT— to  console,  solace,  comfort 356 

COMICK  ) laughable,  ludicrous,  ridiculous,  co- 

COMICAL  ) niical  or  comick,  droll 103 

COMMAND — command,  order,  injunction,  pre- 
cept, mandate 185 

COMMANDING — commanding,  imperative,  im- 
perious, authoritative 185 

TO  COMMENCE — tobegin,commence,enterupon  292 
TO  COMMEND — to  praise,  commeiu?,  applaud, 

extol I3i 

COMMENDABLE — laudable,  praiseworthy,  com- 
mendable  13) 


COMMENSURATE — proportionate,  adequate, 
commensurate 43,' 


COMMENT 
COMMENTARY 


remark, ' observation,  com 
ment,  note,  commentary, 

annotation 451 

COMMERCE — intercourse,  communication,  con- 
nexion, commerce 333 

COMMERCE — trade,  commerce,  traffick,  dealing  332 

COMMERCIAL— mercantile,  commercial 33 

COMMISERATION — sympathy,  commiseration, 

compassion,  condolence 35 

TO  COMMISSION — to  commission,  authorize, 

empower let. 

TO  COMMIT— to  consign,  commit,  intrust 41j 

TO  COMMIT— to  perpetrate,  commit 29t' 

COMMODIOUS — commodious,  convenient,  suita- 
ble  4r 

COMMODITY — commodity,  goods,  merchandise, 

ware 339 

COMMON — common,  vulgar,  ordinary,  mean  ...  32;'' 
COMMONLY — commonly,  generally,  frequently, 


usually 32: 

COMMONWEALTH — state,  realm,  common- 
wealth  IBC 

COMMOTION — commotion,  disturbance 417 

TO  COMMUNICATE — to  communicate,  imjiart  48i 
COMMUNICATION — intercourse,  communica- 
tion, connexion,  commerce .333 

COMMUNICATIVE — communicative,  free 48'. 

COMMUNION — communion,  converse 48? 

COMMUNION — Lord’s  supper,  eucharist,  commu- 
nion, sacrament 83 

COMMUNITY— community,  society 487 

TO  COMMUTE— to  exchange,  barter,  commute, 

truck 3.15 

COMPACT — agreement,  contract,  covenant,  com- 
pact, bargain J58 

COMPACT— close,  compact ^ 

COMPANION — accompaniment,  companion,  'xu 


comitant 


493 


INDEX. 


Page  I 

COAfP ANION— associate,  companion 488 

COMPANY— assembly,  company,  meeting,  con- 
gregation, parliament,  diet,  congress,  conven- 
tion, synod,  convocation,  council 490 

COMPANY — association,  society,  company,  part- 
nership  488 

COMPANY— band,  company,  crew,  gang 492 

COMPANY — society,  company 487 

COMPANY — troop,  company 492 

COMPARISON — comparison,  contrast 135 

COMPARISON— simile,  similitude,  comparison..  532 

COMPASSION — pity,  compassion 358 

COMPASSION— sympathy,  commiseration,  com- 
passion, condolence 357 

COMPATIBLE — compatible,  consistent 153 

TO  COMPEL — to  compel,  force,  oblige,  necessi- 
tate  219 

COMPENSATION— compensation,  satisfaction, 
amends,  remuneration,  recompense,  requital, 

reward 438 

COMPETENT— competent,  fitted,  qualified 154 

COMPETITION — competition,  rivalry,  emula- 
tion  131 

TO  COMPLAIN— to  complain,  lament,  regret...  409 
TO  COMPLAIN— to  complain,  murmur,  repine. . 409 

COMPLAINT — complaint,  accusation 112 

COMPLAISANCE — complaisance,  condescen- 
sion, deference 200 

COMPLAISANT — civil,  obliging,  complaisant. . . 199 
COMPLAISANT— courteous,  courtly,  complai- 
sant   199 

(COMPLETE  -complete,  perfect,  finished 28*7 

COMPLETE — whole,  entire,  ccMiplete,  total,  in- 
tegral  288 

TO  COMPLETE— to  complete,  ^tiish,  terminate  287 

OOMPLETION — consummation  completion 287 

COMPLEX — compound,  complex 218 

COMPLEXITY  i complexity,  complication,  in- 

COMPLICATION  \ tricacy 218 

COMPLIANT — compliant,  yieldi  »g,  submissive. . 151 
TO  COMPLIMENT — to  adulate  /latter,  compli- 
ment   526 

TO  COMPLY— to  comply,  conform, yield,  submit  150 
TO  COMPLY — to  accede,  consent,  comply,  acqui- 
esce, agree 151 

TO  COMPOSE — to  compose,  settle. 227  ^ 

TO  COMPOSE— to  compound,  compose 219 

TO  COMPOSE — to  form, compose,  constitute. .. . 294 

COMPOSED— composed,  sedate 227 

COMPOSED— calm,  composed,  collected 362 

COMPOUND— compound,  complex 218 

TO  COMPOUND — to  compound,  compose 219 

TO  COMPREHEND — to  comprise,  comprehend, 

embrace,  contain,  include 174 

TO  COMPREHEND — to  conceive,  understand, 

comprehend 74 

COMPREHENSIVE— comprehensive,  extensive,  n-* 
I'O  COMPRISE — to  comprise,  comprehend,  em- 
brace, contain,  include 174 

COMPULSION — constraint,  compulsion 220 

COMPUNCTION — repentance,  penitence,  contri- 
tion, compunction,  remorse 88 

ro  COMPUTE — to  calculate,  compute,  reckon, 

count  or  account,  number 432 

2 


xvii 

Page 


TO  COMPUTE— to  estimate,  compute,  rate 432 

TO  CONCEAL — to  conceal,  dissemble,  disguise. . 519 

TO  CONCEAL — to  conceal,  hide,  secrete 519 

CONCEAIiMENT — concealment,  secrecy 519 

TO  CONCEDE— to  give  up,  deliver,  surrender, 

yield,  cede,  concede 242 

CONCEIT— conceit,  fancy 99 

CONCEIT — pride,  vanity,  conceit 100 

CONCEITED — opiniated,  opiniative,  conceited, 

egoistical KHI 

TO  CONCEIVE — to  conceive,  apprehend,  sup- 
pose, imagine 74 

TO  CONCEIVE — to  conceive,  understand,  com- 
prehend   74 

CONCEPTION— conception,  notion 75 

CONCEPTION— perception,  idea,  conception,  no- 
tion   75 

CONCERN — affair,  business,  concern 332 

CONCERN — care,  concern,  regard 425 

CONCERN— interest,  concern 332 

TO  CONCERN — to  affect,  concern 332 

TO  CONCERT — to  concert,  contrive,  inatiage. ..  533 

TO  CONCILIATE — to  conciliate,  reconcile 153 

CONCISE — short,  brief,  concise,  summary,  suc- 
cinct   286 

TO  CONCLUDE — to  close,  finish,  conclude 286 

TO  CONCLUDE  UPON— to  decide,  determine, 

conclude  upon 22J 

CONCLUSION — conclusion,  inference,  deduction  7£ 
CONCLUSIVE — conclusive,  decisive,  convincing  225 

CONCLUSIVE — final,  conclusive 224 

CONCOMITANT — accompaniment,  companion, 

concomitant 492 

CONCORD — concord,  harmony 112 

TO  CONCUR— to  agree,  coincide,  concur lil 

CONCURRENCE— assent,  consent,  apprcbation, 

concurrence tad 

CONCUSSION — shock,  concussion 305 

TO  CONDEMN — to  blame,  reprove,  reproach, 

upbraid,  censure,  condemn 110 

TO  CONDEMN — to  reprobate,  condemn 109 

TO  CONDEMN — to  sentence,  condemn,  doom. . . 169 

CON DESCEN SION — complaisance,  condescen- 
sion, deference 20C 

CONDITION— article,  condition,  term 335 

</'ONDITION — condition,  station 280 

CONDITION— situation,  condition,  state,  predica- 
ment, plight,  case  279 

CONDOLENCE— sympathy,  compassion,  com- 
miseration, condolence 357 

TO  CONDUCE — to  conduce,  contribute 168 

CONDUCT — behaviour,  conduct,  carriage,  deport- 
ment, demeanour  192 

TO  CONDUCT — to  conduct,  guide,  lead 191 

TO  CONDUCT— to  conduct,  manage,  direct  ....  191 
CONFEDERACY — alliance,  league,  confederacy  492 
CONFEDERATE— ally,  confederate,  accomplice  491 

TO  CONFER— to  confer,  bestow 167 

CONFERENCE — conversation,  dialogue,  confe 

rence,  colloquy 460 

TO  CONFESS — to  acknowledge,  own,  confess, 

avow 442 

TO  CONFIDE— to  confide,  trust 414 

CONFIDENCE— assurance,  confidence  . . ...  415 


XVill 


INDEX. 


Pagt- 

CONFTDENCE—hope,  expectation,  trust,  confi- 
dence  414 

CONFIDENT — confident, dogmatical,  positive...  414 
TO  CONFINE— to  bound,  limit,  confine,  circum- 
scribe, restrict 176 

CONFINED — contracted,  confined,  narrow 177 

CONFINEMENT — confinement,  imprisonment, 

captivity 178 

TO  CONFIRM — to  confirm,  corroborate 225 

TO  CONFIRiM — to  confirm,  establish 225 

CONFLICT— conflict,  combat,  contest 142 

ro  CONFORM— to  comply,  conform,  yield,  sub- 
mit  150 

CONFORMABLE— conformable,  agreeable,  suita-  j 

ble 153  j 

CONFORMATION— form,  figure,  conformation. . 293  ; 
TO  CONFOUND — to  abash,  confound,  confuse. . 107 
TO  CONFOUND — to  baffle,  defeat,  disconcert, 

confound  143 

TO  CONFOUND— to  confound,  confuse 281 

TO  CONFOUND— to  mix,  mingle,  blend,  con- 
found   284 

ro  CONFRONT — to  confront,  face 142 

TO  CONFUSE — to  confound,  confiise 281 

TO  CONFUSE — to  abash,  confound,  toafuse. ...  107 

CONFUSED — indistinct,  confused 283 

CONFUSION — confusion,  disorder 282 

TO  CONFUTE— to  confute,  refute,  oppugn,  dis- 
prove   115 

TO  CONGRATULATE — to  felicitate,  congratu- 


late. 


395 


CONGREGATICN 

CONGRESS 


assembly,  company,  meet- 
ing, congregation,  par- 
liament, diet,  congress, 
convention,  synod,  con- 
vocation, council 490 

CONJECTURE — conjecture,  supposition,  sur- 
mise   94 


TO  CONJECTURE — to  guess,  conjecture,  divine  95 

CONJUNCTURE — conjuncture,  crisis 173 

TO  CONNECT— to  connect,  combine,  unite 419 

CONNECTED — connected,  related 419 

CONNEXION — intercourse,  communication,  con- 
nexion, commerce 333 

TO  CONQUER— to  conquer,  vanquish,  subdue, 

overcome,  s irmount 144 

CONSANGUINn''Y — kindred,  relationship,  affi- 
nity, consangi  inity 497 

CONSCIENTIOUR— conscientious,  scrupulous..  88 
CONSCIOUS — aware,  on  one’s  guard,  apprized, 

conscious 426 

TO  BE  CONSCIOUS-to  feel,  be  sensible,  con- 
scious   376 

ro  CONSECRATE — to  dedicate,  devote,  conse- 
crate, hallow.. 82 

ro  CONSENT — to  ccostnt,  permit,  allow 156 

I O CONSENT — to  accede  consent,  comply,  ac- 
quiesce, agree 151 

CONSENT — assent,  cor  sent,  approbation,  concur- 
rence  156 

CONSEQUENCE — effect  consequence,  result,  is-  j 

sue,  event 290 

CONSEQUENCE — significahon,  avail,  import- 
ance, consequence,  we'g ..  moment 456  | 


CONSEQUENT — subsequent,  consequent  poste- 
rior   27'' 

CONSEQUENTLY — naturally,  consequently^  in 

course,  of  course .’ 272 

CONSEQUENTLY — therefore,  consequently,  ac- 
cordingly   274 

TO  CONSIDER — to  consider,  reflect.  . . 76 

TO  CONSIDER — to  consider,  regard 77 

CONSIDERATE — thoughtful,  considerate,  deli- 
berate   424 

CONSIDERATION — consideration,  reason 77 

TO  CONSIGN — to  consign,  commit,  intrust 415 

CONSISTENT — compatible,  consistent 153 

CONSISTENT— consonant,  accordant,  consistent  153 

TO  CONSOLE — to  console,  solace,  comfort 356 

CONSONANT — consonant,  accordant,  consistent  153 
CONSPICUOUS — distinguished,  noted,  conspicu- 
ous, eminent,  illustrious 473 

CONSPICUOUS — prominent,  conspicuous 474 

CONSPIRACY — combination,  cabal,  plot,  conspi- 
racy  489 

CONSTANCY — constancy,  stability,  steadiness. 

firmness 23^1 

CONSTANT — continual,  perpetual,  constant 26r. 

CONSTANT — durable,  constant 26iY 

CONSTERNATION — alarm,  terrour,  fright,  con- 
sternation   30,; 

TO  CONSTITUTE— to  constitute,  appoint,  dc 

pute i 

TO  COKSTITUTE — to  form,  compose,  consti- 
tute   29< 

CONSTITUTION  “frame,  temper,  temperament, 
constitution 38£ 


CONSTITUTION— guy  eminent,  constitutijn ....  ‘itR 

CON  STR  AINT — constraint,  compulsion 22? 

CONSTRAINT— constraint,  restraint,  reslrktion  ^3 

CONSTRUCT — to  build,  erect,  construct 498 

TO  CONSULT — to  consult,  deliberate,  debate . . 114 

TO  CONSUME — to  consume,  destroy,  waste 505 

CONSUMMATION — consummation,  completion  287 
CONSUMPTION— decay,  decline,  consumption  . 36S 

CONTACT — contact,  touch 129 

CONTAGION — contagion,  infection 129 

CONTAGIOUS — contagious,  epidemical,  pestilen- 
tial   129 

TO  CONTAIN— to  contain,  hold 174 

TO  CONTAIN — 10  comprise,  comprehend,  em- 
brace, contain,  include 174 

TO  CONTAMINATE — to  contaminate,  defile, 

pollute,  taint,  corrupt 129 

TO  CONTEMN— to  contemn,  despise,  scorn,  dis- 
dain   101 

TO  CONTEMPLATE— to  contemplate,  meditate, 

muse 76 

CONTEMPORARY — coeval,  contemporary 257 


JNTEMPTIBLE  ) , 

IMTP’MPTTlnTIS  “ 


CONTEMPTUOUS — contemptuous,  scornful,  dis- 
dainful   102 

CONTEMPTIBLE— contemptible,  despicable,  pi- 
tiful   192 

TO  CONTEND — to  contend,  strive,  vie 131 

TO  CONTEND— to  contend,  contest,  dispute...  131 
CONTENTION— contention,  strife 132 


INDEX. 


Page 

CONTENT  iON — diysensioiij  contention,  (iiscord, 

strife 133 

CONTENTMENT — contentment,  satisfaction...  384 

CONTEST — conflict,  combat,  contest 142 

TO  CONTEST — to  contend,  contest,  dispute 131 

CONTIGUOUS — adjacent,  adjoining,  contiguous  420 
CONTINENCE — cliastity,  continence,  modesty..  245 
CONTINGENCY — accident,  casualty,  contin- 
gency  172 

CONTINGENT— accidental,  incidental,  casual, 

contingent 172 

CONTINUAL — continual,  perpetual,  constant. . . 2G5 

CONTINUAL — continual,  continued 2G5 

CONTINUANCE  ) continuance,  duration,  con- 

CONTINUATION  j tinuatmn 2G5 

CONTINUATION — continuation,  continuily 2GG 

TO  CONTINUE— to  continue,  remain,  stay 263 

TO  CONTINUE— to  continue,  persevere,  persist, 

pm  sue,  prosecute  264 

CONTINUED — continual,  continued 265 

CONTINUITY — continuation,  continuity 266 

CONTRACT — agreement,  contract,  covenant, 

compact,  bargain 152 

TO  CONTRACT — to  abridge,  curtail,  contract. . 178 
CONTRACTED — contracted,  confined,  narrow. . 177 
TO  CONTRADICT — to  contradict,  oppose,  deny  113 

CONTRARY — adverse,  contrary,  opposite 135 

CONTRAST — comparison,  contrast 135 

TO  CONTRIBUTE — to  conduce,  contribute 168 

TO  CONTRIBUTE — to  minister,  administer,  con- 
tribute   167 

CONTRIBUTION— tax,  duty,  custom,  toll,  im-  i 

post,  tribute,  contribution 168 

CONTRITION — repentance,  penitence,  contrition, 

compunction,  remorse 88 

CONTRIVANCE— device,  contrivance 533 

TO  CONTRIVE— to  contrive,  devise,  invent....  532 
TO  CONTRIVE— to  concert,  contrive,  manage. . 533 

TO  CONTROL — to  check,  curb,  control 222 

TO  CONTROVERT — to  controvert,  dispute 114 

CONTUMACIOUS — obstinate,  stubborn,  contu- 
macious, headstrong,  heady 209 

CONTUMACY — contumacy,  rebellion 210 

CONTUMELY — reproach,  contumely,  obloquy. . 108 
TO  CONVENE — to  assemble,  convene,  convoke  490 
CONVENIENT — commodious,  convenient,  suita- 
ble .... 417 

CONVENT — cloister,  convent,  monastery 86 

CONVENTION — assembly,  company,  meeting, 
congregation,  parliament,  diet,  congress,  con- 
vention, synod,  convocation,  council 490 

CONVERSATION — conversation,  dialogue,  con- 
ference, colloquy 460 

CONVERSE — communion,  converse 487 

TO  CONVERSE — to  speak,  talk,  converse,  dis- 
course  459 

CONVERSIBLE — facetious,  conversible,  jocular, 

pleasant,  jocose 461 

CONVERT — convert,  proselyte 86 

ro  CONVEY— to  bear,  carry,  convey,  transport  330 

ro  CONVICT — to  convict,  detect,  discover 445 

CONVICT — criminal,  culprit,  malefactor,  felon, 

convict 123 

CONVICTION — conviction,  persuasion 79 


Pagt 

CONVINCING — conclusive,  decisive,  convincing  225 

CONVIVIAL — convivial,  social,  sociable 487 

CONVOCATION — assembly,  company,  meeting, 
congregation,  parliament,  diet,  congress,  con 

vention,  synod,  convocation,  council 490 

TO  CONVOKE— to  assemble,  convene,  convoke  490 

COOL — cool,  cold,  frigid 514 

COOL — dispassionate,  cool 119 

COPIOUS— plentiful,  plenteous,  abundant,  copi- 
ous, ample 341 

COPIOUSLY — largely,  copiously,  fully 342 

COPY — copy,  model,  pattern,  specimen 530 

TO  COPY — to  copy,  transcribe 530 

TO  COPY — to  imitate,  copy,  counterfeit 529 

COQUET- coquet,  jilt 526 

CORDIAL — hearty,  warm,  sincere,  cordial 431 

CORNER — corner,  angle 499 

CORPORAL  1 , , 

CORPOREAL  i 

CORPOREAL — corporeal,  material 510 

CORPSE— body,  corf  se,  carcass 510 

CORPULENT— corpulent,  stout,  lusty 511 

TO  CORRECT— to  amend,  correct,  reform,  rec- 
tify, emend,  improve,  mend,  better 201 

CORRECT — correct,  accurate . . 202 

CORRECTION — correction,  discipline,  punish- 
ment   204 

CORRECTNESS — justness,  correctness 202 

CORRESPONDENT — correspondent,  suitable, 

answerable 15,'i 

TO  CORROBORATE — to  confirm,  corroborate. . 225 
TO  CORRUPT— to  contaminate,  defile,  pollute, 

taint,  corrupt 129 

TO  CORRUPT — to  rot,  putrefy,  corrupt 504 

CORRUPTION — depravity,  depravation,  corrup- 
tion   128 

COS'P- cost,  expense,  price,  charge 436 

COSTLY— valuable,  precious,  costly 437 

COVENANT — agreement,  contract,  covenant, 

compact,  bargain 152 

TO  COVER — to  cover,  hide 51? 

COVER — cover,  shelter,  screen 517 

COVERING — tegument,  covering 518 

TO  COVET — to  desire,  long  for,  hanker  after, 

covet 159 

COVETOUSNESS — covetousness,  cupidity,  ava- 
rice   160 

COUNCIL — assembly,  company,  meeting,  congre- 
gation, parliament,  diet,  congress,  convention, 

.synod,  convocation,  council 496 

COUNSEL — advice,  counsel,  instruction 194 

TO  COUNT — to  calculate,  compute,  reckon,  count 

or  account,  number 432 

TO  COUNTENANCE — to  encourage,  sanction, 

countenance,  support 310 

COUNTENANCE — face,  countenance,  visage...  479 
COUNTERFEIT— spurious,  suppositious,  coun- 
terfeit   529 

TO  COUNTERFEIT — to  imitate,  copy,  counter- 
feit  529 

COUNTRY— land,  country 497 

COUNTRYMAN — countryman,  peasant,  swain, 

hind,  rustick,  clown 330 

COUPLE— couple,  brace,  pair .134 


XX 


INDEX. 


Page 


COURAGE— courage,  fortitude,  resolution 140 

COURAGE — bravery,  courage,  valour 139 

COURSE — course,  race,  passage 275 

COURSE— way,  road,  route  or  rout,  course 275 

COURSE— series,  course 275 

COURSE — way,  manner,  method,  mode,  course, 

means 275 

COURTEOUS — affable,  courteous 200 

COURTEOUS ) ^ ■ 

COURTLY  ) complaisant,  courtly. . 199 

TO  CRACK — to  break,  burst,  crack,  split 502 

CR  AFTY — cunning,  crafty,  subtle,  sly,  wily 522 

TO  CRAVE — to  beg,  beseech,  solicit,  entreat,  sup- 
plicate, implore,  crave 158 

TO  CREATE— to  cause,  occasion,  create 294 

TO  CREATE — to  make,  form,  produce,  create  . . 292 

CREDIT — credit,  favour,  influence 190 

CREDIT— belief,  credit,  trust,  faith 78 

CREDIT— name,  reputation,  repute,  credit 472 

CREED— faith,  creed 79 

CREW — band,  company,  crew,  gang 492 

CREME- crime,  vice,  sin 122 

CRIME — crime,  misdemeanour 122 

CRIMINAL— criminal,  guilty 123 

CRIMINAL — criminal,  culprit,  malefactor,  felon, 

convict 123 

CRISIS — conjuncture,  crisis 173 

CRITERION — criterion,  standard 225 

CRITICISM — animadversion,  criticism,  stricture.  112 
TO  CRITICISE — to  censure,  animadvert,  criti- 
cise  Ill 

CROOKED— awkward,  cross,  untoward,  crooked, 

froward,  perverse 315 

CROOKED— bent,  curved,  crooked,  awry 316 

CROSS— awkward,  cross,  untoward,  crooked,  fro- 
ward, perverse 315 

CROSS — captious,  cross,  peevish,  petulant,  fretful  315 

CROWD— multitude,  crowd,  throng,  swarm 494 

CRUEL — cruel,  inhuman,  barbarous,  brutal,  sa- 
vage  373 

CRUEL— hardhearted,  cruel,  unmerciful,  merci- 
less  373 

TO  CRUSH — to  break,  bruise,  squeeze,  pound, 

crush 501 

TO  CRUSH — to  overwhelm,  crush 504 

CRUTCH — staff,  stick,  crutch 239 

CRY — noise,  cry,  outcry,  clamour 470 

TO  CRY — to  cry,  weep 470 

TO  CRY — to  cry,  scream,  shriek 470 

TO  CRY — to  cry,  exclaim,  call 470 

CULPABLE— culpable,  faulty 123 

CULPRIT— criminal,  culprit,  malefactor,  felon, 

convict 123 

CULTIVATION- cultivation,  tillage,  husbandry  337 
CULTIVATION  > cultivation,  culture,  civiliza- 

CULTURE  ^ tion,  refinement 198 

CUNNING — art,  cunning,  deceit 521 

CUNNING — cunning,  crafty,  subtle,  sly,  wily.,..  522 

CUPIDITY — covetousness,  cupidity,  avarice 160 

TO  CURB — to  check,  curb,  control. 222 

ro  CURE— to  cure,  heal,  remedy 365 

CURE — cure,  remedy 3G5 

CURIOUS — curious,  inquisitive,  prying 99 

CURRENT— stream,  current,  tide. 352 


CURSE— malediction,  curse,  imprecation,  execra- 
tion, anathema 82 

CURSORY— cursory,  hasty,  slight,  desultory 262 

TO  CURTAIL— to  abridge,  curtail,  contract ... . 178 

CURVED— bent,  curved,  crooked,  awry 316 

CUSTODY — keeping,  custody 179 

CUSTOM— custom,  habit 322 

CUSTOM— custom,  fashion,  manner,  practice 324 

CUSTOM — tax,  duty,  custom,  toll,  nnpost,  tribute, 

contribution 163 

CUSTOM— usage,  custom,  prescription 324 

DAILY— daily,  diurnal 268 

DAINTY — dainty,  delicacy 314 

DAMAGE— loss,  damage,  detriment 404 

DAMAGE — injury,  damage,  hurt,  harm,  mischief  404 
DAMPNESS — moisture,  humidity,  dampness....  515 

DANGER — danger,  peril,  hazard 171 

TO  DARE — to  brave,  dare,  defy,  challenge 138 

DARING— daring,  bold 141 

DARK— dark,  obscure,  dim,  mysterious 480 

DARK — opaque,  dark 481 

TO  DART— to  shoot,  dart 305 

DATE— time,  period,  age,  date,  era,  epocha 267 

TO  DAUB— to  smear,  daub 515 

TO  DAUNT— to  dismay,  daunt,  appal 306 

DAYS  OF  YORE— formerly,  in  times  past,  or 
old  times,  days  of  yore,  anciently  or  ancient 

times 269 

DEAD— lifeless,  dead,  inanimate 356 

DEADLY— deadly,  mortal,  fatal 371 

DEAIj— deal,  quantity,  portion 486 

DEALING — trade,  commerce,  traffick,  dealing.  . 3S3 

DEARTH — scarcity,  dearth  . 256 

DEATH — death,  departure,  decease,  demise  .....  371 

TO  DEBAR— to  deprive,  debar,  abridge 506 

TO  DEBASE— to  abase,  humble,  degrade,  debase, 

disgrace 106 

TO  DEBATE— to  argue,  dispute,  debate 114 

TO  DEBATE — consult,  deliberate,  debate 115 

TO  DEBILITATE — to  weaken,  enfeeble,  debili- 
tate, enervate,  invalidate 368 

DEBILITY — debility,  infirmity,  imbecility 367 

DEBT— debt,  due 217 

DECAY— decay,  decline,  consumption 368 

TO  DECAY — to  perish,  die,  decay 371 

DECEASE — death,  departure,  decease,  demise  ..  371 

DECEIT — art,  cunning,  deceit 521 

DECEIT — deceit,  deception  523 

DECEIT — deceit,  duplicity,  double-dealing 523 

DECEIT— deceit,  fraud,  guile 523 

DECEITFUL— fallacious,  deceitful,  fraudulent  - 523 
TO  DECEIVE— to  deceive,  delude,  impose  upcti  522 

DECEIVER— deceiver,  ihi  poster 522 

DECENCY— decency,  decorum 246 

DECENT — becoming,  decent,  seemly,  fit,  suitable  246 

DECEPTION— deceit,  deception 523 

TO  DECIDE— to  decide,  determine,  conclude 

upon 223 

DECIDED— decided,  determined,  resolute 224 

DECIDED— decided,  decisive 224 

DECISION— decision,  judgement,  sentence 224 

DECISIVE— decided,  decisive 224 

DECISIVE— conclusive,  decisive,  convincing  ... . SE8i 


INDEX. 


XX 


Page 


TO  DECLALa— to  declaim,  inveigh 109 

TO  DECLARE— to  declare,  publish,  proclaim. ..  442 
TO  DECLARE — to  express,  declare,  signify,  tes- 
tify, utter 455 

T 3 DECLARE— to  discover,  manifest,  declare. . 444 

TO  DECLARE— to  frofess;  declare 442 

DECLINE — decay,  decline,  consumption 368 

TO  DECLINE— to  refuse,  decline,  reject,  repel, 

rebuff 232 

TO  DECORATE — to  adorn,  decorate,  embellish.  500 

DECORUM — decency,  decorum 246 

TO  DECOY — to  allure,  tempt,  seduce,  entice,  de- 
coy   319 

TO  DECREASE— to  abate,  lessen,  diminish,  de- 
crease   351 

DECREE — decree,  edict,  proclamation 443 

TO  DECRY— to  disparage,  detract,  traduce,  de- 
preciate, degrade,  decry 105 

TO  DEDICATE — to  dedicate,  devote,  consecrate, 
haJ.ictv 82 


TO  DEDUCE— to  derive,  trace,  deduce 

TO  DEDUCT — to  deduct,  subtract 

DEDUCTION — conclusion,  inference,  deduction. 

DEED— deed,  exploit,  achievement,  feat 

DEED — action,  act,  deed 

TO  DEEM — to  think,  suppose,  imagine,  believe, 

deem 

TO  DEFACE — to  deface,  disfigure,  deform 

TO  DEFAME — to  asperse,  detract,  slander,  de- 
fame, calumniate 

TD  DEFEAT— to  beat,  defeat,  overpower,  rout, 

overthrow 

TO  DEFEAT— to  baffle,  defeat,  disconcert,  con- 
found   

TO  DEFEAT — to  defeat,  foil,  disappoint,  frus- 
trate   

DEFECT — imperfection,  defect,  fault,  vice 

DEFECT — blemish,  defect,  fault 

DEFECTIVE — defective,  deficient 

TO  DEFEND — to  apologize,  defend,  justify,  excul- 
pate, excuse,  plead 

TO  DEFEND — to  defend,  protect,  vindicate 

TO  DEFEND — to  guard,  defend,  watch 

DEFENDANT  ) , , , , , , 

DEFENDER  J defendant,  defender 

DEFENDER — defender,  advocate,  pleader 


DEFENSIBLE 

DEFENSIVE 


I 


defensible,  defensive 


TO  DEFER — to  delay,  defer,  postpone,  procrasti- 
nate, prolong,  protract,  retard 

DEFERENCE— complaisance,  condescension,  de- 
ference   

DEFILE — to  contaminate,  defile,  pollute,  corrupt, 

taint 

DEFICIENT— defective,  deficient 

DEFINITE— definite,  positive 

DEFINITION — definition,  explanation 

TO  DEFORM — to  deface,  disfigure,  deform 

TO  DEFRAUD — to  cheat,  defraud,  trick 

TO  DEFY — to  brave,  defy,  dare,  challenge 

TO  DEGRADE — to  disparage,  detract,  traduce, 

depreciate,  degrade,  decry 

TO  DEGRADE — to  abase,  humble,  degrade,  dis- 


grace, debase 


449 

421 

78 

295 

294 


75 

503 

105 

143 

143 

143 

124 

127 

127 

J81 

179 

180 

180 

180 

180 


260 

200 

129 

127 

45^ 

458 

503 

525 

138 

105 

106 


TO  DEGRADE — to  disparage,  derogate,  degrade.  105 
TO  DEGRADE — to  humble,  humiliate,  degrade.  146 

DEGREE— class,  order,  rank,  degree 27P 

DEITY— deity,  divinity 81 

DEJECTION — dejection,  depression,  melancholy  413 
TO  DELAY — to  delay,  defer,  postpone,  procrasti- 
nate, prolong,  protract,  retard 260 

DELEGATE— delegate,  deputy 214 

TO  DELIBERATE— to  consult,  deliberate,  debate  115 
DELIBERATE — thoughtful,  considerate,  delibe- 
rate   424 

DELICACY — dainty,  delicacy 314 

DELICATE — fine,  delicate,  nice 314 

DELIGHT — pleasure,  joy,  delight,  charm 394 

DELIGHTFUL — delightful,  charming 313 

TO  DELINEATE — to  paint,  depict,  delineate, 

sketch 338 

DELINQUENT — offender,  delinquent 120 

TO  DELIVER — to  deliver,  rescue,  save 240 

TO  DELIVER— to  give  up,  deliver,  surrender, 
yield,  cede,  concede 242 


DELIVERANCE  ) ^ . 

DELIVERY  S t^eiivery 240 

TO  DELUDE — to  deceive,  delude,  impose  uprn.  522 
TO  DELUGE — to  overflow,  inundate,  deluge  . . 352 


DELUSION — fallacy,  delusion,  illusion 523 

TO  DEMAND— to  ask,  or  ask  for,  claim,  demand  228 

TO  DEMAND — to  demand,  require 228 

DEMEANOUR— behaviour,  conduct,  carriage,  de- 
portment, demeanour 192 

DEMISE — death,  departure,  decease,  demise  ....  371 
TO  DEMOLISH — to  demolish,  raze,  dismantle, 

destroy 505 

DEMON— devil,  demon 9S 

TO  DEMONSTRATE— to  prove,  demonstrate 

^ evince,  manifest 444 

TO  DEMUR — to  demur,  hesitate,  pause 96 

DEMUR— demur,  doubt,  hesitation,  objection. ...  96 
TO  DENOMINATE — to  name,  denominate,  style, 

entitle,  designate,  characterize 471 

DENOMINATION — name,  appellation,  title,  de- 
nomination   471 

TO  DENOTE — to  denote,  signify,  imply 456 

DENSE — thick,  dense 351 

TO  DENY — to  contradict,  oppose,  deny 113 

TO  DENY— to  deny,  refuse 232 

TO  DENY — to  deny,  disown,  disclaim,  disavow.  113 
DEPARTURE — death,  departure,  decease,  demise  371 

DEPARTURE— exit,  departure 372 

DEPENDENCE— dependence,  reliance 416 

TO  DEPICT— to  paint,  depict, delineate, sketch..  336 
TO  DEPLORE — to  bewail,  bemoan,  lament,  de- 
plore   410 

DEPONENT— deponent,  evidence,  witness 445 

DEPORTMENT— behaviour,  conduct,  carriage 

deportment,  demeanour 193 

DEPOSITE— deposite,  pledge,  security 183 

DEPRAVITY  i depravity,  depravation,  cor- 

DEPRAVATION3  ruption J28 

TO  DEPRECIATE — to  disparage,  detract,  tra- 
duce, deprec'ate,  degrade,  decry 105 

DEPREDATION  -depredation,  robbery .'iOS 

DEPRESSION-  -^ejection,  depression,  melan- 
choly  413 


XX 11 


INDEIX. 


Page 

ro  TlEl’RIVE— -to  bereave,  deprive,  Strip 505 

TO  DEPRIVE— to  deprive,  debar,  abridge 506 

DEPTH— depth,  prolundity • 350 

TO  DEPUTE — to  constitute,  appoint,  depute....  214 
DEPUTY— ambassadoi;  envoy,  plenipotentiary, 

deputy 214 

DEPUTY— delegate,  deputy 214 

TO  DERANGE— to  disorder,  derange,  disconcert, 

discompose 280 

DERANGEMENT— derangement,  insanity,  luna- 
cy, madness,  mania 281 

TO  DERIDE— to  deride,  mock,  ridicule,  banter, 

rally 103 

TO  DERIVE — to  derive,  trace,  deduce 449 

TO  DEROGATE— to  disparage,  derogate,  degrade  105 
TO  DESCRIBE — to  relate,  recount,  describe  ....  460 
DESCRIPTION — account,  narrative,  description.  467 
DESCRIPTION — cast,  turn,  description,  charac- 


ter   467 

TO  DESCRY— to  find,  find  out,  discover,  descry, 

espy 445 

TO  DESERT — to  abandon,  desert,  forsake,  relin- 
quish  243 

TO  DESERT— to  abdicate,  desert 253 

DESERT — desert,  merit,  worth 438 

DESERT — solitary,  desert,  desolate 253 

TO  DESIGN — to  design,  purpose,  intend,  mean..  533 

DESIGN — design,  plan,  scheme,  project 534 

fO  DESIGNATE— to  name,  denominate,  style, 

entitle,  designate,  characterize  ....' 471 

TO  DESIRE — to  beg-,  desire 158 

TO  DESIRE — to  desire,  wish,  long  for,  hanker 

after,  covet 159 

TO  DESIST — to  cease,  leave  off,  desist,  discon- 
tinue  257 

DESOLATE— solitary,  desert,  desolate 253 

DESOLATION — ravage,  desolation,  devastation  5(56 

DESPAIR — despa  ir,  desperation,  despondency 413 

DESPATCH — to  hasten,  accelerate,  speed,  expe- 
dite, despatch 261 

DESPERATE— desperate,  hopeless 413 

DESPERATION — despair,  despondency,  despe- 
ration   413 

DESPICABLE — contemptible,  despicable,  pitiful  102 
TO  DESPISE— to  contemn,  despise,  scorn,  dis- 
dain  101 

DESPONDENCY — despair,  despondency,  despe- 
ration   413 

DESPOTICK — absolute,  arbitrary,  despotick 188 

DESTINATION— destiny,  destination 169 

TO  DESTINE— to  allot,  appoint,  destine 169 

DESTINY — destiny,  fate,  lot,  doom 169 

DESTINY — destiny,  destination 169 

DESTITUTE — bare,  scanty,  destitute 250 

DESTITUTE — forsaken,  forlorn,  destitute 243 

TO  DES  TROY — to  consume,  destroy,  waste  ....  505 
ro  DESTROY— to  demolish,  raze,  dismantle,  de- 
stroy   - - 505 

DESTRUCTION— destruction,  ruin 504 

DESTRUCTIVE — destructive  ruinouf,  perni 

cious 504 

DESULTORY  —cursory,  hasty,  slight,  desifitory.  262 
TO  DETACH — to  separate,  sever,  disjoin,  detach  421 
TO  DETAIN— to  hold,  Ceta-n  retain 236 


Page 


TO  DETECT— to  convict,  detect,  discover 445 

TO  DETER — to  deter,  discourage  dishearten  . . . 312 
TO  DETERMINE — to  decide,  determine,  con- 
clude upon 223 

TO  DETERMINE — to  determine,  resolve 223 

TO  DETERMINE— to  fix,  dete»mine,  settle,  limit  227 
DETERMINED — decided,  determined,  resolute. . 224 
TO  DETEST— to  abhor,  detest,  abominate,  loath  138 

TO  DETEST— to  hate,  detest 137 

DETESTABLE— abominable,  detestable,  execra- 
ble   138 

TO  DETRACT — to  asperse,  detract,  slander,  de- 
fame, calumniate 105 

TO  DETRACT — to  disparage,  detract,  traduce, 

depreciate,  degrade,  decry 105 

DETRIMENT — disadvantage,  injury,  hurt,  detri- 
ment, prejudice 404 

DETRIMENT— loss,  damage,  detriment 404 

DEVASTATION— ravage,  desolation,  devasta- 
tion   507 

TO  DEVELOPE — to  unfold,  unravel,  develope. . 218 
TO  DEVIATE — to  deviate,  wander,  swerve,  stray  126 

TO  DEVIATE— to  digress,  deviate 126 

DEVICE — device,  contrivance 533 

DEVIL— devil,  demon 92 

TO  DEVISE— to  contrive,  devise,  invent 534 

TO  DEVISE— to  devise,  bequeath 161 

DEVOID — empty,  vacant,  void,  devoid 343 

TO  DEVOTE — to  addict,  devote,  apply 421 

TO  DEVOTE— to  dedicate,  devote,  consecrate, 

hallow 82 

DEVOUT — holy,  pious,  devout,  religious  . .....  89 

DEXTERITY — ability,  dexterity,  address  .....  80 
DEXTEROUS — clever,  skilful  expert,  dexterous, 

adroit 69 

DIALECT — language,  tongue,  speech,  idiom,  dia- 
lect  4SJ 

DIALOGUE — conversation,  dialogue,  conference 

colloquy 46* 

TO  DICTATE — to  dictate,  prescribe 184 

DICTATE— dictate,  suggestion 184 

DICTION — diction,  style,  phrase,  phr.aseo? ogy  . 463 

DICTIONARY — dictionary,  encyclop<edia- 463 

DICTIONARY — dictionary,  lexicc.i,  /ocitbulary, 

glossary,  nomenclature  484 

TO  DIE— to  die,  expire 371 

TO  DIE — to  perisi),  die,  detav 371 

DIET— food,  diet,  regimen 514 

DIET — assembly,  company,  meeting,  congrega- 
tion, parliament,  diet,  congress,  convention, 

synod,  ccnvocation,  council 490 

TO  DIFFER— to  differ,  vary,  disagree,  dissent. . . 132 
DIFFERENCE — difference,  variety,  diversity 

medley 282 

DIFFERENCE— difference,  distinction 282 

'DIFFERENCE — difference,  dispute,  altercation, 

quarrel 13  ' 

DIFFERENT — different,  distinct,  separate 282 

DIFFERENT — different,  several,  divers,  sundrv 

various - . 283 

DIFFERENT— different,  unlike 283 

DIFFICULT— ha. d,  difficult,  arduous 364 

DIFFICULTIES — difficulties,  embari  assmen's, 
troubles  ..  41S 


INDEX. 


- XAlli 


Page 


DIFFICULTY— difficulty,  obstacle,  iuipedinietit.  259 
DIFFICULTY — objection,  difficulty,  exception  ..  112 
DIFFIDENT — distrustful,  suspicious,  diffident. . . 416 

DIFFIDENT— modest,  bashful,  diffident • 148 

DIFFUSE— diffuse,  prolix 464 

rO  DIFFUSE — to  spread,  expand,  diffuse 345 

rO  DIGEST— to  dispose,  arrange,  digest 277 

DIGNIFIED — magisterial,  majestick,  stately, 

pompous,  august,  dignified  454 

DIGNITY— honour,  dignity 429 

DIGNITY— pride,  haughtiness,  loftiness,  dignity . 100 

TO  DIGRESS— to  digress,  deviate 126 

TO  DILATE — to  dilate,  expand 345 

DILATORY — slow,  dilatory,  tardy,  tedious 260 

DILIGENT — active,  diligent,  industrious,  assidu- 
ous, laborious 296 

DILIGENT— diligent,  expeditious,  prompt 202 

DILIGENT— sedulous,  diligent,  assiduous 297 

DIM — dark,  obscure,  dim,  mysterious 480 

TO  DIMINISH — to  abate,  lessen,  diminish,  de- 
crease   351 

DIMINUTIVE — little,  small,  diminutive 350 

DIOCESS — bishoprick,  d iocess 86 

TO  DIRECT — to  direct,  dispose,  regulate 191 

TO  DIRECT— to  conduct,  manage,  direct 191 

DIRECT — straight,  right,  direct 430 

DIRECTION — direction,  address,  superscription.  213 

DIRECTION— direction,  O der 213 

DIRECTLY— directly,  immediately,  instantly,  in- 
stantaneously   262 

DISABILITY— inability,  disability 69 

DISADVANTAGE— disadvantage,  injury,  hurt, 

detriment,  prejuJice 404 

DISAFFECTION — disaffection,  disloyalty 210 

TO  DISAGREE — to  differ,  vary,  disagree,  dissent  132 

TO  DISAPPEAR — to  disappear,  vanish 481 

TO  DISAPPOINT — to  defeat,  foil,  disappoint, 

frustrate 143 

DISAPPROBATION — displeasure,  anger,  disap- 
probation   118 

TO  DISAPPROVE — to  disapprove,  dislike 120 

DISASTER— calamity,  disaster,  misfortune,  mis- 
chance, mishap 406 


TO  DISAVOW — to  deny,  disown,  disclaim,  dis- 


avow   113 

DISBELIEF — disbelief,  unbelief 79 

TO  DISCARD — to  dismiss,  discharge,  discard  . . . 254 
TO  DISCERN — to  perceive,  discern,  distinguish.  483 
DISCERNMENT — discernment,  penetration,  dis- 
crimination, judgement 71 

TO  DISCHARGE — to  dismiss,  discharge,  discard  254 
DISCIPLINE — correction,  discipline,  punishniont  204 

DISCIPLE — scholar,  disciple,  pupil 197 

rO  DISCLAIM— deny,  disown,  disclaim,  dis- 
avow  113 

O DISCLOSE — to  publish,  promulgate,  divulge, 

reveal,  disclose 443 

TO  DISCLOSE — to  uncover,  discover,  disclose. . 444 
TO  DISCOMPOSE — to  disorder,  derange,  discon- 


cert, discompose 280 

TO  DISCONCERT — to  baffle,  defeat,  disconcert, 

confound 143 

rO  DISCONCERT — to  disorder,  derange,  discon- 
cert, discompose  ooo 


Pap 

TO  DISCONTINL  E — to  cease,  leave  off,  discon- 
tinue, desist 257 

DISCORD— dissension,  contention,  discord,  strife  133 

TO  DISCOVER — to  convict,  detect,  discover 445 

TO  DISCOVER — to  discover,  manifest,  declare. . 444 
TO  DISCOVER — to  find,  find  out,  discover,  espy, 

descry 445 

TO  DISCOVER— to  find,  find  out,  discover,  in- 
vent  446 

TO  DISCOVER— to  uncover,  discover, disclose..  444 
TO  DISCOURAGE— to  deter,  discourage,  dis- 
hearten  312 

TO  DISCOURSE— to  speak,  talk,  converse,  dis- 
course  450 

DISCREDIT — discredit,  reproach,  scandal,  dis- 
grace   107 

DISCRETION — judgement,  discretion,  prudence  400 
TO  DISCRIMINATE— to  distinguish,  discrimi- 
nate  484 

DISCRIMINATION— discernment,  penetration, 

disfrimination,  judgement 71 

TO  DISCUSS — to  discuss,  examine 98 

DISDAIN — haughtiness,  disdain,  arrogance 101 

TO  DISDAIN — to  contemn,  despise,  scorn,  disdain  101 
DISDAINFUL — contemptuous,  scornful,  disdain- 
ful  102 

DISEASE— disorder,  disease,  distemper,  malady.  387 

DISEASED — sick,  sickly,  diseased,  morbid 367 

TO  DISENGAGE  i to  disengtige,  disentangle, 

TO  DISENTANGLE!  extricate 218 

TO  DISFIGURE — to  deface,  disfigure,  deform. . . 503 

DISGRACE— dishonour,  disgrace,  shame 107 

DISGRACE — discredit,  reproach  scandal,  dis- 
grace   107 

TO  DISGRACE — to  abase,  humble,  degrade,  dis- 
grace, debase 106 

TO  DISGUISE — to  conceal,  dissemble,  disguise. . 519 

DISGUST — disgust,  loathing,  nausea 120 

DISGUST — dislike,  displeasure,  dissatisfaction, 

distaste,  disgust 117 

TO  DISHEARTEN — to  deter,  discourage,  dis- 


hearten   312 

DISHONEST — dishonest,  knavish 430 

DISHONOUR — dishonour,  disgrace,  shame 107 

DISINCLINATION — dislike,  disinclination 118 

TO  DISJOIN — to  separate,  sever,  disjoin,  detach  421 

TO  DISJOINT — to  disjoint,  dismember 421 

DISLIKE — aversion,  antipathy,  dislike,  hatred, 

repugnance 136 

TO  DISLIKE— to  disapprove,  dislike 120 

DISLIKE — dislike,  displeasure,  dissatisfaction, 

distaste,  disgust 117 

DISLIKE— dislike,  disinclination 118 

DISLOYALTY — disaffection,  disloyalty ■ . 210 

DISMAL — dull,  gloomy,  sad,  dismal 410 

TO  DISMANTLE — to  demolish,  raze,  dismantle, 

destroy 505 

TO  DISMAY — to  dismay,  daunt,  appal 306 

TO  DISMEMBER— to  disjoint,  dismember 421 

TO  DISMISS — to  dismiss,  discharge,  discard....  254 

DISORDER — confusion,  disorder 282 

TO  DISORDER — to  disorder,  derange,  disconcert, 

discompose 280 

DISORDER — disorder,  disease,  distemper,  maladv 


TNDEX. 


iliv 

Page 

DISORDERLY — Irregular,  disorderly,  inordinate, 

intemperate 284 

TO  DISOWN — to  deny,  disown,  disclaim,  disa- 
vow  113 

TO  DISPARAGE — to  disparage,  detract,  traduce, 

depreciate,  degrade,  deory 105 

TO  DISPARAGE— to  disp&rage,  derogate,  de- 
grade  105 

DISPARITY — disparity,  inequality 435 

DISPASSIONATE — dispassionate,  cool 119 

TO  DISPEL — to  dispel,  disperse,  dissipate 345 

TO  DISPENSE— to  dispense,  distribute 485 

TO  DISPERSE — to  dispel,  disperse,  dissipate... . 345 

TO  DISPERSE — to  spread,  scatter,  disperse 344 

TO  DISPLAY — to  show,  exhibit,  display 452 

TO  DISPLEASE — to  displease,  olfend,  vex 117 

DISPLEASURE— dislike,  displeasure,  dissatisfac- 
tion, distaste,  disgust 118 

DISPLEASURE— displeasure,  anger,  disapproba- 
tion   118 

DISPOSAL — disposal,  disposition 277 

TO  DISPOSE — to  dispose,  arrange,  digest 277 

TO  DISPOSE — to  place,  dispose,  order 273 

TO  DISPOSE— to  direct,  dispose,  regulate 101 

DISPOSITION — disposition,  temper 387 

DISPOSITION — disposition,  inclination 388 

DISPOSITION — disposal,  disposition 277 

TO  DISPROVE — to  confute,  refute,  disprove, 

oppugn 115 

TO  DISPUTE — to  argue,  dispute,  debate 114 

TO  DISPUTE — to  contend,  contest,  dispute 131 

TO  DISPUTE — to  controvert,  dispute 114 

TO  DISPUTE — to  doubt,  question,  dispute 95 

TO  DISPUTE— difference,  dispute,  altercation, 

quarrel 133 

TO  DISREGARD — to  disregard, ''cglect,  slight. . 423 
DISSATISFACTION — dislike,  displeasure,  dissa- 
tisfaction, distaste,  disgust 117 

TO  DISSEMBLE— to  conceal,  dissemble,  disguise  519 

DISSEMBLER — hypocrite,  dissembler 520 

DISSEMINATE — to  spread,  circulate,  propagate, 

disseminate 345 

DISSENSION — dissension,  contention,  discord  . . 

TO  DISSENT — to  differ,  vary,  disagree,  dissent.  132 
DISSENTER — heretick,  schismatick,  sectarian, 

dissenter,  nonconformist 92 

DISSERTATION — essay,  treatise,  tract,  disserta- 
tion   329 

DISSIMULATION— simulation,  dissimulation  ..  520 
TO  DISSIPATE — to  dispel,  disperse,  dissipate  . . 315 
TO  DISSIPATE— to  spend  or  expend,  waste,  dis- 
sipate, squander 344 

DISSOLUTE— loose,  vague,  lax,  dissolute,  licen- 
tious   250 

DISTANT— distant,  far,  remote 286 

DISTASTE— dislike,  displeasure,  dissatisfaction, 

distaste,  disgust 117 

)ISTEMPER-— disorder,  disease,  malady,  distem- 
per  3G7 

DISTINCT— different,  distinct,  separate 282 

DISTINCTION— difference,  distinction 282 

DISTINCTION— of  fashion,  of  quality  of  dis- 
tinction  474 

DISTINCTLY- clearly,  distinctly 477 


TO  DISTINGUISH — to  distinguish,  discriminate  484 
TO  DISTINGUISH — to  perceive,  discern,  distin 

guish 463 

TO  DISTINGUISH — to  signalize,  distinguish. . 474 

TO  DISTINGUISH — to  abstract,  separate,  distin- 
guish  420 

DISTINGUISHED — distinguished,  conspicuous, 

noted,  eminent,  illustrious 473 

TO  DISTORT — to  turn,  bend,  twist,  wring,  wrect, 

distort,  wrench 316 

DISTRACTED — absent,  abstracted,  diverted,  dis- 
tracted  484 

DISTRESS— adversity,  distress 407 

DISTRESS— distress,  anxiety,  anguish,  agony  . . . 407 

TO  DISTRESS — to  afflict,  distress,  trouble 408 

TO  DISTRESS — to  distress,  harass,  perplex 407 

TO  DISTRIBUTE — to  allot,  assign,  apportion, 

distribute 168 

TO  DISTRIBUTE— to  dispense,  distribute 485 

TO  DISTRIBUTE — to  divide,  distribute,  share. . 485 

DISTRICT — district,  region,  tract,  quarter 498 

DISTRUSTFUL— distrustful, suspicious,  diffldent  416 

TO  DISTURB— to  disturb,  interrupt 417 

TO  DISTURB — to  trouble,  disturb,  molest 412 

DISTURBANCE— commotion,  disturbance 417 

TO  DIVE — to  plunge,  dive 353 

TO  DIVE  INTO— to  pry,  scrutinize,  dive  into  . . 99 
DIVERS — different,  several,  divers,  sundry,  vari- 
ous  ^3 

DIVERSION— amusement,  entertainment,  diver 

sion,  sport,  recreation,  pastime 391 

DIVERSITY — difference,  variety,  medley,  diver- 
sity  282 

TO  DIVERT — to  amuse,  divert,  entertain 390 

DIVERTED — absent,  abstracted,  diverted,  dis- 
tracted   484 

TO  DIVIDE— to  divide,  separate,  part 484 

TO  DIVIDE — to  divide,  distribute,  sliare 485 

DIVINE— godlike,  divine,  heavenly 9(0 

DIVINE — holy,  sacred,  divine 89 

DIVINE — ecclesiastick,  divine,  theologian 86 

TO  DIVINE — to  guess,  conjecture,  divine 95 

DIVINITY — deity,  divinity 81 

DIVISION — part,  portion,  division,  share 485 

DIURNAL — daily,  diurnal 268 

TO  DIVULGE — to  publish,  promulgate,  divulge, 

reveal,  disclose 443 

TO  DO — to  make,  do,  act 294 

DOCILE — docile,  tractable,  ductile 360 

DOCTRINE — doctrine,  precept,  principle 80 

DOCTRINE  ) , . . ^ 

> doctrine,  dogma,  tenet 80 

JJvJCtJVIA  j 

DOGMATICAL— confident,  dogmatical,  positive.  414 

DOLEFUL — piteous,  doleful,  woful,  rueful 411 

DOMESTICK — servant,  domestick,  drudge,  me- 
nial   328 

DOMINEERING — imperious,  lordly,  domineer- 
ing, overbearing 185 

DOMINION — empire,  reign,  dominion 

DOMINION— power,  strength,  force,  authority, 

dominion 186 

DOMINIONS— territory,  dominions ]S9 

DONATION— gift,  present,  donation,  benefaction  164 
DOOM— destiny,  fate,  lot,  doom 16£ 


INDEX. 


ro  DOOM — to  sentence,  doom,  condemn 

DOUBLE-DEALING — deceit,  duplicity,  double- 
dealing   

DOUBT — demur,  doubt,  hesitation,  objection 

TO  DOUBT— to  doubt,  question,  dispute 

DOUBT — doubt,  suspense 

DOUBTFUL— doubtful,  dubious,  uncertain,  pre- 
carious   

TO  DOZE — to  sleep,  slumber,  doze,  drowse,  nap. 
ro  DRAG— to  draw,  drag,  haul  or  hale,  pull,  tug, 

pluck 

TO  DRAIN — to  spend,  exhaust,  drain 

TO  DRAW— to  draw,  drag,  haul  or  hale,  pluck, 

pull,  tug 

TO  DREAD — to  apprehend,  fear,  dread 

DREAD — awe,  reverence,  dread 

DREADFUL — fearful,  dreadful,  frightful,  tremen- 
dous. terrible,  terrifick,  horrible,  horrid 

DREADFUL — formidable,  dreadful,  shocking,  ter- 
rible  

DREAM— dream,  reverie 

DREGS — dregs,  sediment,  dross,  scum,  refuse  ... 

TO  DRENCH— to  soak,  drench,  steep 

DRIFT — tendency,  drift,  scope,  aim 

DROLL — laughable,  ludicrous,  ridiculous,  comi- 
cal or  comick,  droll 

TO  DROOP — to  flag,  droop,  languish,  pine 

TO  DROP  \ tumble. . 

DROSS — dregs,  sediment,  dross,  scum,  refuse 

TO  DROWSE — to  sleep,  slumber,  doze,  drowse, 

nap 

DROWSY — heavy,  dull,  drowsy 

DROWSY — sleepy,  drowsy,  lelhargick 

DRUDGE — servant,  domestick,  menial,  drudge  . . 
DRUDGERY — work,  labour,  toil,  drudgery,  task. 
DRUNKENNESS — intoxication,  drunkenness,  in- 
fatuation   

DUBIOUS— doubtful,  dubious,  uncertain,  preca- 
rious   

DUCTILE — docile,  tractable,  ductile 

DUE — debt,  due 

DULL — heavy,  dull,  drowsy 

DULL— insipid,  dull,  flat 

DULL — dull,  gloomy,  sad,  dismal 

DULL — stupid,  dull 

DUMB — silent,  dumb,  mute,  speechless 

DUPLICITY— deceit,  duplicity,  double-dealing.. 

DURABLE— durable,  lasting,  permanent 

DURABLE — durable,  constant 

DURATION — continuance,  continuation,  dura- 
tion   

DURATION— duration,  time 

DUTIFUL — dutiful,  obedient,  respectful 

DUTY — duty,  obligation 

DUTY — business,  office,  duty 

DUTY— tax,  duty,  custom,  toll,  impost,  tribute, 

contribution 

TO  DWELL — to  abide,  sojourn,  dwell,  reside,  in- 
habit   

ro  DYE — to  colour,  dye,  tinge,  stain 

EACH — all,  every,  each 

GAGER — eager,  earnest,  serious . . • . 


XX? 


I * 

EAGERNESS — avidity,  greediness,  eagerness  . . , 162 

j EARLY — soon,  early,  betimes 562 

i TO  EARN — to  acquire,  obtain,  gain,  win,  earn. . 396 

, EARNEST — eager,  earnest,  serious 392 

j EARNEST — earnest,  pledge 184 

EASE— ease,  quiet,  rest,  repose 362 

EASE  ) 

EASINESS  1 facility,  lightness  ...  363 

EASY — easy,  ready 363 

EBULLITION — ebullition,  effervescence,  fer- 
mentation  309 

ECCENTRICK — particular,  singular,  odd,  eccen- 

trick,  strange 385 

ECCLESIASTICK — ecclesiastick,  divine,  theolo- 
gian   80 

ECONOMICAL — economical,  saving,  sparing, 

thrifty,  penurious,  niggardly 161 

ECONOMY — economy,  frugality,  parsimony 161 

ECONOMY — economy,  management. 161 

ECSTASY— ecstasy,  rapture,  transport 318 

EDGE — border,  edge,  rim  or  brim,  brink,  margin, 

verge 176 

EDICT — decree,  edict,  proclamation  . .’ 443 

EDIFICE— edifice,  structure,  fabrick 499 

EDUCATION — education,  instruction,  breeding.  197 
TO  EFFACE — to  blot  out,  expunge,  rase  or  erase, 

efface,  cancel,  obliterate 248 

EFFECT — effect,  consequence,  result,  event,  is 

sue 290 

TO  EFFECT — to  effect,  produce,  perform 289 

TO  EFFECT — to  accomplish,  execute,  achieve,  ef- 
fect  

EFFECTIVE — effective,  efficient,  effectual,  effk4 

cious 290 

EFFECTS— goods,  furniture,  chattels,  moveables, 

effects 339 

EFFECTUAL — effective,  efficient,  effectual,  effi- 
cacious   290 

EFFEMINATE — female,  feminine,  effeminate. . . 514 
EFFERVESCENCE — ebullition,  effervescence, 

fermentation 309 

EFFICACIOUS  ) effective,  efficient,  efficacious, 

EFFICIENT  S effectual 290 

EFFIGY — likeness,  picture,  image,  effigy 532 

EFFORT— endeavour,  effort,  exertion 321 

EFFORT — attempt,  trial,  endeavour,  essay,  effort  320 
EFFRONTERY — audacity,  effrontery,  hardihood 

or  hardiness,  boldness 140 

EFFUSION — effusion,  ejaculation 462 

EGOISTICAIj — opiniated  or  opiniative,  conceited, 

egoistical 100 

EJACULATION — effusion,  ejaculation 462 

ELDER — senior,  elder,  older 269 

ELDERLY — elderly,  aged,  old 269 

ELECT — to  choose,  elect 234 

ELEGANT — graceful,  comely,  elegant 315 

TO  ELEVATE — to  lift,  raise,  erect,  elevate,  exalt  354 

ELIGIBLE — eligible,  preferable 234 

ELOCUTION  > elocution,  eloquence,  rhetorick, 

ELOQUENCE  5 oratory 462 

TO  ELUCIDATE— to  explain,  illustrate,  eluci- 
date   458 

TO  ELUDE — to  escape,  elude,  evade 527 

TO  ELUDE — to  avoid  eschew,  shun,  elude., ....  5^ 


Page 

169 

523 

96 

95 

95 

96 

300 

303 

344 

303 

307 

307 

306 

308 

91 

515 

512 

325 

103 

368 

303 

515 

300 

300 

300 

328 

328 

310 

96 

360 

217 

300 

513 

410 

401 

464 

523 

266 

266 

265 

266 

150 

150 

331 

168 

263 

516 

252 

392 


xxvi 


INDEX 


Page 

TO  EMANATE— to  arise,  proceed,  issue,  spring, 

flow,  emanate 291 

TO  EMBARRASS — to  embarrass,  entangle,  per- 
plex  412 

EMBARRASSMENTS — difficulties,  embarrass- 
ments, troubles 413 

l O EMBELLISH— to  adorn,  decorate,  embellish  500 

EMBLEM — figure,  metaphor,  allegory,  emblem, 

symbol,  type 531 

ro  EMBOLDEN — to  encourage,  embolden 312 

TO  EMBRACE — to  clasp,  hug,  embrace 377 

rc  I MBRACE — to  comprise,  comprehend,  em- 

' biace,  contain,  include 174 

EMBRYO — embryo,  foetus 510 

TO  EMEND — to  amend,  correct,  reform,  rectify, 

emend,  improve,  mend,  better 201 

TO  EMERGE— to  rise,  issue,  emerge 291 

EMERGENCY— exigency,  emergency 173 

EMINENT — distinguished,  conspicuous,  noted, 

eminent,  illustrious 473 

EMISSARY— emissary,  spy 44C 

TO  EMIT— to  emit,  exhale,  evaporate 501 

EMOLUMENT — gain,  profit,  emolument,  lucre..  397 
EMOTION — agitation,  emotion,  tremour,  trepida- 
tion   308 

EMPHASIS — stress,  strain,  emphasis,  accent 221 

EMPIRE— empire,  kingdom 189 

EMPIRE— empire,  reign,  dominion 187 

ro  EMPLOY — to  employ,  use 398 

EMPLOYMENT — business,  occupation,  eiiijiloy- 

ment,  engagement,  avocation 331 

TO  EMPOWER — to  commission,  authorize,  em- 
power   18G 

EMPTY — empty,  vacant,  void,  devoid 343 

EMPTY — hollow,  empty 344 

EMULATION — competition,  eniulation,  rivalry.  131 
TO  ENCHANT — to  cliarni,  enchant,  fascinate, 

enrapture,  captivate 317 

TO  ENCIRCLE— to  surround,  encompass,  envi- 
ron, encircle 175 

TO  ENCLOSE — to  circumscribe,  enclose 175 

TO  ENCLOSE — to  enclose,  include 174 

ENCOMIUM — encomiiun,  eulogy,  panegyrick. .. . 130 
TO  ENCOMPASS— to  surround,  encompass,  en- 
viron, encircle 175 

ENCOUNTER— attack,  assault,  encounter,  onset, 

charge 116 

TO  ENCOUNTER — to  attack,  assail,  assault,  en- 
counter  116 

TO  ENCOURAGE— to  cheer,  encourage,  comfort  356 
TO  ENCOURAGE— to  encourage,  animate,  in- 
cite, impel,  urge,  stimulate,  instigate 311 

TO  ENCOURAGE — to  encourage,  advance,  pro- 
mote, prefer,  forward 312 

TO  ENCOURAGE— to  encourage,  embolden. . . . 312 
TO  ENCOURAGE— to  encourage,  countenance, 

sanction,  support 310 

T O ENCROACH— to  encroach,  intrench,  invade, 

intrude,  infringe 507 

TO  ENCUMBER— to  clog,  load,  encumber .370 

ENCYCLOPAEDIA — dictionary,  encyclopaBdia  ..  463 

END — aim,  object,  end 324 

TO  END— to  end,  close,  terminate 285 

END — end,  extremitj  . . 285 


END — sake,  account,  reason,  purpose,  end 535 

TO  ENDEAVOUR — to  attempt,  trial,  endeavour, 

essay,  effort 32(j 

TO  ENDEAVOUR — to  endeavour,  aim,  strive, 

struggle 321 

ENDEAVOUR — endeavour,  effort,  exertion .321 

ENDLESS — eternal,  endless,  everlasting. 270 

TO  ENDOW — invest,  endow  or  endue 167 

ENDOWMENT — gift,  endowment,  talent 67 

ENDURANCE — patience,  endurance,  resignation  149 
TO  ENDURE— to  suffer,  bear,  endure,  support  . . 149 
ENEMY— enemy,  foe,  adversary,  opponent,  anta- 
gonist  134 

ENERGY — energy,  force,  vigour 372 

TO  ENERVATE  i to  weaken,  enfeeble,  debili- 
TO  ENFEEBLE  i tate,  enervate,  invalidate  . . 368 
TO  ENGAGE — to  attract,  allure,  invite,  engage. . 316 

TO  ENGAGE — to  bind,  engage,  oblige 216 

ENGAGEMENT — battle,  combat,  engagement  ..  141 
ENGAGEMENT — business,  occupation,  employ- 
ment, engagement,  avocation 331 

ENGAGEMENT— promise,  engagement,  word  ..  217 

TO  ENGENDER — to  breed,  engender 497 

TO  ENGRAVE — to  imprint,  impress,  engrave. . . 450 

ENGRAVING — picture,  print,  engraving 450 

TO  ENGROSS — to  absorb,  swallow  up,  ingulf, 

engross 509 

ENJOYMENT — enjoyment,  fruition,  gratification  383 

TO  ENLARGE — to  enlarge,  increase,  extend 348 

TO  ENLIGHTEN— to  illuminate,  illumine,  en- 
lighten   197 

3'0  ENLIST — to  enrol,  enlist  or  list,  register,  r? 

cord 

TO  ENLIVEN — to  animate,  inspire,  cheer,  er.- 

liven,  exhilarate 2.55 

ENMITY — enmity,  animosity,  hostility 135 

ENMl'l'Y — hatred,  enmity,  ill-will,  repugnance. . 137 
ENORMOUS — enormous,  huge,  immense,  vast ..  349 
ENORMOUS — enormous,  prodigious,  monstrous.  350 

ENOUGH— enough,  sufficient 343 

ENRAPTURE— to  charm,  enchant,  fascinate,  en- 
rapture, captivate 317 

TO  ENROL — to  enrol,  enlist  or  list,  register,  re- 
cord  468 

ENSAMPLE— example,  pattern,  ensample 531 

TO  ENSLAVE— to  enslave,  captivate 318 

TO  ENSUE — to  follow,  succeed,  ensue 271 

TO  ENTANGLE— to  embarrass,  entangle,  per- 
plex  412 

TO  EN'PANGLE — to  insnare,  entrap,  entangle, 

inveigle 525 

ENTERPRISE — attempt,  undertaking,  enterprise  320 
EN'PERPRISING— enterprising,  adventurous  ...  173 
TO  EN'PER  UPON — to  begin,  commence,  enter 

upon 292 

TO  EN3'ERTAIN—to  amuse,  divert,  entertain. . 390 
ENTERTAINMENT— amusement,  diversion,  en- 
tertainment, sport,  recreation  pastime 391 

EN'PERTA IN M ENT— feast,  banquet,  carousal, 

entertainment,  treat 513 

ENTHUSIAST— enthusiast,  fanalick,  visionary. . 91 

TO  ENTICE— to  allure,  tempt,  seduce,  entice, 

dec.oy 319 

TO  ENTICE— to  persuade,  entice,  prevail  upon.  313 


INDEX. 


XJVii 


iiINTIKE— w^ole,  entire,  complete,  total,  integral 
TO  ENTITLE— to  name,  denominate,  style,  en- 
title, designate,  characterize 

TO  ENTRAP— to  insnare,  entrap,  entangle,  in- 
veigle   

TO  ENTREAT— to  beg,  beseech,  solicit,  entreat, 

supplicate,  implore 

ENTREATY — prayer,  petition,  request,  entreaty, 

suit,  crave 

ENVIOUS— invidious,  envious 

TO  ENVIRON — to  surround,  encompass,  environ, 

encircle 

ENVOY  — ambassador,  envoy,  plenipotentiary, 

deputy 

ENVY — jealousy,  envy,  suspicion 

EPHEMERIS— calendar,  almanack,  ephemeris  • . 

EPICURE— sensualist,  voluptuary,  epicure 

EPIDEMICAL — contagious,  epidemical,  pestilen- 
tial  

EPISTLE — letter,  epistle 

EPITHET — epithet,  adjective 

EPOCHA — time,  period,  age,  date,  era,  epocha  . . 
EQUABLE  > equal,  even,  equable,  like  or  alike, 

EQUAL  ^ uniform 

TO  EQUIP — to  fit,  equip,  prepare,  qualify 

EQUITABLE— fair,  honest,  equitable,  reasonable 

EQUITY— justice,  equity 

EQUIVOCAL— ambiguous,  equivocal 

TO  EQUIVOCATE— to  evade,  equivocate,  pre- 
varicate   

ERA — time,  period,  age,  date,  era,  epocha 

TO  ERADICATE— to  eradicate,  extirpate,  exter- 
minate  

TO  ERASE— to  blot  out,  expunge,  rase  or  erase, 

efface,  cancel,  obliterate 

TO  ERECT — to  build,  erect,  construct 

TO  ERECT — to  institute,  establish,  found,  erect. 
TO  ERECT — to  lift,  raise,  erect,  elevate,  exalt. . . 

ERRAND— mission,  message,  errand 

ERROUR— errour,  mistake,  blunder 

ERROUR — errour,  fault 

ERUDITION — knowledge,  science,  learning,  eru- 
dition   

ERUPTION — eruption,  explosion 

TO  ESCAPE— to  escape,  elude,  evade 

TO  ESCHEW — to  avoid,  eschew,  shun,  elude. .. 
TO  ESCORT — to  accompany,  escort,  wait  on,  at- 
tend  

ESPECIALLY — especially,  particularly,  princi- 
pally, chiefly 

TO  ESPY — to  find,  find  out,  discover,  espy,  descry 
ESSAY — attempt,  trial,  endeavour,  essay,  effort. . 

ESSAY — essay,  treatise,  tract,  dissertation 

ESSENTIAL — necessary,  expedient,  essential, 

requisite 

TO  ESTABLISH— to  confirm,  establish 

TO  ESTABLISH — to  fix,  settle,  establish 

TO  ESTABLISH— to  institute,  establish,  found, 

erect 

ESTEEM— esteem,  respect,  regard 

TO  ESTEEM— to  value,  prize,  esteem 

TO  ESTEEM  > to  apprize,  appreciate,  esti- 

TO  ESTIMATE  ^ mate,  esteem 

TO  ESTIMATE— to  estimate,  compute,  rate  .... 


Pajce 

ETERNAL— eternal,  endless,  everlasting 270 

EUCHARIST — Lord’s  supper,  eucharist,  commu- 
nion, sacrament 83 

EULOGY — encomium,  eulogy,  panegyrick 130 

TO  EVADE — to  evade,  equivocate,  prevaricate.  526 

TO  EVADE — to  escape,  elude,  evade 527 

TO  EVAPORATE — to  emit,  exhale,  evaporate. . 501 

EVASION — evasion,  shift,  subterfuge 526 

EVEN — equal,  even,  equable,  uniformj  like  or 

alike 433 

EVEN — even,  smooth,  level,  plain 435 

EVENT — event,  incident,  accident,  adventure,  oc- 
currence   172 

EVENT — event,  issue,  consequence 290 

EVER — always,  at  all  times,  ever 258 

EVERLASTING — eternal,  endless,  everlasting..  270 

EVERY— all,  every,  each 252 

EVIDENCE — deponent,  evidence,  witness 445 

EVIDENCE — proof,  testimony^  evidence 444 

EVIDENT — apparent,  visible,  clear,  plain,  obvi- 
ous, evident,  manifest 478 

EVIL — evil  or  ill,  misfortune,  harm,  mischief. .. . 403 

EVIL — bad,  evil,  wicked 127 

TO  EVINCE— to  argue,  evince,  prove 77 

TO  EVINCE— to  prove,  demonstrate,  evince,  ma- 
nifest  444 

EXACT — accurate,  exact,  precise 203 

EXACT— exact,  nice,  particular,  punctual 203 

TO  IJXACT — to  exact,  extort 317 

TO  EXALT— to  lift,  praise,  erect,  elevate,  exalt.  354 
EXAMINATION — examination,  search,  inquiry 

research,  investigation,  scrutiny 38 

TO  EXAMINE — to  discuss,  examine 98 

TO  EXAMINE— to  examine,  search,  explore  ...  99 

EXAMPLE— example,  pattern,  ensample 531 

EXAMPLE— example,  precedent 531 

EXAMPLE— example,  instance 531 

TO  EXASPERATE — to  aggravate,  irritate,  pro- 
voke, exasperate,  tantalize 121 

TO  EXCEED  ) to  exceed,  surpass,  transcend,  ex- 

TO  EXCEL  \ cel,  outdo 273 

EXCELLENCE — excellence,  siiperiorily 274 

EXCEPT — besides,  except 251 

EXCEPT— unless,  except 251 

EXCEPTION — objection,  difficulty,  exception  . . . 112 

EXCESS — excess,  superfluity,  redundancy 343 

EXCESSIVE — excessive,  immoderate,  intempe- 
rate   343 

TO  EXCHANGE— to  change,  exchange,  barter, 

substitute 334 

TO  EXCHANGE — to  exchange,  barter,  truck, 

commute 335 

EXCHANGE — interchange,  exchange,  reciprocity  334 
TO  EXCITE— to  awaken,  excite,  provoke,  rouse, 

stir  up 310 

TO  EXCITE— to  excite,  incite,  provoke .309 

TO  EXCLAIM — to  cry.  exclaim,  call 470 

TO  EXCULPATE— to  apologize,  defend,  justify 

exculpate,  excuse,  plead 181 

TO  EXCULPATE— to  exonerate,  exculpate J82 

EXCURSION — excursion,  ramble,  tour  jaunt, 

trip 302 

1 0 EXCUSE— to  apologize,  defend,  justify,  ex- 
culp®‘te,  excuse,  plead  181 


Page 

I 288 

471 

525 

158 

87 

389 

175 

214 

389 

434 

375 

129 

196 

420 

267 

435 

154 

I 428 

212 

527 

526 

267 

503 

248 

498 

213 

354 

215 

126 

125 

196 

501 

527 

527 

493 

206 

446 

320 

329 

417 

225 

227 

213 

427 

436 

432 

432 


xxviil 


INDEX. 


Page 

TO  EXCUSE— to  excuse,  pardon 182 

EXCUSE — pretence,  pretension,  pretext,  excuse. . 229 
EXECRABLE — abominable,  detestable,  execrable  138 
EXECRATION — malediction,  curse,  imprecation, 

execration,  anathema 82 

TO  EXECUTE — to  accomplish,  effect,  execute, 

.achieve  288 

TO  EXECUTE— to  execute,  fulfil,  perform 289 

EXEMPT— free,  exempt 242 

EXEMPTION — privilege,  prerogative,  exemption, 

immunity ^ 

TO  EXERCISE — to  exercise,  practise 322 

TO  EXERCISE  > . , . ^oo 

TO  EXERT  S ' 

EXERTION— endeavour,  effort,  exertion 321 

TO  EXHALE — to  emit,  exhale,  evaporate 501 

TO  EXHAUST — to  spend,  exhaust,  drain 344 

TO  EXHIBIT — to  give,  present,  offer,  exhibit . . . 163 

TO  EXHIBIT— to  show,  exhibit,  display 452 

EXHIBITION — show,  exhibition,  representation, 

sight,  spectacle 452 

TO  EXHILARATE— to  animate,  inspire,  cheer, 

enliven,  exhilarate 355 

TO  EXHORT— to  exhort,  persuade 312 

EXIGENCY — exigency,  emergency 173 

TO  EXILE — to  banish,  exile,  expel 205 

TO  EXIST— to  be,  exist,  subsist 239 

TO  EXIST — to  exist,  live 240 

EXIT — exit,  departure 372 

TO  EXONERATE — to  exonerate,  exculpate  ... . 182 

TO  EXPAND— to  dilate,  expand 345 

TO  EXPAND— to  spread,  expand,  diffuse 345 

TO  EXPECT — to  await,  wait  for,  look  for,  expect  415 
EXPECTATION— hope,  expectation,  confidence, 

trust 414 

EXPEDIENT — expedient,  resource 535 

EXPEDIENT— expedient,  fit 418 

EXPEDIENT — necessary,  expedien!  jssential, 

requisite 417 

TO  EXPEDITE— to  hasten,  accelerate,  speed,  ex- 
pedite, despatch 261 

EXPEDITIOUS — diligent,  expeditious,  prompt . . 262 

TO  EXPEL— to  banish,  exile,  expel 205 

TO  EXPEND — to  spend  or  expend,  waste,  dissi- 
pate, squander 344 

EXPENSE — cost,  expense,  price,  charge 436 

EXPERIENCE  / experience,  experiment,  trial, 

EXPERIMENTS  proof,  test 319 

EXPERT— clever,  skilful,  expert,  dexterous,  adroit  69 

TO  EXPIATE — to  atone  for,  expiate 87 

TO  EXPIRE— to  die,  expire 371 

TO  EXPLAIN — to  explain,  expound,  inyipret . . 457 
TO  EXPLAIN— to  explain,  illustrate,  elucidate. . 458 

EXPLANATION — definition,  explanation 458 

EXPLANATORY i , 

EXPLICIT  \ ^^P^anatory,  explicit,  express  459 

EXPLOIT — deed,  exploit,  achievement,  feat 295 

TO  EXPLORE — to  examine,  search,  explore  ....  98 

EXPLOSION — eruption,  explosion 501 

EXPOSED — subject,  liable,  exposed,  obnoxious. . 146 
TO  EXPOSTULATE — to  expostulate,  remon- 
strate  459 

TO  EXPOUND— to  explain,  expound,  interpret.  457 
Express— explanatory,  explicit,  express 459 


Paft 

TO  EXPRESS — to  express,  declare,  signify  tes- 
tify, utter 455 

EXPRESSION — word,  expression,  term 462 

EXPRESSIVE — significant,  expressive 456 

TO  EXPUNGE — to  blot  out,  expunge,  rase  or 

erase,  efface,  cancel,  obliterate 248 

TO  EXTEND — to  enlarge,  increase,  extend 348 

TO  EXTEND — to  reach,  stretch,  extend 348 

EXTENSIVE — comprehensive,  extensive 174 

EXTENT— limit,  extent 177 

TO  EXTENUATE — to  extenuate,  palliate 182 

EXTERIOUR— outward,  external,  exteriour 351 

TO  EXTERMINATE — to  eradicate,  extirpate, 

exterminate 503 

EXTERNAL — outward,  external,  exteriour 351 

TO  EXTIRPATE — to  eradicate,  extirpate,  exter- 
minate  503 

TO  EXTOL — to  praise,  commend,  applaud,  extol  130 

TO  EXTORT — to  exact,  extort 317 

EXTRANEOUS— extraneous,  extrinsick,  foreign  437 
EXTRAORDINARY — extraordinary,  remarkable  451 
EXTRAVAGANT — extravagant,  prodigal,  lavish, 

profuse 342 

EXTREME  ) 

Y I extremity , extreme .............  285 

EXTREMITY— end,  extremity 285 

TO  EXTRICATE — to  disengage,  disentangle,  ex- 
tricate   

EXTRINSICK— extraneous,  extrinsick,  foreign..  437 

EXUBERANT— exuberant,  luxuriant 343 

TO  EYE — to  look,  see,  behold,  view,  eye 482 

FABLE — fable,  tale,  novel,  romance 467 

FABRICK— edifice,  structure,  fabrick 499 

TO  FABRICATE — to  invent,  feign,  frame,  fabri- 
cate, forge 528 

FABRICATION — fiction, fabrication,  falsehood. . 528 

TO  FACE — to  confront,  face 142 

FACE — face,  front 478 

FACE — face,  countenance,  visage 479 

FACETIOUS — facetious,  conversible,  pleasant, 

jocular,  jocose 461 

FACILITY — ease,  easiness,  lightness,  facility. .. . 363 

FACT — circumstance,  incident,  fact 172 

FACTION — faction,  party  209 

FACTIOUS— factious,  seditious 209 

FACTOR— factor,  agent 338 

FACULTY— ability,  faculty,  talent 68 

TO  FAIL — to  fall,  fall  short,  be  deficient 125 

FAILING — imperfection,  weakness,  frailty,  fail- 
ing, foible 124 

FAILURE  

FAILURE — failure,  miscarriage,  abortion 125 

FAILURE — insolvency,  failure,  bankruptcy 125 

FAINT— faint,  languid 369 

FAIR— fair,  clear 477 

FAIR— fair,  honest,  equitable,  reasonable 423 

FAITH— belief,  trust,  credit,  faith 78 

FAITH— faith,  creed 79 

FAITH— faith,  fidelity 416 

FAITHFUL— faithful,  trusty 416 

FAITHLESS— faithless,  unfaithful 524 

FAITHLESS-  faithless,  perfidious,  treacherous. . 524 


LNDEX. 


XXIS 


Pl«« 

ro  FALL— to  fall,  drop,  droop,  sink,  tumble....  303 
TO  FALL  SHORT — to  fail,  fall  short,  be  deficient  125 
FALLACIOUS — fallacious,  deceitful,  fraudulent  523 

FALLACY— fallacy,  delusion,  illusion 523 

FALSEHOOD — fiction,  fabrication,  falsehood. .. . 528 

FALSEHOOD  ) ^ . u . . . . 

FALSITY  i untruth,  falsehood,  falsity,  he. ..  528 

TO  FALTER— to  hesit  ate,  falter,  stammer,  stutter  97 

FAME— fame,  reputation,  renown 472 

FAME— fame,  report,  rumour,  hearsay 472 

FAMILIAR— free,  familiar 241 

FAMILIARITY— acquaintance,  familiarity,  inti- 
macy  195 

FAMILY — family,  house,  lineage,  race 495 

FAMOUS — famous,  celebrated,  renowned,  illus- 
trious  473 

FANATICK— enthusiast,  fanatick,  visionary....  91 
FANCIFUL— fanciful,  fantastical,  whimsical,  ca- 
pricious   385 

FANCY — conceit,  fancy 99 

FANCY— fancy,  imagination 73 

FANTASTICAL — fanciful,  fantastical,  whinisi 

cal,  capricious 

PAR— distant,  far,  remote 286 

FARE— fare,  provision 513 

FARMER— farmer,  husbandman,  agriculturist...  336 
ro  FASCINATE — to  charm,  enchant,  fascinata, 

enrapture,  captivate "...  317 

Fashion — custom,  fashion,  manner,  practice  . . 322 
OP  FASHION — of  fashion,  of  quality,  of  distinc- 
tion   474 

lO  FASHION— to  form,  fashion,  mould,  shape  293 

FAST — abstinence,  fast 87 

TO  FASTEN — to  fix,  fasten,  stick 226 

FASTIDIOUS— fastidious,  squeamish 385 

FATAL — deadly,  mortal,  fatal 371 

FATE — chance,  fortune,  fate 170 

FATE— destiny,  fate,  lot,  doom 169 

FATIGUE— fatigue,  weariness,  lassitude 369 

FAVOUR— benefit,  favour,  kindness,  civility....  166 

FAVOUR— credit,  favour,  influence 190 

PAVOUR—grace,  favour 190 

FAVOURABLE— favourable,  propitious,  auspi- 
cious  190 

FAULT — blemish,  defect,  fault 127 

FAULT— errour,  fault 125 

FAULT — imperfection,  defect,  fault,  vice 124 

FAULTY — culpable,  faulty 123  | 

To  FAWN— to  coax,  wheedle,  cajole,  fawn....  525 

TO  FEAR— to  apprehend,  fear,  dread 307 

FEARFUL — afraid,  fearful,  timorous,  timid 307 

FEARFUL — fearful,  dreadful,  frightful,  tremen- 
dous, terrible,  terrifick,  horrible,  horrid 306 

FEARLESS— bold,  fearless,  intrepid,  undaunted  306 
FEASIBLE — colourable,  specious,  ostensible,  plau- 
sible, feasible 516 

FEAST— feast,  banquet,  carousal,  entertainment, 

treat 513 

FEAST — feast,  festival,  holyday 85 

FEAT — deed,  exploit,  achievement,  feat 295 

FEEBLE — weak,  feeble,  infirm 368 

TO  FEEL— to  feel,  be  sensible,  conscious 376 

FEELING— feeling,  sensation,  sense 376 

FEELING— feeling,  sensibility,  susceptibility. .. . 376 


TO  FEIGN— to  feign,  pretend 528 

TO  FEIGN — to  invent,  feign,  frame,  fabricate 

forge 528 

TO  FELICITATE— to  felicitate,  congratulate...  395 
FELICITY— happiness,  felicity,  bliss,  blessedness, 

beatitude 394 

FELLOWSHIP— fellowship,  society 489 

FELON— criminal,  culprit,  malefactor,  felon,  con- 
vict  123 

FEMALE  ^ ^ . 

FEMININE  i feminine,  efieminate 514 

FENCE— fence,  guard,  security 183 

FERMENTATION — ebullition,  effervescence,  fer- 
mentation   309 

FEROCIOUS — ferocious,  fierce,  savage 374 

FERRYMAN— waterman, boatman,  ferryman...  337 

FERTILE — fertile,  fruitful,  prolifick 341 

FERVOUR— fervour,  ardour 475 

FESTIVAL— feast,  festival,  holyday 85 

FESTIVITY— festivity,  mirth 392 

TO  FETCH— to  bring,  fetch,  carry 330 

FETTER — chain,  fetter,  band,  shackle 217 

FEUD— quarrel,  broil,  feud,  affray  or  fray 133 

FICTION — fiction,  fabrication,  falsehood 528 

FICTITIOUS— artful,  artificial,  fictitious 521 

FIDELITY— faith,  fidelity 416 

FIERCE— ferocious,  fierce,  savage . . . 374 

FIERY — hot,  fiery,  burning,  ardent 475 

FIGURE — figure,  metaphor,  allegory,  en  fclem, 

symbol,  type 531 

FIGURE — form,  figurq,  conformation 293 

FILTHY — nasty,  filthy,  foul 515 

FINAL— final,  conclusive .224 

FINAL— last,  latest,  final,  ultimate 27£ 

TO  FIND  ) 

TO  FIND  OUT  5 to  discover,  invert  446 

TO  FIND  j to  find,  find  out,  discover,  espy, 

TO  FIND  OUT  s descry 445 

TO  FIND  FAULT  WITH— to  find  fault  with, 


blame,  object  to 112 

FINE — beautiful,  fine,  handsome,  pretty 313 

FINE — fine,  delicate,  nice 314 

FINE — fine,  mulct,  penalty,  forfeiture 204 

FINESSE— artifice,  trick,  finesse,  stratagem 521 

FINICAL— finical,  spruce,  foppish  386 

TO  FINISH— to  close,  finish,  conclude 286 

TO  FINISH — to  complete,  finish,  terminate 287 

FINITE— finite,  limited 178 

FIRE— fire,  heat,  warmth,  glow 475 

FIRM — hard,  firm,  solid. . . . 373 

FIRM — firm,  fixed,  solid,  stable 226 

FIRM — strong,  firm,  robust,  sturdy 372 

FIRMNESS— constancy , stability,  steadiness,  firm- 
ness   226 

FIT — fit,  apt,  meet 155 

FIT — expedient,  fit 418 

FIT— becoming,  decent,  seemly,  fit,  suitable 246 

TO  FIT— to  fit,  equip,  prepare,  qualify 154 

TO  FIT— to  fit,  suit,  adapt,  accommodate,  ad- 
just  154 

FITTED— competent,  fitted,  qualified 154 

TO  FIX— to  fix,  fasten,  stick 226 

TO  FIX — to  fix,  settle,  establish 227 

TO  FIX— to  fix  determine  settle,  limit 227 


XXX 


INDEX. 


Page 

FIXED— firm,  fixed,  solid,  stable 226 

TO  FLAG — to  flag,  droop,  languish,  pine 368 

FLAGITIOUS  ) heirous,  flagrant,  flagitious,  atro- 

FLAGRANT  S cijus 249 

FLAME  ) 

FL.  iRE  > flame,  blaze,  flash,  flare,  glare 476 

FLASH  ) 

FLAT— flat,  level 435 

FLAT— insipid,  dull,  flat 513 

TO  FLATTER — to  adulate,  flatter,  compliment  526 

FLATTERER — flatterer,  sycophant,  parasite 526 

FLAVOUR  -taste,  flavour,  relish,  savour 512 

FLAW — blemish,  stain,  spot,  speck,  flaw 127 

FLEETING — transient,  transitory,  fleeting,  tem- 
porary  2G7 

FLEETNESS — quickness,  swiftness,  fleetness,  ce- 
lerity, rapidity,  velocity 262 

FLEXIBLE — flexible,  pliable,  pliant,  supple 3o0 

FLIGHTINESS — lightness,  levity,  flightiniss,  vj- 

latility,  giddiness 390 

FLIMSY — superficial,  shallow,  flimsy  457 

TO  FLOURISH— to  flourish,  thrive,  prosper Si/S 

TO  FLOW— to  arise,  proceed,  issue,  rpring, 

emanate 291 

TO  FLOW — to  flow,  stream,  gush J52 

TO  FLUCTUATE — tosciuple,hcsittJie,fl_:Cti»v.;e, 

waver - 97 

./LUID— fluid,  liquid 352 

lO  FLUTTER— to  pulpithte.  J/ut'w,  pant,  gasp  305 
•OE— enerriy,  foe,  adversary,  opponent,  antago- 
nist  134 

’CETUS — erabryt.,  flLxus  510 

IDIBLE— imperfr.-..tior;,  w^ak’^ess,  frailty,  failing, 

foible 124 

ro  FOIL— to  defeat,  fcil,  disappoint,  frustrate  ..  143 

^OLKS— people,  persons,  folks 495 

ro  FOLLOW— to  follow,  succeed,  ensue 271 

rO  FOLLOW— to  follow,  pursue 271 

‘"’O  FOLLOW — to  follow,  imitate 530 

TuLLOWER— follower,  adherent,  partisan 419 

TOLLY— folly,  foolery 400 

"^OND- affectionate,  kind,  fond 379 

^'OND — amorous,  loving,  fond 378 

FOND— indulgent,  fond 378 

TO  FONDLE— to  caress,  fondle 377 

F'OOD — food,  diet,  regimen 514 

FOOL — fool,  idiot,  buffoon 400 

FOOLERY— folly,  foolery 400 

FOOLHARDY — foolhardy,  adventurous,  rash 321 

FOOLISH — irrational,  foolish,  absurd,  preposte- 
rous   91 

FOOLISH — simple,  silly,  foolish 401 

FOOTSTEP— mark,  trace,  vestige,  footstep,  track  448 

FCPFISH — finical,  spruce,  foppish 386 

TO  FORBEAR — to  abstain,  forbear,  refrain 244 

TO  FORBID — to  forbid,  prohibit,  interdict 223 

FORI  CAST — foresight,  forethought,  forecast,  pre- 
meditation   399 

FOROjfc; — energy,  force,  vigour 372 

FORCU-  i^cv'er,  strength,  force,  autiiority,  domi- 
nion  186 

FORCE— fortr  violence 219 

FORCE — stia'i.  sprain,  stress,  force 221 

ro  FORCE-  V romnel.  force,  oblige,  necessitate  219 


Page 

FORCIBLE — cogent,  forcible,  strong 220 

TO  FOREBODE — to  augur,  presage^  forbode,  be- 
token, portend 94 

FORECAST— foresight,  forethought,  premedita- 
tion, forecast 399 

FOREFATHERS — forefathers,  progenitors,  an- 
cestors  209 

FOREGO— to  give  up,  abandon,  resign,  forego- ..  24 
FOREGOING— antecedent,  preceding,  foregoing, 

previous,  anterior,  prior,  former 273 

FOREIGN— extraneous,  exlrinsick,  foreign 437 

FOREIGNER — stranger,  foreigner,  alien 386 

FORERUNNER — forerunner,  precursor,  messen- 
ger, harbinger 215 

FORESIGHT — foresight,  forethought,  forecast, 

premeditation 399 

FOREST — forest,  chase,  park 271 

TO  FORETEL— to  foretel,  predict,  prophesy, 

prognosticate 94 

FCRETHOUGIIT — foresight,  forethought,  fore- 
cast, premeditation 399 

FORFEITURE— fine,  mulct,  penalty,  forfeiture. . 204 
TO  FORGE--to  invent,  feign,  frame,  fabricate, 

forge 528 

FORGETFULNESS— forgetfulness,  oblivion ....  72 
TO  FORGIVE — to  forgive,  pardon,  absolve,  remit  87 

FORLORN— forsaken,  forlorn,  destitute 248 

FORM-^form,  figure,  conformation 293 

FORM — form,  ceremony,  right,  observance 83 

TO  FORM— to  make,  form,  produce,  create 292 

TO  FORM— to  form,  fashion,  mould,  shape 293 

TO  FORM — to  form,  compose,  constitute 294 

FORMAL — formal,  ceremonious 294 

FORMER — antecedent,  preceding,  foregoing,  pre- 
vious, anterior,  prior,  former 273 

FORMERLY — formerly,  in  times  past  or  old  times, 
in  days  of  yore,  anciently,  or  ancient  times. . 269 
FORMIDABLE— formidable,  dreadful,  terrible, 

shocking 308 

TO  FORSAKE— to  abandon,  desert,  forsake,  re- 
linquish   243 

FORSAKEN— forsaken,  forlorn,  destitute 248 

TO  FORSWEAR— to  forswear,  perjure,  suborn.  92 
TO  FORTIFY— to  strengthen,  fortify,  invigorate  372 

FORTITUDE — courage,  fortitude,  resolution 139 

FORTUITOUS  > fortunate,  lucky,  fortuitous, 

FORTUNATE  ^ prosperous,  successful 395 

FORTUNATE — happy,  fortunate 394 

FORTUNE— chance,  fortune,  fate 170 

FORWARD— onward,  forward,  progressive 302 

TO  FORWARD— to  encourage,  advance,  pro- 
mote, prefer,  forward 312 

TO  FOSTER— to  foster,  cherish,  harbour,  indulge  377 

FOUL— nasty,  filthy,  foul 515 

TO  FOUND— to  found,  ground,  rest,  build 498 

TO  F<'/UND— to  institute,  establish,  found,  erect.  213 
FOUNDATION — foundation,  ground,  basis  ....  498 
FOUNTAIN— spring,  fountain,  source 353 

FRACTION  } , r f , Kna 

> rupture,  fraetton,  fracture 502 

FRACTURE  5 ^ ’ ’ 

FRAGILE— fragile,  frail,  brittle 502 

FRAGRANCE— smell,  scent,  odour,  perfume,  fra- 
grance  51i 

FRAIL— fragile,  frail,  brittle 502 


INDEX. 


- XXXI 


Page 


i<^AILl'Y— imperfection,  weakness,  frailty  fail- 
ing, foible 124 

FRAME— -frame,  temper,  temperament,  constitu- 
tion   388 

TO  FRAME— to  invent,  feign,  frame,  fabricate, 

forge 528 

FRANK — frank,  candid,  ingenuous,  free,  open, 

plain 431 

FRAUD— deceit,  fraud,  guile 523 

FRAY— quarrel,  broil,  feud,  affray  or  fray 133 

FRAUDULENT— fallacious, deceitful,  fraudulent  523 

FREAK— freak,  wliim 384 

FREE — communicative,  free  ...  487 

FREE— frank,  candid,  ingenuous,  free,  open,  plain  431 

FREE— free,  exempt 242 

FREE— free,  liberal 241 

FREE— free,  familiar 241 

TO  FREE--to  free,  set  free,  deliver,  deliberate..  24 

FREEDOM— freedom,  liberty .^42 

FREIGHT— freight,  cargo,  lading,  load,  burden. . 338 
TO  FREQUENT-tofreqiient,  resort  to,  haunt-.  494 
FREQUENTLY— commonly,  generally,  usually, 

frequently 323 

FREQUENTLY— often,  frequently 2(58 

FRESH— fresh,  new,  novel,  recent,  modern 2G8 

TO  FRET— to  rub,  chafe,  fret,  gall 309 

FRETFUL — captious,  cross,  peevish,  petulant, 

fretful 315 

FRIENDLY — amicable,  friendly 378 

FRIENDSHIP— love,  frienpship 380 

miGID— cool,  cold,  frigid 514 

FRIGHT — alarm,  terrour,  fright,  consternation..  305 

TO  FRIGHTEN— to  frighten,  intimidate 307 

FRIGHTFUL — fearful,  dreadful,  frightful,  tremen- 
dous, terrifick,  horrible,  horrid 306 

FRIVOLOUS— trifling,  trivial,  petty,  frivolous, 

futile 457 

FROLICK— froiick,  gambol,  prank 390 

FRONT— face,  front  478 

FROWARD — awkward,  cross,  untoward,  crook- 
ed, froward,  perverse 315 

FRUGALITY— economy,  frugality,  parsimony..  IGl 

FRUITFUL — fertile  fruitful,  prolifirk 341 

FRUITION— enjoyment,  fruition,  gratification. ..  383 

FRUITLESS- vain,  ineffectual,  fruitless 290 

FRUSTRATE— to  defeat,  foil,  disappoint,  frus- 
trate   143 

TO  FULFIL — to  execute,  fulfil,  perform. ....... . 289 

TO  FULFIL — to  fulfil,  accomplish,  realize 289 

TO  FULFIL— to  keep,  observe,  fulfil 289 

FULLY — largely,  copiously,  fully 342 

FULNESS— fulness,  plenitude 341 

FUNCTION— office,  place,  charge,  function 332 

FUNERAL — funeral,  obsequies 84 

FURIOUS — violent,  furious,  boisterous,  impetu- 
ous, vehement 219 

FURNTSH—to  provide,  procure,  furnish,  supply. . 399 
FURNITURE— goods,  furniture,  chattels,  move- 

allies,  effects 339 

FURY — madness,  phrensy,  rage,  fury >281 

FURY — anger,  choler,  rage,  fury 119 

FUTILE— trifling,  trivial,  frivolous,  futile 457 

GAIN— gain,  profit,  emolument,  lucre  ...  397 


Page 


TO  GAIN— 40  get,  gain,  obtain,  procure 390 

TO  GAIN — to  acquire,  obtain,  gain,  win,  earn. ..  .396 

GAIT — carriage,  gait,  walk 192 

GALE— breeze,  gale,  blast,  gust,  storm,  tempest, 

hurricane 353 

TO  GALL— to  rub,  chafe,  fret,  gall 309 

GALLANT,  vide  GALLANTRY. 

GALLANT — gallant,  beau,  spark 38J 

GALLANTRY — bravery,  courage,  valour,  gal- 
lantly   139 

G AMBOL — froiick,  gambol,  prank 390 

GAME — play,  game,  sport 384 

GANG— band,  company,  crew',  gang 492 

GAP — breach,  break,  gap,  chasm 501 

TO  GAPE — to  gape,  stare,  gaze 479 

GARRULOUS — talkative,  loquacious,  garrvilous.  460 

TO  GASP — to  palpitate,  flutter,  pant,  gasp 305 

TO  GATHER — to  gather,  collect 234 

GAUDY — showy,  gaudy,  gay 453 

GAY — cheerful,  merry,  sprightly,  gay 389 

GAY — showy,  gaudy,  gay 453 

TO  GAZE — to  gape,  stare,  gaze 479 

GENDER — gender,  sex 514 

GENERAL— general,  universal 323 

GENERALLY — commonly, generally,  frequently, 

usually 323 

GENERATION — generation,  age 270 

GENERATION — race,  generation,  breed 497 

GENEROUS — beneficient,  bountiful,  bounteou.s, 

munificent,  generous,  liberal IG5 

GENIUS— intellect,  genius,  talent 67 

GENIUS — taste,  genius 70 

GENTEEL— polite,  polished,  refined,  genteel  - ...  193 

GENTILE— gentile,  heathen,  pagan 495 

GENTLE— gentle,  tame , 360 

GENTLE— soft,  mild,  gentle,  meek .359 

GENUINE — intrinsick,  real,  genuine,  native 437 

GESTICULATION  \ gesture,  gesticula- 

GESTURE  1 afiitutle, 

^ position, 295 

TO  GET — to  get,  gain,  obtain,  procure 396 

GHASTLY — hideous,  ghastly, grim,  grisly 478 

GHOST — vision,  apparition,  phantom,  spectre, 

ghost 479 

GHOSTLY — Bjrirituous,  spirited,  spir  itual,  ghostly  66 

TO  GIBE — to  scoff,  gibe,  jeer,  sneer 104 

GIDDINESS — lightness,  levity,  flightiness,  volati 

lity,  giddiness 390 

GIFT — gift,  present,  donation,  benefaction 164 

GIFT — gift,  endowment,  talent 67 

TO  GIVE — to  give,  grant,  bestow,  allow 162 

TO  GIVE— to  give,  afford,  spare 163 

TO  GIVE — to  give,  present,  offer,  exhibit 163 

TO  GIVE  UP — to  give  up,  deliver,  surrender, 

yield,yede,  concede ^242 

TO  GIVE  UP— to  give  up,  abandon,  resign,  for  ego  242 

GLAD— glad,  pleased,  joyful,  cheerful 393 

GLADNESS— joy,  gladness,  mirth 393 

TO  GLANCE  AT — to  glance  at,  allude  to 327 

GLANCE — look,  glance 482 

GL.^NCE — glimpse,  glance  ...  327 

GLARE — flame,  blaze,  flash,  flare,  glare 476 

TO  GLARE — to  shine,  glitter,  glare,  sparkle,  ra- 
diate   475 


sxxii 


INDEX. 


l^e 


GLARING — glaring,  barefaced  - 476 

GLEAM— gleam,  glimmer,  »ay,  beam 476 

TO  GLIDE — to  slip,  slide,  glide 303 

GLIMMER— gleam,  glimmer,  ray,  beam 476 

GLIMPSE— glimpse,  glance 327 

TO  GLITTER— to  shine,  glitter,  glare,  sparkle, 

radiate 476 

GLOBE— circle,  sphere,  orb,  globe 175 

GLOBE-globe,  ball 500 

GLOOM— gloom,  heaviness 410 

GLOOMY — dull,  gloomy,  sad,  dismal 410 

GLOOMY— gloomy,  sullen,  morose,  splenetick...  411 

GLORY— glory,  honour 429 

TO  GLORY— to  glory,  boast,  vaunt 526 

TO  GLOSS — to  gloss,  varnish,  palliate 515 

GLOSSARY— dictionary,  lexicon,  glossary,  vo- 
cabulary, nomenclature 464 

GLOW— fire,  heat,  warmth,  glow 475 

TO  GLUT — to  satisfy,  satiate,  glut,  cloy 383 

GODLIKE— godlike,  divine,  heavenly 90 

GODLY — godly,  righteous 90 

GOLD— gold,  golden 514 

GOOD— good,  goodness 397 

GOOD — good,  benefit,  advantage 397 

GOOD-HUMOUR  ) 

GOOD-NATURE  ( good-nature,  gcod-humour. . 388 

GOODNESS— good,  goodness 397 

GOOD  OFFICE— benefit,  service,  good  office....  166 
GOODS— commodity,  goods,  merchandise,  ware  339 
GOODS — goods,  furniture,  chattels,  moveables,  ef- 
fects  339 

GOODS — goods,  possessions,  property 340 

TO  GOVERN— to  govern,  rule,  regulate 206 

GOVERNMENT— government,  administration..  207 
GO VERNMENT— government,  constitution  ....  207 

GRACE— grace,  favour 190 

GRACE— grace,  charm 314 

GRACEFUL — becoming,  comely,  graceful 313 

GRACEFUL — graceful,  comely,  elegant 315 

GRACIOUS — gracious,  merciful,  kind 357 

GRAND — great,  grand,  sublime 455 

GRAND — noble,  grand 454 

GRANDEUR— grandeur,  magnificence 454 

TO  GRANT- to  admit,  allow,  grant 157 

TO  GRANT— to  give,  grant,  bestow,  allow 162 

TO  GRASP— to  lay  or  take  hold  of,  catch,  seize, 

snatch,  grasp,  gripe  237 

GRATEFUL— acceptable,  grateful,  welcome 234 

GRATIFICATION— enjoyment,  fruition,  gratifi- 
cation   383 

TO  GRATIFY — to  satisfy,  please,  gratify 383 

GRATITUDE— thankfulness,  gratitude 441 

GRATUITOUS— gratuitous,  voluntary 441 

GRATUITY— gratuity,  recompense 440 

GRAVE — grave,  serious,  solemn 392 

GRAVE — sober,  grave 392 

GRAVE— grave,  tomb,  sepulchre - 500 

GRAVITY — weight,  heaviness,  gravity 369 

GREAT— great,  large,  big 349 

GREAT — great,  grand,  sublime 455 

GREATNESS— size,  magnitude,  greatness,  bulk  348 
GREEDINESS— avidity,  greediness,  eagerness. . . 162 

GREETING — salute,  salutaticp,  greeting 461 

GRIEF— affliction,  grief,  sorrow 408 


GRIEVANCE — grievance,  hardship  . 40& 

TO  GRIEVE — to  grieve,  mourn,  lament 408 

GRIEVED — sorry,  grieved,  hurt 412 

GRIM — hideous,  ghastly,  grim,  grisly 478 

TO  GRIPE— to  lay  or  lake  hold  of,  catch,  seize. 

snatch,  grasp,  gripe 237 

TO  GRIPE— to  press,  squeeze,  pinch,  gripe 30*' 

GRISLY — hideous,  ghastly,  grim,  grisly 473 

TO  GROAN — to  groan,  moan  41C 

GROSS— gross,  coarse 201 

GROSS — gross,  total 288 

TO  GROUND — to  found,  ground,  rest,  build 498 

GROUND — foundation,  ground,  basis 498 

GROUP — assembly,  assemblage,  group,  collection  490 

TO  GROW — to  become,  grow 240 

TO  GROW — to  increase,  grow 347 

GRUDGE— malice, rancour, spite, grudge,  pique..  381 
TO  GUARANTEE — to  guarantee,  be  security,  be 

responsible,  warrant 183 

GUARD — fence,  guard,  security 183 

TO  GUARD— to  guard,  defend,  watch 180 

GUARD— guard,  sentinel 180 

GUARD— guard,  guardian I81 

TO  GUARD  AGAINST — to  guard  against,  take 

heed 181 

GUARDTAN—guard,  guardian 181 

TO  GUESS— to  guess,  conjecture,  divine 95 

GUEST— guest,  visiter  or  visitant 491 

TO  GUIDE — to  lead,  conduct,  guide 191 

GUIDE— guide,  rule 210 

GUILE— deceit,  fraud,  guile 523 

GUILTLESS — guiltless,  innocent,  harmless ’23 

GUILTY — criminal,  guilty ^23 

GUISE — gnise,  haliit .518 

GULF— gulf,  abyss 403 

TO  GUSH— to  flow,  slieam,  gush 352 

GUST— breeze,  gale,  blast,  gust,  storm,  tempest, 
hurricane 353 

HABIT— custom,  habit 322 

HABIT— guise,  habit 518 

TO  HALE- to  draw,  drag,  haul  or  hale,  pull,  tug, 

pluck 303 

TO  HALLOW — to  dedicate, consecrate, hallow..  82 
HANDSOME— beautiful,  fine,  handsome,  pretty  313 
TO  HANKER  AFTER — to.desire,  wish,  long  for, 

hanker  after,  covet 159 

TO  HAPPEN— to  happen,  chance 171 

HAPPINESS— happiness,  felicity,  bliss,  blessed- 
ness, beatitude 394 

HAPPINESS— well-being,  prosperity,  happiness, 

welfare 396 

HAPPY— happy,  fortunate 394 

HARANGUE— address,  speech,  harangue,  oration  461 

TO  HARASS— to  distress,  harass,  perplex 407 

TO  HARASS— to  weary,  tire,  jade,  harass 369 

HARBINGER— forerunner,  precursor,  messenger, 

^ harbinger 215 

HARBOUR— harbour,  haven,  port 518 

TO  4HARBOUR— to  harbour,  shelter,  lodge.  ...  517 
TO  HARBOUR— to  foster,  cherish,  harbour,  in- 
dulge   377 

HARD — hard,  firm,  solid 373 

HARD— hard,  hardy,  insensible,  unfeeling  . .....  374 


INDEX. 


xxxlii 


Page 

364 


HARD  -hard,  difficult,  arduous 

HARD  ) hard,  callous,  hardened,  obdu- 

HARDENED  J rate 373 

HARD-HEARTED — hard  hearted,  cruel,  unmer- 
ciful, merciless 373 


HARDIHOOD 

HARDINESS 


audacity,  effrontery,  hardihood 

or  hardiness,  boldness 140 

HARDLY — hardly, scarcely 364 

HARDSHIP— grievance,  hardship 409 

HARDY — hard,  hardy,  insensible,  unfeeling 374 

HARM— evil  or  ill,  misfortune,  harm,  mischief. . . 405 
HARM — injury,  damage,  hurt,  harm,  mischief  ...  404 

HARMLESS — guiltless,  innocent,  harmless 123 

HARMLESS— unoffending,  inoffensive,  harmless  121 

HARMONY — concord,  harmony 155 

HARMONY — melody,  harmony,  accordance 155 

HARSH — harsh,  rough,  severe,  rigorous,  stern  . . . 382 
HARSHNESS — acrimony,  harshness,  asperity, 

tartness 383 

TO  HASTEN— to  hasten,  accelerate,  speed,  expe- 
dite, despatch 261 

rO  HASTEN— to  hasten,  hurry 261 

HASTINESS — rashness,  temerity,  hastiness,  pre- 
cipitancy   263 

HASTY — cursory,  desultory,  slight,  hasty 262 

HASTY — angry,  passionate,  hasty,  irascible 119 

TO  HATE~to  hate,  detest 137 

HATEFUL— hateful,  odious 137 

HATRED — aversion,  antipathy,  dislike,  hatred, 

repugnance  ...  136 

HATRED— hatred,  enmity,  ill-will,  rancour 137 

TO  HAVE— to  have,  possess 237 

HAVEN— harbour,  haven,  port 518 

HAUGHTINESS — haughtiness,  arrogance,  dis- 
dain   101 

HAUGHTH'IESS — pride,  haughtiness,  loftiness, 

dignity 100 

HAUGHTY- haughty,  Jiigh,  higli-minded 101 

TO  HAUL — to  draw,  drag,  haul  or  hale,  pluck, 

pull,  tug 303 

TO  HAUNT — to  frequent,  resort  to,  haunt 494 

HAZARD— danger,  peril,  hazard 171 

HAZARD — chance,  hazard 170 

TO  HAZARD— to  hazard,  risk,  venture 171 

HEAD— chief,  leader,  chieftain,  head 206 

HEADSTRONG  ) obstinate,  contumacious,  stub- 

HEADY  ^ born,  headstrong,  heady 209 

TO  HEAL — to  cure,  heal,  remedy 365 

HEALTHY — healthy,  wholesome,  salubrious,  sa- 
lutary   366 

HEALTHY — sound,  sane,  healthy 36C 

TO  HEAP — to  heap,  pile,  accumulate,  amass. .. . 340 
TO  HEAR  ; , 

TO  HEARKEN  \ overhear 422 

TO  HEARKEN— to  attend,  hearken,  listen 422 

HEARSAY — fame,  report,  rumour,  hearsay 472 

HEARTY— hearty,  warm,  sincere,  cordial 431 

HEAT— fire,  heat,  warmth,  glow 475 

HEATHEN — gentile,  heathen,  pagan  . . 495 

TO  HEAVE— to  lift,  heave,  hoist 354 

TO  HEAVE— to  heave,  swell 354 

HEAVENLY — celestial,  heavenly 81 

HEAVENLY— godlike,  divine,  heavenly 90 

HEAVINESS- gloom,  heaviness 410 

3 


HEAVINESS — weight,  heaviness,  gravity  369 

ilEAVY — heavy,  dull,  drowsy 300 

HEAVY — heavy,  burdensome,  weighty,  ponder- 
ous  370 

TO  HEED— to  attend  to,  mind,  regard,  heed  no- 
tice   422 

HEED— heed,  care,  attention 420 

HEEDLESS — negligent,  remiss,  careless,  thought- 
less, heedless,  inattentive 424 

TO  HEIGHTEN — to  heighten,  raise,  aggravate. . 325 
HEINOUS — heinous,  flagrant,  flagitious,  atro- 
cious   249 

TO  HELP — to  help,  assist,  aid,  succour,  relieve. . 364 

HERESY— heterodoxy,  heresy 93 

HERETICK — heretick,  schismatick,  sectarian  or 

sectary,  dissenter,  nonconformist 92 

TO  HESITATE— to  demur,  hesitate,  pause 96 

TO  HESITATE — to  hesitate,  falter,  stammer, 

stutter 97 

TO  HESITATE— to  scruple,  hesitate,  fluctuate, 

waver 97 

HESITATION — demur,  doubt,  hesitation,  objec- 
tion   96 

HETERODOXY— heterodoxy,  heresy 93 

HIDDEN — secret,  hidden,  latent,  mysterious,  oc- 
cult   520 

TO  HIDE — to  conceal,  hide,  set  ete...?. ...  ...  519 

TO  HIDE — to  cover,  hide 51? 

HIDE — skin,  hide,  peel,  rind 518 

HIDEOUS — hideous,  ghastly,  grim,  grisly 478 

HIGH— high,  tall,  lofty 35f 

HIGH 

HIGH  MINDED . 

HIGH-SOUNDING — loud,  noisy,  high-sounding, 

clamorous 471 

HILARITY— mirth,  merriment,  joviality,  jollity, 

hilarity 391 

HIND— countryman,  peasant,  swain,  hind,  clown, 

rustick 336 

TO  HINDER— to  hinder,  prevent,  obstruct,  im- 
pede   258 

TO  HINDER— to  hinder,  stop 258 

TO  HINDER— to  retard,  hinder 260 

TO  HINT — to  allude,  refer,  hint,  suggest 320 

TO  HINT — to  hint,  suggest,  intimate,  insinuate. . 326 
HIRE— allowance,  stipend,  salary,  wages,  hire, 

pay 164 

HIRELING — venal,  mercenary,  hireling 339 

TO  HIT— to  beat,  hit,  strike 142 

TO  HOARD— to  treasure,  hoard 341 

TO  HOIST— to  lift,  heave,  hoist 354 

TO  HOLD— to  contain,  hold 174 

TO  HOLD — to  hold,  keep,  detain,  retain 236 

TO  HOLD— to  hold,  occupy,  possess 236 

TO  HOLD— to  hold,  support,  maintain 237 

HOLINESS— holiness,  sanctity 88 

HOLLOW— hollow,  empty 344 

HOLY— holy,  pious,  devout,  religious 89 

HOLY— holy,  sacred,  divine 89 

HOLYDAY— feast,  festival,  holyday 85 

HONEST— fair,  honest,  equitable,  reasonable 428 

HONEST— sincere,  honest,  true,  plain 430 

HONESTY — honesty,  uprightness,  probity,  in- 
tegrity   427 


haughty,  high,  high-minded...  101 


XXTIV 


INDEX. 


HORRIHLE 

HORRID 


Face 

HONESTY  ) , ^ 

HONOUR  

HONOUR — glory,  honour 429 

HONOUR— honour,  dignity 429 

TO  HONOUR— to  honour,  reverenct',  respect... . 427 

HOPE — liope,  expectation,  trust,  confidence 414 

HOPELESS— desperate,  liopeless 413 

fearful,  dreadful,  frightful,  te...6Ic, 
tremendous,  terrifick,  horrible, 

horrid 306 

HOST— army,  host 141 

HOSTILE— adverse,  inimical,  hostile,  repugnant  135 

HOSTILITY— enmity,  animosity,  hostility 135 

HOT— liot,  fiery,  burning,  ardent 475 

HOUSE— family,  house,  lineage,  race 495 

HOWE  VER— however,  yet,  nevertheless,  notwith- 
standing   251 

HUE— colour,  hue,  tint 516 

TO  HUO — to  clasp,  hug,  embrace 377 

HUGE — enormous,  huge,  immense,  vast.. 349 


HUMAN  K , 

HUMANE  ^ 

HUMANITY— benevolence,  benignity,  humanity, 

kindness,  tenderness 165 

TO  HUMBLE— to  abase,  humble,  degrade,  dis- 
grace, debase 106 

HUMBLE— Humble,  lowly,  low 147 

HUMBLE— humble,  modest,  submissive 147 


TO  HUMBLE  | 
TO  HUMILIATE  1 


to  humble,  humiliate,  degrade  14G 


HUMIDITY — moisture,  humidity,  dampness 515 

HUMOUR— liquid,  liquor,  juice,  humour 352 

HUMOUR— luimour,  temper,  mood 387 

HUMOUR — humour,  caprice 386 

HUMOUR— wit,  humour,  satire,  irony,  burlesque  69 

TO  HUMOUR— to  qualify,  temper,  humour 388 

HUNT— hunt,  chase 271 

TO  HURL — to  cast,  throw,  hurl 304 

HURRICANE — breeze,  gale,  blast,  gust,  tempest, 

storm,  hurricane 353 

TO  HURRY— to  hasten,  hurry 201 

HURT — injury,  damage,  hurt,  harm,  mischief. .. . 404 

HURT— sorry,  grieved,  hurt 412 

HURT— disadvantage,  injury,  hurt,  prejudice,  de- 
triment  404 

HURTFUL— hurtful,  pernicious,  noxious,  noi- 
some   406 

HUSb/:.NDMAN— farmer,  husbandman,  agricul- 
turist   336 

HUSBANDRY— cuiilvation,  tillage,  husbandry..  337 
HYPOCRITE— hypocrite,  dissembler 520 


IDEA — idea,  thought,  imagination 73 

IDEA — perception,  idea,  conception,  notion ......  75 

IDEAL— ideal,  imaginary 73 

IDIOM — language,  tongue,  speech,  idiom,  dialect  463 

IDIOT — fool,  idiot,  buffoon 400  ^ 

IDLE — idle,  lazy,  indolent 299 

IDLE— idle,  leisure,  vacant 299 

IDI.E— idle,  vain 299 

IGNOMINY— infamy,  ignominy,  opprobrium — 108 
IGNORANT — Ignorant,  illiterate,  unlearned,  un-  ' 

lettered 197 

ILL  vide  EVIL. 


P»«t 

ILL — badly,  iH 127 

ILLITERATE — ignorant,  illiterate,  unlearned, 

unlettered 197 

ILLNESS — sickness,  illness,  indisposition 367 

TO  ILLUMINATE  ) to  illuminate,  illumine,  en- 

TO  ILLUMINE  J lighten 197 

ILLUSION — fallacy,  delusion,  illusion 523 

TO  ILJLUSTRATE— to  explain,  illustrate,  eluci- 
date   {58 

ILLUSTRIOUS — distinguished,  noted,  conspicu- 
ous, eminent,  illustrious 473 

ILLUSTRIOUS — famous,  celebrated,  renowned, 

illustrious 473 

ILL-WILL — hatred,  enmity,  ill-will,  rancour... . 137 

IMAGE — likeness,  picture,  image,  effigy 532 

IMAGINARY— ideal,  imaginary 73 

IMAGINATION— fancy,  imagination 72 

IMAGINATION — idea,  thought,  imagination....  73 
TO  IMAGINE— to  conceive,  apprehend,  suppose, 

imagme - 74 

TO  IMAGINE— to  think,  suppose,  imagine,  be- 
lieve, deem 75 

IMBECILITY— debility,  infirmity,  imbecility 367 

TO  IMITATE— to  follow,  imitate 530 

TO  IMITATE — to  imitate,  copy,  counterfeit ....  529 
TO  IMITATE— to  imitate,  mimick,  mock,  ape. . 529 
IMMATERIAL — unimportant,  insignificant,  im- 
material, inconsiderable 457 

IMMATERIAL— incorporeal,  unbodied,  immate- 
rial, spiritual 66 

IMMEDIATELY— directly,  immediately,  instan- 
taneously, instantly 263 

IMMENSE— enormous,  huge,  immense,  vast... . 349 
IMMINENT — imminent,  impending,  thtealening,  4QS 
IlMMODERATE — excessive,  immoderate,  intem- 
perate   343 

IMMODEST — indecent,  immodest,  indelicate....  247 
IMMODEST — immodest,  impudent,  shameless...  247 
IMMUNITY — privilege,  prerogative,  exemption, 

immunity 228 

TO  IMPAIR— to  impair,  injure 405 

ff’O  IMPART — to  communicate,  impart 486 

IMPASSABLE— impervious,  impassable,  inac- 
cessible   235 

TO  IMPEACH — to  accuse,  charge,  impeach,  ar 

raign Ill 

TO  IMPEDE — to  hinder,  prevent,  impede,  ob- 
struct  258 

IMPEDIMENT — difficulty,  impediment,  obstacle.  259 

TO  IMPEL— to  actuate,  impel,  induce 308 

TO  IMPEL — to  encourage,  animate,  incite,  impel, 

urge,  stimulate,  instigate 311 

IMPENDING — imminent,  impending,  threatening  405 
OIPERATIVE — commanding,  imj)erative,  imjic- 

rious,  authoritative 185 

IMPERFECTION— imperfection,  defect,  fault, 

vice 134 

IMPERFECTION — imperfection,  weakness,  fail- 
ing, frailty,  foible  134 

IMPERIOUS— commanding,  imperative,  imperi 

ous,  authoritative 785 

IMPERIOUS— imperious,  loldly,  overbearing,  do- 
mineering......  

IMPERTINENT,  vide  PERTINENT 


INDEX. 


Page 


IMPERTINENT— impertinent,  rude,  saucy,  im- 
pudent, insolent 200 

IMPERVIOUS — impervious,  impassable,  inacces- 
sible  235 

IMPETUOUS— violent,  furious,  boisterous,  vehe- 
ment, impetuous 219 

IMPIOUS — irreligious,  profane,  impious 92 

IMPLACABLE — implacable,  unrelenting,  relent- 
less, inexorable 381 

TO  IMPLANT— to  implant,  ingraft,  inculcate, 

instil,  infuse 449 

TO  IMPLICATE— to  implicate,  involve 218 

TO  IMPLORE — to  beg,  beseech,  solicit,  entreat, 

supplicate,  implore,  crave I5S 

TO  IMPLY — to  denote,  signify,  im|)ly 450 

IMPORT — signification,  meaning,  sense,  im- 
port   450 

IMPORTANCE— signification,  avail,  importance, 

consequence,  weight,  moment 456 

IMPORTUNATE — pressing,  importunate,  ur- 
gent   158 

IMPORTUNITY— solicitation,  importunity 158 

TO  IMPOSE  UPON — to  deceive,  delude,  impose 

upon 522 

IMPOST — tax,  duty,  custom,  impost,  toll,  tribute, 

contribution 168 

IMPOSTOR— deceiver,  impostor 522 

IMPRECA.TION — malediction,  curse,  execration, 

imprecation,  anathema 82 

TO  IMPRESS— to  imprint,  impress,  engrave. .. . 450 
IMPRESSION— mark,  print,  impression,  stamp. . 446 
TO  IMPRINT — to  imprint,  impress,  engrave... . 450 


IMPRISONMENT — confinement,  imprisonment. 


captivity 178 

rO  IMPROPRIATE — to  appropriate,  impropriate  231 
TO  IMPROVE — to  amend,  correct,  reform^  rec- 
tify, emend,  improve,  mend,  better 201 

IMPROVEMENT — progress,  improvement,  profi- 
ciency   204 

IMPUDENCE — assurance,  impudence 415 

IMPUDENT — immodest,  impudent,  shameless...  247 
IMPUDENT — impertinent,  rude,  saucy,  impudent, 

insolent 200 

TO  IMPUGN — to  impugn,  attack., 116 

TO  IMPUTE — to  ascribe,  attribute,  impute 232 

INABILITY — inibility,  disability 69 

INACCESSIBLE — impervious,  impassable,  inac- 
cessible  235 

INACTIVE-  -inactive,  inert,  lazy,  slothful,  slug- 
gish   298 

INADEOUATE — incapable,  insufficient,  incom- 
petent, inadequate 69 

INADVERTENCY — inadvertency,  oversight,  in- 
attention  423 

INANIMATE— lifeless,  dead,  inanimate 353 

INANITY — vacancy,  vacuity,  inanity 344 

INATTENTION — inadvertency,  oversight,  inat- 
tention   423 


INATTENTIVE— negligent,  remiss,  thoughtless, 

careless,  heedless,  inattentive 424 

INBORN  ^ ^ ^ 

INBRED  S inborn,  innate 73 

INCAPABLE — incapable,  insufficient,  incompe- 
♦ent  inadequate 69 


ra^ 


INCESSANTLY— incessantly,  unceasingly,  unin- 
terruptedly, without  intermission 257 

INCIDENT — circumstance,  incident,  fact 172 

INCIDENT — event,  incident,  accident,  adventure, 

occurrence 172 

INCIDENTAL— accidental,  incidental,  casual, 

contingent 172 

TO  INCITE— to  encourage,  animate,  incite,  im- 
pel, urge,  stimulate,  instigate 311 

TO  INCITE— to  excite,  incite,  provoke 309 

INCLINATION— attachment,  affection,  inclina- 
tion   379 

INCLINATION — bent,  bias,  inclination,  prepos- 
session   159 

INCLINATION — disposition,  inclination 388 

INCLINATION— inclination,  tendency,  propen- 
sity, proneness 160 

TO  INCLINE — to  lean,  incline,  bend 159 

TO  INCLUDE — to  enclose,  include 174 

TO  INCLUDE — to  comprise,  comprehend,  em- 
brace, contain,  include 174 

INCOHERENT  ) inconsistent,  incongruous,  in- 

INCONGRUOUS  J cohereirt 153 

INCOMPETENT — incapable,  insufficient,  incom- 
petent, inadequate 69 

INCONSIDERABLE — unimpiortant  immaterial, 

insignificant,  inconsiderable 457 

INCONSISTENT— inconsistent,  iwcongruous,  in- 
coherent  153 

INCONTROVERTIBLE — indubitable,  unques- 
tionable, indisputable,  undeniable,  incontro- 
vertible, irrefragable 114 

TO  INCONVENIENCE— to  inconvenience,  an- 
noy, molest 457 

INCORPOREAL — incorporeal,  unbodied,  imma- 
terial, spiritual 63 

IN  COURSE — naturally,  in  course,  consequently, 

of  course 272 

TO  INCREASE — to  enlarge,  increase,  extend.. . 348 

TO  INCREASE — to  increase,  grow 347 

INCREASE — increase,  addition,  accession,  aug- 
mentation   347 

INCREDULITY — unbelief,  infidelity,  incredu- 
lity   7*ti 

TO  INCULCATE— to  implant,  ingraft,  inculcate, 

instil,  infuse 449 

INCURSION — invasion,  incursion,  irruption,  in- 
road  508 

INDECENT  ) . , . , . , 

INDELICATE  \ ’mmodest,  indelicate.  247 

TO  INDICATE — to  show,  point  out,  mark,  indi- 
cate   451 

INDICATION — mark,  sign,  note,  symptom,  token, 

indication 447 

INDIFFERENCE— indifference,  apathy,  insensi- 
bility  375 

INDIFFERENT— indifferent,  unconcerned,  re- 
gardless   372 

INDIGENCE — poverty,  indigence,  want,  need, 

penury 345 

INDIGENOUS — natal,  native,  indigenous.......  496 

INDIGNATION— anger,  resentment,  wrath,  ire, 

indignation ug 

INDIGNITY  indignity,  insult 12? ■ 


ixxvi 


INDEX. 


INDISCRIMINj^^TE— indiscriminate,  promiscu- 
ous   

INDISPOSITION — sickness,  illness,  indisposition 
INDISPUTABLE — indubitable,  unquestionable, 
indisputable,  undeniable,  incontrovertible,  ir- 
refragable  

INDISTINCT — indistinct,  confused 

INDIVIDUAL— particular,  individual 

INDOLENT— idle,  lazy,  indolent 

INDOLENT — indolent,  supine,  listless, careless. . 
INDUBITABLE — indubitable,  unquestionable,  in- 
disputable, undeniable,  incontrovertible,  irre- 
fragable   

TO  INDUCE — to  actuate,  impel,  induce 

TO  INDUE — to  invest,  indue  or  endue 

TO  INDULGE — to  foster,  cherish,  indulge,  har- 
bour  

INDULGENT— indulgent,  fond 

INDUSTRIOUS— active,  diligeiit,  industrious,  as- 
siduous, laborious 

INEFFABLE — unspeakable,  ineffable,  unutter- 

* able,  inexpressible 

INEFFECTUAL— vain,  ineffectual,  fruitless.... 

INEQUALITY — disparity,  inequality 

INERT — inactive,  inert,  lazy,  slothful,  sluggish.. 
INEXORABLE — implacable,  unrelenting,  relent- 
less, inexorable 

INEXPRESSIBLE— unspeakable,  ineffable,  unut- 
terable, inexpressible... 

INFAMOUS— infamous,  scandalous 

INFAMY — infamy,  ignominy,  opprobrium 

INFANTINE— childish,  infantine 

INFATUATION— drunkenness,  infatuation,  in- 
toxication  

INFECTION — contagion,  infection 

INFERENCE — conclusion,  deduction,  inference. . 

INFERIOUR — second,  secondary,  inferiour 

INFERIOUR — subject,  subordinate,  subservient, 

inferiour 

INFIDELITY — unbelief,  infidelity,  incredulity.. 
INFINITE — boundless,  unbounded,  unlimited, 

infinite 

INFIRM— weak,  feeble,  infirm 

INFIRMITY — debility,  infirmity,  imbecility 

INFLUENCE — credit,  favour,  influence 

INFLUENCE — influence,  authority,  ascendency, 

sway 

TO  INFORM — to  inform,  make  known,  acquaint, 

apprize 

TO  INFORM — to  inform,  instruct,  teach 

INFORMANT— informant,  informer 

INFORMATION— information,  intelligt  iice,  no- 
tice, advice 

INFORMER — informant,  informer 

INFRACTION— infringement,  infraction 

TO  LVFRINGE — to  encroach,  intrench,  intrude, 

invade,  infringe  

TO  INFRINGE— to  infringe,  violate,  transgress.. 
INFRINGEMENT — infringement,  infraction  .... 
TO  INFUSE — to  implant,  ingraft,  inculcate,  in- 
stil, infuse . 

INGENIOUS — ingenuous,  ingenious 

INGENUITY— ingenuity,  wit 

■ INGENUOUS- ingenuousjlngenious 


INGENUOUS — frank,  candid,  ingenuous,  free, 

open,  plain 431 

TO  INGRAFT — to  implant,  ingraft,  inculcate,  in- 
stil, infuse 449 

TO  INGRATIATE — to  insinuate,  ingratiate  ... . 327 
TO  INGULF — to  absorb,  swallow  up,  ingulf,  en 

gross as 

TO  INHABIT— to  abide,  sojourn,  dwell,  reside, 

inhabit 263 

INHERENT— inherent,  inbred,  inborn,  innate...  73 
INHUMAN— cruel,  inhuman,  barbarous,  bruta., 

savage 373 

INIMICAL— adverse,  inimical,  hostile,  repug- 
nant  133 

INIQUITOUS— wicked,  unjust,  iniquitous,  nefa- 
rious   128 

INJUNCTION— command,  order,  injunction,  pre- 
cept, mandate 185 

INJURY — disadvantage,  injury,  hurt,  detriment, 

prejudice 404 

TO  INJURE— to  impair,  injure 405 

INJURY — injury,  damage,  hurt,  harm,  mischief. . 404 

INJUSTICE  ! wrong 2.9 

INNATE — inherent,  inbred,  inborn,  innate 73 

INNOCENT — guiltless,  innocent,  harmless 123 

INOFFENSIVE — unoffending,  inoffensive,  harm- 
less  121 

INORDINATE— irregular,  disorderly,  inordinate, 

intemperate 284 

TO  INQUIRE— to  ask,  inquire,  question,  interro- 
gate  Sf? 

INQUIRY — examination,  search,  inquiry,  investi- 


gation, research,  scrutiny 8® 

INQUISITIVE— curious,  inquisitive,  prying  ....  91 
INROAD— invasion,  incursion,  irruption,  inroad  50? 
INSANITY— derangement,  insanity,  lunacy,  mad- 
ness, mania 281 

INSENSIBILITY — indifference,  apathy,  insensi- 
bility  37.' 

INSENSIBLE — hard,  hardy,  unfeeling,  insensible  37h 

INSIDE — inside,  interiour 35 1 

INSIDIOUS — insidious,  treacherous 521 

INSIGHT— insight,  inspection 213 

INSIGNIFICANT — unimportant,  insignificant, 

immaterial,  inconsiderable 457 

TO  INSINUATE— to  hint,  suggest,  intimate,  in- 
sinuate  325 

TO  INSINUATE— to  insinuate,  ingratiate 327 

INSINUATION— insinuation,  reflection 337 

INSIPID— insipid,  dull,  flat 513 

TO  INSIST — to  insist,  persist 265 

TO  INSNARE— to  insnare,  entrap,  entangle,  in- 
veigle  52a 

INSOLENT— impertinent,  rude,  sarxj  impudent, 

insolent 20C 

INSOLVENCY— insolvency,  failure,  bankruptcy  125 

INSPECTION — insight,  inspection 213 

INSPECTION — inspection,  oversight,  superin- 
tendency   21 

TO  INSPIRE— to  animate,  inspire,  enliven, cheer. 

exhilarate 354 

INSTANCE— example,  instance 531 

INSTANT— instant,  moment 967 


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401 

310 

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78 

274 

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507 

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432 

70 

432 


INDEX. 


XXXVll 


Pase 


INSTANTANEOUSLY  ( immediately, 

INSTANTLY  j *»- 

( stantly 262 

TO  INSTIGATE — to  encourage,  animate,  incite, 

impel,  urge,  stimulate,  instigate 311 

TO  INSTIL— to  implant,  ingraft,  inculcate,  instil, 

infuse 449 

TO  INSTITUTE— to  institute,  establish,  found, 

erect 213 

rO  INSTRUCT— to  inform,  instruct,  teach 194 

INSTRUCTION — advice,  counsel,  instruction. . . 194 
INSTRUCTION — education,  instruction,  breed- 
ing  197 

INSTRUMENT— instrument,  tool 399 

INSUFFICIENT— incapable,  insufficient,  incom- 
petent, inadequate 69 

INSULT — affront,  insult,  outrage 121 

INSULT— indignity,  insult 121 

INSUPERABLE  (invincible,  unconquer- 
INSURMOUNTABLE  i 

surmountable 145 

INSURRECTION — insurrection,  sedition,  rebel- 
lion, revolt 208 

INTEGRAL— \vh(2te,  entire,  complete,  integral, 

total 288 

INTEGRITY — honesty,  uprightness,  probity,  in- 
tegrity  427 

INTELLECT — intellect,  genius,  talent 67 

INTELLECT — understanding,  intellect,  intelli- 
gence,  66 

INTELLECTUAL— mental,  intellectual 72 

INTELLIGENCE — information,  notice,  advice, 

intelligence 195 

INTELLIGENCE^ — understanding,  intelligence, 

intellect 66 

INTEMPER  ATE— excessive,  immoderate,  intem- 
perate  343 

INTEMPERATE— irregular,  disorderly,  inordi- 
nate, intemperate 284 

TO  INTEND — to  design,  purpose,  intend,  mean. . 533 
INTENSE 

INTENT  I intense 534 


TO  INTERCEDE— to  intercede,  interpose,  medi- 
ate, interfere,  intermeddle 216 

INTERCHANGE— interchange,  exchange,  reci- 
procity  334 

INTERCOURSE — intercourse,  communication, 

connexion,  commerce 333 

TO  INTERDICT — to  forbid,  prohibit,  interdict, 

proscribe 223 

INTEREST— interest,  concern 332 

TO  INTERFERE— to  intercede,  interpose,  medi- 
ate, interfere,  intermeddle 216 

INTERIOUR— Inside,  interiour 351 

INTERLOPER—intiuder,  interloper 509 

TO  INTERMEDDLE — to  intercede,  interpose, 

mediate,  interfere,- intermeddle 216 

INTERMEDIATE — intermediate,  intervening...  216 

INTERMENT— burial,  interment,  sepulture 84 

INTERMISSION — cessation,  stop,  rest,  intermis- 
sion   257 

TO  INTERMIT — to  subside,  abate,  intermit  ....  271 
fO  INTERPOSE— to  intercede,  interpose,  medi- 
ate interfere,  intermeddle 216 


Pa«t 

INTERPOSITION — intervention,  interposition..  216 
TO  INTERPRET — to  explain,  expound,  inter- 
pret  457 

TO  INTERROGATE — to  ask,  inquire,  question, 

interrogate 97 

I TO  INTERRUPT — to  disturb,  interrupt 417 

INTERVAL — interval,  respite 257 

INTERVENING — intermediate,  intervening. ....  216 
INTERVENTION — intervention,  interposition..  216 

INTERVIEW — meeting.  Interview 494 

INTIMACY — acquaintance,  familiarity,  intimacy  195 
TO  INTIMATE — to  hint,  suggest,  intimate,  in- 
sinuate  326 

TO  INTIMIDATE — to  frighten,  intimidate 307 

INTOXICATION— intoxication,  drunkenness,  in- 
fatuation   310 

TO  INTRENCH — to  encroach,  intrench,  intrude, 

invade,  infringe 507 

INTREPID— bold,  fearless, intrepid,  undaunted..  306 
INTRICACY — complexity,  complication,  intri- 
cacy   218 

INTRINSICK — intrinsick,  real,  genuine,  native. . 437 

TO  INTRODUCE — to  introduce,  present 163 

INTRODUCTORY— previous,  preliminary,  pre- 
paratory, introductory 2'’4 

TO  INTRUDE — to  encroach,  intrench,  intrude, 

invade,  infringe -507 

TO  INTRUDE — to  intrude,  obtrude 509 

INTRUDER— intruder,  interloper 599 

TO  INTRUST— to  consign,  commit,  intrust 41$ 

TO  INVADE — to  encroach,  intrench,  intrude,  in- 
vade, infringe 507 

INVALID— invalid,  patient 367 

TO  INVALIDATE— to  weaken,  enfeeble,  debili- 
tate, enervate,  invalidate 368 

INVASION — invasion,  incursion,  irruption,  in- 
road   508 

INVECTIVE — abuse,  invective 109 

TO  INVEIGH— to  declaim,  inveigh 110 

TO  INVEIGLE — to  insnare,  entrap,  entangle,  in- 
veigle   525 

TO  INVENT— to  contrive,  devise,  invent 532 

TO  INVENT— to  find  or  find  out,  discover,  invent  446 
TO  INVENT— to  invent,  feign,  frame,  fabricate, 

forge  528 

TO  INVERT — to  overturn,  overthrow,  subvert, 

invert,  reverse 503 

TO  INVEST — to  invest,  endue  or  endow 167 

INVESTIGATION — examination,  investigation, 

inquiry,  search,  research,  scrutiny 98 

INVIDIOUS— invidious,  envious 389 

TO  INVIGORATE — to  strengthen,  invigorate, 

fortify 372 

INVINCIBLE — invincible,  unconquerable,  insu- 
perable, insurmountable 145 

TO  INVITE— to  attract,  allure,  invite,  engage...  31*8 

TO  INVITE— to  call,  bid,  summon,  invite 469 

TO  INUNDATE— to  overflow,  inundate,  deluge  352 

TO  INVOLVE— to  implicate,  involve 218 

IRASCIBLE— angry,  passionate,  hasty,  irasrJi.;  119 
IRE— anger,  resentment,  wrath,  ire,  indignation..  118 
IRKSOME— troublesome,  irksome,  vexatious....  413 

IRONY — ridicule,  satire,  irony,  sarcasm 104 

IRONY— wit,  humo  tr,  satire,  irony,  burlesqn.'t. , . 69 


INDEX. 


nxviu 

Page 


IRRATIONAL — irrational,  foolish  absurd,  pre- 
posterous  91 

IRREFRAGABLE— indubitable,  unquestionable, 
indisputable,  undeniable,  incontrovertible,  ir- 
refragable   114 

IRREGULAR— irregular,  disorderly,  inordinate, 

intemperate  284 

SRELIGIOUS — irreligious,  profane,  impious. ...  92 
IRREPROACHABLE — blameless,  unblemished, 

irreproachable,  unspotted  or  spotless 129 

TO  IRRITATE— to  aggravate,  irritate,  provoke, 

exasperate,  tantalize 121 

IRRUPTION — invasion,  incursion,  irruption,  in- 
road  508 

ISSUE — effect,  consequence,  result,  issue,  event. . 290 

ISSUE — offspring,  progeny,  issue 291 

TO  ISSUE — to  arise,  proceed,  issue,  spring,  flow, 
emanate 291 

TO  JADE — to  weary,  tire,  jade,  harass 369 

TO  JAR  ! wrangle 1.14 

JAUNT — excursion,  ramble,  tour,  trip,  jaunt  ....  302 

JEALOUSY— jealousy,  envy,  suspicion 389 

TO  JEER— to  scoff,  gibe,  jeer,  sneer 104 

TO  JEST— to  jest,  joke,  make  game,  sport 104 

JILT — coquet,  jilt 525 

JOCOSE  ) facetious,  conversable,  pleasant,  jo- 

JOCULAR  i cular,  jocose 451 

JOCUND — lively,  sprightly,  vivacious,  sportive, 

merry,  jocund 389 

TO  JOIN — to  add,  join,  unite,  coalesce 518 

TO  JOKE — to  jest,  joke,  make  game,  sport 104 

JOLLITY  > mirth,  merriment,  joviality,  jollity, 

JOVIALITY  i hilarity 391 

JOURNEY — ^journey,  travel,  voyage 302 

JOY — pleasure,  joy,  delight,  charm 393 

JOY— joy,  gladness,  mirth 393 

JOYFUL— glad,  pleased,  joyful,  cheerful 393 

JUDGE— judge,  umpire,  arbiter,  arbitrator 211 

JUDGEMENT — discernment,  penetration,  discri- 
mination, judgement 71 

JUDGEMENT— judgement,  discretion,  prudence  400 
JUDGEMENT — decision,  judgement,  sentence. . . 224 

JUDGEMENT — sense,  judgement 70 

JUICE — liquid,  liquor,  juice,  humour 352 

JUST — right,  just,  proper 430 

JUSTICE— justice,  equity 212 

TO  JUSTIFY — to  apologize,  defend,  justify,  ex- 
culpate, excuse,  plead 181 

JUSTNESS— justness,  correctness 202 

JUVENILE — youthful,  juvenile,  puerile 401 

KEEN— acute,  keen,  shrewd 401 

KEEN — sharp,  acute,  keen 402 

TO  KEEP — to  hold,  keep,  detain,  retain 236 

TO  KEEP — to  keep,  preserve,  save 178 

TO  KEEP — to  keep,  observe,  fulfil 289 

KEEPING— keeping,  custody 179 

TO  KILL — to  kill,  murder,  assassinate,  slay  or 

slaughter 510 

KIND— affectionate,  kind,  fond 379 

KIND — gracious,  merciful,  kind 357 

KIND — kind,  species,  sort 496 


KINDNESS— benefit,  favour,  kindness,  civility- • 166 
KINDNESS — benevolence,  benignity,  humanity, 

kindness,  tenderness 165 

KINDRED— kindred,  relationship,  affinity,  con- 
sanguinity   497 

KINDRED — relation,  relative,  kinsman,  kindred  496 

KINGDOM — empire,  kingdom 189 

KINGLY— royal,  reg.ol,  kingly 189 

KINSMAN — relation,  relative,  kinsman,  kindred  4% 

KNAVISH — dishonest,  knavish 430 

TO  KNOW— to  know,  be  acquainted  with 196 

KNOWLEDGE  -knowledge,  science,  learning, 
erudition 196 

LABORIOUS — active,  diligent,  industrious,  assi- 
duous, laborious 296 

LABOUR — work,  labour,  toil,  drudgery,  task 328 

TO  LABOUR — to  labour,  take  pains  or  trouble, 

use  endeavour...' 328 

LABYRINTH — labyrinth,  maze 403 

TO  LACK — to  want,  need,  lack 347 

LADING — freight,  cargo,  lading,  load,  burden. . . 338 
TO  LAG — to  linger,  tarry,  loiter,  lag,  saunter.  - . < 261 

TO  LAMENT — to  complain,  lament,  regret 409 

TO  LAMENT— to  bewail,  bemoan,  lament,  de- 
plore   410 

TO  LAMENT — to  grieve,  mourn,  lament 408 

LAND — land,  country 497 

LANDSCAPE — view,  prospect,  landscape 478 

LANGUAGE — language,  tongue,  speech,  idiom, 

dialect 453 

LANGUID — faint,  languid 369 

TO  LANGUISH — to  flag,  droop,  languish,  pine. . 368 

I LARGE — great,  large,  big 349 

LARGE — large,  wide,  broad 349 

LARGELY— largely,  copiously,  fully 342 

LASSITUDE — fatigue,  weariness,  lassitude 369 

LAST — last,  latest,  final,  ultimate 270 

LASTING— durable,  lasting,  permanent 266 

j LASTLY— lastly,  at  last,  at  length 270 

LATENT — secret,  hidden,  latent,  occult,  myste- 
rious  520 

LATEST — last.  Latest,  final,  ultimate 270 

LAUDABLE — laudable,  praiseworthy,  commend- 
able  131 

TOHLAUGH  AT- -to  laugh  at,  ridicule 102 

LAUGHABLE — laughable,  ludicrous,  ridiculous, 

comical  or  comick,  droll 103 

LAVISH — extravagant,  prodigal,  lavish,  profuse  342 

LAW— m.axim,  precept,  rule,  law 211 

LAWFUL— lawful,  legal,  legitimate,  licit 211 

LAX— loose,  vague,  lax,  dissolute,  licentious 256 

TO  LAY  OR  TAKE  HOLD  OF— to  Lay  or  take 

hold  of,  catch,  seize,  snatch,  grasp,  gripe 237 

TO  LAY — to  lie,  lay 280 

LAZY— idle,  lazy,  indolent 299 

LAZY— inactive,  inert,  lazy,  ^othful,  sluggish...  298 

TO  LEAD — to  lead,  conduct,  guide 19J 

LEADER— chief,  leader, chieftain,  head 20f 

LEAGUE — alliance,  league,  confederacy 493 

LEAN — lean,  meagre 511 

TO  LEAN— to  lean,  incline,  bend 158 

LEARNING — knowledge,  science,  learning,  eru- 
dition   19(1 


INDEX. 


Page 

tifiiAKNING— kiteis,  literature,  learni  jg 106 

LEAVE— leave,  liberty,  permission,  license 255 

TO  LEAVE— to  leave,  quit,  relinquish 255 

TO  LEAVE— let,  leave,  suffer 255 

TO  LEAVE— to  leave,  take  leave,  bid  farewell 

or  adieu 255 

TO  LEAVE  OFF— to  cease,  leave  off,  discon- 
tinue, desist 257 

LEAVINGS — leavings,  remains,  relicks 255 


LEGAL 

LEGITIMATE 


lawful,  legal,  legitimate,  licit. . 211 


LEISURE— idle,  leisure,  vacant 299 

LENITY — clemency,  lenity,  mercy 358 

TO  LESSEN— to  abate,  lessen,  diminish,  de- 
crease   j51 

TO  LET— to  let,  leave,  suffer 255 

LETHARGICK— sleepy,  drowsy,  lethargick 300 

LETTER— character,  letter 197 

LETTER— letter,  epistle 19G 

LETTERS — letters,  literature,  learning 19G 

LEVEL— even,  smooth,  level,  plain 435 

LEVEL— flat,  level 435 

TO  LEVEL— to  aim,  point,  level 324 

LEVITY— lightness,  levity,  flightiness,  volatility, 

giddiness 390 

LEXICON— dictionary,  lexicon,  vocabulary,  glos- 
sary, nomenclature 464 

LIABLE— subject,  liable,  exposed,  obnoxious....  146 
LIBER  AL— beneficent,  bountiful,  bounteous,  mu- 
nificent, generous,  liberal 165 

LJBERAL-free,  liberal 241 

TO  LIBERATE— to  free,  set  free,  deliver,  libe- 
rate   240 

LIBERTY— freedom,  liberty 242 


LIBERTY 

LICENSE 


leave,  permission,  liberty,  license  ..  255 


LICENTIOUS— loose,  vague,  lax,  dissolute,  licen- 


tious   256 

LICIT— lawful,  legal,  legitimate,  licit 211 

LIE — untruth,  falsehood,  falsity,  lie 528 

TO  LIE— to  lie,  lay 280 

LIFE— animation,  life,  vivacity,  spirit 356 

LIFELESS— lifeless,  dead,  inanimate 356 

TO  LIFT— to  lift,  heave,  hoist 354 

TO  LIFT — to  lift,  raise,  erect,  elevate,  exalt 354 

LIGHTNESS — ease,  easiness,  lightness,  facility. . 363 
LIGHTNESS— lightness,  levity,  flightiness,  vola- 
tility, giddiness 390 

LIKE— equal,  even,  equable,  like,  or  alike,  uni- 
form   435 

LIKENESS— likeness,  resemblance,  similarity  or 

similitude 532 

LIKENESS— likeness,  picture,  image,  effigy 532 

LIKEWISE— also,  likewise,  too 253 

LIMB — member,  limb 511 

TO  LIMIT— to  bound,  limit,  confine,  restrict,  cir- 
cumscribe   176 

ro  LIMIT— to  fix,  determine,  settle,  limit 227 

LIMIT — limit,  extent 177 

LIMIT— term,  limit,  boundary 177 

LIMITED— finite,  limited 178 

LINEAGE — family,  house,  lineage,  race 495 

TO  LINGER — to  linger,  tarry,  loiter,  lag,  saunter  261 
LIQUID— fluid,  liquid - . - - 352 


xxxu 

Pag* 


I liquid,  liquor,  juice,  humour ....  352 


LIVELIHOOD 

LIVING 


LIQUID 
LIQUOR 

LIST— list,  roll,  catalogue,  register 468 

TO  LIST— to  enrol,  enlist  or  list,  register,  record  468 

TO  LISTEN — to  attend,  hearken,  listen 422 

LISTLESS — indolent,  supine,  listless,  careless...  300 

LITERATURE — letters,  literature,  learning 196 

LITTLE — little,  small,  diminutive 350 

TO  LIVE— to  exist,  live 240 

livelihood,  living,  subsistence, 
maintenance,  support,  suste 

nance 239 

LIVEIY — lively,  sprightly,  vivacious,  sportive, 

merry,  jocund 389 

LIVING,  vide  LIVELIHOOD. 

LIVING— living,  benefice 239 

LOAD — freight,  cargo,  load,  lading,  burden 338 

LOAD — weight,  burden,  load 370 

TO  LOAD — to  clog,  load,  encumber 370 

LOATH — averse,  unwilling,  backward,  loath,  re- 
luctant   •. 136 

TO  LOATH — to  abhor,  detest,  abominate,  loath  138 

LOATHING— disgust,  loathing,  nausea 120 

TO  LODGE— to  harbour,  shelter,  lodge 517 

LODGINGS — lodgings,  apartments 499 

LOFTINESS— pride,  haughtiness,  loftiness,  dig- 
nity   100 

LOFTY— high,  tall,  lofty 355 

TO  LOITER— to  linger,  tarry,  loiter,  lag,  saunter  261 

LONELY — alone,  solitary,  lonely 252 

TO  LONG  FOR — to  desire,  long  for,  hanker  after  159 

LOOK — air,  mien,  look 193 

l.OOK— look,  glance 482 

TO  LOOK— to  look,  see,  behold,  view,  eye 482 

TO  LOOK— to  look,  appear 481 

LOOKER-ON — looker-on,  spectator,  beholder, 

observer 482 

TO  LOOK  FOR— to  await,  wait  for,  look  for, 

expect 415 

LOOSE — loose,  vague,  lax,  dissolute,  licentious. . 256 

LOOSE— slack,  loose 256 

LOQUACIOUS — talkative,  loquacious,  garrulous  460 
LORDLY— imperious,  lordly,  domineering,  over 

bearing 185 

LORD’S  SUPPER— Lord’s  supper,  communion, 

eucharist,  sacrament 83 

TO  LOSE — to  lose,  miss 404 

LOSS — loss,  damage,  detriment 404 

LOT — destiny,  fate,  lot,  doom 169 

LOTH,  vide  LOATH. 

LOUD — loud,  noisy,  high-sounding,  clamorous. ..  471 

LOVE— affection,  love 378 

LOVE — love,  friendship 380 

LOVELY— amiable,  lovely,  beloved 373 

LOVER — lover,  suitor,  wooer 380 

LOVING — amorous,  loving,  fond .' 378 

LOW— humble,  lowly,  low 147 

LOW — low,  mean,  abject 147 

TO  LOWER— to  reduce,  lower 14S 

LOWLY— humble,  lowly,  low 147 

LUCKY — fortunate,  lucky,  prosperous,  successful  395 

LUCRE— gain,  profit,  emolument,  lucre 397 

LUDICROUS— laughable,  ludicrous,  ridiculous 

comical  or  comick.  droll...., :03 


xl 


INDEX. 


Page 


LUNACY— derangement,  insanity,  lunacy,  mad- 
ness, mania 281 

liOSTRE — lustre,  brightness,  splendour,  brilliancy  474 

LUSTY— corpulent,  stout,  lusty 511 

LUXURIANT— exuberant,  luxuriant 343 

MADNESS— derangement,  insanity,  lunacy,  mad- 
ness, mania 281 

MADNESS— madness,  phrensy,  rage,  fury 281 

MAGISTERIAL — magisterial,  majestick,  stately, 

pompous,  august,  dignified 454 

MAGNIFICENCE — grandeur,  magnificence 454 

MAGNIFICENCE — magnificence,  ponip,  splen- 
dour   453 

MAGNITUDE — size,  magnitude,  greatness,  bulk  348 
MAJESTICK — magisterial,  majestick,  stately, 

pompous,  august,  dignified 454 

TO  MAIM — to  mutilate,  nsaim,  mangle 509 

MAIN — chief,  principal,  main  . 206 


TO  MAINTAIN— to  assert,  maintain,  vindicate  441 


TO  MAINTAIN — to  hold,  support,  maintain. .. . 237 
TO  MAINTAIN — to  sustain,  support,  maintain. . 238 
MAINTENANCE — livelihood,  living,  subsistence, 

maintenance,  support,  sustenance 239 

TO  MAKE— to  make,  do,  act 294 

TO  MAKE — to  make,  form,  produce,  create 292 

TO  MAKE  GAME — to  jest,  joke,  make  game, 

sport 104 

TO  MAKE  KNOWN— to  inform,  make  known, 

acquaint,  apprize 194 

MALADY— disorder,  disease,  distemper,  malady  367 
MALEDICTION — malediction,  curse,  impreca- 
tion, execration,  anathema 82 

MALEFACTOR— criminal,  culprit,  malefactor, 

felon,  convict 123 

MALEVOLENT — malevolent,  malicious,  malig- 
nant  381 

M ALICE — malice,  rancour,  spite,  grudge,  pique. . 381 
MALICIOUS  ) malevolent,  malicious,  malig- 

MALIGNANTi  nant 381 

TO  MANAGE— to  concert, contrive,  manage....  533 

TO  MANAGE— to  conduct,  manage,  direct 191 

MANAGEMENT — care,  charge,  management...  425 

MANAGEMENT — economy,  management 161 

MANDATE — command,  order,  injunction,  pre- 
cept, mandate 185 

MANFUL — manly,  manful 306 

TO  MANGLE— to  mutilate,  maim,  mangle 509 

MANIA— derangement,  insanity,  lunacy, madness, 

mania 281 

MANIFEST — apparent,  visible,  deal,  plain,  obvi- 
ous, evident,  manifest 478 

TO  MANIFEST — to  discover,  manifest,  declare  444 
TO  MANIFEST — to  prove,  demonstrate,  evince, 

manifest 444 

MANLY — manly,  manful 306 

MANNER— air,  manner 193 

MANNER — custom,  habit,  manner,  practice 322 

MANNER — way,  manner,  method,  mode,  coursa, 

means 275 

MANNERS— manners,  morals 193 

MARGIN — border,  edge,  rim  or  brim,  brink,  verge, 

margin  176 

MARINE— maritime  incrine,  nava'  nautical....  337 


PaA 

MARINER— seaman,  waterman, sailor,  marinei . . 337 
MARITIME — maritime,  marine,  naval,  nautical.  337 

MARK — mark,  print,  impression,  stamp 446 

MARK — mark,  sign,  note,  symptom  token,  indi- 
cation   447 

MARK — mark,  trace,  vestige,  footstep,  track  ....  448 

MARK — mark,  badge,  stigma 448 

MARK— mark,  butt 449 

TO  MARK — to  mark,  note,  notice 456 

TO  MARK— to  show,  point  out,  mark,  indicate. . 451 

MARRIAGE — marriage,  wedding,  nuptials 83 

MARRIAGE — marriage,  matrimony,  wedlock... . 8l 
MARTIAL— martial,  warlike,  military,  soldier- 
like   337 

MARVEL— wonder,  miracle,  marvel',  prodigy, 

monster 403 

MASK— cloak,  mask,  veil,  blind 516 

MASSACRE — carnage,  slaughter,  butchery,  mas- 
sacre   510 

MASSIVE— bulky,  massive  or  massy 348 

MASTER — possessor,  proprietor,  owner,  master. . 238 

MATERIAL — corporeal,  material 510 

MATERIALS— matter,  materials,  subject 325 

MATRIMONY — marriage,  matrimony,  wedlock.  84 

MATTER— matter,  materials,  subject 325 

MATURE — ripe,  mature 237 

MAXIM— axiom,  maxim,  aphorism,  apophthegm, 

saying,  adage,  proverb,  by- word,  saw 210 

MAXIM— niaxim,  precept,  rule,  law 211 

MAY — may,  can 324 

MAZE— labyrinth,  maze 403 

MEAGRE — lean,  meagre 511 

MEAN— base,  vile,  mean - 148 

MEAN — common,  vulgar,  ordinary,  mean 323 

MEAN — low,  mean,  abject 147 

MEAN— mean,  pitiful,  sordid 411 

MEAN— mean,  medium 246 

TO  MEAN — to  design,  purpose,  mean,  intend 533 

MEANING — signification,  me.aning,  import,  sense  456 
MEANS— way,  manner,  method,  mode,  course, 

means 275 

MECHANICK— artist,  artificer,  mechanick,  arti- 
san  336 

TO  MEDIATE— to  intercede,  interpose,  mediate, 

interfere,  intermeddle 216 

MEDIOCRITY— moderation,  mediocrity 246 

TO  MEDITATE — to  contemplate,  muse,  medi- 
tate   76 

MEDIUM — mean,  medium 246 

MEDLEY — difference,  variety,  diversity,  medley  282 

MEDLEY — mixture,  medley,  miscellany 284 

MEEK — soft,  mild,  gentle,  meek 359 

MEET — fit,  apt,  meet 155 

MEETING — assembly,  company,  congregation, 
meeting,  parliament,  diet,  congress,  conven- 
tion, council 49il 

IMEETING- meeting,  interview 494 

MELANCHOLY— dejection,  depression,  melan- 
choly  413 

MELODY — melody,  harmony,  accordance 155 

MEMBER — member,  limb 511 

MEMOIRS— anecdotes,  memoirs,  chronicles, 

nals 460 

MEMORABLE— signal  >oen?orablo  - . 471 


INDEX. 


'xli 


Page 


M t5MORIAL— monument,  remembrancer,  memo- 

lial 500 

MEMORY — memory,  remembrance,  recollection, 

reminiscence 72 

MENACE— threat,  menace 405 

TO  MEND— to  amend,  correct,  rectify,  reform, 

emend,  improve,  mend,  better 201 

MENIAL — servant,  domestick,  menial,  drudge.. . 328 

MENTAL — mental,  intellectual 72 

TO  MENTION— to  mention,  notice 451 

MERCANTILE — mercantile,  commercial 339 

MERCENARY— hireling,  mercenary,  venal 339 

MERCHANT — trader,  merchant,  tradesman 335 

MERCHANDISE — commodity,  goods,  merchan- 
dise, ware 339 

MERCIFUL — gracious,  merciful,  kind 357 

MERCILESS — hard-hearted,  cruel,  unmerciful, 

merciless 373 

MERCY — clemency,  mercy,  lenity 358 

MERCY— pity,  mercy 358 

MERE— bare,  mere 250 

MERIT— desert,  merit,  worth 438 

MERRIMENT— mirth,  merriment,  joviality,  hila- 
rity, jollity 391 

MERRY— cheerful,  merry,  sprightly,  gay 389 

MERRY — lively,  sprightly,  vivacious,  sportive, 

merry,  jocund 389 

MESSAGE — mission,  message,  errand 215 

MESSENGER — forerunner,  precursor,  messenger, 

harbinger 215 

TO  METAMORPHOSE — to  transfigure,  meta- 
morphose  80 

METAPHOR  — figure,  metaphor,  allegory,  em- 
blem symbol,  type 531 

RIETHOD — order,  method,  rule 270 

METHOD — system,  method 275 

METHOD — way,  manner,  method,  mode,  cotirse, 

means 275 

MIEN — air,  mien,  look 193 

MIGHTY — powerful,  potent,  mighty 187 

MILD — soft,  mild,  gentle,  meek 359 

MILITARY — martial,  warlike,  military,  soldier- 
like   337 

TO  MIMICK — to  imitate,  mimick,  mock,  ape-.-.  529 

MIND — soul,  mind 05 

TO  MIND — to  attend  to,  mind,  regard,  notice, 

heed 422 

MINDFUL — mindful,  regardful,  observant 420 

TO  MINGLE — to  mix,  mingle,  blend,  confound. . 284 
MINISTER — clergyman,  parson,  priest,  minister  85 

MINISTER— minister,  agent 215 

TO  MINISTER — to  minister,  administer,  contri- 
bute  107 

MINUTE— circumstantial,  particular,  minute 173 

MIRACLE — wonder,  miracle,  marvel,  prodigy, 

monster 403 

MIRTH— festivity,  mirth 392 

MIRTH— joy,  gladness,  mirth 393 

MIRTH— mirth,  merriment,  joviality,  jollity,  hila- 
rity  391 

MISCARRIAGE — failure,  miscarriage,  abortion..  125 
MISCELLANY— mixture,  medley,  miscellany...  284 
MISCHANCE — calamity,  disaster,  misf'-rtune, 


mischance,  mishap 400 


Pagr 

MISCHIEF— evil  or  ill,  misfortune,  harm,  mischici’  405 
MISCHIEF— injury,  damage,  hurt,  harm,  mischief  404 
TO  MISCONSTRUE— to  misconstrue,  misinter- 
pret  458 


MISDEED 

MISDEMEANOUR 


offence,  trespass,  transgres- 
sion, misdemeanour,  mis- 
deed, affront 120 

MISDEMEANOUR— crime,  misdemeanour 122 

MISERABLE— unhappy,  miserable,  wretched...  412 
MISERLY — avaricious,  parsimonious,  niggardly  lOJ 
MISFORTUNE— evil  or  ill,  misfortune,  mischief, 
harm 405 


MISFORTUNE  ) calamity,  disaster,  misfortune, 

MISHAP  ^ mischance,  mishap 40<5 

TO  MISINTERPRET — to  misconstrue,  misin- 
terpret   458 

TO  MISS — to  lose,  miss 404 

MISSION— mission,  message,  errand 215 

MISTAKE — errour,  mistake,  blunder 126 

MISUSE — abuse,  misuse 399 

TO  MITIGATE — to  allay,  sooth,  appease,  miti- 
gate, assuage 361 

TO  MIX — to  mix,  mingle,  blend,  confound 284 

MIXTURE— mixture,  medley,  miscellany 284 

TO  MOAN— to  groan,  moan 410 

MOBILITY  \ populace,  mob,  mobility  . 495 

TO  MOCK— toderide,  mock,  ridicule,  rally,  banter  104 

TO  MOCK — to  imitate,  mimick,  mock,  ape 529 

MODE — way,  manner,  method,  mode,  course, 

means 275 

MODEL — copy,  model,  pattern,  specimen 530 

MODERATION — moderation,  mediocrity 246 

MODERATION — modesty,  moderation,  tempe- 
rance, sobriety 245 

MODERN — fresh,  new,  novel,  recent,  modern...  268 

MODEST — humble,  modest,  submissive 147 

MODEST— modest,  bashful,  diffident 148 

MODESTY— chastity,  continence,  modesty  .^45 

MODESTY— modesty,  moderation,  temperance, 

sobriety 245 

MOISTURE — moisture,  humidity, dampness  ....  515 

TO  MOLEST — to  trouble,  disturb,  molest 412 

TO  MOLEST— to  inconvenience,  annoy,  molest. . 417 
MOMENT — signification,  avail,  importance,  con- 
sequence, weight,  moment 45f 

RIOMENT — instant,  moment 2G7 

MONARCH — prince,  monarch,  sovereign,  poten- 
tate   188 

MONASTERY — cloister,  monastery,  convent.  . 86 

MONEY — money,  cash 340 

MONSTER — wonder,  miracle,  marvel,  prodigy, 
monster 403 


MONSTROUS— enormous,  monstrous,  prodigious  350 
MONUMENT — monument,  remembrancer,  me- 


morial  50G 

MOOD — humour,  temper,  mood 387 

MORALS — manners,  morals 193 

MORBID— sick,  sickly,  diseased,  morbid 367 

MOREOVER — besides,  moreover 251 

MOROSE — gloomy,  sullen,  morose,  splenetick  ...  411 

MORTAL — deadly,  fatal,  mortal 371 

MORTIFICATION — vexation,  chagrin,  mortifi 
cation 129 


llll 


INDEX 


Pa«e 

MOTION-^notion^  mowment 301 

MOTIVE — cause,  motive,  reason 77 

MOTIVE — principle,  motive 213 

TO  MOULD — to  form,  fashion,  mould,  shape 293 

TO  MOUNT— to  arise  or  rise,  mount,  ascend, 

climb,  scale 302 

TO  MOURN— to  grieve,  mourn,  lament 408 

MOURNFUL — mournful,  sad 410 

TO  MOVE— to  stir,  move 301 

MiJVEABLES— goods,  furniture,  moveables,  ef- 
fects  333 

MOVEMENT — motion,  movement 301 

MOVING — moving,  affecting,  pathetick 301 

MULCT — fine*  mulct,  penalty,  forfeiture 204 

MULTITUDE— multitude,  crowd,  throng,  swarm  494 
MUNIFICENT— beneficent,  bountiful  or  bounte- 
ous, munificent,  generous,  liberal 165 

rO  MURDER — to  kill,  murder,  assassinate,  slay 

or  slaughter 510 

rO  MURMUR— to  complain,  murmur,  repine...  409 

TO  MUSE — to  contemplate,  meditate,  muse 76 

rO  MUSE— to  think,  reflect,  wonder,  muse 76 

TO  lilUSTER — to  assemble,  muster,  collect 489 

VIUTE — silent,  dumb,  mute,  speechless 464 

rO  MUTILATE— to  mutilate,  maim,  mangle. ..  509 
MUTINOUS — tumultuous,  turbulent,  seditious, 

mutinous 208 

MUTUAL — mutual,  reciprocal 334 

MYSTERIOUS— dark,  obscure,  dim,  mysterious  480 
MYSTERIOUS— secret,  hidden,  latent,  occult, 

mysterious 520 

MYSTERIOUS 
MYSTICX 


Pan 


m3^steiious,  mystick 


5») 


NAKED-— bare,  naked,  uncovered 

TO  NAME— to  name,  call 

NAME — name,  appeiiation,  title,  denomination.. 

NAME- name,  reputation,  repute,  credit 

TO  NAME— to  name,  denominate,  style,  entitle, 

designate,  characterize 

TO  NAME — to  nominate,  name 

TO  NAP — to  sleep,  slumber,  doze,  drowse,  nap. . 

NARRATION — relation,  recital,  narration 

NARRATIVE— account,  narrative,  description.. 

NARROW — contracted,  confined,  narrow 

NARROW — straight,’naiTow 

NASTY— nasty,  filthy,  foul 

NATAL — natal,  native,  indigenous 

NATION — people,  nation, 

NATIVE— inlrinsick,  real,  genuine,  native 

NATIVE — natal,  native,  indigenous 

NATIVE  } , , 



NATURALLY- — naturally,  in  course,  conse- 
quently, of  course 

NAVAL  1 maritime,  marine,  naval,  nauti- 

NAUTICAL  \ cal 

NAUSEA— disgust,  loathing,  nausea 

NAUTICAL — maritime,  marine,  naval,  nau- 
tical   

NEAR— close,  near,  nigh 

NECESSARIES — necessities,  necessaries 

NECESSARY— necessary,  expedient,  essential, 
requisite 


TO  NECESSITATE— to  compel,  force,  Db.i^, 

necessitate 219 

NECESSITIES- necessities,  necessaries 347 

NECESSITY — occasion,  necessity 418 

NECESSITY — necessity,  need 346 

NEED— poverty, indigence,  want,  need,  penury..  .146 

TO  NEED— to  want,  need, lack 347 

NEED— necessity,  need 345 

NEEDFUL  J 

NEEDY  I ^^ECESSITY,  NEED 34fi 

NEFARIOUS — wicked,  unjust,  iniquitous,  nefa- 
rious   128 

TO  NEGLECT— to  disregard,  slight,  neglect....  423 

TO  NEGLECT— to  neglect,  omit 423 

NEGLIGENT — negligent,  remiss,  careless,  heed- 
less, thoughtless,  inattentive  494 

TO  NEGOTIATE— to  negotiate,  treat  for  or 

about,  transact 215 

NEIGHBOURHOOD— neighbourhood,  vicinity..  498 
NEVERTHELESS— however,  yet,  nevertheless, 

notwithstanding 251 

NEW — fresh,  new,  novel,  recent,  modern 268 

NEWS  —news,  tidings 465 

NICE— exact,  nice,  particular 203 

NICE — fine,  delicate,  nice .314 

NIGGARDLY — avaricious,  miserly,  parsimoni- 
ous, niggardly 161 

NIGGARDLY — economical,  sparing,  thrifty,  sav- 
ing, niggardly 161 

NIGH— close,  near,  nigh 285 

NIGHTLY— nightly,  nocturnal 268 

NIjMBLE— active,  brisk,  agile,  nimble 297 

NOBLE — noble,  grand 454 

NOCTURNAL— nightly,  nocturnal 268 

NOISE — noise,  cry,  outcry,  clamour 470 

NOISOME — hurtful,  pernicious,  noxious,  noisome  406 
NOISY — loud,  noisy,  high-sounding,  clamorous. . 471 
NOMENCLATURE — dictionary,  lexicon,  cata- 
logue, vocabulary,  glossary,  nomenclature. ...  464 

TO  NOMINATE— to  nominate,  name 471 

NONCONFORMIST — heretick,  schismatick,  .sec- 
tarian, dissenter,  nonconformist 92 

NOTE — mark,  sign,  note,  symptom,  token,  indica- 
tion   441 

NOTE— remark,  observation,  comment,  note,  an- 
notation, commentary 451 

TO  NOTE — to  mark,  note,  notice 450 

NOTED — distinguished,  conspicuous,  noted,  emi- 
nent, illustrious 473 

NOTED— noted,  notorious 473 

NOTICE — information, intelligence,  notice,  advice  195 
TO  NOTICE — to  attend  to,  mind,  regard,  heed, 

notice 422 

TO  NOTICE — to  mention,  notice 451 

TO  NOTICE— to  mark,  note,  notice 450 

TO  NOTICE— to  notice,  remark,  observe 450 

NOTION — conception,  notion 75 

NOTION— perception,  idea,  conception,  notion. . 75 

NOTION — opinion,  sentiment,  notion 80 

NOTORIOUS— noted,  notorious 473 

NOTWITHSTANDING— however,  j'et,  never- 
theless, notwithstanding S51 

NOVEL— fable,  tale,  novel,  romance 467 

1 NOVEL— fresh,  new,  novel,  recent,  modem 288 


INDEX. 


pAge 

lO  NOURISH— to  nourish,  nurture,  cherish 377 

NOXIOUS— hurtful,  pernicious,  noxious,  noisome  406 


NUMB — numb,  benumbed,  torpid 37ii 

TO  NUMBER— to  calculate,  compute,  reckon, 

count  or  account,  number 432 

NUMERAL  ) 

NUMERICAL  > numerous,  numeral,  numerical  252 
NUMEROUS  > 

NUPTIALS— marriage,  wedding,  nuptials 83 

TO  NURTURE— to  nourish,  nurture,  cherish...  377 

OBDURATE— hard,  callous,  hardened,  obdurate  373 

OBEDIENT — dutiful,  obedient,  respectful 150 

OBEDIENT— obedient,  submissive,  obsequious. . 149 

OBJECT— aim,  object,  end 324 

OBJECT — object,  subject 325 

TO  OBJECT — to  object,  oppose 112 

TO  OBJECT  TO— to  find  fault  with,  blame,  ob- 
ject to 112 

OBJECTION— demur,  doubt,  hesitation,  objec- 
tion   96 

OBJECTION— objection,  difficulty,  exception...  112 

OBLATION— offering,  oblation 82 

OBLIGATION— duty,  obligation 150 

TO  OBLIGE— to  bind,  oblige,  engage 216 

TO  OBJ.IGE— to  compel,  oblige,  force,  necessi- 
tate  219 

OBLIGING— civil,  obliging,  complaisant 199 

TO  OBI.ITERATE— to  blot  out,  expunge,  rase 

or  erase,  efface,  cancel,  obliterate 243 

OBLIVION — forgetfulness,  oblivion 72 

OBLONG — oblong,  oval 350 

OBLOQUY — reproach,  contumely,  obloquy 108 

OBNOXIOUS— obnoxious,  offensive 146 

OBNOXIOUS — subject,  liable,  exposed,  obnox- 
ious   146 

OBSCURE — dark,  obscure,  dim,  mysterious 480 

TO  OBSCURE— to  eclipse,  obscure 480 

OBSEQUIES — funeral,  obsequies 84 

OBSEQUIOUS— obedient,  submissive,  obsequi- 
ous  149 

OBSERVANCE — form,  ceremony,  right,  observ- 
ance  83 

OBSERVANCE— observation,  observance  ....  451 

OBSERVANT — mindful,  regardful,  observant  . 426 

OBSERVATION — observation,  observance 451  i 

OBSERVATION— remark,  observation,  note,  an- 
notation, comment,  commentary 451 

TO  OBSERVE — to  keep,  observe,  fulfil 289 

TO  OBSERVE — to  notice,  remark,  observe 450 

TO  OBSERVE — to  observe,  watch 483 

TO  OBSERVE— to  see,  perceive,  observe 482 

OBSERVER— looker-on,  spectator,  beholder,  ob- 
server   482 

OBSOLETE — old,  ancient,  antiquated,  antique, 

old-fashioned,  obsolete 268 

OBSTACLE — difficulty,  impediment,  obstacle  ...  259 
OBSTINATE — obstinate,  contumacious,  heady, 

stubborn,  headstrong 209 

TO  OBSTRUCT — to  hinder,  prevent,  impede, 

obstruct 258 

TO  OBTAIN — to  acquire,  obtain,  gain,  win,  earn  396 

TO  OBTAIN— to  get,  gain,  obtain,  procure 396 

TO  OBTRUDE— to  intrude  obtrude 509 


xliu 


Pa^ 


TO  OBVIATE— to  prevent, obviate, predude.. . . 259 
OBVIOUS— apparent,  visible,  clear,  plain,  obvi- 
ous, evident,  manifest 478 

TO  OCCASION— to  cause,  occasion,  create 294 

OCCASION — occasion,  opportunity 418 

OCCASION— occasion,  necessity 413 

OCCASIONAL — occasional,  casual 418 

OCCULT— secret,  hidden,  latent,  occult,  myste- 
rious   5-20 


OCCUPANCY 

OCCUPATION 


occupancy,  occupation 238 


OCCUPATION— business,  occupation,  employ- 
ment, engagement,  avocation 331 

TO  OCCUPY — to  hold,  occupy,  possess 236 

OCCURRENCE — event,  incident,  accident,  ad- 
venture, occurrence 172 

ODD — particular,  singular,  odd,  strange,  eccen- 

trick 385 

ODD — odd,  uneven 436 

ODIOUS— hateful,  odiouS 137 

ODOUR — smell,  scent,  odour,  perfume,  fragratice  511 
OF  COURSE — naturally,  in  course,  consequently, 

of  course 272 

OFFENCE — offence,  trespass,  transgresolon,  mis- 
demeanour, misdeed,  affront 120 

TO  OFFEND— to  displease,  offend,  ver. 117 

OFFENDER— offender,  delinquent 120 

OFFENSIVE  1 

OFFENSIVE — obnoxious,  offensive. ...  ...  ..  146 

TO  OFFER— to  give,  offer,  present,  exiiiuil  163 

TO  OFFER — to  offer,  bid,  tender,  propose 167 

OFFERING — offering,  oblation 82 

OFFICE — business,  office,  duty 331 

OFFICE — office,  place,  chaige,  function 332 

OFFICE — benefit,  service,  good,  office 166 

OFFICIOUS— active,  busy,  officious 297 

OFFSPRING — offspring,  progeny,  issue 291 

OFTEN — often,  frequently 268 

OLD — elderly,  aged,  old 269 

OLD— old,  ancient,  antique,  antiquated,  old-fa- 
shioned, obsolete 268 

OLDER— senior,  elder,  older 269 

OLD-FASHIONED,  vide  OLD. 

OLD-TIMES— formerly,  in  timea  past,  old  times 
or  days  of  yore,  anciently,  or  in  ancient  times  269 

OMEN — omen,  prognostick,  presage 93 

TO  OMIT — to  neglect,  omit 423 

ON  ONE’S  GUARD — aware, on  one’s  guard,  ap- 
prized, conscious 426 

ONI.Y  \ ^ 


ONSET — attack,  assault,  encounter,  charge 

onset 116 

ONWARD — onward,  forward,  progressive 302 

OPAQUE— opaque,  dark 481 

OPEN — randid,  open,  sincere 430 

OPEN — frank,  candid,  ingenuous,  free,  open,  plain  431 

OPENING— opening,  aperture,  cavity 402 

OPERATION— action,  agency,  operation 296 

OPERATION— work,  operation 328 

OPINIATED  1 opiniated  or  opiniative,  conceit- 

OPINIATIVE  \ ed,  egoistical 100 

OPINION— opinion,  sentiment,  notion 8fl 


xliv 


index. 


Page 


OPPONENT— enemy,  foe,  adversary,  opponent, 

antagonist 134 

OPPORTUNITY — occasion,  opportunity 418 

TO  OPPOSE— to  combat,  oppose 134 

ro  OPPOSE— to  contradict,  oppose,  deny 113 

TO  OPPOSE — to  object, oppose 112 

TO  OPPOSE — to  oppose,  resist,  thwart,  with- 
stand   114 

OPPOSITE— adverse,  contrary,  opposite 135 

OPPROBRIUM— infamy,  ignominy,  opprobrium  108 
TO  OPPUGN — to  confute,  refute,  disprove,  op- 
pugn   115 

OPTION — option,  choice 234 

OPULENCE — riches,  wealth,  opulence,  affluence  340 

ORAL — verbal,  vocal,  oral 462 

ORATION — address,  speech,  oration,  harangue. . 461 
ORATORY — elocution,  eloquence,  oratory,  rheto- 

rick 462 

ORB — circle,  orb,  globe,  sphere 175 

TO  ORDAIN  ) to  appoint,  order,  prescribe,  or- 

TO  ORDER  S dain 184 

ORDER — class,  order,  rank,  degree 276 

ORDER — command,  order,  injunction,  precept, 

mandate 185 

ORDER — direction,  order 213 

ORDER — order,  method,  rule 276 

ORDER — succession,  series,  order 271 

ro  ORDER — to  place,  dispose,  order 278 

ORDINARY — common, vulgar,  ordinary,  mean..  323 

ORIFICE- orifice,  perforation 402 

ORIGIN  ) origin,  original,  beginning,  source, 

ORIGINAL  \ rise 292 

ORIGINAL — primary,  primitive,  pristine,  origi- 
nal  274 

OSTENSIBLE — colourable,  specious,  ostensible, 

plausible,  feasible 516 

OSTENTATION— show, parade, ostentation... . 453 

OVAL — oblong,  oval 350 

OVER— above,  over,  upon,  beyond 279 

OVERBALANCE — to  overbalance,  outweigh, 

preponderate 206 

TO  OVERBEAR— to  overbear,  bear  down,  over- 
power, overwhelm,  subdue  144 

OVERBEARING — imperious,  lordly,  domineer- 
ing, overbearing 185 

TO  OVERCOME— to  conquer,  vanquish,  subdue, 
overcome,  surmount 144 


TO  OVERFLOW — to  overflow,  inundate,  deluge  352 
TO  OVERHEAR — to  hear,  hearken,  overhear  . . 422 
TO  OVERPOWER — to  beat,  defeat,  overpower. 


rout,  overthrow 143 

TO  OVERPOWER — to  overbear,  overpower, 

bear  down,  overwhelm,  subdue 144 

TO  OVERRULE — overrule,  supersede 206 

OVERRULING — prevailing,  prevalent,  predomi- 
nant, overruling 205 

TO  OVERRUN  i to  overspread,  overrun,  ra- 

TO  OVERSPREAD  5 vage 507 

OVERSIGHT — inadverter^y,  inattention,  over- 
sight   423 

OVERSIGHT — inspection,  oversight,  superintend- 
ence  213 

TO  OVERTHROW — to  beat,  defeat,  overpower, 
nrut,  overthrow 143 


TO  OVERTHROW  ) to  overturn,  subvert,  over- 
TO  OVERTURN  ) throw,  invert,  reverse  . . 503 
TO  OVERWHELM— to  overhear,  bear  down, 

overpower,  overwhelm,  subdue 144 

TO  OVERWHELM— to  overwhelm,  crush 504 

OUTCRY — noise,  cry,  outcry,  clamour 470 

TO  OUTDO — to  exceed,  excel,  surpass,  outdo  .. . 273 

OUTLINES — sketch,  outlines 338 

TO  OUTLIVE — to  outlive,  survive 240 

OUTRAGE — affront,  insult,  outrage 121 

OUTSIDE — show,  outside,  semblance,  appear- 
ance  453 

OUTWARD— outward,  e.xternal,  extcriour 351 

TO  OUTWEIGH — to  overbalance,  preponderate, 

outweigh 206 

TO  OWN— to  acknowledge,  own,  confess,  avow  442 
OWNER— possessor,  proprietor,  owner,  master . . 238 

PACE — pace,  step 301 

PACIFICK— peaceable,  peaceful,  pacifick 362 

TO  PACIFY — to  appease,  calm,  pacify,  quiet, 

still 361 

PAGAN — gentile,  heathen,  pagan 495 

PAIN— pain,  pang,  agony,  anguish 407 

TO  PAINT— to  paint,  depict,  delineate,  sketch  . . 338 

PAIR— couple,  brace,  pair 434 

PALATE— palate,  taste 512 

PALE— pale,  pallid,  wan 369 

TO  PALLIATE — to  extenuate,  palliate 182 

TO  PALLIATE — to  gloss,  varnish,  palliate 515 

PALLID — pale,  pallid,  wan 369 

TO  PALPITATE — to  palpitate,  flutter,  pant, 

gasp 305 

PANEGYRICK — encomium,  eulogy,  panegyrick  130 

PANG — pain,  pang,  agony,  anguish 407 

TO  PANT — to  palpitate,  flutter,  pant,  gasp 305 

PARABLE — parable,  adegory 532 

PARADE — show,  parade,  ostentation 453 

PARASITE— flatterer,  sycophant,  parasite 526 

TO  PARDON — to  excuse,  pardon 182 

TO  PARDON — to  forgive,  pardon,  absolve,  remit  87 

PARDONABLE — venial,  pardonable 182 

TO  PARE — to  peel,  pare 518 

PARLIAMENT — assembly,  company,  meeting, 
congregation,  parliament,  diet,  congress,  con- 
vention, synod,  convocation,  council 490 

PARSIMONIOUS — avaricious,  miserly,  parsimo- 
nious, niggardly 161 

PARSIMONY — economy,  frugality,  parsimony  . . 161 
PARSON— clergyman,  parson,  priest,  minister. . , 85 

PART — part,  division,  portion,  share 485 

PART — part,  piece,  patch 486 

TO  PART — to  divide,  separate,  part 484 

TO  PA  RTAKE  ) to  partake,  share,  partici- 

TO  PARTICIPATE  5 pate 486 

PARTICULAR — circumstantial,  minute,  particu- 
lar  173 

PARTICULAR — exact,  nice,  particular,  punc- 
tual   203 

PARTICULAR — particular,  singular,  eccentrick, 

odd,  strange 385 

PARTICULAR — particular,  individual 253 

PARTICULAR— peculiar,  appropriate,  particular  231 
PARTICULAR— special,  specifick,  particular  ...  253 


INDEX. 


xlv 

Pase 


Page 


fARTICC/L  ARLY-  -e.spec£  ally,  particularly,  prin- 
cipally, chiefly 206 

PARTISAN — follower,  adherent,  partisan 419 

PARTNER — colleague,  partner,  coadjutor,  assist- 
ant  491 

PARTNERSHIP — association,  society,  company, 

partnership 488 

PARTY— faction,  party 209 

PASSAGE — course,  race,  passage 275 

PASSIONATE — angry,  passionate,  hasty,  irasci- 
ble  119 

PASSIVE — passive,  submissive ....  149 

PASSIVE — patient,  passive 149 

PASTIME— amusement,  entertainment,  diversion, 

sport,  recreation,  pastime 391 

PATCH — part,  piece,  patch 486 

PATHETICK — moving,  aflecting,  pathetick 301 

PATIENCE — patience,  endurance,  resignation. . . 149 

PATIENT — patient,  passive 149 

PATIENT— invalid,  patient 367 

PAUPER— poor,  pauper.". 347 

TO  PAUSE — to  demur,  hesitate,  pause 96 

PAY— allov/ance,  stipend,  salary,  wages,  hire, 

pay 164 

PEACE— peace,  quiet,  calm,  tranquillity 361 

deIceZ"  i 

PEASANT — countryman,  peasant,  swain,  hind, 

rustick  clown 336 

PECULIAR— peculiar,  appropriate,  particular  ...  231 

PEEL — skin,  hide,  peel,  rind 518 

TO  PEEL — to  peel,  pare 518 

PEEVISH — captious,  cross,  peevish,  petulant, 

fretful 315 

PELLUCID — pellucid,  transparent 477 

PENALTY — fine,  penalty,  mulct,  forfeiture 204 

TO  PENETRATE— to  penetrate,  pierce,  perfo- 
rate, bore 402 

PENETRATION — discernment,  discrimination, 

penetration 71 

PENETRATION — penetration,  acuteness,  saga- 
city  401 

PENITENCE— repentance,  penitence,  contrition, 

compunction,  remorse 88 

PENMAN— writer,  penman,  scribe 336 

PENURIOUS — economical,  saving,  sparing,  penu- 
rious, thrifty,  niggardly 161 

PENURY — poverty,  indigence,  want,  nenury, 

need 340 

PEOPLE — people,  nation 494 

PEOPLE— people,  populace,  mob,  mobility 495 

PEOPLE— people,  persons,  folks 495 

TO  PERCEIVE — to  perceive,  discern,  distin- 
guish   483 

TO  PERCEIVE — to  see,  perceive,  observe 482 

PERCEPTION — perception,  idea,  conception,  no- 
tion   75 

PERCEPTION — sentiment,  sensation,  perception, <376 
PEREMPTORY — positive,  absolute,  peremptory*  188 

PERFECT — accomplished,  perfect 283 

PERFECT — complete,  perfect,  finished 287 


PERFIDIOUS— faithless,  perfidious,  treacherous  524 
ro  PERFORATE — to  penetrate,  pierce,  perfo- 
rate, bore - 


PERFORATION— orifice,  perforation 402 

TO  PERFORM — to  effect,  produce,  perform 28J 

TO  PERFORM— to  execute,  fulfil,  perform 288 

PERFORMANCE — production,  work,  perform- 
ance  329 

PERFORMER— actor,  player,  performer 298 

PERFUME — smell,  scent,  odour,  fragrance,  per- 
fume   511 

PERIL — danger,  hazard,  peril 171 

PERIOD — sentence,  proposition,  period,  phrase  . . 464 

PERIOD — time,  period,  age,  date,  era,  epocha 267 

TO  PERISH — to  perish,  die,  decay 371 

TO  PERJURE — to  forswear,  perjure,  suborn  — 92 

PERMANENT — durable,  lasting,  permanent  ....  266 


PERMISSION — leave,  liberty,  permission,  license  255 
TO  PERMIT — to  admit,  allow,  permit,  tolerate, 

suffer 157 

TO  PERMIT — to  consent,  permit,  allow 156 

PERNICIOUS— destructive,  ruinous, pernicious. . 504 
PERNICIOUS — hurtful,  noxious,  noisome,  perni- 
cious   406 

TO  PERPETRATE — to  perpetrate,  commit 298 

PERPETUAL — continual,  perpetual,  constant...  265 

TO  PERPLEX— to  distress,  harass,  perplex 407 

TO  PERPLEX — to  embarrass,  perplex,  entangle  412 
TO  PERSEVERE  ) to  continue,  persevere,  per- 

TO  PERSIST  1 sist,  pursue,  prosecute 264 

TO  PERSIST — to  insist,  persist 265 

PERSONS— people,  persons,  folks 495 

PERSPICUITY— clearness,  perspicuity 4’77 

TO  PERSUADE— to  exhort,  persuade 312 

TO  PERSUADE — to  persuade,  entice,  prevail 

upon 313 

PERSUASION — conviction,  persuasion 78 

PERTINENT — pertinent,  relevant 327 

PERVERSE — awkward,  cross,  crooked,  unto- 
ward, Howard,  perverse 315 

PEST — bane,  pest,  ruin 5G3 

PESTILENTIAL — contagious,  epidemical,  pesti- 

I lential 129 

PETITION — prayer,  petition,  request,  entreaty, 

suit 87 

PETTY— trifling,  trivial,  petty,  frivolous,  futile  . . 457 
PETULANT — captious,  cross,  peevish,  fretful, 

petulant 315 

PHANTOM — vision,  apparition,  phantom,  ghost, 

spectre 479 

PHRASE — sentence,  proposition,  period,  phrase. . 464 
PHRASE  i diction,  phrase,  phraseology, 

PHRASEOLOGY!  style 465 

PHRENSY— madness,  phrensy,  rage,  fury 281 

TO  PICK — to  clioose,  pick,  select 234 

PICTURE — likeness,  picture,  image,  effigy 532 

TO  PICTURE,  vide  TO  PAINT. 

PICTURE — picture,  print,  engraving 450 

PIECE— part,  piece,  patch 486 

TO  PIERCE— to  penetrate,  pierce,  perforate,  bore  402 

TO  PILE— heap,  pile,  accumulate,  amass 340 

PILLAGE — rapine,  plunder,  pillage 507 

PILLAR — pillar,  column 499 

TO  PINCH — to  press,  squeeze,  pinch,  gripe 309 

TO  PINE— to  flag,  droop,  languish,  pine 368 

PIOUS— holy,  pious,  devout,  religious 89 

PIOUE— malice,  rancour,  spite,  grudge,  pique  . . 381 


402 


xlvi 


INDEX. 


Page 


PITEOUS — piteous,  doleful,  woful,  rueful 411 

PITEOUS  { 

PITIABLE  > piteous,  pitiable,  pitiful 358 

PITIFUL  5 

PITIFUL— mean,  pitiful,  sordid 411 

PITIFUL— contemptible,  despicable,  pitiful 102 

PITY — pity,  compassion 358 

PITY — pity,  mercy 358 

PLACE— office,  place,  charge,  function 332 

PLACE— place,  situation,  station,  position,  post. . 278 

PLACE — place,  spot,  site.... 278 

TO  PLACE— to  place,  dispose,  order 278 

TO  PLACE — to  put,  place,  lay,  set 280 

PLACID— calm,  placid,  serene 362 

PLAIN — apparent,  visible,  clear,  plain,  obvious, 

evident,  manifest 478 

PLAIN — even,  smooth,  level,  plain 435 

PLAIN — frank,  candid,  ingenuous,  free,  open, 

plain 431 

PLAIN — sincere,  honest,  true,  plain 430 

PLAUDIT — applause,  acclamation,  plaudit 130 

PLAUSIBLE — colourable,  specious,  ostensible, 

plausible,  feasible 516 

PLAY— play,  game,  sport 384 

PLAYER— actor,  player,  performer 298 

TO  PLEAD— apologize,  defend,  justify,  excuse, 

exculpate,  plead 181 

PLEADER— defender,  advocate,  pleader 180 

PLEASANT — agreeable,  pleasant,  pleasing 152 

PLEASANT — facetious,  conversible,  pleasant,  jo- 


cular, jocose  

TO  PLEASE — to  satisfy,  please,  gratify 

PLEASED— glad,  pleased,  joyful,  cheerful 

PLEASING- agreeable,  pleasant,  pleasing 

PLEASURE— comfort,  pleasure 

PLEASURE— pleasure,  joy,  delight,  charm 

PLEDGE— deposile,  pledge,  security 

PLEDGE — earnest,  pledge 

PLENIPOTENTIARY — ambassador,  plenipoten- 
tiary, envoy,  deputy 

PLENITUDE — fulness,  plenitude 

PLENTEOUS  ) plentiful,  plenteous,  abundant, 
PLENTIFUL  ^ copious,  ample 

PLIANT  I fl^^xible,  pliable,  pliant,  suiiple 


PLIGHT — situation,  condition,  state,  predicament, 

plight,  case 

PLOT — combination,  cabal,  plot,  conspiracy 

TO  PLUCK — to  draw,  drag,  haul  or  hale,  pluck, 

pull,  tug 

PLUNDER — rapine,  plunder,  pillage 

TO  PLUNGE — to  plunge,  dive 

TO  POINT— to  aim,  point,  level 

TO  POINT  OUT — to  show,  point  out,  indicate. 


461 

383 

393 

152 

357 

393 

183 

184 

214 

341 

341 

360 


279 

489 


303 

507 

353 

324 


mark 451 

TO  POISE — to  poise,  balance 370 

POISON— poison,  venom 503 


POLISHED 

POLITE 


polite,  polished,  refined,  gentdel — 199 


POLITE— civil,  polite 

POLITICK  1 , 

POLITICAL 


198 


521 


TO  POl  LUTE— to  contaminate,  delilc,  pollute, 
taint,  corrupt ...  129 


PM* 


POMP— magnificence,  splendour,  pomp 453 

POMPOUS— magisterial,  majestick,  stately,  pomp- 
ous, august,  dignified 454 

TO  PONDER — to  think,  reflect,  ponder,  muse. ..  76 
PONDEROUS— heavy,  burdensome,  ponderous, 

weighty 370 

POOR— poor,  pauper 347 

POPULACE — people,  populace, mob,  mobility...  495 

PORT — harbour,  haven,  port 518 

TO  PORTEND — to  augur,  presage,  forebode,  be- 
token, portend 94 

PORTION — deal,  quantity,  portion 486 

PORTION— part,  division,  portion,  share 485 

POSITION — p'ace,  situation,  station,  position, 

post 278 

POSITION— action,  gesture,  gesticulation,  atti- 
tude, posture,  position 295 

POSITION — tenet,  position 80 

POSITIVE — actual,  real,  positive 298 

POSITIVE— confident,  dogmatical,  positive 414 

POSITIVE— definite,  positive 458 

POSITIVE— positive,  absolute,  peremptory  ....  188 

TO  POSSESS— to  have,  possess 237 

TO  POSSESS — to  hold,  occupy,  possess 236 

POSSESSIONS — goods,  possessions,  property. .. . 340 
POSSESSOR — possessor,  proprietor,  owner,  mas- 
ter   238 

POSSIBLE— possible,  practicable,  practical 324 

POST — place,  situation,  station,  position,  post. . . . 278 
POSTERIOR — subsequent,  consequent,  poste- 
rior   272 


TO  POSTPONE — to  delay,  defer,  postpone,  pro- 
crastinate, prolong,  protract,  retard 260 

POSTURE — action,  gesture,  gesticulation,  pos- 
ture, attitude,  position 295 

POTENT — powerful,  potent,  mighty 187 

POTENTATE— prince,  monarch,  sovereign,  po- 
tentate   18P 

POVERTY — poverty,  indigence,  want,  penury, 

need 346 

TO  POUND— to  break,  bruise,  squeeze,  pound, 

crush 501 

TO  POUR — to  pour,  spill,  shed 346 

POWER— power,  strength,  force,  authority,  do- 
minion   186 

POWERFUL— powerful,  potent,  mighty 187 

PRACTICABLE  > 

PR4CTICAT  ^possible,  practicable,  practical  324 

PRACTICE— custom,  habit,  manner,  practice  ...  322 

TO  PRACTISE— to  exercise,  practise 322 

TO  PRAISE — to  praise,  commend,  applaud,  ex- 
tol   130 

PRAISEWORTHY— commendable,  praiseworthy, 

laudable 131 

PRANK— frolick,  gambol,  prank 390 

TO  PRATE  ^ to  babble,  chatter,  chat,  prate, 

TO  PRATTLE  1 prattle 459 

PRAYER— prayer,  petition,  request,  entreaty, 

suit 87 

PRECARIOUS — doubtful,  dubious,  uncertain, 

precarious G6 

PRECEDENCE— priority,  precedence,  preference, 

pre-eminence 273 

PRECEDENT— example,  precedent 531 


INDEX. 


xlvfi 


Page 


PRECEDING— antecedent,  preceding,  previous, 

foregoing,  anterior,  prior,  former 272 

PRECEPT— command,  order,  injunction,  precept, 

mandate 185 

PRECEPT— aoctrine,  precept,  principle 80 

PRECEPT — maxim,  precept,  rule,  law 211 

PRECIOUS— valuable,  precious,  costly 437 

PRECIPITANCY— rashness,  temerity,  hastiness, 

precipitancy 263 

PRECISE — accurate,  exact,  precise 203 

TO  PRECLUDE— to  prevent,  obviate,  preclude  259 
PRECURSOR — forerunner,  precursor,  messenger, 

liarbinger 215 

PREDICAMENT— situation,  condition,  state,  pre- 
dicament, plight,  case 279 

TO  PREDICT— to  foretel,  predict,  prognosticate, 

prophesy 94 

PREDOMINANT— prevailing,  prevalent,  over- 
ruling, predominant 205 

PRE-EMINENCE— priority,  precedence,  pre-emi- 
nence, preference 273 

1 ,EACE— prelude,  preface 231 

'lo  PREFER — to  choose,  prefer 233 

TO  PREFER — to  encourage,  advance,  promote, 

prefer,  forward 312 

PREFERABLE— eligible,  preferable 234 

JREFERENCE — priority,  precedence,  pre-emi- 
nence, preference 273 

PREJUDICE — bias,  prejudice,  prepossession IGO 

PREJUDICE— disadvantage,  injury,  hurt,  detri- 
ment, prejudice 404 

PRELIMINARY— previous,  preliminary,  prepara- 
tory, introductory 274 

PRELUDE — prelude,  preface 231 

TO  PREMISE— to  premise,  presume 231 

PREMEDITATION — foresight,  forethought,  fore- 
cast, premeditation 399 

TO  PREPARE— to  fit,  equip,  prepare,  qualify.. . 151 
PREPARATORY-' previous,  preliminary,  prepa- 
ratory, introductory 274 

TO  PREPONDERATE— to  overbalance,  prepon- 
derate, outweigh 206 

PREPOSSESSION — bias,  prepossession,  preju- 
dice   160 

PREPOSSESSION — bent,  bias,  inclination,  pre- 
possession   159 

PREPOSTEROUS — irrational,  foolish,  absurd, 

preposterous 91 

PREROGATIVE— privilege,  prerogative,  immu- 
nity, exemption 228 

PRESAGE — omen,  prerogative,  presage 93 

TO  PRESAGE— to  augur,  presage,  forebode,  be- 
token, portend 94 


TO  PRESCRIBE — to  appoint, prescribe,  ordain. . 184 


TO  PRESCRIBE — to  dictate,  prescribe 184 

PRESCRIPTION— usage,  custom,  prescription  . . 324 
PRESENT— gift,  present,  donation,  benefaction. . 164 
TO  PRESENT — to  give,  offer,  present,  exhibit. . . 163 

TO  PRESENT — to  introduce,  present 163 

TO  PRESERVE — to  keep,  preserve,  save 178 

ro  PRESERVE — to  save,  spare,  preserve,  pro- 
tect  179 

TO  PRESS— to  press,  squeeze,  pinch,  gripe 309 

PRESSING— pressing,  urgeuL  importunate 158 


Page 

TO  PRESUME — to  premise,  presume 231 

PRESUMING — presumptive,  presumptuous,  pre- 
suming   232 

PRESUMPTION— arrogance,  presumption 231 

PRESUMPTIVE  ) presumptive,  presumptuous, 

PRESUMPTUOUS  \ presuming 232 

PRETENCE— pretence,  pretension,  pretext,  ex- 
cuse  229 

TO  PRETEND— to  feign,  pretend 528 

TO  PRETEND — to  affect,  pretend 229 

PRETENSION— pretension,  claim 229 

PRETENSION  ^ pretence,  pretension,  pretext,  ex 

PRETEXT  \ cuse 229 

PRETTY— beautiful,  fine,  handsome,  pretty 313 

PREVAILING — prevailing,  ruling,  overruling, 

prevalent,  predominant 205 

TO  PREVARICATE — to  evade,  equivocate,  pre- 
varicate   526 

TO  PREVENT— to  hinder,  prevent,  impede,  ob- 
struct  258 

TO  PREVENT— to  prevent,  anticipate 259 

TO  PREVENT— to  prevent,  obviate,  preclude. . . 259 
PREVIOUS — antecedent,  preceding,  foregoing, 

previous,  anterior,  prior,  former — 272 

PREVIOUS— previous,  preliminary,  preparatory, 

introductory 274 

PREY— booty,  spoil,  prey 506 

PRICE— cost,  expense,  price,  charge 436 

PRICE— value,  worth,  rate,  price 436 

PRIDE— pride,  vanity,  conceit IOC 

PRIDE— pride,  haughtiness,  loftiness,  dignity  ....  100 
PRIEST — clergyman,  parson,  priest,  minister  ....  85 
PRIMARY  ) primary,  primitive,  pristine,  origi- 

PRIMITIVE  5 nal 274 

PRINCE— prince,  monarch,  sovereign,  potentate  188 

PRINCIPAL— cliief,  principal,  main 206 

PRINCIPALLY— especially,  particularly,  princi- 
pally, chiefly 206 

PRINCIPLE— doctrine,  precept,  principle 80 

PRINCIPLE — principle,  motive 213 

PRINT — mark,  print,  impression,  stamp 446 

PRINT — picture,  print,  engraving 45q 

PRIOR — antecedent,  preceding,  foregoing,  previ- 
ous, anterior,  prior,  former 272 

PRIORITY— priority,  precedence,  pre-eminence, 

preference 273 

PRISTINE — primacy,  primitive,  pristine,  origi- 
nal  274 

PRIVACY— privacy,  retirement,  seclusion 253 

PRIVILEGE— privilege,  prerogative,  exemption, 

immunity 22^ 

PRIVILEGE — right,  claim,  privilege 22S 

PRIZE — capture,  seizure,  prize 50Q 

TO  PRIZE— to  value,  prize,  esteem 436 

PROBABILITY — chance,  probability 17C 

PROBITY— honesty,  uprightness,  integrity,  pro- 
bity   427 

TO  PROCEED— to  advance,  proceed 301 

TO  PROCEED— to  arise,  proceed,  issue,  spring, 

flow,  emanate 291 

PROCEEDING — proceeding,  transaction 333 

PROCEEDING  ) 

proceeding,  process,  progress. . . 3j3 


PROCESS 
PROCESSION — procession,  train,  retinue 


493 


<Irin 


INDEX. 


Page  I 

TO  PROCLAIM — to  announce,  proclaim,  publish, 

advertise 443 

TO  PROCLAIM— to  declare,  publish,  proclaim. . 442 
PROCLAMATION — decree,  edict,  proclamation  443 
TO  PROCRASTINATE— to  delay,  defer,  post- 
pone, procrastinate,  prolong,  protract,  retard..  260 

TO  PROCURE— to  get,  gain,  obtain,  procure 396 

TO  PROCURE— to  provide,  procure,  furnish, 

supply 399 

PRODIGAL — extravagant,  prodigal,  lavish,  pro- 
fuse   342 

PRODIGIOUS — enormous,  prodigious,  monstrous  350 
PRODIGY — wonder,  miracle,  marvel,  prodigy, 

monster 403 

PRODUCE — production,  produce,  product 329 

TO  PRODUCE — to  afford,  yield,  produce 330 

TO  PRODUCE— to  effect,  produce,  perform 289 

TO  PRODUCE— to  make,  form,  produce,  create  292 

PRODUCTION  } produce,  product. . . 329 

PRODUCTION — production,  performance,  work  329 

PROFANE— irreligious,  profane,  impious 92 

TO  PROFESS — to  profess,  declare 442 

PROFESSION— business,  trade,  profession,  art. . 331 
PROFICIENCY— progress,  proficiency,  improve- 
ment   204 

PROFIT — advantage,  profit 398 

PROFIT — gain,  profit,  emolument,  lucre 397 

PROFLIGATE— profligate,  abandoned,  reprobate  249 

PROFUNDITY— depth,  profundity 350 

PROFUSE — extravagant,  prodigal,  lavish,  profuse  342 

PROFUSENESS ) ^ . 

profusion,  profuseness 342 


PROFUSION 
PROGENITORS— forefathers,  ancestors,  progeni- 
tors  269 

PROGENY — offspring,  progeny,  issue 291 

PROGNOSTICK — omen,  presage,  prognostick . . . 93 
TO  PROGNOSTICATE — to  foretel,  predict,  prog- 
nosticate, prophesy 94 

PROGRESS — proceeding,  process,  progress 333 

PROGRESS— progress,  proficiency,  improvement  204 


PROGRESS  jj  progress,  progression,  advance, 

PROGRESSION  i advancement 204 

PROGRESSIVE— onward,  forward,  progressive  302 
TO  PROHIBIT — to  forbid,  prohibit,  interdict, 

proscribe 223 

PROJECT-  design,  plan,  scheme,  project 534 

PROLIFICK— fertile,  fruitful,  prolifick 341 

PROLIX— diffuse,  prolix 464 

TO  PROLONG— to  delay,  defer,  postpone,  pro- 
crastinate, prolong,  protract,  retard 260 

PROMINENT — prominent,  conspicuous 474 

PROMISCUOUS — promiscuous,  indiscriminate..  284 

PROMISE — promise,  engagement,  word 217 

TO  PROMOTE — to  encourage,  advance,  promote, 

prefer,  forward 312 

PROMPT— diligent,  expeditious,  prompt 262 

PROMPT— ready,  apt,  prompt 297 

TO  PROMUIiGATE — to  publish,  promulgate,  di- 
vulge, reveal,  disclose 443 

RONENESS— inclination,  tendency,  propensity, 

proneness 1€0 

TO  PRONOUNCE— to  utter,  speak,  articulate, 
oronounce  


ft* 

PROOF—  argument,  reason,  proof. . . % T. 

PROOF — proof,  evidence,  testimony 444 

PROOF — experience,  experiment,  trial,  proof,  test  31Q 

PROP — staff,  stay,  prop,  support 23g 

TO  PROPAGATE— to  speed,  circulate,  propa- 
gate, disseminate 345 

PROPENSITY— inclination,  tendency,  proneness, 

propensity 160 

PROPER — right,  just,  proper 430 

PROPERTY — goods,  property,  possessions 340 

PROPERTY— quality,  property,  attribute 232 

PROPITIOUS— favourable,  auspicious,  propitious  190 
TO  PROPHESY— to  foretel,  predict,  prophesy, 

prognosticate 94 

PROPORTION— rate,  proportion,  ratio 434 

PROPORT10>7 — symmetry,  proportion 435 

PROPORTIONATE — proportionate,  commensu- 
rate, adequate 434 

TO  PROPOSE— to  offer,  bid,  tender,  propose 167 

TO  PROPOSE — to  purpose,  propose. 534 

PROPOSITION— sentence,  proposition,  period, 

phrase 464 

PROPRIETOR — possessor,  proprietor,  owner, 

master 238 

TO  PROROGUE--to  prorogue,  adjourn 260 

TO  PROSCRIBE— to  forbid,  prohibit,  interdict, 

proscribe 223 

TO  PROSECUTE— to  continue,  persevere,  per- 
sist, pursue,  prosecute 264 

PROSELYTE— convert,  proselyte 86 

PROSPECT— view,  survey,  prospect 479 

PROSPECT — view,  prospect,  landscape 479 

TO  PROSPER— to  flourish,  thrive,  prosper 395 

PROSPERITY— well-being,  welfare,  prosperity, 

happiness 396 

PROSPEROUS- fortunate,  lucky,  prosperous, 

successful 395 

TO  PROTECT-to  defend, protect,  vindicate... . 171 
TO  PROTECT — to  save,  spare,  preserve,  protect  179 
TO  PROTEST — to  affirm,  asseverate,  assure, 

vouch,  aver,  protest 441 

TO  PROTRACT — to  delay,  defer,  postpone,  pro- 
crastinate, prolong,  protract,  retard 260 

TO  PROVE— to  argue,  evince,  prove 77 

TO  PROVE — to  prove,  demonstrate,  evince,  ma- 
nifest  444 

PROVERB— axiom,  maxim,  aphorism,  apoph- 
thegm, saying,  adage,  proverb,  by-word,  saw  210 
TO  PROVIDE— to  provide,  procure,  furnish,  sup- 
ply   399 

PROVIDENCE — providence,  prudence 399 

PROVIDENT— careful,  cautious,  provident 425 

PROVISION— fare,  provision 513 

TO  PROVOKE— to  aggravate,  irritate,  provoke, 

exasperate,  tantalize 121 

TO  PROVOKE— to  awaken,  excite,  provoke, 

rouse,  stir  up 310 

TO  PROVOKEr-to  excite,  incite,  provoke 309 

PRUDENCE — ^judgement,  discretion,  prudence. . 400 

PRUDENCE — prudence,  providence 399 

PRUDENCE — wisdom,  prudence 400 

PRUDENT  ^ prudent,  prudential 


PRUDENTIAL 
TO  PRY— to  pry,  scrutinize,  dive  into. 


399 


99 


INDEX. 


' xlu 


?K/1NG — curious,  prying  inquisitive 

TO  PUBLISH— to  announce,  proclaim,  advertise, 

publisli 

TO  PUBLISH — to  declare,  publish,  proclaim  — 
TO  PUBLISH— to  publish,  promulgate,  divulge, 

reveal,  disclose 

PUERILE — ^youthful,  juvenile,  puerile 

TO  PULL— to  draw,  drag,  haul  or  hale,  pull, 

pluck,  tug 

PUNCTUAL— exact,  nice,  particular,  punctual. . 
PUNISHMENT— correction,  discipline,  punish- 
ment   

PUPIL — scholar,  disciple,  pupil 

rO  PURCHASE— to  buy,  purchase,  bargain, 

cheapen 

PURPOSE— sake, account,  reason, purpose,  end.. 
TO  PURPOSE— to  design,  purpose,  intend,  mean 

TO  PURPOSE— to  purpose,  propose 

TO  PURSUE— to  follow,  pursue 

rO  PURSUE — to  continue,  persevere,  persist, 

pursue,  prosecute 

TO  PUT — to  put,  place,  lay,  set 

rO  PUTREFY— to  rot,  putrefy,  corrupt 

TO  QUAKE— to  shake,  tremble,  shudder,  quiver, 

quake  

QUALIFICATION — qualification,  accomplish- 
ment   

QUALIFIED — competent,  fitted,  qualified 

rO  QUALIFY — to  fit,  equip,  prepare,  qualify.. 
rO  QUALIFY — to  qualify,  temper,  humour.... 
OF  QUALITY — of  fashion,  of  quality,  of  dis- 
tinction  

QUALITY— quality,  property,  attribute 

QUANTITY — deal,  quantity,  portion 

QUARREL — difference,  dispute,  quarrel,  alterca- 
tion   

QUARREL — quarrel,  broil,  feud,  affray  or  fray. . 

QUARTER — district,  region,  tract,  quarter 

QUERY  > 



TO  QUESTION — to  doubt,  question,  dispute 

rO  QUESTION — to  ask,  inquire,  question,  inter- 
rogate   

QUICKNESS— quickness,  swiftness,  fleetness, 

celerity,  rapidity,  velocity 

QUIET— ease,  quiet,  rest,  repose 

QUIET— peace,  quiet,  calm,  tranquillity 

TO  QUIET— to  appease,  calm,  pacify,  quic*:,  still 

TO  QUIT — to  leave,  quit, relinquish 

TO  QUIVER— to  shake,  tremble,  shudder,  qui- 
ver, quake 

TO  QUOTE— to  cite,  quote 

RACE — course,  race,  passage 

RACE — family,  house,  lineage,  race 

RACE — race,  generation,  breed 

TO  RACK— to  break,  rack,  rend,  tear 

RADIANCE— radiance,  brilliancy 

rO  RADIATE — to  shine,  glitter,  glare,  sparkle, 

radiate 

RAGE— anger,  choler,  rage,  fury 

RAGE— madness,  phrensy,  rage,  fury 

TO  RAISE— to  heighten,  raise,  aggravate 


Ftga 

TQ  RAISE— to  lift,  raise,  erect,  elevate,  exait. . . 354 
TO  RALLY — to  deride,  mock,  ridicule,  rally, 

banter 103 

RAMBLE — excursion,  ramble,  tour,  trip,  jaunt. . . 302 
TO  RAMBLE — to  wander,  stroll,  ramble,  rove, 

roam,  range 126 

RANCOUR — hatred,  enmity,  ill-will,  rancour  ...  13'. 
RANCOUR— malice, rancour, spite,  grudge,  pique  381 

TO  RANGE — to  class,  arrange,  range 277 

TO  RANGE — to  wander,  stroll,  ramble,  rove, 

roam,  range 126 

RANK — class,  order,  rank,  degree 276 

TO  RANSOM — to  redeem,  ransom 440 

RAPACIOUS — rapacious,  ravenous,  voracious. . 50'^ 
RAPIDITY— quickness,  swiftness,  fleetness,  cele 

rity,  rapidity,  velocity 262 

RAPINE — rapine,  plunder,  pillage 507 

RAPTURE — ecstasy,  rapture,  transport 318 

RARE— rare,  scarce,  singular 250 

TO  RASE — to  blot  out,  expunge,  rase  or  erase, 

efface,  cancel,  obliterate 248 

RASH — foolhardy,  adventurous,  rash 321 

RASHNESS— rashness, temerity,  Iiastiness,  preci- 
pitancy  263 

RATE — rate,  proportion,  ratio 434 

RATE — tax,  rate,  assessment  168 

RATE — value,  worth,  rate,  price 436 

TO  RATE— to  estimate,  compute,  rate 432 

RATIO — rate,  proportion,  ratio 434 

RATIONAL — rational,  reasonable 71 

RAVAGE— ravage,  desolation,  devastation 306 

TO  RAVAGE — to  overspread,  overrun,  ravage. . 507 
RAVENOUS — rapacious,  ravenous,  voracious...  507 

RAY — gleam,  glimmer,  ray,  beam. 476 

TO  RAZE — to  demolish,  raze,  dismantle,  destroy  505 

TO  REACH— to  reach,  stretch,  extend 848 

READY — easy,  ready 363 

READY — ready,  apt,  prompt 207 

REAL — actual,  real,  positive 298 

REAL — intrinsick,  genuine,  real 437 

lO  REALIZE— to  fulfil,  accomplish,  realize....  289 

REALM — state,  realm,  commonwealth 189 

REASON — argument,  reason,  proof 77 

REASON— cause,  reason,  motive 77 

REASON — consideration,  reason 77 

REASON — sake,  account,  reason,  purpose,  end..  535 
REASONABLE — fair,  honest,  equitable,  reason- 
able  4iH 

REASONABLE— rational,  reasonable 71 

REBELLION — contumacy,  rebellion 210 

REBELLION— insurrection,  sedition,  rebellion, 

revolt 208 

TO  REBOUND— to  rebound,  reverberate,  recoil  305 
TO  REBUFF — to  refuse,  decline,  reject,  repel, 

rebuff 232 

TO  REBUKE — to  check,  chide,  reprimand,  re- 
prove, rebuke no 

TO  RECALL  i to  abjure,  recant,  retract,  revoke, 

TO  RECANT  \ recall 247 

TO  RECAPITULATE— to  repeat,  recite,  recapi- 
tulate, rehearse 465 

TO  RECEDE— to  recede,  retreat,  withdraw,  re 

tire,  secede 253 

RECEIPT— receipt,  reception 233 


Fa^e 

9D 

443 

442 

443 

401 

303 

203 

204 

197 

335 

535 

533 

534 

271 

264 

280 

504 

305 

289 

J54 

154 

388 

474 

232 

486 

133 

133 

498 

97 

. 95 

97 

262 

362 

361 

361 

255 

305 

469 

275 

495 

497 

501 

475 

476 

119 

281 

355 


1 


INDEX 


Paae 

TO  RECEIVE— to  take,  receive,  accept ,233 

TO  RECEIVE— to  admit,  receive 235 

RECENT— fresh,  new,  novel,  recent,  modern. . . . 268 

RECEPTION— receipt,  reception 233 

RECIPROCAL— mutual,  reciprocal 334 

RECIPROCITY— interchange,  exchange,  recipro- 
city   334 

RECITAL — relation,  recital,  narration 466 

TO  RECITE — to  repeat,  recite,  rehearse,  recapi- 
tulate  •. 465 

TO  RECKON — to  calculate,  compute,  reckon, 

count  or  account,  number 432 

RECKONING — account,  bill,  reckoning 433 

TO  RECLAIM — to  reclaim,  reform 203 

TO  RECLINE — to  recline,  repose 363 

TO  RECOGNISE — to  recognise,  acknowledge  ..  442 
TO  RECOIL— to  rebound,  reverberate,  recoil  . . . 305 
RECOLLECTION — memory,  remembrance,  re- 
collection, reminiscence 72 

RECOMPENSE — compensation,  amends,  satis 

faction,  remuneration,  recompense,  requital. . 438 

RECOMPENSE — gratuity,  recompense 440 

TO  RECONCILE— to  conciliate,  reconcile 153 

TO  RECORD — to  enrol,  enlist,  record,  register. . . 408 

RECORD— record,  register,  archive 469 

TO  RECOUNT — to  relate,  recount,  describe 4CG 

TO  RECOVER — to  recover,  retrieve,  repair,  re- 
cruit  440 

RECOVERY— recovery,  restoration 440 

RECREATION — amusement,  entertainment,  di- 
version, sport,  recreation,  pastime ,391 

TO  RECRUIT— to  recover,  retrieve,  repair,  re- 
cruit   440 

TO  RECTIFY— to  amend,  correct,  reform,  rectify, 

emend,  improve,  mend,  better 201 

RECTITUDE— rectitude,  uprightness 428 

TO  REDEEM— to  redeem,  ransom 440 

REDRESS — redress,  relief 365 

TO  REDUCE— to  reduce,  lower 148 

REDUNDANCY — redundancy,  superfluity,  ex- 
cess   343 

TO  REEL— to  stagger,  reel,  totter 303 

TO  REFER— to  allude,  refer,  hint,  suggest 320 

TO  REFER — to  refer,  relate,  respect,  regard 326 

REFINED — polite,  polished,  refined,  genteel 199 

REFINEMENT — cultivation,  civilization,  refine- 
ment   198 

TO  REFLECT — to  consider,  reflect 76 

TO  REFLECT — to  think,  reflect,  muse,  pon- 
der   76 

REFLECTION— insinuation,  reflection 327 

TO  REFORM — to  amend,  correct,  reform,  rectify, 

emend,  improve,  mend,  better 201 

TO  REFORM— to  reclaim,  reform 203 

REFORM 
REFORMATION 
REFRACTORY- 

tory 208 

TO  REFRAIN — to  abstain,  forbear,  refrain 244 

TO  REFRESH— to  revive,  refresh,  renovate,  re- 
new   . ► . . 269 

REFUGE— asylum,  refuge,  sneiter,  retreat  .- . . 518 

TO  REFUSE— to  deny,  refuse 232 

REFUSE— dregs,  sediment,  drosa,  sruat  . 515 


rad 

TO  REFUSE— to  refuse,  decline,  reject,  repel,  re- 
buff  232 

TO  REFUTE — to  confute,  refute,  oppugn,  dis- 
prove  115 

REGAL— royal,  regal,  kingly 189 

REGARD — care,  concern,  regard 425 

TO  REGARD— to  attend  to,  mind,  heed,  regard  . til 

TO  REG ARD— to  esteem,  respect,  regard 127 

TO  REGARD— to  consider,  regard 77 

TO  REGARD — to  refer,  relate,  respect,  regard. . . 326 

REGARDFUL— mindful,  regardful,  observant 426 

REGARDLESS — indifferent,  unconcerned,  re- 
gardless  375 

REGIMEN — food  diet,  regimen 514 

REGION — district,  region,  quarter 498 

TO  REGISTER— to  enrol,  enlist,  record,  register  468 

REGISTER — record,  register,  archive 469 

REGISTER — list,  roll,  catalogue,  register 468 

TO  REGRET — to  complain,  lament,  regret 409 

TO  REGULATE — to  direct,  dispose,  regulate...  191 

TO  REGULATE — to  govern,  rule,  regulate 206 

TO  REHEARSE — to  repeat,  recite,  rehearse,  re- 
capitulate   465 

REIGN — empire,  reign,  dominion 187 

TO  REJECT — to  refuse,  depline,  reject,  repel,  re- 
buff  232 

REJOINDER — answer,  reply,  rejoinder,  response  460 
TO  RELATE— to  refer,  relate,  respect,  regard...  32€ 

TO  RELATE — to  relate,  recount,  describe 466 

RELATED— connected,  related 419 

RELATION— relation,  recital,  narration 466 


reform,  reformation 203 

unruly,  ungovernable,  rcfrac- 


RELATION  ) relation,  relative,  kindred,  kins- 

RELATIVE  I man 

RELATIONSHIP — kindred,  relationship,  aflinity, 

consanguinity 497 

TO  RELAX — to  relax,  remit 258 

RELENTLESS— implacable,  unrelenting,  relent- 
less, inexorable 381 

RELEVANT— pertinent,  relevant 327 

RELIANCE— dependence,  reliance 416 

RELICKS— leavings,  remains,  relicks 255 

RELIEF— redress,  relief 365 

TO  RELIEVE — to  alleviate,  relieve 361 

TO  RELIEVE — to  help,  assist,  aid,  succour,  re- 
lieve  364 

RELIGIOUS — holy,  pious,  devout,  religious 89 

TO  RELINQUISH— to  abandon,  desert,  forsake, 

relinquish 243 

TO  RELINQUISH— to  leave,  quit,  relinquish  ..  255 

RELISH— taste,  flavour,  relish,  savour 512 

RELUCTANT— averse,  unwilling,  backward,  re- 
luctant, loath 13 

TO  REMAIN — to  continue,  rema'n,  stay 263 

REMAINDER — rest,  remainder,  remnant,  resi- 
due   270 

REMAINS— leavings,  remains,  relicks 25'’ 

REMARK— remark,  observation,  comment,  note. 

annotation,  commentary 151 

REMARKABLE— extraordinary,  remarkable  ...  451 

TO  REMARK — to  notice,  remark,  observe 450 

TO  REMEDY— to  cure,  heal,  remedy 365 

REMEDY— cure,  remedy 36.5 

REMEMBRANCE— memory,  rt  membrance,  le- 
collection,  reminiscence 7u 


INDEX. 


li 


Pago 

KBMEMBRaNCER— monument,  memorial,  re- 
membrancer   500 

REMINISCENCE — memory,  remembrance,  recol- 
lection, reminiscence 72 

REMISS— negligent,  remiss,  careless,  thoughtless, 

heedless,  inattentive 424 

TO  REMIT— to  forgive,  pardon,  absolve,  remit. . 87 

TO  REMIT— to  relax,  remit 256 

REMNANT — rest,  remainder,  remnant,  residue..  270 
TO  REMONSTRATE — to  expostulate,  remon- 
strate  459 

REMORSE — repentance,  penitence,  contrition, 

compunction,  remorse 87 

REMOTE — distant,  far,  remote 286 

REMUNERATION— compensation,  satisfaction, 
amends,  remuneration,  recompense,  requital, 

reward 438 

TO  REND — to  break,  rack,  rend,  tear 50l 

TO  RENEW  } to  revive,  refresh,  renovate, 

TO  RENOVATE  ^ renew 269 

TO  RENOUNCE — to  abandon,  resign,  renounce, 

abdicate 243 

RENOWN — fame,  reputation,  renown 472 

RENOWNED — famous,  celebrated,  renowned,  il- 
lustrious   473 

TO  REPAIR — to  recover,  retrieve,  repair,  recruit  440 
REPARATION — restoration,  restitution,  repara- 
tion, amends 439 

REPARTEE— retort,  repartee 461 

TO  REPAY — to  restore,  return,  repay 439 

TO  REPEAL — to  abolish,  abrogate,  repeal,  annul, 

revoke,  cancel 247 

rO  REPEAT — to  repeat,  recite,  rehearse,  recapi- 
tulate  465 

rO  REPEL— to  refuse,  decline,  reject,  repel,  rebuff  232 
REPENTANCE — repentance,  penitence,  contri- 
tion, compunction,  remorse 88 

REPETITION — repetition,  tautology 466 

TO  REPINE — to  complain,  murmur,  repine 409 

REPLY — answer,  reply,  rejoinder,  response 460 

REPORT — fame,  report,  rumour,  hearsay 472 

REPOSE — ease,  quiet,  rest,  repose  362 

PO  REPOSE— to  recline,  repose 363 

REPREHENSION— reprehension,  reproof 110 

REPRESENTATION — show,  exhibition,  repre- 
sentation, sight,  spectacle 452 

TO  REPRESS— to  repress,  restrain,  suppress 221 

REPRIEVE — reprieve,  respite 257 

TO  REPRIMAND — to  check,  chide,  reprimand, 

reprove,  rebuke 110 

REPRISAL— retaliation,  reprisal 440 

REPROACH — discredit,  reproach,  scandal,  dis- 
grace   107 

REPROACH — reproach,  contumely,  obloquy  ....  108 
TO  REPROACH — to  blame,  reprove,  reproach, 

upbraid,  certsure,  condemn 110 

REPRO  \(yHFUL — reproachful,  abusive,  scurri- 
lous   109 

REPROBATE — profligate,  abandoned,  repro- 
bate  249 

rO  REPROBATE — to  reprobate,  condemn 109 

REPROOF — reprehension,  reproof 110 

rO  REPROVE— to  check,  chide,  reprimand,  re- 
prove, rebuke  •• 110 

4*= 


P<jg» 

REPUGNANCE — aversion,  antipathy,  dislike, 

hatred,  repugnance 136 

REPUTATION— character,  reputation 472 

REPUTATION — fame,  reputation,  renown 472 

REPUTATION  ) name,  reputation,  credit,  re- 

REPUTE  S pute 472 

REQUEST- -prayer,  petition,  request,  entreaty, 

suit 87 

TO  REQUEST — to  ask,  beg,  request 157 

TO  REQUIRE— to  demand,  require 228 

REQUISITE— necessary,  expedient,  essential,  re- 
quisite  417 

REQUITAL — compensation,  satisfaction,  amends, 
remuneration,  recompense,  requital,  reward. . 438 

REQUITAL — retribution,  requital 440 

TO  RESCUE— to  deliver,  rescue,  save 240 

RESEARCH — examination,  search,  inquiry,  re- 
search, investigation,  scrutiny 98 

RESEMBLANCE — likeness,  resemblance,  simi- 
larity or  similitude 532 

RESENTFUL — resentful,  revengeful,  vindictive  119 
RESENTMENT — anger,  resentment,  wrath,  ire, 

indignation 118 

RESERVATION  ) 

RESERVE  Jrese,ve,r«erval.on 1,8 

TO  RESERVE— to  reserve,  retain 173 

TO  RESIDE — to  abide,  sojourn,  dwell,  reside,  in- 
habit   263 

RESIDUE — rest,  remainder,  remnant,  residue...  270 
TO  RESIGN — to  abandon,  resign,  renounce,  ab- 
dicate   243 

lO  RESIGN— to  give  up,  abandon  forego,  re- 
sign  242 

RESIGNATION— patience,  endurance,  'resigna- 
tion   14'J 

TO  RESIST — to  oppose,  withstand,  thwart,  re- 
sist  115 

TO  RESOLVE— to  determine,  resolve 223 

TO  RESOLVE— to  solve,  resolve 224 

RESOLUTE— decided,  determined,  resolute 224 

RESOLUTION— courage,  fortitude,  resolution. . . 140 
TO  RESORT  TO— to  frequent,  haunt,  resort  to. . 491 

RESOURCE— expedient,  resource 535 

TO  RESPECT — to  esteem,  respect,  regard 427 

TO  RESPECT — to  honour,  reverence,  respect...  427 
TO  RESPECT — to  refer,  relate,  respect,  regard..  326 

RESPECTFUL— dutiful,  obedient,  respectful 150 

RESPITE— interval,  respite 257 

RESPITE— reprieve,  respite 257 

RESPONSE— answer,  reply,  rejoinder,  response  460 
RESPONSIBLE — answ^erable,  responsible,  ac- 
countable, amenable 183 

REST— cessation,  stop,  rest,  intermission 257 

REST— ease,  quiet,  rest,  repose 362 

REST— rest,  remainder,  remnant,  residue 270 

TO  REST — to  found,  ground,  rest,  build 498 

TO  REST— to  stand,  stop,  rest,  stagnate 253 

RESTITUTION  i restoration,  restitution,  repa- 

RESTORATION  1 ration,  amends 439 

RESTORATION— recovery,  restoration 440 

'I'O  RESTORE — to  restore,  return,  repay 439 

TO  RESTRAIN— to  coerce,  restrain 220 

TO  RESTRAIN— to  repress,  restrain, suppress  . 221 
TO  RESTRAIN,  vide  RESTRICTION. 


INDEX. 


Ill 

RESTRAINT— constraint,  nstraini,  restriction. . 
TO  RESTRICT— to  bound.  limit,  confine,  circum- 
scribe, restrict. 

TO  RESTRICT,  vide  RESTRICTION. 
RESTRICTION — constraint,  restraint,  restriction 
RESULT — effect,  consequence,  result,  issue,  event 

TO  RETAIN— to  hold,  keep,  detain,  retain 

TO  RETAIN— to  reserve,  retain 

RETALIATION — retaliation,  reprisal 

TO  RETARD — to  delay,  defer,  postpone,  procras- 
tinate, prolong,  protract,  retard 

TO  RETARD— to  retard,  hinder 

RETINUE — procession,  train,  retinue 

TO  RETIRE— to  recede,  retreat,  retire,  secede, 

withdraw 

RETIREMENT — privacy,  retirement,  seclusion. . 

RETORT— retort,  repartee 

TO  RETRACT— to  abjure,  recant,  retract,  re- 
voke, recall 

RETREAT — asylum,  refuge,  shelter,  retreat 

TO  RETREAT — to  recede,  retreat,  retire,  with- 
draw, secede 

RETRIBUTION — retribution,  requital 

TO  RETRIEVE— to  recover,  retrieve,  repair,  re- 
cruit   

RETROSPECT— retrospect,  review,  survey 

TO  RETURN— to  restore,  return,  repay 

TO  RETURN — to  revert,  return 

TO  REVEAL— to  publish,  promulgate,  divulge, 

reveal,  disclose 

TO  REVENGE— to  avenge,  revenge,  vindicate. . 
REVENGEFUL— resentful,  revengeful,  vindictive 
TO  REVERBERATE— to  rebound,  reverberate, 

recoil 

TO  REVERE  ) to  adore,  reverence,  vone- 

TO  REVERENCE  J rate,  revere 

REVERENCE— awe,  reverence,  dread 

TO  REVERENCE — to  honour,  reverence,  respect 

REVERIE — dream,  reverie 

TO  REVERSE — to  overturn,  overthrow,  subvert, 

invert,  reverse 

TO  REVERT— to  revert,  return 

REVIEW — retrospect,  review,  survey 

REVIEW — revisal,  revision,  review 

TO  REVILE— t©  revile,  vilify 

REVISAL  / . , 

REVISION  i 

TO  REVIVE — to  revive,  refresh,  renovate,  re- 

new 

TO  REVOKE — to  abjure,  recant,  retract,  revoke, 

recall 

TO  REVOKE — to  abolish,  abrogate,  repeal,  re- 
voke, annul,  cancel 

REVOLT — insurrection,  sedition,  rebellion,  re- 
volt   

REWARD — compensation,  satisfaction,  amends, 
remuneration,  recompense,  requital,  reward 
RHETORICK — elocution,  eloquence,  oratory,  rhe- 

torick 

RICHES — riches,  wealth,  opulence,  affluence 

RIDICULE— ridicule,  satire,  irony,  sarcasm 

TO  RIDICULE — to  laugh  at,  ridicule 

r O RIDICULE— to  deride,  mock,  ridicule,  rally, 
banter........... 


RIDICULOUS — laughable,  ludicrous,  ridiculous, 

comical  or  comick,  droll 103 

RIGHT — straight,  right,  direct 430 

RIGHT — right,  just,  proper 430 

EIGHT— right,  claim,  privilege 228 

RIGHTEOUS — godly,  righteous 90 

RIGID  ) austere,  rigid,  severe,  rigorous, 

RIGOROUS  J stern 382 

RIGOROUS — harsh,  rough,  severe,  rigorous 382 

RIM — border,  edge,  rim,  brim,  brink,  margin* 

verge 176 

RIND — skin,  hide,  peel,  rind 518 

RIPE— ripe,  mature 287 

RISE — origin,  original,  rise,  source 292 

TO  RISE — to  rise,  issue,  emerge 291 

TO  RISE — to  arise  or  rise,  mount,  ascend,  climb, 

scale . 302 

‘TO  RISK — to  hazard,  venture,  risk 171 

RITE— form,  ceremony,  rite,  observance 83 

RIVALRY— competition,  emulation,  rivalry  ....  J3l 

ROAD — way,  road,  route  or  rout,  course 275 

TO  ROAM — to  wander,  stroll,  ramble,  rove,  roam, 

range .!....  126 

ROBBERY — depredation,  robbery 50£ 

ROBUST — strong,  firm,  robust,  sturdy 372 

ROLL — list,  catalogue,  roll,  register 468 

ROMANCE — fable,  tale,  novel,  romance 467 

ROOM — space,  room 350 

TO  ROT — to  rot,  putrefy,  corrupt 504 

ROTUNDITY — roundness,  rotundity 351 

TO  ROVE — to  wander,  stroll,  ramble,  rove,  roam, 

range I2<f 

ROUGH — abrupt,  rugged,  rough 20) 

ROUGH — coarse,  rough,  rude 201 

ROUGH — harsh,  rough,  severe,  rigorous 38i( 

ROUNDNESS — roundness,  rotundity 351 

ROUND — circuit,  tour,  round 17i 

'PO  ROUSE — to  awaken,  excite,  provoke,  rouse, 

stir  up 31(1 

TO  ROUT — to  beat,  defeat,  overpower,  rout, 

overthrow 143 

ROUTE — way,  road,  route  or  rout,  course 273 

ROYAL — royal,  regal,  kingly 189 

TO  RUB — to  rub,  chafe,  fret,  gall 309 

RUDE — coarse,  rough,  rude 201 

RUDE — impertinent,  rude,  saucy,  impudent,  inso- 
lent  200 

RUEFUL — piteous,  doleful,  woful,  rueful 411 

RUGGED— abrupt,  rugged,  rough 204 

RUIN — bane,  pest,  ruin 503 

RUIN — destruction,  ruin 504 

RUINOUS — destructive,  ruinous,  pernicious 504 

RULE— order,  method,  rule 276 

RULE— guide,  rule 210 

RULE— maxim,  precept,  rule,  law 211 

TO  RULE — to  govern,  rule,  regulate 206 

RULING — prevailing,  prevalent,  ruling,  predomi- 
nant   205 

RUMOUR — fame,  report,  rumour,  hearsay 472 

RUPTURE — rupture,  fracture,  fraction 502 

RURAL  ) , . , 

RUSTtCK  ! ^ 

RUSTICK— couniryman,  peasant,  swain,  hind, 
rustick,  clo'vn  331 


Page 

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236 

178 

440 

260 

260 

493 

253 

253 

461 

247 

518 

253 

440 

440 

480 

439 

327 

443 

119 

119 

305 

81 

307 

427 

91 

503 

327 

480 

480 

108 

480 

269 

247 

247 

208 

438 

462 

340 

104 

103 

103 


Pige 

8ACUAMENT-— Lord's  supper,  eucliarist,  sacra- 
ment   B3 

SACRED — holy,  sacred,  divine 89 

SAD — dull,  gloomy,  sad,  dismal 410 

SAD — mournful,  sad 410 

SAFE — safe,  secure 366 

SAGE  i . . , 

SAGACITY — penetration, acuteness,  sagacity...  401 
SAILOR — seaman,  waterman,  sailor,  mariner. . . 337 
SALARY— allowance,  stipend,  salary,  wages, 

hire,  pay 164 

SAKE — sake,  account,  reason,  purpose,  end 535 

SALUBRIOUS  1 healthy,  wholesome,  salubrious, 
SALUTARY  \ salutary 366 

SALUTATION!  , . , , ..  .p, 

iTrpri  c salute,  salutation,  greeting 461 

SAIjiJ  i Jbi  » 9 

TO  SALUTE— to  accost,  address,  salute 461 

TO  SANCTION— to  countenance,  sanction,  sup- 
port   310 

SANCTITY— holiness,  sanctity 88 

SANE— sound,  sane,  healthy 366 

SANGUINARY— bloody,  blood-thirsty,  sangui- 
nary   507 

TO  SAP — to  sap,  undermine 502 

SAPIENT— sage,  sagacious,  sapient 401 

SARCASM — ridicule,  satire,  irony,  sarcasm 101 

TO  SATIATE— to  satisfy,  satiate,  glut,  cloy. .. . 383 

SATIRE— ridicule,  satire,  irony,  sarcasm 104 

SATIRE — wit,  humour,  satire,  irony,  burlesque  70 
SATISFACTION — compensation,  satisfaction, 
amends,  remuneration,  recompense,  requital, 

reward 438 

SATISFACTION — contentment,  satisfaction....  384 

TO  SATISFY — to  satisfy,  please,  gratify 383 

TO  SATISFY— to  satisfy,  satiate,  glut,  cioy....  383 
SAUCY— impertinent,  rude,  saucy,  impudent,  in- 
solent   200 

SAVAGE— cruel,  inhuman,  barbarous,  brutal, 

savage 373 

SAVAGE— ferocious,  fierce,  savage 374 

TO  SAVE— to  deliver,  rescue?  save 240 

TO  SAVE — to  keep,  save,  preserve 178 

TO  SAVE — to  save,  spare,  preserve,  protect 179 

SAVING— economical,  saving,  sparing,  thrifty,  pe- 
nurious, niggardly 161 

TO  SAUNTER — to  linger,  tarry,  loiter,  saunter, 

lag 261 

SAVOUR — taste,  flavour,  relish,  savour 512 

SAW,  vide  SAYING. 

TO  SAY — to  speak,  say,  tell 465 

SAYING — a.viom, maxim,  aphorism,  apophthegm, 

saying,  adage,  proverb,  by-word,  saw 210 

TO  SCALE — to  arise  or  lise,  mount,  ascend, 

climb,  scale 302 

SCANDAL— discredit,  disgrace,  reproach,  scandal  107 

SCANDALOUS— infamous,  scandalous 108 

SC.VNTY — bare,  scanty,  destitute 250 

SCARCE — tare,  scarce,  singular 250 

SCARCELY— hardly,  scarcely 364 

SCARCITY— scarcity,  deartli 250 

To  SCATTER— to  spread,  scatter,  disperse 344 

SCENT — smell,  scent,  odour,  perfume,  fragrance  511 
SCHEME — design,  plan,  scheme,  project 534 


INDEX.  liii 

F&^ 

SCHISMATICK— heretick,  schismatick,  secta 

rian,  dissenter,  nonconformist 92 

SCHOLAR— scholar,  disciple,  pupil 197 

SCHOOL— school,  academy 197 

SCIENCE — knowledge,  science,  learning,  erudi- 
tion   198 

TO  SCOFF — to  scoff,  gibe,  jeer,  sneer 104 

SCOPE — tendency,  drift,  scope,  aim 325 

TO  SCORN — to  contemn,  despise,  scorn,  disdain  101 
SCORNFUL — contemptuous,  scornful,  disdainful  102 

TO  SCREAM — to  cry,  scream,  shriek 470 

TO  SCREEN— to  cover,  shelter,  screen 517 

SCRIBE — writer,  pentnan,  scribe *. 336 

TO  SCRUPLE — to  scruple,  hesitate,  waver,  fluc- 
tuate   ' 97 

SCRUPULOUS — conscientious,  scrupulous 88 

TO  SCRUTINIZE— to  pry,  scrutinize,  dive  into  99 
SCRUTINY — examination,  search,  inquiry,  re- 
search, investigation,  scrutiny 98 

SCUM— dregs,  sediment,  dross,  scum,  refuse 51? 

SCURRILOUS — reproachful,  abusive,  scurrilous  109 

SEAL— seal,  stamp 450 

SEAMAN — seaman,  waterman,  sailor,  mariner. . 337 
SEARCH — examination,  search,  inquiry,  investi- 
gation, research,  scrutiny 98 

TO  SEARCH — to  examine,  seek,  search,  explore  98 
SEASON  ) lime,  season,  timely,  season- 

SEASONABLEJ  able 266 

TO  SECEDE— to  recede,  retreat,  retire,  with- 
draw, secede 253 

SECLUSION — privacy,  retirement,  seclusion  ..  253 
TO  SECOND — to  second,  support 363 

SECONDARY  ! inferiour. ..  274 

SECRECY — concealment,  secrecy 519 

SECRET — clandestine,  secret 520 

SECRET— secret,  hidden,  latent,  occult,  myste- 
rious  520 

TO  SECRETE— to  conceal,  hide,  secrete 519 

TO  SECRETE  ONE’S  SELF— to  abscond,  steal 
away,  secrete  one’s  self 520 

.T..  . ( heretick,  schismatick,  sectarian, 

SECTARIAN  ) . j.  , r 

s sectary,  dissenter,  nonconform- 
SECIARY  ^ 32 

SECULAR— secular,  temporal,  worldly .....  90 

SECURE— certain,  sure,  secure 366 

SECURE— safe,  secure 366 

SECURITY — deposite,  pledge,  security 183 

SECURITY— fence,  guard,  security 183 

SEDATE — composed,  sedate 227 

SEDIMENT— dregs,  sediment,  dross,  scum,  refuse  515 
SEDITION — insurrection,  sedition,  rebellion,  re- 
volt  208 

SEDITIOUS— factious,  seditious 209 

SEDITIOUS— tumultuous,  turbulent,  seditiou.s, 

mutinous 208 

TO  SEDUCE — to  allure,  tempt,  seduce,  entice, 

decoy - 319 

SEDULOUS— sedulous,  diligent,  assiduous 297 

TO  SEE — to  look,  see,  behold,  view,  eye 482 

TO  SEE — to  see,  perceive,  observe 482 

TO  SEEK— to  examine,  seek,  search,  explore. .. . 98 

TO  SEEM — to  seem,  appear 483 

SEEMLY— becoming,  decent,  seemly,  fit,  suitable  246 


liv 


INDEX, 


self-will,  self-conceit, 
self-sufficiency 100 


Page 

TO  SEIZE — to  lay  or  take  hold  of,  catch,  seize, 

snatch,  grasp,  gripe 237 

SEIZUSE — capture,  seizure,  prize 506 

TO  SELECT — to  choose,  pick,  select 234 

SELF-CONCEIT 
SELF-SUFFICIENCY 
SELF-WILL 
SEMBLANCE— show,  outside  appearance,  sem- 
blance   453 

SENIOR— senior,  elder,  older 269 

SENSATION — sentiment,  sensation,  perception. . 376 

SENSATION  i - __ 

oniv-Dn  i feeling,  sensation,  sense 3/6 

SENSE 

SENSE — sense,  judgement 70 

SENSE— signification,  meaning,  import,  sense. . . 456 
SENSIBILITY — feeling,  sensibility,  susceptibi- 
lity  376 

TO  BE  SENSIBI,E— to  feel,  be  sensible,  con- 
scious   376 

SENSITIVE  pensible,  sensitive,  sentient 3/5 

SENSUALIST— sensualist,  voluptuary,  epicure. . 375 

SENTENCE — decision,  judgement,  sentence 224 

SENTENCE— sentence,  period,  phrase,  proposi- 
tion   464 

TO  SENTENCE- to  sentence,  condemn,  doom..  169 

SENTENTIOUS — sententious,  sentimental 376 

SENTIENT — sensible,  sensitive,  sentient 375 

SENTIMENT — sentiment, sensation, perception. . 376 

SENTIMENT — opinion,  sentiment,  notion 80 

SENTIMENTAL— sententious,  sentimental 376 

SENTINEL — guard,  sentinel 180 

SEPARATE — different,  distinct,  separate 282 

TO  SEPARATE — to  abstract,  separate,  distin- 
guish   420 

TO  SEPARATE — to  divide,  separate,  part 484 

TO  SEPARATE— to  separate,  sever,  disjoin,  de- 
tach   421 

SEPULCHRE — grave,  tomb,  sepulchre 500 

SEPULTURE— burial,  interment,  sepulture  ....  84 

SEQ.UEL— sequel,  close 284 

SERENE — calm,  placid,  serene 362 

SERIES — series,  course 275 

SERIES — succession,  series,  order 271 

SERIOUS — eager,  earnest,  serious 392 

SERIOUS— grave,  serious,  solemn 392 

SERVANT — servant,  domestick,  menial,  drudge  328 
SERVICE — advantage,  benefit,  utility,  service, 

avail,  use 398. 

SERVICE— benefit,  service,  good  office 166 

SERVITUDE — servitude,  slavery,  bondage 328 

TO  SET — to  put,  place,  lay,  set 280 

TO  SET  FREE — to  free,  set  free,  delher,  libe- 
rate   240 

TO  SETTLE — to  compose,  settle 227 

TO  SETTLE — to  fix,  determine,  settle,  limit  ....  227 

TO  SETTLE— to  fix,  settle,  establish 227 

TO  SEVER— to  separate,  sever,  disjoin,  de‘ach..  421 
SEVERAL— different,  several,  divers,  sundry,  va- 
rious'   283 

SEVERE— austere,  rigid,  severe,  rigorous,  stern. . 382 

SEVERE — harsh,  rough,  severe,  rigorous 382 

SEVERE — strict,  severe 204 

SFiX— gender,  sex 514 


SHACKLE— chain,  letter,  band,  shackle  ......  217 

'shadow  

TO  SHAKE— to  shake,  tremble,  shudder,  quiver, 

quake 305 

TO  SHAKE — to  shake,  agitate,  toss 304 

SHALLOW — superficial,  shallow,  flimsy.. 457 

SHAME— dishonour,  disgrace,  shame 107 

SHAMELESS— immodest, impudent,  shameless..  247 
TO  SHAPE— to  form,  fashion,  mould,  shape  ....  293 

TO  SHARE — to  divide,  distribute,  share 485 

SHARE — part,  division,  portion,  share 485 

TO  SHARE — to  partake,  participate,  share 486 

SHARP— sharp,  acute,  keen 402 

TO  SHED— to  pour,  spill,  shed 346 

SHELTER — asylum,  refuge,  shelter,  retreat 518 

TO  SHELTER— to  cover,  shelter,  screen 517 

TO  SHELTER— to  harbour,  shelter,  lodge 517 

SHIFT — evasion,  shift,  subterfuge 526 

TO  SHINE — -to  shine,  glitter,  sparkle,  radiate, 

glare 476 

SHOCK — shock,  concussion 305 

SHOCKING — formidable,  dreadful,  shocking,  ter- 
rible  309 

TO  SHOOT— to  shoot,  dart 305 

SHORT — short,  brief,  concise,  succinct,  summary  286 
SHOW— show,  outside,  appearance,  semblance..  453 
SHOW — show,  exhibition,  representation,  sight, 

spectacle 452 

SHOW— show,  parade,  ostentation 453 

TO  SHOW — to  show,  point  out,  mark,  indicate..  451 

TO  SHOW — to  show,  exhibit,  display 473 

SHOWY — showy,  gaudy,  gay 453 

SHREWD — acute,  keen,  shrewd 401 

TO  SHRIEK — to  cry,  scream,  shriek 470 

7’0  SHRINK— to  spring,  start,  startle,  shrink... . 304 
TO  SHUDDER — to  shake,  tremble,  quiver,  quake, 

shudder 305 

TO  SHUN— to  avoid,  eschew,  shun,  elude 527 

TO  SHUT — to  close,  shut 286 

S^CK  } 

SICKLY  ( nftorbid 367 

SICKNESS- sickness,  illness,  indisposition 367 

SIGHT — show,  exhibition,  representation,  sight, 

spectacle 452 

SIGN— mark,  sign,  note,  symptom,  token,  indica- 
tion   447 

SIGN  i , 

SIGNAL  r'S"’ 

SIGNAL— signal,  memorable 474 

TO  SIGNALIZE— to  signalize,  distinguish 474 

SIGNIFICANT— significant,  expressive 456 

SIGNIFICATION — signification,  meaning,  sense, 

import 456 

SIGNIFICATION — signification,  avail,  import- 
ance, consequence,  moment,  weight 456 

TO  SIGNIFV— to  denote,  signify,  imply 454 

TO  SIGNIFY— to  express,  declare,  signify,  utter, 

testify 451 

SILENCE — silence,  taciturnity 46^ 

SILENT— silent,  dumb,  mute,  speechless 46^, 

SILLY— simple,  silly,  foolish 40' 

SIMILARITY— likeness,  resemblance,  similarity 
or  similitude 531 


INDEX. 


Iv 


Page 

SlMfLE  ) . . ...  , 

SIMILITUDE  comparison...  532 

SIMILITUDE— likeness,  resemblance,  similarity 


or  similitude 532 

SIMPLE— simple,  single,  singular 250 

SIMPLE— simple,  silly,  foolish 401 

SIMULATION — simulation,  dissimulation 520 

SIN — crime,  vice,  sin 122 

SINCERE — candid,  open,  sincere 430 

SINCERE— hearty,  warm,  sincere,  cordial 431 

SINCERE — sincere,  honest,  true,  plain 430 

SINGLE — solitary,  sole,  only,  single 251 

SINGLE — one,  single,  only 251 

SINGLE  j . , . , . , 

SINGULAR  r™''"'*'”'""' ^ 

SINGULAR — rare,  scarce,  singular 250 

SINGULAR — particular,  singular,  odd,  ecctmtrick, 

strange 385 

TO  SINK — to  fall,  drop,  droop,  sink,  tutnble 303 

SITE — place,  spot,  site 278 

SITUATION— circumstance,  situation 173 

SITUATION — place,  situation,  station,  position, 

post 278 

S-ITUATION— situation,  condition,  state,  predica- 
ment, plight,  case 279 

SIZE — size,  magnitude,  greatness,  bulk 348 

TO  SKETCH — to  paint,  depict,  delineate,  sketch  338 

SKETCH- sketch,  outlines 338 

SKILFUL — clever,  skilful,  e.xpert,  adroit,  dexter- 
ous  69 

SKIN— skin,  hide,  peel,  rind 518 

SLACK — slack,  loose 256 

T'O  SLANDER— to  asperse,  detract,  defame,  ca- 
lumniate, slander 105 

SLAVERY — servitude,  slavery,  bondage. 328 

SLAUGHTER — carnage,  slaughter,  massacre, 

butchery 510 

TO  SLAY— to  kill,  murder,  slay,  assassinate 510 

TO  SLEEP— to  sleep,  slumber,  doze,  drowse,  nap  300 

SLEEPY— sleepy,  drowsy,  lethargick 300 

SLENDER— thin,  slender,  slight,  slim 351 

TO  SLIDE— to  slip,  slide,  glide 303 

SLIGHT— cursory,  hasty,  slight,  desultory 262 

SLIGHT  ) 

SLIM  I thin,  slender,  slight,  slim 351 

TO  SLIGHT — to  disregard,  neglect,  slight 423 

TO  SLIP— to  slip,  slide,  glide 303 

SLOTHFUL — inactive,  inert,  lazy,  slothful,  slug- 
gish   298 

SLOW — slow,  dilatory,  tardy,  tedious 260 

SLUGGISH — inactive,  inert,  lazy,  slothful,  slug- 
gish  298 

TO  SLUMBER— to  sleep,  slumber,  doze,  drowse, 

nap 300 

SLY — cunning,  crafty,  subtle,  sly,  wily 522 

SMALL — little,  diminutive,  small 350 

TO  SMEAR — to  smear,  daub 515 

SMELL — smell,  scent,  odour,  perfume,  fragrance  511 

SMOOTH — even,  smooth,  level,  plain 435 

TO  SMOTHER — to  stifle,  suppress,  smother 222 

TO  SMOTHER — to  suffocate,  stifle,  smother, 

choke 222 

ro  SNATCH — to  lay  or  take  hold  of,  catch,  seize, 
snatch,  grasp, gripe • ...  237 


TO  SNEER — to  scoff,  gibe,  jeer,  sneer. ...  ....  1Q4 

TO  SOAK— to  soak,  drench,  steep 512 

SOBER — abstinent,  sober,  abstemious,  temperate  244 

SOBER — sober,  grave 390 

SOBRIETY— modesty,  moderation,  temperance, 

sobriety  245 

SOCIAL  ) . . . 

SOCIABI  E \ social,  sociable 487 


SOCIETY — association,  society,  company,  part- 


nership  488 

SOCIETY — community,  society 487 

SOCIETY —fellowship,  society 489 

SOCIETY — society,  company 487 

SOFT — soft,  mild,  gentle,  meek 359 

TO  SOIL — to  stain,  soil,  sully,  tarnish 514 

TO  SOJOURN — to  abide,  sojourn,  dwell,  reside, 

inhabit 263 

TO  SOLACE— to  console,  solace,  comfort 358 

SOLDIER-LIKE — martial,  military,  soldier-like, 

warlike 337 

SOLE — solitary,  sole,  only,  single 251 

SOLEIMN — grave,  serious,  solemn 392 

TO  SOLICIT — to  beg,  beseech,  solicit,  entreat, 

supplicate,  implore,  crave 158 

SOLICITATION — solicitation,  importunity 158 

SOLICITUDE — care,  anxiety,  solicitude 425 

SOLID— firm,  fixed,  solid,  stable 226 

SOLID— hard,  firm,  solid 373 

SOLID— substantial,  solid 372 

SOLITARY — alone,  solitary,  lonely 252 

SOLITARY— solitary,  sole,  only,  single 251 

SOLITARY — solitary,  desert,  desolate 253 

TO  SOLVE— to  solve,  resolve 224 

SOME — some,  any 256 

SOON — soon,  early,  betimes 262 

TO  SOOTH— to  ailay,  sooth,  appease,  assuage, 

mitigate 361 

SORDID — mean,  pitiful,  sordid 411 

SORROW — affliction,  grief,  sorrow 408 

SORRY — sorry,  grieved,  hurt 412 

SORT — kind,  species,  sort 495 

SOVEREIGN— prince,  monarch,  sovereign,  po- 
tentate   188 

SOUL — soul,  mind 65 

SOUND — sound,  sane,  healthy 366 

SOUND — sound,  tone 511 

SOURCE— origin,  original,  rise,  source 292 

SOURCE— spring,  fountain,  source 353 

SPACE— space,  room 350 

SPACIOUS — ample,  spacious,  capacious 350 

TO  SPARE — to  give,  afford,  spare 163 

TO  SPARE — to  save,  spare,  preserve,  protect 179 

SPARING — economical,  saving,  sparing,  thrifty, 

niggardly 16- 

SPARK— gallant,  beau,  spark 381 

TO  SPARKLE— to  shine,  glitter,  glare,  sparkle, 

radiate 476 

TO  SPEAK-to  speak,  say,  tell 465 

TO  SPEAK — to  speak,  talk,  converse,  discourse. . 459 
TO  SPEAK-to  utter,  speak,  articulate,  pro- 
nounce   459 

SPECIAL— special,  specifick,  particular 252 

SPECIES— kind,  species,  sort 496 

SPECIFICK— special,  specifick,  particular 253 


INDEX. 


tri 

SPECIMEN — copy,  model,  pattern,  specimen.... 
SPECIOUS — colourable,  specious,  ostensible,  fea- 
sible, plausible 

SPECK — blemish,  stain,  spot,  speck,  flaw 

SPECTACLE— show,  exhibition,  representation, 

sight,  spectacle 

SPECTATOR — looker-on,  spectator,  beholder,  ob- 
server   

SPECTRE— vision,  apparition,  phantom,  spectre, 

ghost 

SPECULATION— theory,  speculation 

SPE  ECH — address,  speech,  harangue,  oration .... 
SPEECH — language,  tongue,  speech,  idiom,  dia- 
lect  

SPEECHLESS — silent,  dumb,  mute,  speechless. . 
TO  SPEED — to  hasten,  accelerate,  speed,  expe- 
dite, despatch 

TO  SPEND — to  spend,  exhaust,  drain 

TO  SPEND — to  spend  or  expend,  waste,  dissi- 
pate, squander 

SPHERE— circle,  sphere,  orb,  globe 

TO  SPILL— to  pour,  spill,  shed 

SPIRIT— animation,  life,  vivacity,  spirit 

SPIRITED— spirituous,  spirited,  spiritual,  ghostly 
SPIRITUAL — incorporeal,  unbodied,  immaterial, 

spiritual 

SPIRITUAL  ) spirituous,  spirited,  ghostly,  spi- 

SPIRITUOUSi  ritual 

SPITE — malice,  rancour,  spite,  grudge,  pique..,. . 
SPLENDOUR — Drightness,  lustre,  splendour,  bril- 
liancy   

SPLENDOUR — splendour,  magnificence,  pomp. . 
SPLENETICK — gloomy,  morose,  sullen,  splene- 

lick 

TO  SPLIT — to  break,  burst,  crack,  split 

SPOIL — booty,  spoil,  prey 

SPONTANEOUSLY— willingly,  s}W)ntaueously, 

voluntarily 

SPORT — amusement,  diversion,  entertainment, 

sport,  recreation,  pastime 

SPORT— play,  game,  sport 

TO  SPORT — to  jest,  joke,  make  game  of,  sport. . 
SPORTIVE — lively,  sprightly,  vivacious,  sportive, 

merry,  jocund 

SPOT — place,  spot,  site 

SPOT — blemish,  stain,  spot,  speck,  flaw 

SPOTLESS,  vide  UNSPOTTED. 

TO  SPOUT— to  spurt,  spout 

SPRAIN — strain,  sprain,  stress,  force 

TO  SPREAD — to  spread,  scatter,  disperse 

TO  SPREAD — to  spread,  expand,  diffuse 

I'O  SPREAD— to  spread,  circulate,  propagate,  dis- 
seminate   

SPRIGHTLY — cheerful,  merry,  sprightly,  gay. .. 
SPRIGHTLY— lively,  sprightly,  vivacious,  sport- 
ive, merry 

SPRING — spring,  fountain,  source 

I'G  SPRING — to  arise,  proceed,  issue,  spring,  flow, 

emanate 

TO  SPRING— to  spring,  start,  startle,  shrink. .. . 

TO  SPRINKLE-tosprinkle,  bedew 

TO  SPROUT— to  sprout,  bud 

SPRUCE— finical,  foppish,  spruce 

SPURIOUS— spurious,  suppositious,  counterfeit. . 


TO  SPURT— to  spurt,  spojt 353 

SPY — emissary,  spy 446 

TO  SQUANDER — to  spend  or  expend,  waste, 

squander 344 

SQUEAMISH — fastidious,  squeamish 385 

SQUEEZE— to  break,  bruise,  squeeze,  pound, 

crush 501 

TO  SQUEEZE— to  press,  squeeze,  pinch,  gripe..  30C 
STABILITY — constancy,  stability,  steadiness, 

firmness 226 

STABLE — firm,  fixed,  solid,  stable 226 

STAFF— staff,  stay,  prop,  support 238 

STAFF — staff,  slick,  crutch 239 

j TO  STAGGER — to  stagger,  reel,  totter 303 

I TO  STAGNATE— to  stand,  stop,  rest,  stagnate..  k58 

I STAIN — blemish,  stain,  spot,  speck,  fiaw 127 

j TO  STAIN— to  colour,  dye,  tinge,  stain 516 

TO  STAIN — to  stain, soil,  sully,  tarnish. 514 

TO  STAMMER — to  hesitate,  falter,  stammer, 

stutter 97 

STAMP— mark,  print,  impression,  stamp 446 

TO  STAMP— to  seal,  stamp 450 

TO  STAND— to  stand,  stop,  rest,  stagnate 258 

STANDARD— criterion,  standard 225 

TO  STARE — to  stare,  gape,  gaze 479 

TO  START  ) 

> to  spring,  start,  startle,  shrink. . 304 

TO  STARTLE  $ ‘ > > 

STATE — situation,  condition,  state,  predicament, 

plight,  case 279 

STATE— state,  realm,  commonwealth 189 

STATION — condition,  station 280 

STATION— place,  situation, station, position,  post  278 
STATELY— magisterial,  mnjestick,stalcly,  pomp- 
ous, august,  dignified 454 

STAY— staff,  stay,  support 238 

TO  STAY— to  continue,  remain,  stay 263 

STEADINESS— constancy,  stability,  steadiness, 

firmness 226 

TO  STEAL  AWAY— to  abscond,  steal  away,  se- 
crete one’s  self 520 

TO  STEEP— to  soak,  drench,  steep 512 

STEP— pace,  step 301 

STERN — austere,  rigid,  severe, rigorous,  stern. . . 382 

STICK— staff,  stick,  crutch 239 

TO  STICK— to  stick,  cleave,  adhere 419 

TO  STICK-to  fix,  fasten,  stick 226 

TO  STIFLE— to  stifle,  suppress,  smother 222 

TO  STIFLE — to  suffocate,  stifle,  choke,  smo- 
ther  222 

STIGMA— mark,  badge,  stigma 448 


TO  STIMULATE — to  encourage,  animate,  in- 
cite, impel,  urge,  stimulate,  instigate 311 

TO  STILL — to  appease,  calm,  pacify,  quiet,  still  361 
STIPEND— allowance,  stipend,  salary,  wages, 


hire,  pay 164 

TO  STIR— to  stir,  move 301 

TO  STIR  UP — to  awaken,  excite,  provoke,  rouse, 

stir  up 310 

STOCK — stock,  store 341 

STOP — cessation,  stop,  rest,  intermission 257 

TO  STOP— to  check,  stop 258 

TO  STOP— to  hinder,  stop ....  258 

TO  STOP— to  stand,  stop,  rest,  stagnate 258 

STORE— stock,  store 24i 


Page 

530 

516 

127 

452 

482 

479 

80 

461 

463 

464 

261 

344 

344 

175 

346 

356 

66 

66 

66 

381 

474 

453 

411 

502 

506 

159 

391 

384 

104 

339 

278 

127 

353 

221 

344 

345 

345 

389 

389 

353 

291 

304 

353 

353 

38C 

529 


INDEX. 


BTORtfi— breeze,  gale  blast,  gist,  storm,  tempest, 

hurricane 

STORY — anecdote,  story,  tale 

STOUT — corpulent,  lusty,  stout 

STRAIN — strain,  sprain,  stress,  force 

STRAIN- -stress,  strain,  emphasis  .accent 

STRAIGHT— straight,  right,  direct 

STRAIT— strait,  narrow 

STRANGE— particular,  singular,  odd,  eccentrick, 

strange 

ilTRANGER— stranger,  foreigner,  alien 

STRATAGEM — artifice,  trick,  finesse,  stratagem 
TO  STRAY— to  deviate,  wander,  swerve,  stray 

STREAM — stream,  current,  tide 

TO  STREAM — to  flow,  stream,  gush 

STRENGTH— power,  strength,  force,  authority, 

dominion 

rO  STRENGTHEN— to  strengthen,  fortify,  invi- 
gorate   

STRENUOUS — strenuous,  bold 

STRESS— strain,  sprain,  stress,  force  

STRESS— stress,  strain,  emphasis,  accent 

'CO  STRETCH— to  reach,  stretch,  extend 

STRICT— strict,  severe 

STRICTURE — animadversion,  criticism,  stric- 
ture   

STRIFE — contention,  strife 

STRIFE — dissension,  contention,  discord,  strife. . 

rO  STRIKE— to  beat,  hit,  strike 

rO  Sl’RIP — to  bereave,  deprive,  strip 

rO  STRIVE— to  contend,  strive,  vie 

ro  STRIVE — to  endeavour,  aim,  strive,  strug- 
gle  

STROKE — blow,  stroke 

TO  STROLL — to  wander,  stroll,  ramble,  rove, 

roam,  range 

STRONG— cogent,  forcible,  strong 

STRONG — strong,  firm,  robust,  sturdy 

STRUCTURE— edifice,  structure,  fabrick 

TO  STRUGGLE— to  endeavour,  aim,  struggle, 

strive 

STUBBORN— obstinate,  contumacious, slubborn, 

headstrong,  heady 

STUDY — attention,  application,  study 

STUPID— stupid,  dull 

STURDY— strong,  firm,  robust,  sturdy 

TO  STUTTER — to  hesitate,  falter,  stammer, 

stutter 

STYLE — diction,  style,  plir.ise,  phraseology 

TO  STYLE— to  name,  denominate,  style,  entitle, 

designate,  characterize 

SUAVITY— suavity,  urbanity 

TO  SUBDUE — to  conquer,  vanqtysb,  subdue, 

overcome,  surmount 

TO  SULDUE— to  overbear,  bear  down,  over- 
power, overwhelm,  subdue 

TO  SUBDUE — to  subject,  subjugate,  subdue 

SUBJEC'P — matter,  materials,  subject 

SUBJECT— object,  subject 

SUBJECT— subject,  liable,  exposed,  obnoxious. . . 
SUBJECT — subject,  subordinate,  inferiour,  sub- 

•servient 

'ro  SUBJECT — to  subject,  subjugate,  subdue 

'ro  SUBJOIN  -to  affix,  subjoin,  attach,  annex.. 


Page 


TO  SUBJUGATE — to  subject,  subjugate,  subdue  J45 

SUBLIME — great,  grand,  sublime 455 

SUBMISSIVE— complaint,  yielding,  submissive  151 

SUBMISSIVE — humble,  modest,  submissive 147 

SUBMISSIVE — obedient,  submissive,  obsequious  149 

SUBMISSIVE — passive,  submissive 149 

TO  SUBMIT — to  comply,  yield,  submit 150 

SUBORDINATE — subject, subordinate,  inferiour, 

subservient 14b 

TO  SUBORN — to  forswear,  perjure,  suborn 92 

SUBSEQUENT — subsequent , consequent,  poste- 
rior  272 

SUBSERVIENT— subject,  subordinate,  inferiour, 

subservient 14G 

TO  SUBSIDE — to  subside,  abate,  intermit 271 

TO  SUBSIST — to  be,  exist,  subsist 239 

SUBSISTENCE — livelihood,  living,  subsistence, 

maintenance,  support,  sustenance 239 

SUBSTANTIAL — substantial,  solid 372 

TO  SUBSTITUTE — to  change,  exchange,  barter, 

substitute 334 

SUBTERFUGE — evasion,  shift,  subterfuge 52G 

SUBTLE — cunning,  crafty,  subtle,  sly,  wily 522 

'PO  SUBTRACT — to  deduct,  subtract 421 

TO  SUBVERT— to  overturn,  overthrow,  subvert, 

invert,  reverse 503 

TO  SUCCEED — to  follow,  succeed,  ensue 271 

SUCCESSFUL — fortunate,  lucky,  prosperous,  suc- 
cessful   395 

SUCCESSION — succession,  series,  order 271 

SUCCESSIVE— successive,  alternate 272 

SUCCINCT — short,  brief,  concise,  succinct,  sum- 
mary  28S 

TO  SUCCOUR — to  help,  assist,  aid,  succoUV,  re- 
lieve  364 

TO  SUFFER— to  admit,  allow,  permit,  suffer,  to- 
lerate  157 

TO  SUFFER— to  let,  leave,  suffer 255 

TO  SUFFER — to  suffer,  bear,  endure,  support. . . 149 

SUFFICIENT — enough,  sufficient 343 

TO  SUFFOCATE — to  suffocate,  stifle,  smother, 

choke 222 

SUFFRAGE — vote,  suffrage,  voice 462 

TO  SUGGEST— to  allude,  refer,  hint,  suggest  - ..  326 
TO  SUGGEST — to  hint,  suggest,  intimate,  insinu- 
ate   *. 32G 

SUGGESTION— dictate,  suggestion 184* 

SUIT — prayer,  petition,  request,  suit 87 

TO  SUIT — to  agree,  accord,  suit 152 

TO  SUrr— to  fit,  suit,  adapt,  accommodate 154 

SUITABLE— becoming,  decent,  seemly,  suitable, 

fit 246 

SUITABLE— conformable,  agreeable,  suitable...  153 
SUITABLE — commodious,  convenient,  suitable. . 417 
SUITABLE— correspondent,  answerable,  suitable  155 

SUITOR— lover,  suitor,  wooer 3<?>J 

SULLEN — gloomy,  sullen,  morose,  splenetick. . . . 411 

TO  SULL  Y— to  stain,  soil,  sully,  tarnish 514 

SUMMARY— short,  brief,  concise,  succinct,  sum- 
mary   286 

TO  SUMMON— to  call,  bid,  summon,  invite 469 

TO  SUMMON— to  cite,  summon 469 

I SUNDRY — different,  several,  divers,  sundry,  va- 
I rious 283 


Page 

353 

467 

511 

221 

221 

430 

285 

385 

386 

521 

126 

352 

352 

186 

372 

141 

221 

221 

348 

204 

112 

132 

133 

142 

505 

131 

.321 

142 

126 

220 

372 

499 

321 

209 

423 

401 

372 

97 

463 

471 

198 

144 

144 

145 

325 

325 

146 

146 

145 

419 


INDEX. 


iTiu 

SUPERFICIAL— superficial,  shallow,  flimsy 

SUPERFICIES — surface,  superficies 

SUPERFLUITY— excess,  superfluity,  redundancy 
SUPERINTENDENCY — inspection,  oversight, 

superintendency 

SUPERIORITY— excellf nee,  superiority 

SUPERSCRIPTION — direction,  superscription, 

address 

TO  SUPERSEDE— to  overrule,  supersede 

SUPINE — indolent,  supine,  listless,  careless 

SUPPLE — flexible,  pliant,  supple 

TO  SUPPLICATE— to  beg,  beseech,  solicit,  en- 
treat, supplicate,  implore,  crave 

TO  SUPPLY — to  provide,  procure,  furnish,  sup- 
ply   

SUPPORT — livelihood,  living,  subsistence,  sup- 
port, sustenance 

SUPPOR'l’ — staff,  stay,  support 

TO  SUPPORT— to  countenance,  sanction,  sup- 
port   

TO  SUPPORT — to  hold,  maintain,  support 

TO  SUPPORT— to  second,  support 

TO  SUPPORT— to  suffer,  bear, endure, support.. 
TO  SUPPORT — to  sustain,  support, maintain.... 
TO  SUPPOSE — to  conceive,  apprehend,  suppose, 

imagine 

TO  SUPPOSE— to  think,  suppose,  imagine,  deem, 

believe  

SUPPOSITION — conjecture,  supposition,  surmise 
SUPPOSITIOUS— spurious,  suppositious,  coun- 
terfeit   

TO  SUPPRESS— to  repress,  restrain,  suppress  .. 
ro  SUPPRESS — to  stifle,  suppress,  smother  . . . . 

SURE — cbrlaiu,  sure,  secure 

SURFACE — surface,  superficies 

BURGE — wave,  billow,  surge,  breaker 

SURMISE — conjecture,  supposition,  surmise 

TO  SURMOUNT — to  conquer,  vanquish,  subdue, 

overcome,  surmount 

TO  SURPASS — to  exceed,  excel,  outdo,  surpass 
SURPRISE — wonder,  admiration,  surprise,  asto- 
nishment, amazement 

TO  SURRENDER — to  give  up,  deliver,  yield, 

surrender,  cede,  concede 

TO  SURROUND— to  surround,  encompass,  envi- 
ron, encircle .* 

SURVEY — retrospect,  review,  survey 

SURVEY— view,  survey,  prospect 

TO  SURVIVE — to  outlive,  survive 

SUSCEPTIBILITY- feeling,  sensibility,  si  scepti- 

bility 

SUSPENSE— doubt,  suspense 

SUSPICION — ^jealousy,  envy,  suspicion.  

SUSPICIOUS— distrustful,  suspicious,  diffident . . 
TO  SUSTAIN— to  sustain,  support,  maintain  . . . 
SUSTENANCE — livelihood,  living,  subsistence, 

support,  sustenance 

SWAIN — countryman,  peasant,  swain,  hind,  rus- 

tick,  clown 

TO  SWALLOW  UP — to  absorb,  swallow  up, 

engross 

SWARM— multitude,  crowd,  throng,  swarm 

SWAY — influence,  authority,  ascendancy,  sway. . 
TO  SWELL— to  heave,  swell 


Pa«‘ 


TO  SWERVE — to  deviate,  wander,  swerve,  stray  126 
SWIFTNESS— quickness,  swiftness,  fleetiiess,  ce- 
lerity, rapidity,  velocity 262 

SYCOPHANT — flatterer,  sycophant,  parasite. . . . .526 
SYMBOL — figure,  metaphor,  allegcry,  emblem, 

symbol,  type .531 

SYMMETRY — symmetry,  proportion 435 

SYMPATHY — sympathy,  compassion,  commise- 
ration, condolence 357 

SYMPTOM — mark,  sign,  note,  symptom,  token, 

indication 447 

SYNOD — assembly,  company,  meeting,  congrega- 
tion, parliament,  diet,  congress,  convention, 

synod,  convocation,  council 490 

SYSTEM— system,  method 275 

TACITURNITY— silence,  taciturnity 4G4 

TO  TAINT— to  contaminate,  defile,  pollute,  cor- 
rupt, taint 129 

TO  TAKE— to  take,  receive,  accept 233 

TO  TAKE  HEED — to  guard  against,  to  lake 

heed 181 

TO  TAKE  HOLD  OF— to  lay  or  take  hold  of,  , 

catch,  seize,  snatch,  grasp,  gripe 237 

TO  TAKE  LEAVE — to  leave,  take  leave,  bid 

farewell 255 

TO  TAKE  PAINS — to  labour,  lake  pains  or 

trouble,  use  endeavour 328 

TALE — fable,  tale,  novel,  romance 467 

TALE— anecdote,  story,  tale 467 

TALENT— faculty,  ability,  talent 63 

TALENT— gift,  endowment,  talent 67 

TALENT — intellect,  genius,  talent 67 

TO  TALK — to  speak,  talk,  converse,  discourse. . 459 
TALKATIVE — talkative,  loquacious,  garrulous. . 460 

TALL— high,  tall,  lofty 355 

TAME— gentle,  tame 36€ 

TO  TANTALIZE — to  aggravate,  irritate,  pro- 
voke, exasperate,  tantalize 121 

TO  TANTALIZE — to  tease,  vex,  taunt,  torment, 

tantalize 121 

TARDY — slow,  dilatory,  tardy,  tedious 250 

TO  TARNISH— to  stain,  soil,  sully,  tarnish 514 

TO  TARRY— to  linger,  tarry,  loiter,  lag,  saunter  26 
TAP-TNESS— acrimony,  tartness,  asperity,  harsh- 
ness   383 

TASK— work,  labour,  toil,  drudgery,  task 328 

TASTE— p.alate,  taste 512 

TASTE — taste,  flavour,  relish,  savour 512 

TASTE— taste,  genius 70 

TO  TAUNT— to  tease,  vex,  taunt,  tantalize,  tor- 
ment  121 

TAUTOLOGY— repetition,  tautology 466 

TAX— tax,  duty,  custom,  toll,  impost,  tribute,  con- 
tribution  168 

TAX — tax,  rate,  asses5sment 168 

TO  TEACH— to  inform,  teach,  instruct 194 

TO  TEAR — to  break,  rack,  rend,  tear 501 

TO  TEASE — to  tease,  vex,  taunt,  tantalize,  tor- 
ment   121 

TEDIOUS— slow,  dilatory,  tardy,  tedious 260 

TEDIOUS— wearisome,  tiresome,  tedious 369 

TEGUMENT— tegument,  covering 518 

TO  TELL— to  speak  say,  tell . . 465 


Pa«e 

457 

457 

343 

213 

274 

.213 

206 

300 

360 

158 

399 

239 

238 

310 

237 

365 

149 

238 

74 

75 

I 94 

593 

221 

222 

366 

457 

353 

94 

144 

273; 

403 

242 

175 

480 

479 

240 

376 

95 

389 

416 

238 

239 

336 

509 

494 

186 

354 


INDEX. 


Page 


TEMERITY  “—rashness,  temerity,  precipitancy  ..  263 

TEMPER— disposition,  temper 387 

TEMPER— frame,  temper,  temperament,  consti- 
tution   388 

TEMPER — humour,  temper,  mood 387 

TO  TEMPER— to  qualify,  temper,  humour 388 

TEMPERAMENT— frame,  temper,  temperament, 

constitution 388 

TEMPERAMENT — temperament,  temperature..  388 
TEMPERANCE— modesty,  moderation,  temper- 
ance, sobiicty 245 

TEMPERATE — abstinent,  sober,  abstemious,  tem- 
perate   244 

TEMPERATURE— temperament,  temperature..  388 
TEMPEST — breeze,  gale,  blast,  gust,  storm,  tem- 
pest, hurricane 3.53 

TEMPLE— temple,  church 82 

TEMPORAL— secular,  temporal,  worldly 90 

TEMPORARY — temporary,  transient,  transitory, 

fleeting 267 

TEMPORIZING — temporizing,  timeserving 267 

TO  TEMPT— to  allure,  tempt,  seduce,  entice  de- 
coy  319 

TO  TEMPT— to  try,  tempt 319 

TENDENCY — inclination,  tendency,  propensity, 

proneness 160 

TENDENCY — tendency,  drift,  scope,  aim 325 

TO  TENDER — to  offer,  bid,  tender,  propose 107 

TENDERNESS — benevolence,  benignity,  hu- 
manity, kindness,  tenderness 165 

TENET— doctrine,  precept,  tenet 80 

TENET— tenet,  position 80 

TERM— article,  condition,  term 335 

TERM — term,  limit,  boundary 177 

TERM — word,  term,  expression 402 

TO  TERMINATE— to  complete,  finish,  termi- 
nate.  287 

TO  TERMINATE — to  end,  close,  terminate 285 

TERRIBLE — formidable,  dreadful,  shocking,  ter- 
rible  308 


TERRIBLE 

TERRIFICK 


fearful,  dreadful,  frightful,  terrible, 
tremendous,  terrifick,  horrible, 

horrid 300 

TERRITORY- territory,  dominion 189 

TERROUR — alarm,  terrour,  fright,  consterna- 
tion   305 

TEST — experience,  experiment, trial,  proof,  test. . 319 

TESTAMENT— will,  testament 164 

TO  TESTIFY— to  express,  declare,  signify,  tes- 
tify, utter 455 

TESTIMONY — proof,  evidence,  testimony 444 

THANKFULNESS — thankfulness,  gratitude. . . . 441 
THEOI.OGIAN — ecclesiastick,  divine,  theologian  86 

THEORY— theory,  speculation 80 

THEREFORE— therefore,  consequently,  accord- 
ingly   274 

THICK — thick,  dense 351 

THIN — thin,  slender,  slight,  slim 351 

TO  THINK — to  think,  reflect,  ponder,  muse 76 

TO  THINK — to  think,  suppose,  imagine,  believe. 


deem 75 

THOUGHT— idea,  thought,  imagination 73 

Thoughtful — thoughtful,  considerate,  deli- 
berate  424 


Mix 


Page 


THOUGHTLESS — negligent,  remiss,  careless, 

thoughtless,  heedless,  inattentive 424 

THREAT — threat,  menace 405 

THREATENING — imminent,  impending,  threat- 
ening  4{j5 

THRIFTY— economical,  saving,  sparing,  thrifty, 

penurious,  niggardly ..  161 

TO  THRIVE— to  flourish,  prosper,  thrive 395 

THRONG — multitude,  crowd,  throng,  swarm  .'  . 494 

TO  THROW — to  cast,  throw,  hurl 304 

TO  THWART — to  oppose,  resist,  withstand, 

thwart 115 

TIDE — stream,  current,  tide 352 

TIDINGS— news,  tidings 465 

TO  TIE— to  bind,  tie 216 

TILLAGE — cultivation,  tillage,  husbandry 337 

TIME — duration,  time 260 

TIME — time,  season,  timely,  seasonable. . . 266 

TIME— time,  period,  age,  date,  era,  epocha 267 

TIMELY — tirfie,  season,  timely,  seasonable 266 

TIMES  PAST — formerly,  in  former  times,  times 
past  or  days  of  yore,  anciently  or  in  ancient 

times 269 

TIMESERVING — temporizing,  timeserving 267 

TIMOROUS  I fimid,  timorous 307 


TO  TINGE — to  colour,  dye,  tinge,  stain 516 

TINT — colour,  hue,  tint 516 

TO  TIRE — to  weary,  tire,  jade,  harass 369 

TIRESOME — wearisome,  tiresome,  tedious 369 

TITLE — name,  appellation,  title,  denomination..  471 

TOIL — work,  labour,  toil,  drudgery,  task 328 

TOKEN — mark,  sign,  note,  symptom,  indication, 

token 447 

TO  TOLERATE — to  admit,  allow,  permit,  suffer, 

tolerate 157 

TOLL — tax,  custom,  duty,  loll,  impost,  tribute, 

contribution 16c 

TOMB— grave,  tomb,  sepulchre .500 

TONE— sound,  tone 511 

TONGUE — language,  tongue,  speech,  idiom,  dia- 
lect   463 

TOO— also,  likewise,  too ’ 253 

TOOL — instrument,  tool 399 

TORMENT — torment,  torture 408 

TO  TORMENT — to  lease,  vex,  taunt,  tantalize, 

torment 121 

TORPID — numb,  benumbed,  torpid 372 

TORTURE— torment,  torture 408 

TO  TOSS — to  shake,  agitate,  toss 304 

TOTAL — gross,  total 288 

TOTAL — whole,  entire,  complete,  total,  integral  288 

TO  TOTTER— to  stagger,  reel,  totter 303 

TOUCH— contact,  touch 129 

TOUR — circuit,  tour,  round 175 

TOUR — excursion,  ramble,  tour,  trip,  jaunt 302 

TO  TRACE — to  derive,  trace,  deduce 449 

TRACE  ) 

TR  APR  ( ''^estige,  footstep,  track. ..  448 


TRACT— essay,  treatise,  tract,  dissertatior? 329 

TRACT — district,  region,  tract,  quarter  493 

TRACTABLE — docile,  tractable,  ductile 360 

TRADE— business,  trade,  profession,  art 331 

1 TRADE— trade,  commerce,  traffick,  dealing 233 


lx 


INDEX. 


TRADER 

TRADE3MAir 


Page 

trader,  merchant,  tradesman. . . 335 


TROUBLES — ditficulties,  embarrassments;  trou- 
bles   413 


TO  TRADUCE — to  disparage,  detract,  traduce. 


depreciate,  degrade,  decry 105 

TRAFFICK — trade,  commerce,  traffick,  dealing. . 333 

TRAIN — procession,  train,  retinue 493 

TRAITOROUS — treacherous,  traitorous,  treason- 
able  524 

TRANOUILLITY — peace,  quiet,  calm,  tranquil- 
lity  361 

TO  TRANSACT — to  negotiate,  treat  for  or  about, 

transact 215 

TRANSACTION — proceeding,  transaction 333 

TO  TRANSCEND— to  exceed,  surpass,  excel, 

transcend,  outdo 273 

TO  TRANSCRIBE — to  copy,  transcribe 530 

TO  TRANSFIGURE  > to  transfigure,  transform, 

TO  TRANSFORM  ^ metamorphose 86 

TO  TRANSGRESS— to  infringe,  violate,  trans- 
gress   508 

TRANSGRESSION — offence,  trespass,  transgres- 
sion, misdemeanour,  misdeed,  affront 12t? 

TRANSIENT  ) temporary,  transient,  transi- 

FRANSITORY  J tory,  fleeting 267 

TRANSPARENT — pellucid,  transparent 477 

TO  TRANSPORT — to  bear,  carry,  convey,  trans- 
port   330 

TRANSPORT — ecstasy,  rapture,  transport 318 

TRAVEL— journey,  travel,  voyage 302 

TREACHEROUS — faithless,  perfidious,  treache- 
rous   524 

TREACHEROUS— insidious,  treacherous 524 

TREACHEROUS  ) treacherous,  traitorous,  trea- 

fRSASONABLE  \ sonable  524 

£0  TREASURE — to  treasure,  hoard 341 

TREAT — feast,  banquet,  carousal,  entertainment, 

treat  513 

TO  TREAT  FOR  OR  ABOUT — to  negotiate, 

treat  for  or  about,  transact 215 

TEEATISE—essay,  treatise,  tract,  dissertation..  329 

TREATIMENT — treatment,  usage 399 

TO  TREMBLE — to  shake,  tremble,  shudder, 

quiver,  quake 305 

TREMBLING— trembling,  tremour,  trepidation..  308 
PREMENUOUS-fearful,  dre.adful,  frightful,  tre- 
mendous, terrible,  terrifick,  horrible,  horrid. . . 306 
TREMOUR  1 agitation,  emotion,  trepidation, 

TREPIDATION  \ tremour 308 

TREMOUR  1 trembling,  tremour,  trepida- 

TREPIDATIONj  tion 308 

TRiESPASS — offence,  trespass,  transgression,  mis- 
demeanour, misdeed,  affront 120 


TRIAL — attempt,  trial,  endeavour,  essay,  effort. . 320 
TRIAL — experience,  experiment,  trial,  proof,  test  319 
TRIBUTE— tax,  custom,  duty,  toll,  impost,  tri- 


bute, contribution 168 

TRICK— artifice,  trick,  finesse,  stratagem 521 

TO  TRICK — to  cheat,  defraud,  trick 525 

TRIFLING  1 trifling,  trivial,  petty,  frivolous,  fu- 

TRIVIAL  \ tile 457 

TRIP— excursion,  ramble,  tour,  trip,  jaunt 302 

TROOP — troop,  company 492 

TO  TROUBLE— to  afflict,  distress,  trouble 408 

TO  TROUBLE — to  trouble,  disturb,  molest  412 


TROUBLESOME — troublesome,  irksome,  vexa- 
tious   413 

TO  TRUCK — to  exchange,  barter,  truck,  com- 
mute   335 

TRUE— sincere,  honest,  true,  plain 430 

TRUST — belief,  credit,  trust,  faith 73 

TRUST — hope,  expectation,  trust,  confidence....  414 

TO  TRUST— to  confide, trust 414 

TRUSTY— faithful,  trusty 416 

TRUTH— truth,  veracity  528 

TO  TRY— to  try,  tempt 319 

TO  TUG — to  draw,  drag,  hale  or  haul,  pull,  pluck, 

tug 303 

TO  TUMBLE — to  fall,  drop,  droop,  sink,  tumble  303 

TUMID — turgid,  tumid,  bornbasticjc 464 

TUMULT— bustle,  tumult,  uproar 22C 



TUMULTUOUS  ) tumultuous,  turbulent,  sedi- 

TURBULENT  i tious,  mutinous 206 

TURGID— turgid,  tumid,  bombastick 464 

TURN — cast,  turn,  description,  character 467 

I TURN— turn,  bent 316 

I 7’0  TURN— to  turn,  bend,  twist,  distort,  wring, 

wrest,  wrench 316 


TO  TITRN  ■> 

TO  TWIRL  ] 

TO  TWIST— to  turn,  bend,  twist,  distort,  wring. 


wrest,  wrench 316 

TYPE— figure,  metaphor,  allegory,  emblem,  sym- 
bol, type 531 

TYRANNICAL— absolute,  arbitrary,  tyrannical  134 

ULTIMATE— last,  latest,  final,  ultimate 27? 

UMPIRE— judge,  umpire,  arbiter,  arbitr.ator 211 

UNBELIEF— disbelief,  unbelief 79 

UNBELIEF— unbelief,  infidelity,  incredulity 79 

UNBLEMISHED— blameless,  irreproachable,  un- 

blemishedj  unspotted  or  spotless 129 

UNBODIED— incorporeal,  unbodied,  immaterial, 

spiritual 66' 

UNBOUNDED— boundless,  unbounded,  infinite, 

unlimited 177 

UNCEASINGLY — incessantly,  unce  asingly,  un- 
interruptedly, without  intermi.-sion 257 

UNCERTAIN— doubtful,  dubious,  uncertain,  pre 

carious 96 

UNCONCERNED— indifferent,  unconcerned,  re 

gardless 374 

UNCONQUERABLE — invincible,  insuperable, 

unconquerable,  insurmountable 145 

TO  UNCOVER — to  uncover,  discover,  disclose. . 444 

UNCOVERED — bare,  naked,  uncovered 249 

UNDAUNTED— bold,  fearless,  undaunted,  intre- 

l)id 306 

UNDENIABLE- indubitable,  unquestionable,  in- 
disputable, undeniable,  incontrovertible,  irre- 
fragable  114 

UNDER— under,  below,  beneath 279 

TO  UNDERMINE— to  sap,  undermine 5i02 

TO  UNDERSTAND— to  conceive,  comprehend, 
rinderstand "74 


UNDEllSTANDING — understanding,  intellect, 

intelligence 

UNDERTAKING — attempt,  undertaking,  enter- 
prise   

UNDETERMINED — undetermined,  unsettled, 

unsteady,  wavering 225 

UNEVEN— odd,  uneven 436 

UNFAITHFUL — faithless,  unfaithful 524 

UNFEELING — hard,  hardy,  unfeeling,  insensible  374 

TO  UNFOLD— to  unfold,  iiniavel,  develope 218 

UNGOVERNABLE— unruly,  ungovernable,  re- 
fractory   208 

UNHAPPY— unhappy,  miserable,  wretched 412 

UNIFORM— equal,  even,  equable,  like  or  alike, 

uniform 435 

UNIMPORTANT — unimportant,  insignificant, 

immaterial,  inconsiderable 457 

UNINTERRUPTEDLY — incessantly,  uninter- 
ruptedly, unceasingly,  without  intermission  257 

TO  UNITE— to  add,  join,  unite,  coalesce 418 

TO  UNITE — to  connect,  combine,  unite 419 

universal— general,  universal 323 

UNJUST — wicked,  unjust,  iniquitous,  nefarious  128 
UNLEARNED  j ignorant,  illiterate,  unlearned, 

UNLETTERED!  unlettered 197 

UNLESS— unless,  except 251 

UNLIKE— different,  unlike 283 

UNLIMITED— boundless,  unbounded,  unlimited, 

infinite 177 

UNMERCIFUL — hard-hearted,  cruel,  unmerciful, 

merciless 373 

UNOFFENDING — unoffending,  harmless,  inof- 
fensive  121 

UNQ.UESTIONABLE — indubit  ible,  unquestion- 
able, indisputable,  undeniable,  incontroverti- 
ble, irrefragable 114 

TO  UNRAVEL — to  unfold,  unravel,  develope.  • . 218 
UNRELENTING— implacable,  unielenting,  re- 
lentless, inexorable 381 

UNRULY — unruly,  ungovernable,  refractory... . 208 
UNSEARCHABLE — unsearchable,  inscrutable..  461 
UNSETTLED — undetermined,  unsettled,  waver- 
ing, unsteady 225 

UNSPEAKABIiE— unspeakable,  ineffable,  unut- 
terable, inexpressible 460 

UNSPOTTED — blameless,  irreproachable,  un- 
blemished, unspotted,  spotless 129 

UNSTEADY — undetermined,  ui.'Mjttled,  waver- 

ing,  unsteady 225 

UNTOWARD — awkward,  cross,  crooked,  unto- 
ward, frovvard,  perverse 315 

UNTRUTH — untruth,  falsehood,  falsity,  lie 528 

UNUTTERABLE — unspeakable,  ineffable,  unut- 
terable, inexpressible 460 

UNWILLING — averse,  unwilling,  backward, 

loath,  reluctant 136 

UNWORTHY— unworthy,  worthless 437 

TO  UPBRAID— to  blame,  reprove,  reproach,  up- 
braid, censure,  condemn 110 

UPON — above,  over,  upon,  beyond 279 

UPRIGHTNESS — honesty,  uprightness,  integrity, 

pronity 427 

UPRIGHTNESS- rectitude,  uprightness 428 

UPROAR— bustle,  tumult,  uproar 220 


Ijd 

Pa«« 

URBANITY — urbanity,  suavity 198 

TO  URGE — to  encourage,  animate,  incite,  impel, 

urge,  stimulate,  instigate 311 

URGENT — pressing,  urgent,  importunate 158 

USAGE — usage,  custom,  prescription 324 

USAGE— treatment,  usage 399 

USE — advantage,  benefit,  utility,  service,  avail, 

use 398 

TO  USE — to  employ,  use 398 

TO  USE  ENDEAVOURS— to  labour, take  pains 

or  trouble,  use  endeavours 328 

USUALLY— commonly,  generally,  frequently, 

usually 323 

TO  USURP — to  appropriate,  usurp,  arrogate,  as- 
sume, ascribe 230 

UTILITY — advantage,  benefit,  utility,  service, 

avail,  use 398 

TO  UTTER— to  express,  declare,  signify,  testify, 

utter 455 

TO  UTTER— to  utter,  speak,  articulate,  pro- 
nounce  459 

VACANCY— vacancy,  vacuity,  inanity 344 

VACANT — empty,  vacant,  void,  devoid 343 

VACANT — idle,  vacant,  leisure 299 

VACUITY — vacancy,  vacuity,  inanity 344 

VAGUE — loose,  vague,  lax,  dissolute,  licentious. . 256 

VAIN— idle,  vain 299 

VAIN — vain,  ineffectual,  fruitless ..  290 

VALOUR — bravery,  courage,  valour,  gallantry  . 139 

VALUABLE — valuable,  precious,  costly 437 

VALUE — value,  worth,  rate,  price 436 

TO  VALUE — to  value,  prize,  esteem 436 

TO  VANISH — to  disappear,  vanish *81 

VANITY — pride,  vanity,  conceit - .00 

TO  VANQUISH — to  conquer,  vanquish,  subdue, 

overcome,  surmount 144 

VARIATION — change,  variation,  vicissitude  ....  283 
VARIATION  ) . 

VARIETY  I 283 

VARIETY— difference,  variety,  diversity,  medley  282 
VARIOUS— different,  several,  divers,  sundry,  va- 
rious  283 

TO  VARNISH— to  gloss,  varnish,  palliate 515 

TO  VARY— to  change,  alter,  vary 283 

TO  VARY— to  differ,  vary,  disagree,  dissent  ....  132 

VAST — enormous,  huge,  vast,  immense 349 

TO  VAUNT — to  glory,  boast,  vaunt 526 

VEHEMENT — violent,  furious,  boisterous,  vehe- 

..  ment,  impetuous 219 

VEIL — cloak,  mask,  blind,  veil 516 

VELOCITY — quickness,  swiftness,  ffeetness,  cele- 
rity, rapidity,  velocity 262 

VENAL — venal,  mercenary,  hireling 339 

TO  VENERATE— to  adore,  reverence,  venerate, 

revere 81 

VENIAL— venial,  pardonable 182 

VENOM— poison,  venom 503 

TO  VENTURE— to  hazard,  venture,  risk 171 

VERACITY— truth,  veracity 528 

VERBAL— verbal,  vocal,  oral 462 

VERGE — border,  edge,  rim  or  brim,  brink,  mar- 
gin, verge 176 

VESTIGE— mark,  trace,  vestige,  footstep,  track..  448 


INDEX. 

Page 
67 
320 


Ixii 


INDEX. 


Page 

ro  VEX— to  displease,  vex,  offend J17 

TO  VEX — to  tease,  vex,  taunt,  tantalize,  tor- 
ment  121 

VEXATION — vexation,  mortification,  chagrin.. . 122 
VEXATIOUS — troublesome,  irksome,  vexatious  413 

VICE — crime,  vice,  sin 122 

VICE — imperfection,  defect,  fault,  vice 124 

VICIIIITY— neighbourhood,  vicinity 498 

VICISSITUDE— change,  variation,. vicissitude. . . 283 

TO  VIE— to  cctntend,  strive,  vie 131 

VIEW— view,  survey,  prospect 479 

VIEW— view,  prospect,  landscape 479 

TO  VIEW— to  look,  see,  behold,  view,  eye 482 

VIGILANT— wakeful,  watchful,  vigilant 483 

VIGOUR — energy,  force,  vigour 372 

VILE — base,  mean,  vile 148 

TC  VILIFY— to  revile,  vilify 108 

TO  VINDICATE — to  assert,  maintain,  vindicate  441 
TO  VINDICATE — to  avenge,  revenge,  vindicate  119 
TC  VINDICATE — to  defend,  protect,  vindicate. . 179 
VINDICTIVE — resentful,  revengeful,  vindictive  119 
TO  VIOLATE — to  infringe,  violate,  transgress  . . 508 

VIOLENCE — force,  violence 219 

VIOLENT — violent,  furious,  boisterous,  vehe- 
ment, impetuous 219 

VISAGE — face,  countenance,  visage 479 

VISIBLE — apparent,  visible,  clear,  plain,  obvious, 

evident,  manifest 478 

VISION — vision,  apparition,  phantom,  spectre, 

ghost 479  j 

VISIONARY — enthusiast,  fanatick,  visionary....  91 
VISITANT 
VISITER 

VIVACIOUS- lively,  sprightly,  vivacious,  merry, 

sportive,  jocund 389 

ITIVACITY — animation,  life,  vivacity,  spirit....  356 

VIVID — clear,  lucid,  bright,  vivid 476 

VOCABULARY — dictionary,  lexicon,  vocabulary, 

glossary,  nomenclature 464 

VOCAL — verbal,  vocal,  oral. 462 

VOICE — vote,  suffrage,  voice 462 

VOID— empty,  vacant,  void,  devoid 343 

VOLATILITY — lightness,  levity,  flightiness,  vo- 
latility, giddiness 390 

-VOLUNTARILY— willingly,  voluntarily,  sponta- 
neously   159 

VOLUNTARY — gratuitous,  voluntary 441 

VOLUPTUARY — sensualist,  voluptuary,  epicure  374 
VORACIOUS — rapacious,  ravenous,  voracious  ..  507 

VOTE— vote,  suffrage,  voice 462 

Y O VOUCH — to  affirm, asseverate,  assure,  vouch, 

aver,  protest 441 

VOYAGE— journey,  travel,  voyage 302 

VULGAR — common,  vulgar,  ordinary,  mean. .. . 323 

WAGES — allowance,  stipend,  salary,  wages,  hire, 

pay 164 

TO  WAIT  FOR— to  await  or  wait  for,  look  for, 

expect 415 

TO  WAIT  ON — to  accompany,  escort,  attend, 

wait  on 433 

WAKEFUL — wakeful,  watcliful,  vigilant.......  483 

WA.LK — carriage,  gait,  walk 192 

WAN — pale  pallid,  wan 369 


guest,  visitant,  visiter 491 


TO  WANDER — to  deviate,  wander,  swerve, 

stray 126 

TO  WANDER — to  wander,  stroll,  ramble,  lovc, 

roam,  range 126 

WANT — poverty,  indigence,  want,  need,  penury  346 

TO  WANT — to  want,  need,  lack 347 

WARE — commodity,  goods,  merchandise,  ware..  33Q 
WARLIKE — martial,  military,  warlike,  soldier- 
like  ....  337 

WARM — hearty,  warm,  sincere,  cordial 431 

WARMTH — fire,  hdat,  warmth,  glow 475 

WARNING— admonition,  warning,  caution 193 

TO  WARRANT— to  guarantee,  be  security,  be 

responsible,  warrant 183 

WARY— cautious,  wary,  circumspect 425 

TO  WASTE— to  spend,  expend,  waste,  dissipate, 

squander 344 

TO  WASTE — to  consume,  destroy,  waste 505 

TO  WATCH — to  guard,  defend,  watch 180 

TO  WATCH — to  observe,  watch  483 

WATCHFUL— wakeful,  watchful,  vigilant 483 

WATERMAN — seaman,  waterman,  sailor,  mari- 
ner, boatman,  ferryman 337 

WAVE — wave,  billow,  surge,  breaker 353 

TO  WAVER — to  scruple,  hesitate,  fluctuate, 

waver 97 

WAVERING— undetermined,  unsettled,  waver- 
ing, unsteady 22.5 

WAY — way,  manner,  method,  mode,  course, 

means 275 

WAY— way,  road,  route,  course 273 

WEAK— weak,  feeble,  infirm 368 

TO  WEAKEN— to  weaken,  enfeeble,  debilitate, 

enervate,  invalidate 368 

WEAKNESS — imperfection,  weakness,  frailty, 

failing,  foible 124 

WEALTH — riches,  wealth,  opulence,  affluence..  340 

WEAPONS— arms,  weapons 141 

WEARINESS — fatigue,  weariness,  lassitude ....  369 
WEARISOME— w’eaiisome,  tiresome,  tedious...  369 

TO  WEARY — to  weary,  tire,  jade,  harass 369 

WEDDING — marriage,  wedding,  nuptials 83 

WEDLOCK — marriage,  matrimony,,wedlock. ...  84 

TO  WEEP— to  cry,  weep 470 

WEIGHT — signification,  avail,  importance,  con- 
sequence, weight,  moment -456 

WEIGHT — weight,  heaviness,  gravity 369 

WEIGHT— weight,  burden,  load 370 

WEIGHTY— heavy,  burdensome,  weighty,  pon- 
derous   370 

WELL-BEING— well-being,  welfare,  prosperity, 

happiness 396 

WELCOME— acceptable,  grateful,  welcome 234 

WELFARE— well-being,  welfiire,  prosperity,  hap- 
piness  396 

TO  WHEEDLE — to  coax,  wheedle,  cajole, 

fawn 525 

WHIM— freak,  whim 384 

WHIMSICAL— fanciful,  fantastical,  whimsical, 

capricious 385 

TO  WHIRL— to  turn,  wind,  whirl,  twirl,  writhe  316 

WHOLE— all,  whole 2tn, 

WHOLE — whole,  complete,  total,  integral,  en- 
tire  288 


INDEX. 


Ixiii 


VTHOLKSOME— healthy,  wholi;i3ome,  salubrious, 

oalutaiy 

WICKED— bad,  evil,  wicked 

WICKED— wicked,  unjust,  iniquitous,  nefarious 

WIDE— large,  broad,  wide 

WILL — will,  testament 

TO  WILL-lo  will,  wish 

WILLINGLY— willingly,  voluntarily,  spontane- 
ously   

WILY— cunning,  crafty,  subtle,  sly,  wily 

TO  WIN— to  acquire,  obtain,  gain,  win,  earn. .. . 
TO  WIND — to  turn,  wind,  whirl,  twirl,  writhe. . 

WISDOM — wisdom,  prudence 

TO  WISH — to  desire,  wish,  hanker  after,  long 

for  

1’  O WISH- to  will,  wish 

WIT— ingenuity,  wit 

WIT— wit,  humour,  satire,  irony,  burlesque 

TO  WITHDRAW — to  recede,  retreat,  withdraw, 

retire,  secede 

TO  IVITHSTAND — to  oppose,  resist,  withstand, 

thvrart 

WITHOUT  INTERMISSION— incessantly,  un- 
ceasingly, uninterruptedly,  without  intermis- 
sion   

WITNESS — d'eponent,  evidence,  witness 

WOFUL— piteous,  doleful,  woful,  rueful 

WONDER — wonder,  admiration,  surprise,  asto- 
nishment, amazement 

WONDER — wonder,  miracle,  marvel,  monster, 

prodigy 

AIOOEE—  lover,  suitor,  wooer. 


rar 

WORD — promise,  engagement,  ward 2]’< 

WORD — word,  term,  expression 462 

WORK— work,  labour,  toil,  drudge’.y,  task 338 

WORK — production,  performance,  work 329 

WORK — work,  operation 328 

WORLDLY — secular,  temporal,  worldly 90 

TO  WORSHIP— to  adore,  worship 81 

WORTH— desert,  merit,  worth 438 

WORTH — vrdue,  worth,  rate,  price 436 

WORTHLESS— unworthy,  worthless 437 

TO  WRANGLE — to  jangle,  jar,  wrangle 134 

WRATH — anger,  resentment,  wrath,  indignation, 

ire 119 

TO  WRENCH  ) to  turn,  bend,  twist,  wring,  dis- 

TO  WREST  i tort,  wrest,  wrench 316 

WRETCHED — unhappy,  miserable,  wretched. . . 413 
TO  WRING — to  turn,  bend,  twist,  distort,  wring, 

wrest,  wrench 31^ 

AVRITliR— writer,  penman,  scribe 333 

WRITER — writer,  author 336 

TO  WRITHE— to  turn,  wind,  whirl,  twirl,  writhe  316 
WRONG— injustice,  injury,  wrong 212 

YET — however,  yet,  nevertheless,  notwithstan-i- 

ing Si.51 

TO  YIELD— to  afford,  produce,  yield 330 

TO  YIELD— to  bear,  yield 330 

TO  YIELD— to  comply,  conform,  yield.  Submit. . 150 
TO  YIELD — to  give  up,  deliver,  surrender,  yield, 

cede,  concede 342 

YIELDING — compliant,  yielding,  submissive....  15f3 


YOUTHFUL— youthful,  juvenile,  puerile 40 


Page 

' 3G6 

127 

! 128 

349 

1C4 

159 

159 

522 

396 

316 

400 

159 

159 

70 

69 

253 

115 

257 

445 

411 

403 

403 

390 


ENGLISH  SYMOMYMES 


EXPIiAINED. 


SOLL,  MIND. 

Thksk  terms,  or  the  equivalents  to  them,  have  been 
amployed  by  all  civilized  nations  to  designate  that  part 
of  human  nature  which  is  distinct  from  matter.  Tlie 
Soul,  however,  from  the  German  seele,  &c.  and  the 
Greek  ^do),  to  live,  like  the  anima  of  the  Latin,  which 
comes  trom  the  Greek  ave/xoi,  wind  or  breath,  is  repre- 
sented to  our  minds  by  the  sublilest  oi  most  ethereal  of 
sensible  objects,  namely,  breath  or  spirit,  and  denotes 
|)roperly  the  quickening  or  vital  principle.  Mind,  on 
:he  contrary,  from  the  Greek  nivo^,  which  signifies 
strengtii,  is  that  sort  of  power  which  is  closely  allied  to, 
and  in  a great  measure  dependant  upon,  corporeal  or- 
ganization ; the  former  is,  therefore,  the  immortal,  and 
the  latter  the  mortal,  part  of  us ; the  former  connects 
us  with  angels,  the  latter  with  brutes  ; in  this  latter  we 
distinguish  nothing  but  the  power  of  receiving  impres- 
sions from  external  objects,  which  we  call  ideas,  and 
which  we  have  in  common  with  the  brutes. 

There  are  minute  philosophers,  who,  from  their  c.x- 
treme  anxiety  after  truth,  deny  that  we  possess  any 
thing  more  than  what  this  poor  composition  of  flesh  and 
blood  can  give  us ; and  yet,  methinks,  sound  philosophy 
would  teach  us  that  we  ought  to  prove  the  truth  of  one 
position,  before  we  assert  the  falsehood  of  its  opposite  ; 
and  consequently,  that  if  we  deny  that  we  have  any 
thing  but  what  is  material  in  us,  we  ought  first  to  prove 
that  the  material  is  sufficient  to  produce  the  reasoning 
faculty  of  man.  Now  it  is  upon  this  very  impossibility 
of  finding  any  thing  in  matter  as  an  adequate  cause  for 
the  production  of  the  soul,  that  it  is  conceived  to  be  an 
entirely  distinct  principle.  If  we  had  only  the  mind, 
that  is,  an  aggregate  of  ideas  or  sensible  images,  such  as 
is  possessed  by  the  brutes,  it  would  be  no  difficulty  to 
conceive  of  this  as  purely  material,  since  the  act  of  re- 
ceiving images  is  but  a passive  act,  suited  to  the  inactive 
property  of  matter : but  when  the  soul  turns  Ln  upon 
itself,  and  creates  for  itself  by  abstraction,  combination, 
and  deduction,  a world  of  new  objects,  it  proves  itself 
to  be  the  most  active  of  all  principles  in  the  universe  ; 
it  then  positively  acts  upon  matter  instead  of  being 
acted  upon  by  it. 

But  not  to  lose  sightof  the  distinction  drawn  between 
the  words  soul  and  mind,  I simply  wish  to  show  that 
the  vulgar  and  the  philosophical  use  or  these  terms  alto- 
gether accord,  and  are  both  founded  on  the  true  nature 
of  things.  Poets  and  philosophers  speak  of  the  soul  in 
the  same  strain,  as  the  active  and  living  principle ; 
Man’s  soxil  in  a perpetual  motion  flows. 

And  to  no  outward' cause  that  motion  owes. 

Denham. 

In  bashful  coyness,  or  in  maiden  pride. 

The  soft  return  conceal’d,  save  when  it  stole 
In  side-long  glances  from  her  downcast  eyes, 

Or  from  her  swelling  soul  in  stifled  sighs. 

Thomson. 

‘ The  soul  consists  of  many  faculties,  as  the  under 
standing,  and  the  will,  with  all  the  senses,  both  outward 
and  inward ; or,  to  speak  more  philosophically,  the  soul 
can  e.xert  herself  in  many  different  ways  of  action.’ — 
Addison.  The  ancients,  though  unaided  by  the  light  of 
divine  isvelation,  yet  represented  the  soul  as  a distinct 
principle.  The  Psyche  of  the  Greeks,  which  was  the 
name  they  gave  to  the  human  soul,  was  feigned  to  be 
one  of  their  incorporeal  or  celestial  beings.  The  anima 
»{ the  Latins  was  taken  precisely  in  the  modern  sense 
^f  the  soul,  by  which  it  was  distinguished  from  the 
mimus  or  mind.  Thus  the  emperour  Adrian  is  said  on 


his  dying  bed  to  have  addressed  his  soul  in  words  whsct. 
clearly  denote  what  he  thought  of  its  indei<3iident 
existence. 

Animula  vagula,  blandula, 

Quffi  nunc  abibis  in  Iqca  1 
Hospes  comesque  corporis, 

Pallidula,  rigida,  undula, 

Nec  (ut  soles)  dabis  joca ! 

The  mind  being  considered  as  an  attribute  to  the  sou  , 
is  taken  sometimes  for  one  faculty,  and  someSimes  fot 
another;  as  for  the  understanding,  when  we  say  a 
person  is  not  in  his  right  mind; 

I am  a very  foolish,  fond  old  man  ; 

I fear  I am  not  in  my  perfect  mind. — Shakspeare 
Sometimes  for  the  intellectual  power; 

I thought  the  eternal  mind 
Had  made  us  masters.— Drvden. 

Or  for  the  intellectual  capacity  ; 

We  say  that  learning ’s  endless,  and  blame  fhte 
For  not  allowing  life  a longer  date. 

He  did  the  utmost  bounds  of  knowledge  find, 

He  found  them  not  so  large  as  was  his  mind. 

Cowley 

Or  for  the  imagination  or  conception ; ‘ In  the  judgmeni 
of  Aristotle  and  Bacon,  the  true  poet  forms  his  imi 
tiitions  of  nature  after  a model  of  ideal  perfection, 
which  perhaps  has  no  existence  but  in  his  own  mind.'— 
Beattie. 

Sometimes  the  word  mind  is  employed  to  denote 
the  operations  of  the  thinking  faculty,  the  thoughts  or 
opinions; 

The  ambiguous  god. 

In  these  mysterioup  words  his  mind  express’d. 
Some  truths  revealed,  in  terms  involved  the  rest 
^ Dryden 

The  earth  was  not  of  my  mind 
If  you  suppose,  as  fearing  you,  it  shook. 

Shakspeare. 

Or  the  will,  choice,  determination,  as  in  the  colloquial 
phrase  to  have  a mind  to  do  a thing  ; ‘ All  the  argu- 
ments to  :i  good  life  will  be  very  insignificant  to  a man 
that  hath  a mind  to  be  wicked,  when  remission  of  sins 
may  be  had  on  such  cheap  terms.’ — Tillotson.  ‘ Our 
question  is,  whether  all  be  sin  which  is  done  without 
direction  by  Scripture,  and  not  whether  the  Israelites  did 
at  any  tune  amiss  by  following  their  own  minds  without 
asking  counsel  of  God.’ — Hooker. 

Sometimes  it  stands  for  the  memory,  as  in  the  fa- 
miliar expressions  to  call  to  mind,  put  in  mind,  &c. ; 

‘ The  king  knows  their  disposition ; a small  touch  will 
put  him  in  mind  of  them.’ — Bacon. 

These,  and  more  than  I to  mind  can  bring, 

Menalcas  has  not  yet  forgot  to  sing.’ — Dryden. 
‘They  will  put  him  in  mind  of  his  own  waking 
thoughts,  ere  these  dreams  had  as  yet  made  their  im- 
pressions on  his  fancy.’ — Attereury. 

A wholesome  law,  time  out  of  mind; 

Had  been  confirm’d  by  fate’s  decree.’ — Swift. 
Lastly,  the  mind  is  considered  as  the  seat  of  all  the 
faculties ; ‘ Every  faculty  is  a distinct  taste  in  the  mind, 
and  hath  objects  accommodated  to  its  proper  relish.’— 
Addison.  And  also  of  the  passions  or  affections; 

E’en  from  the  body’s  purity,  the  mind 
Receives  a secret  svmpathetick  aid. — Thomson. 

6r> 


66 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


‘This  word,  being  often  used  f<ir  the  soul  giving 
lift,  is  .•'ttributed  abusively  to  madmen,  when  we  say 
that  they  are  of  a distracted  mind,  instead  of  a broken 
understanding ; which  word  mind  we  use  also  for 
opinion,  as  I am  of  this  or  that  mind ; and  sometimes 
for  men’s  conditions  or  virtues,  as  he  is  of  an  honest 
mind,  or  a man  of  a just  mind ; sometimes  for  affection, 
as  I do  this  for  my  mind's  sake,’  &c. — Ralbioh. 

The  soul,  being  the  belter  part  of  a man,  is  taken  for 
the  man’s  self,  as  Horace  says,  in  allusion  to  his  friend 
Virgil,  ‘Et  serves  aniinae  diinidium  me®  ;’  hence  the 
term  is  figuratively  extenued  in  its  application  to  denote 
a human  being ; ‘The  moral  is  the  case  of  every  soul 
of  us.’ — L’  Estrange.  It  is  a republick ; there  are  in  it 
a hundred  burgeois,  and  about  a thousand  souls  ; ‘ The 
poor  soa/sat  singing  by  asycamore  tree.’ — Shakspkark. 
Or  the  individual  in  general ; 

Join  voices,  all  ye  living  souls.  Ye  birds 

That  singing  up  to  heaven-gate  ascend 

Bearon  your  wings,  and  in  your  notes,  his  praise. 

Milton. 

Also  what  is  excellent,  the  essential  or  principal  partof 
a thing,  the  spirit ; ‘Thou  sun,  of  this  great  world  both 
eye  and  soul.' — Milton.  ‘ He  has  the  very  soul  of 
bounty.’ — Shakspeare. 

There  is  some  soul  of  goodness  in  things  evil. 

Would  men  observingly  distil  it  out. — Shakspeare. 

INCORPOREAL,  UNBODIED,  IMMATERIAL, 
SPIRITUAL. 

Incorporeal,  from  corpus,  a body,  marks  the  quality  of 
not  belonging  to  the  body,  or  having  any  properties  in 
common  with  it ; unbodied  denotes  the  slate  of  being 
without  the  body,  or  not  enclosed  in  a body;  a thing 
may  therefore  be  incorporeal  without  be  ng  unbodied; 
but  nofcjjice  versd  ; the  soul  of  man  is  ^ icorporcal,  but 
not  unbodied,  during  his  natural  life; 

Th’  unbodied  spirit  fib  s 
And  lodges  where  it  lights  in  man  or  beast. 

Dryden. 

Incorporeal  is  used  in  regard  to  living  things,  parti- 
cularly by  way  of  comparison,  with  corporeal  or  human 
beings  •. 

Of  sense,  whereby  they  hear,  see,  smell,  touch,  taste. 

Tasting,  concoct,  digest,  assimilate. 

And  corporeal  to  incorporeal  turn. — Milton. 

Hence  we  speak  of  incorporeal  agency,  or  incorporeal 
agents,  in  reference  to  such  beings  as  are  supposed  to  act 
in  this  world  without  the  help  of^the  body  ; ‘ Sense  and 
perception  must  necessarily  proceed  from  some  incor- 
poreal substance  withi.i  us.’ — Bentley.  But  imma- 
terial is  applied  to  inanimate  objects  ; 

O thou  great  arbiter  of  life  and  death. 

Nature’s  immortal,  immaterial  sun  ! 

Thy  call  I follow  to  the  land  unknown.—  Young. 

Men  are  corporeal  as  men,  spirits  are  incorporeal ; the 
body  is  tfcs  material  part  of  man,  the  soul  his  imma- 
terial part:  whatever  external  object  acts  upon  the 
senses  is  material ; but  the  action  of  the  mind  on  itself, 
and  its  results  are  all  immaterial ; the  earth,  sun,  moon, 
&c.  are  termed  material ; but  the  impressions  which 
they  make  on  the  mind  ‘hat  is,  our  ideas  of  them,  are 
immaterial. 

The  incorporeal  ann  immaterial  have  always  a rela- 
tive sense ; the  spiritual  is  that  which  is  positive : God 
is  a spiritual,  not  properly  an  incorporeal  nor  immate- 
rial being  : the  angels  are  likewise  designated,  in  gene- 
ral, as  the  spiritual  inhabitants  of  Heaven  ; ‘ All  crea- 
tures, as  well  spiritual  as  corporeal,  declare  their  abso- 
lute dependance  upon  the  first  author  of  all  beings,  the 
only  self-existent  God.’ — Bentley.  Although,  when 
spoken  of  in  regard  to  men,  they  may  be  denominated 
incorporeal ; 

Thus  incorporeal  spirits  to  smallest  forms 
Reduced  their  shapes  immense. — Milton. 

The  epithet  spiritual  has,  however,  been  improperly 
o .^ratively  applied  to  objects  in  the  sense  of  imma- 
terial; ‘Echo  is  a great  argument  of  the  spiritual 
essence  of  sounds;  for  if  it  were  corporeal,  the  reper- 
cussion should  be  created  by  like  instruments  with  the 
«rigin.'il  sound  ’—  Bacon. 


SPIRITUOUS,  SPIRITED,  SPIRITUAL, 
GHOSTLY. 

Spirituous  signifies  having  the  spirit  separated  fiom 
the  gross  particles  of  the  body,  after  theamanner  of 
liquors ; ‘The sjsiritaojzs  and  benign  matter 
most  apt  for  generation.’— Smith  on  Old  Age.  Spirited 
is  applicable  to  the  animal  spirits  of  either  men  or 
brutes  ; a person  or  a horse  may  be  spirited;  and  alsc 
in  a moral  application  in  the  sense  of  vivacious,  or  cal- 
culated to  rouse  the  spirit;  ‘ Dryden’s  translation  of 
Virgil  is  noble  and  spirited.' — Pope.  What  is  spiritual 
is  after  the  manner  of  a spirit ; and  what  is  ghostly  k 
like  a ghost ; although  originally  the  same  in  meani^ng, 
the  former  being  derived  from  the  Latin  spiritus,  and 
the  latter  from  the  German  geist,  and  both  signifying 
what  is  not  corporeal,  yet  they  have  acquired  a difter 
ence  of  application.  Spiritual  objects  are  distinguished 
generally  from  those  of  sense;  ‘ Virginity  is  better  than 
the  married  life,  not  that  it  is  more  holy,  but  that  it  is 
a freedom  from  cares,  an  opportunity  to  spend  more 
time  in  spiritual  employments.’  -Taylor  {Holy  Liv 
ing).  Hence  it  is  that  the  word  spiritual  is  opposed 
to  the  temporal ; ‘ She  loves  them  as  her  spiritual 
children,  and  they  reverence  her  as  their  spiritual 
mother,  with  an  affection  far  above  that  of  the  fondest 
friend.’ — Law. 

Thou  art  reverend. 

Touching  thy  spiritual  function,  not  thy  life. 

Shakspeare. 

Ghostly  is  more  immediately  opposed  to  the  carnal 
or  the  secular,  and  is  therefore  a term  of  more  solemn 
import  than  spiritual;  ‘ The  grace  of  the  spirit  is  much 
more  precious  than  worldly  benefits,  and  our  ghostly 
evils  of  greater  importance  than  harm  which  the  body 
feeleth.’ — Hooker.  ‘ To  deny  me  the  ghostly  comfort 
of  my  chaplains  seems  a greater  barbarity  than  is  evei 
used  by  Christians.’ — K.  Charles. 


UNDERSTANDING,  INTELLECT,  INTELLI 
GENCE. 

Understanding  being  the  Saxon  word,  is  employed 
to  describe  a familiar  and  easy  operation  of  the  mind  in 
forming  di.stinct  ideas  of  things.  Intellect,  which  is  of 
Latin  derivation,  is  employed  to  mark  the  same  opera- 
tion in  regard  to  higher  and  more  abstruse  objects.  The 
understanding  applies  to  the  first  exercise  of  the  ra 
tiorial  powers : it  is  therefore  aptly  said  of  children  and 
savages  that  they  employ  their  understandings  on  the 
simple  objects  of  perception  ; a child  uses  his  undej- 
standing  to  distinguish  the  dimensions  of  objects,  or 
to  apply  the  right  names  to  the  things  that  come  before 
his  notice ; ‘ By  understanding  I mean  that  faculty 
whereby  we  are  enabled  to  apprehend  the  objects  of 
knowledge,  generals  as  well  as  particulars,  absent 
things  as  well  as  present,  and  to  judge  of  their  truth  or 
falsehood,  good  or  evil.’ — Wilkins. 

Intellect,  being  a matured  stale  of  the  understand 
ing,  is  most  properly  applied  to  the  efforts  of  those  vvlio 
have  their  powers  in  full  vigour : we  speak  of  under- 
standing as  the  characteristick distinction  between  man 
and  brute  ; ‘ The  light  within  us  is  (since  the  fall)  be 
come  darkness ; and  the  understanding,  that  should  be 
eyes  to  the  blind  faculty  of  the  will,  is  blind  itself.’— 
South.  But  human  beings  are  distinguished  fiom 
each  other  by  the  measure  of  their  intellect;  ‘All  those 
arts  and  inventions  which  vulgar  minds  gaze  at,  the 
ingenious  pursue,  and  all  admire,  are  but  the  relicks  of 
an  intellect  defaced  with  .sin  and  time.’ — South.  We 
may  expect  the  youngest  children  to  employ  an  under- 
standing according  to  the  opportunities  which  they 
have  of  using  their  senses ; one  is  gratified  in  seeing 
great  intellect  in  youth. 

Intellect  and  intelligence  are  derived  from  the  same 
word  ; but  intellect  describes  the  power  itself,  and  in 
telligence  the  exercise  of  that  power : the  intellect  ma. 
be  hidden,  but  the  intelligence  brings  it  to  light ; 

Silent  as  the  ecstatick  bliss 

Of  souls,  that  by  intelligence  converse. — Otway 

Hence  we  speak  of  intelligence  as  displayed  in  tho 
countenance  of  a child  whose  looks  evince  that  he  has 
exerted  his  intellect,  and  thereby  proved  that  it  exists 
Hence  it  arises  that  the  word  intelligence  has  been  em 
ployed  in  the  sense  of  knowledge  or  information,  be 
cause  these  are  the  express  fruits  of  intelligence  vv*> 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


67 


niusl  know  by  means  of  intelligence ; but  we  may  be 
ignorant  with  a great  sliare  of  intellect. 

Understanding  and  intelligence  admit  of  comparison 
m the  sense  of  acquaintance  between  two  or  more  per- 
sons as  to  each  other’s  views,  and  a consequent  ii'ar- 
mony  and  concert ; but  the  former  term  is  applied  to 
the  ordinary  concerns  of  life,  and  the  harmonious  in- 
tercourse of  men,  aw  in  the  phrase  to  be  on  terms  of  a 
good  understanding  ; ‘ fie  hoped  the  loyalty  of  his  sub- 
jects would  concur  with  him  in  the  preserving  a good 
understanding  between  him  and  his  subjects.’ — Cla- 
rendon. Intelligence.,  on  the  other  hand,  is  particu- 
larly applicable  to  persons  who,  being  obliged  to  co- 
rporate at  a distance  from  each  other,  hold  a commerce 
of  information,  or  get  to  understand  each  other  by 
means  of  mutual  information  ; ‘ It  was  perceived  that 
there  had  not  been  in  the  Catholicks  so  much  foresight 
as  to  provide  that  true  intelligence  might  pass  between 
them  of  what  was  done.’ — Hooker. 

Let  all  the  passages 

Be  well  secured,  that  no  intelligence 

May  pass  between  the  prince  and  them. — Denham. 

INTELLECT,  GENIUS,  TALENT. 

Intellect,  in  Latin  intellectus,  from  intelligo,  to  un- 
derstand, signifying  the  gift  of  understanding,  as  op- 
posed to  mere  instinct  or  impulse,  is  here  the  generick 
term,  as  it  includes  in  its  own  meaning  that  of  the  two 
rthfers  ; there  cannot  be  genius  or  talent  without  intel- 
lect; but  there  may  be  intellect  without  genius  or 
talent:  a man  of  intellect  distinguishes  himself  from 
the  common  herd  of  mankind,  by  the  acuteness  of  his 
observation,  the  accuracy  of  his  judgement,  the  origin- 
ality of  his  conceptions,  and  other  peculiar  attributes 
of  mental  power ; genius,  in  Latin  genius,  from  gigno, 
to  be  born,  signifying  that  which  is  peculiarly  born 
with  us,  is  a particular  bent  of  the  intellect,  which  dis- 
tinguishes a man  from  every  other  individual ; talent, 
which  from  TdXavrov  and  talentum,  a Greek  coin  ex- 
ceeding one  hundred  pounds,  is  now  employed  in  the 
Tigurative  language  of  our  Saviour  for  that  particular 
aiodus  or  modification  of  the  intellect,  which  is  of 
practical  utility  to  the  possessor.  Intellect  sometimes 
runs  through  a family,  and  becomes  as  it  were  an  he- 
reditary portion  : genius  is  not  of  so  communicable  a 
nature ; it  is  that  tone  of  the  thinking  faculty  which  is 
altogether  individual  in  its  character  ; it  is  opposed  to 
every  thing  artificial,  acquired,  circumstantial,  or  inci- 
dental ; it  is  a pure  spark  of  the  Divine  flame,  which 
raises  the  possessor  above  all  his  fellow-mortals;  it  is 
not  expanded,  like  intellect,  to  many  objects  ; for  in  its 
veiy  nature  it  is  contracted  within  d very  short  space; 
and,  like  the  rays  of  the  sun,  when  concentrated  within 
a focus,  it  gains  in  strength  what  it  loses  in  expansion. 

We  consider  intellect  as  it  generally  respects  specu- 
lation and  abstraction ; but  genius  as  it  respects  the 
operations  of  the  imagination  ; talent  as  it  respects  the 
exercise  or  acquirements  of  the  mind.  A man  of  intel- 
lect may  be  a good  writer ; but  it  requires  a genius 
for  poetry  to  be  a poet,  a genius  for  painting  to  be 
a jiainter,  a genius  for  sculpture  to  be  a statuary,  and 
the  like : it  requires  a talent  to  learn  languages ; it 
requires  a talent  for  the  stage  to  he  a good  actor ; some 
have  a talent  for  imitation,  others  a talent  for  humour. 
Intellect,  in  its  strict  sense,  is  seen  only  in  a mature 
state  ; genius  or  talent  may  be  discovered  in  its  earliest 
dawn  : we  speak  in  general  of  the  intellect  of  a man 
only  ; but  we  may  speak  of  the  genius  or  talent  of  a 
youth ; intellect  qualifies  a person  for  conversation, 
and  affords  him  great  etijoyment ; ‘ There  was  a select 
set,  supposed  to  be  distinguished  by  superiority  of  in- 
tellects, who  always  passed  the  evening  together.’ — 
loHNSON.  Genius  qualifies  a person  for  the  most  ex- 
ilted  efforts  esf  the  human  mind  ; ‘ Thomson  thinks  in 
a peculiar  train,  and  always  thinks  as  a man  of  genius.' 
•■Johnson.  Talent  qualifies  a person  for  the  active 
‘iities  and  employments  of  life;  ‘It  is  commonly 
'jiought  that  the  sagacity  of  these  fathers  (the  Jesuits) 
in  discovering  the  talent  of  a young  student,  has  not  a 
little  contributed  to  the  figure  which  their  order  has 
made  in  the  world.’ — Budgell. 

GIFT,  ENDOWMENT,  TALENT. 

Gift  and  endowment  both  refer  to  the  act  of  giving 
a'ld  endowing,  and  of  course  include  the  idea  of  some- 

5-* 


thing  given,  and  something  received : tne  word  talent 
conveys  no  such  collateral  idea.  When  we  speak  of  a 
gift,  we  refer  in  our  minds  to  a giver  ; 

But  Heaven  \\s  gifts  not  all  at  once  Icstows, 

These  years  with  wisdom  crowns,  with  action  those. 

Pope 

When  we  speak  of  an  endowment,  we  refer  in  out 
minds  to  the  receiver;  ‘A  brute  arrives  at  a point  of 
perfection  that  he  can  never  pass  ; in  a few  years  he 
has  all  the  endowments  he  is  capable  of.’ — Addison. 
When  we  speak  of  a talent  (v.  Intellect)  we  only  think 
of  its  intrinsick  quality  or  worth;  ‘Mr.  Locke  has  an 
admirable  reflection  upon  the  difference  of  wit  and 
judgement,  whereby  he  endeavours  to  show  the  reason 
why  tliey  are  not  always  the  talents  of  the  same  per- 
son.’— Addison. 

The  gift  is  either  supernatural  or  natural;  the  en 
dowment  is  only  natural.  The  primitive  Christians 
received  various  gifts  through  the  inspiration  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  as  the  gift  of  tongues,  the  gift  of  healing, 
&c.  There  are  some  men  who  have  a peculiar  pft  of 
utterance ; beauty  of  person,  and  corporeal  agility,  are 
endowments  with  which  some  are  peculiarly  invested. 

The  word  gift  excludes  the  idea  of  any  thing  ac- 
quired by  exertion;  it  is  that  which  is  communicated 
to  us  altogether  independent  of  ourselves,  and  enables 
us  to  arrive  at  that  perfection  in  any  art  which  could 
not  be  attained  in  any  other  way.  Speech  is  deno 
minated  a general  gift,  inasmuch  as  it  is  given  to  the 
whole  human  race  in  distinction  from  the  brutes  ; but 
the  gift  of  utterance  is  a peculiar  gift  granted  to  in- 
dividuals, in  distinction  from  others,  which  may  be 
exerted  for  the  benefit  of  mankind.  Endowments, 
though  inherent  in  us,  are  not  independent  of  exer- 
tions ; they  are  qualities  which  admit  of  improvement 
by  being  used ; they  are  in  fact  the  gifts  of  nature, 
which  serve  to  adorn  and  elevate  the  possessor,  when 
employed  for  a good  purpose.  Talents  are  either  na 
tural  or  acquired,  or  in  some  measure  of  a mixed  na 
ture ; they  denote  powers  without  specifying  the  source 
from  which  they  proceed ; a man  may  have  a talent 
for  musick,  for  drawing,  for  mimickry,  and  the  like  ; 
but  this  talent  may  be  the  fruit  of  practice  and  experi- 
ence, as  much  as  of  nature. 

It  is  clear  from  the  above  that  an  endowment  is  a 
gift,  but  a gift  is  not  always  an  endowment ; and  that 
a talent  may  also  be  either  a gift  or  an  endowment,  but 
that  it  is  frequently  distinct  from  both.  A gift  or  a 
talent  is  applicable  to  corporeal  as  well  as  spiritual 
actions;  an  endowment  is  applicable  to  corporeal  or 
mental  qualities.  To  write  a superiour  hand  is  a gift, 
inasmuch  as  it  is  supposed  to  be  unattainable  by  any 
force  of  application  and  instruction ; it  is  a talent. 
inasmuch  as  it  is  a power  or  property  worth  our  pos- 
session; but  it  is  never  an  endowment.  On  the  other 
hand,  courage,  discernment,  a strong  imagination,  and 
the  like,  are  both  gifts  and  endowments;  and  when  the 
intellectual  endowment  displays  itself  in  any  creative 
form,  as  in  the  case  of  poetry,  musick,  or  any  art,  so  as 
to  produce  that  which  is  valued  and  esteemed,  it 
becomes  a talent  to  the  possessor. 

ABILITY,  CAPACITY. 

Mility,  in  French  hahiliti,  Latin  habilitas,  comes 
from  able,  habile,  hahilis,  and  habeo  to  have,  because 
possession  and  power  are  inseparable.  Capacity,  in 
French  capacity,  Latin  capacitas,  from  capax  and 
capio  to  receive,  marks  the  abstract  quality  of  being 
able  to  receive  or  hold. 

Ability  is  to  capacity  as  the  genus  to  the  species 
Ability  comprehends  the  power  of  doing  in  general 
without  specifying  the  quality  or  degree ; capacity  is  a 
particular  kind  of  abili.'y. 

Ability  may  be  either  physical  or  mental,  capacity, 
when  said  of  persons,  is  mental  only ; ‘ Riches  are  of 
no  use,  if  sickness  taketh  from  us  the  ability  of  en 
joying  them.’ — Swift.  ‘In  what  I have  done,  I have 
rather  given  a proof  of  my  willingness  and  desire,  than 
of  my  ability  to  do  him  (Shakspeare)  justice.’ — Pope. 

Ability  respects  action,  capacity  respects  thought. 
Ability  always  supposes  something  able  to  be  done; 
‘ 1 look  upon  an  able  statesman  out  of  business  like  a 
huge  whale,  that  will  endeavour  to  overturn  the  ship 
unless  he  has  an  empty  cask  to  play  tvith.’ — Steele. 
Capacity  is  a mental  endowment,  and  always  suoposeir 


68 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


something  ready  to  receive  or  hold ; ‘ The  object  is  too 
big  for  our  capacity,  when  we  would  comprehend  the 
circumference  of  a world.’ — Addison.  Hence  we  say 
an  able  commander ; an  able  statesman ; a man  of  a 
capacious  mind ; a great  capacity  of  thought. 

Ability  is  in  no  wise  limited  in  its  extent;  it  may 
be  small  or  great ; 

Of  singing  thou  hast  got  the  reputation. 

Good  Thyrsis;  mine  I yield  to  thy  ability. 

My  heart  doth  seek  another  estimation. — Sidney. 

Capacity  of  itself  always  implies  a positive  and  supe- 
riour  degree  of  power  ; ‘Sir  Francis  Bacon’s  capacity 
seemed  to  have  grasped  all  that  was  revealed  in  books 
before.’ — Hughes.  Although  it  may  be  modified  by 
epithets  to  denote  different  degrees ; a boy  of  capacity 
will  have  the  advantage  over  his  school-fellows,  par- 
ticularly if  lie  be  classed  ivith  boys  of  a dull  capacity. 
A person  may  be  able  to  write  a letter,  who  is  not  ca- 
2mble  of  writing  a book ; ‘St.  Paul  requireth  learning 
in  presbyters,  yea,  such  learning  as  doth  enable  them 
to  exhort  in  doctrine  which  is  sound,  and  to  disprove 
them  that  gainsay  it.  What  measure  of  ability  in 
such  things  shall  serve  to  make  men  capable  of  that 
kind  of  office  he  doth  not  determine.’ — Hookee. 

Abilities,  when  used  in  the  plural  only,  is  confined 
to  the  signification  of  mental  endowments,  and  com- 
prehends the  operations  of  thought  in  general ; ‘ As 
for  me,  my  abilities,  if  ever  I had  any,  are  not  what 
they  were.’ — Atteeuuey'.  Capacity,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  that  peculiar  endowment,  that  enlargement 
of  understanding,  that  exalts  the  possessor  above  the 
rest  of  mankind;  ‘We  sometimes  repine  at  the  nar- 
row limits  prescribed  to  human  ca^Jadty.' — Beattie. 
Many  men  have  the  abilities  for  managing  the  con- 
cerns of  other.s,  who  would  not  have  the  capacity  for 
condmting  a concern  of  their  own.  We  should  not 
judge  highly  of  that  man’s  abilities  who  could  only 
mar  the  plans  of  others,  but  had  no  ca2^%city  iov  con- 
ceiving and  proposing  any  thing  better  in  their  stead. 

A vivid  imagination,  a retentive  memory,  an  exu- 
berant flow  of  language,  are  abilities  which  may  bo 
successfully  employed  in  attracting  popular  applause ; 
‘ I grieve  that  our  senate  is  dwindled  into  a school  of 
rhetorick,  where  men  rise  to  display  their  abilities 
rather  than  to  deliberate.’ — Sir  W.  Jones.  But  that 
capacity  which  embraces  a question  in  all  its  bear- 
ings, which  suiweys  with  a discriminating  eye  the 
mixed  multitude  of  objects  that  demand  attention, 
which  is  accompanied  with  coolness  in  reflecting,  read- 
iaess  in  combining,  quickness  in  inventing,  firmness 
in  deciding,  promptitude  in  action,  and  penetration  in 
discerning,  that  is  the  cajyacity  to  direct  a state,  which 
is  the  gift  of  but  few  ; ‘An  heroick  poem  requires  the 
accomplishment  of  some  extraordinary  undertaking, 
which  requires  the  duty  of  a soldier,  and  the  cajMci- 
ty  and  prudence  of  a general.’ — Dey'den. 


ABILITY,  FACULTY,  TALENT. 

The  common  idea  of  power  is  what  renders  these 
words  synonymous. 

Ability,  as  in  the  preceding  article,  signifies  that 
which  may  be  derived  either  from  circumstances  or 
otherwise  : faculty,  in  Latin  facultas,  changed  from 
facilitas,  facility,  which  signifies  doableness,  or  the 
property  of  being  able  to  do  or  bring  about  effects,  is  a j 
power  derived  from  nature ; ‘ The  vital /acu/.ty  is  that 
by  which  life  is  preseiwed  and  the  ordinary  functions 
of  speech  preserved;  and  the  animal is  what 
conducts  the  operations  of  the  mind.’ — Quincy.  The 
faculty  is  a permanent  possession ; it  is  held  by  a cer-  | 
tain  tenure  : the  ability  an  incidental  possession  ; it 
is  whatever  we  have  while  we  have  it  at  our  disposal, 
but  it  may  vary  in  degree  and  quality  with  time^, 
persons,  and  circumstances ; ‘■Ability  to  teach  by  ser- 
mons is  a grace  which  God  doth  bestow  on  them  whom 
he  maketh  sufficient  for  the  commendable  discharge  . 
of  their  duty.’ — Hooker.  The  powers  of  seeing  and  ; 
hearing  arc  faculties ; health,  strength,  and  fortune  j 
are  abilities.  The  faculty  is  some  specifick  power 
which  is  directed  to  one  single  object ; it  is  the  power 
of  acting  according  to  a given  form ; 

No  fruit  our  palate  courts,  or  flow’r  our  smell. 

But  on  its  fragrant  bosom  nations  dwell ; 

All  formed  with  faculties  to  share 

The  daily  bounties  of  their  Maker’s  care. — Jenyns. 


The  ability  is  in  general  the  power  of  doing ; the 
faculty  therefore  might,  in  the  strict  sense,  be  cou- 
sidered  as  a species  of  ability;  ‘Human  ability  is  an 
unequal  match  for  the  violent  and  unforeseen  vicis- 
situdes of  the  world.’ — Blair. 

A man  uses  Coq  faculties  with  which  he  is  endowed ; 
he  gives  according  to  his  ability. 

Faculty  and  taleiit  both  owe  their  being  to  nature ; 
but  the  faculty  may  be  either  physical  or  mental ; 
the  talent  is  altogether  mental : the /acuity  of  speech 
and  the  rational  faculty  are  the  grand  marks  of  dis- 
tinction between  man  and  the  brute ; ‘ Keason  is  a 
noble  faculty,  and  when  kept  within  its  proper  sphere, 
and  applied  to  useful  purposes,  proves  a means  of  ex- 
alting human  creatures  almost  to  the  rank  of  supe- 
riour  beings.’— Beattie.  The  talent  of  mimickry, 
of  dramatick  acting,  and  of  imitation  in  genei  al,  is 
what  distinguishes  one  man  from  the  other; 

’Tis  not,  indeed,  my  talent  to  engage 
In  lofty  trifles,  or  to  swell  my  page 
With  wind  and  noise Deyden. 

These  terms  are  all  used  in  the  plural,  agreeably  to 
the  above  explanation ; the  abilities  include,  in  the 
aggregate,  whatever  a man  is  able  to  do;  hence  we 
speak  of  a man’s  abilities  in  speaking,  writing,  learn- 
ing, and  the  like ; the  faculties  include  all  the  en- 
dowments of  body  and  mind,  which  are  the  inherent 
properties  of  the  being,  as  when  we  speak  of  a m^n’s 
retaining  his  faculties,  or  having  his  faculties  im- 
paired : talents  are  the  particular  endowments  of  the 
mind,  which  belong  to  the  individual ; hence  we  say 
the  talents  which  are  requisite  for  a minister  of  state 
are  different  from  those  which  qualify  a man  for  be- 
ing a judge. 


ABILITY,  DEXTERITY,  ADDRESS. 

A bility  is  here,  as  in  the  preceding  articles,  the  gen- 
crick  term  ; dexterity,  says  the  Abbe  Girard,*  respects 
the  manner  of  executing  things;  it  is  the  mechanical, 
facility  of  performing  an  office:  address  refers  to  the 
use  of  means  in  executing;  it  signifies  properly  the 
mode  of  address  or  of  managing  one’s  self ; dexterity 
and  address  are  but  in  fact  modes  of  ability. 

Dexterity,  in  Latin  dexteritas,con\eB,  from  dexter,  the 
right  hand,  because  that  is  the  member  most  fitted 
for  dexterous  execution.  Dexterity  may  be  acquired ; 

‘ His  wisdom,  by  often  evading  from  perils,  was  turned 
rather  into  a dexterity  to  deliver  himself  from  dangers 
w'hen  they  pressed  him,  than  into  a providence  to  pre- 
vent and  remove  them  afar  off.’ — Bacon.  Address 
is  the  gift  of  nature;  ‘It  was  no  sooner  dark  than 
she  conveyed  into  his  room  a young  maid  of  no  dis- 
agreeable figure,  who  was  one  of  her  attendants,  and 
did  not  want  address  to  improve  the  opportunity  for 
the  advancement  of  her  fortune.’ — Spectator. 

We  may  have  ability  to  any  degree  (r.  A bility) ; ‘ It 
is  not  possible  for  our  small'party  and  small  ability  to 
extend  their  operations  so  far  as  to  be  much  felt  among 
such  numbers.’ — Govvper.  But  dexterity  and  address 
are  positive  degrtes  of  ability:  ‘It  is  often  observed 
that  the  race  is  won  as  much  by  the  dexterity  of  the 
rider  as  by  the  vigour  and  fleetness  of  the  animal.’ — 
Earl  of  Batu.  ‘I  could  produce  innumerable  in- 
stances from  my  own  observation,  of  events  imputed 
to  the  profound  skill  and  address  of  a minister,  which 
in  reality  were  either  mere  effects'of  negligence,  weak- 
ness, humour,  or  pride,  or  at  best  but  the  natural 
course  of  things  left  to  themselves.’— Swift. 

To  form  a good  government  there  must  be  ability 
in  the  prince  or  his  ministers;  address  in  those  to 
whom  the  detail  of  operations  is  intrusted  ; and  dex- 
terity in  those  to  whom  the  execution  of  orders  is 
confided.  With  little  ability  and  long  habit  in  trans- 
acting business,  Ave  may  acquire  a dextirity  in  de- 
spatching it,  and  address  in  giving  it  ivhatever  turn 
Avill  best  suit  our  purpose. 

A bility  enables  ns  to  act  ivith  intelligence  and  confi- 
dence ; dexterity  lends  an  air  of  ease  to  eveiy  action ; 
address  supplies  art  and  ingenuity  in  contrivance.  To 
manage  the  whip  with  dexterity,  to  carry  on  an  intrigue 
Avith  address,  to  display  some  ability  on  the  turf,  Avill 
raise  a man  high  in  the  rank  of  the  present  fashionables. 

* Vide  ‘ Dexterite,  adresse,  habilite.' 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


CLEVER,  SKILFUL,  EXPERT,  DEXTEROUS, 
ADROIT. 

Clever^  in  French  legere,  Latin  Icvis  light,  seems  to 
denote  quickness  in  the  mental  faculty;  signifies 

full  of  skill ; and  skill  probably  comes  from  the  Latin 
scio  to  know ; expert,  in  French  experte,  Latin  expertus, 
participle  of  experior  to  search  or  try,  signifies  searched 
and  tried ; dexterous,  in  Latin  dexter,  in  Greek  ^e^irepds, 
from  the  right  hand,  has  the  meaning  of  clever, 
because  the  right  hand  is  the  most  fitted  for  action ; 
adroit,  in  French  adroite,  Latin  adrectus  or  rectus 
right  or  straight,  signifies  the  quality  of  doing  things  in 
a right  manner. 

Clever  and  skilful  are  qualities  of  the  mind  ; expert, 
dexterous,  and  adroit,  refer  to  modes  of  physical  action. 
Cleverness  regards  in  general  the  readiness  to  compre- 
hend ; skill  the  maturity  of  the  judgement ; expertness 
a facility  in  the  use  of  things ; dexterity  a mechanical 
facility  in  the  performance  of  any  work ; adroitness 
the  suitable  movements  of  the  body.  A person  is  clever 
at  drawing  who  shows  a taste  for  it,  and  executes  it 
well  without  much  instruction  ; he  is  skilful  in  drawing 
if  he  understands  it  both  in  theory  and  practice  ; he  is 
expert  in  the  use  of  the  bow  if  he  can  use  it  with  expe- 
dition and  effect;  he  is  dexterous  at  any  game  when  he 
goes  through  the  manoeuvres  with  celerity  and  an 
unerring  hand;  he  is  adroit  if  by  a quick,  sudden,  and 
well-directed  movement  of  his  body,  he  effects  the 
object  he  has  in  view. 

Cleverness  is  mental  power  employed  in  the  ordi- 
nary concerns  of  life : a person  is  clever  in  business  or 
amusements; 

My  friends  bade  me  welcome,  but  struck  me  quite  dumb, 
With  tidings  that  Johnson  and  Burke  would  not  come; 
‘ And  I knew  it,”  he  cried,  “ both  eternally  fail. 

The  one  at  the  House,  and  the  other  with  Thrale. 

But  no  matter;  I’ll  warrant  we’ll  make  uptlie  party. 
With  two  full  as  clever  and  ten  times  as  hearty.” 

Goldsmith. 

Skill  is  both  a mental  and  corporeal  power,  exerted 
m mechanical  operations  and  practical  sciences : a 
^thysician,  a lawyer,  and  an  artist,  are  skilful : one  may 
have  a skill  in  divination,  or  a skill  in  painting. 

There  is  nothing  more  graceful  than  to  see  the  play 
stand  still  for  a few  moments,  and  the  audience  kept 
in  an  agreeable  suspense,  during  the  silence  of  a skilful 
actor.’ — Addison.  Expertness  and  dexterity  require 
aiore  corporeal  than  mental  power  exerted  in  minor 
nrts  and  amusements:  one  is  expert  at  throwing  the 
quoit;  dexteraws  in  the  management  of  horses; 

O’er  bar  and  shelf  the  watery  path  they  sound. 

With  dext'rous  arm,  sagacious  cf  the  ground; 

Fearless  they  combat  every  ho.nt.ile  wind. 

Wheeling  in  many  tracts  with  course  inclin’d. 

Expert  to  moor  where  terrours  line  the  road. 

Falconer. 

‘He  applied  himself  next  to  the  coquette’s  heart, 
svhich  he  likewise  laid  open  xt  ith  great  dexterity.' — 
Addison.  Adroitness  is  altogelher  a corporeal  talent, 
employed  only  as  occasion  may  require  : one  is  adroit 
at  eluding  the  blows  aimed  by  a ri  adversary ; ‘ Use  your- 
• self  to  carve  adroitly  and  gjn'.eelly.’ — Chesterfield. 

Cleverness  is  rather  a natural  gift ; skill  is  clever- 
ness improved  by  practice  and  extended  knowledge  ; 
expertness  is  the  effeci  nf  long  practice;  dexterity 
arises  from  habit  combir,ed  with  agility;  adroitness  is 
a species  of  dexterity  a/is'irg  from  a natural  agility  and 
pliability  of  body. 


INABILITY,  DISABILITY. 

Inability  denotes  the  .absence  of  ability  {v.  Ability) 
lii  the  most  general  an  J abstract  sense  ; ‘ It  is  not  from 
inability  to  discover  v'hat  they  ought  to  do  that  men 
err  in  practice.’ — Blair.  Disability  implies  the  ab- 
sence of  ability  ort]y  in  particular  cases  : the  inability 
lies  in  the  nature  3f  the  thing,  and  is  irremediable ; the 
disability  lies  in  '.he circumstances,  and  may  sometimes 
be  removed  ; wenV  ness,  whether  physical  or  mental, 
will  occasion  an  viability  to  perform  a task  ; there  is  a 
total  inaltility  in  an  infant  to  walk  and  act  like  an 
ftdiili-  a waiit  of  know'edge  or  of  the  requisite  quali- 
JeadoD'A  may  le  a disability;  in  this  maimer  mi- 
icfi.y  o',  ig  i,  jr  an  objection  to  take  certain  oaths 
<TiVf  Jk  a ilii/,6ility  for  filling  a publick  office;  ‘Want 


' 6S 

of  age  is  a legal  disability  to  contract  a mar 
riage.’ — Blackstone. 

INCAPABLE,  INSUFFICIENT,  INCOMPEB  ENT 
INADEGUATE. 

Incapable,  that  is,  not  having  capacity  {v.  Ability) ; 
insufficient,  or  not  sufficient,  or  not  having  what  is  suf 
ficient;  incompetent,  or  not  competent;  are  employed 
either  lor  persons  or  things:  the  first  in  a general,  the 
last  two  in  a specifick  sense : inadequate  or  not  adequate 
or  equalled,  is  applied  more  generally  to  things. 

When  a man  is  said  to  be  incapable,  it  characterizes 
his  whole  mind;  ‘Were  a human  soul  incapable  ol 
farther  enlargements,  I could  imagine  it  might  fall 
away  insensibly.’ — Addison.  If  he  be  said  to  have 
insufficiency  and  incompetency,  it  respects  the  parti- 
cular objects  to  which  he  has  applied  his  power:  he 
may  be  insufficient  or  incompetent  for  certain  things  ; 
but  he  may  have  a capacity  for  other  things : the  term 
incapacity,  therefore,  implies  a direct  charge  upon  ihe 
understanding,  which  is  not  implied  by  the  insuffi- 
c.iency  and  incompetency.  An  incapacity  consists  alto- 
gether of  a physical  defect : an  insufficiency  and  in- 
competency are  incidental  defects : the  former  depend- 
ing upon  the  age,  the  condition,  the  acquisitions,  mora/ 
qualities,  and  the  like,  of  the  individual ; the  latter  on 
the  extent  of  his  knowledge,  and  the  nature  of  his 
studies  ; where  there  is  direct  incapacity,  a person  has 
no  chance  of  making  himself  fit  for  any  office  or  em- 
ployment ; ‘ It  chiefly  proceedeth  from  natural  incapa- 
city, and  general  indisposition.’ — Brown.  Youth  is 
naturally  accompanied  with  insufficiency  to  fill  sta 
tions  which  belong  to  mature  age,  and  to  perform 
offices  which  require  the  exercise  of  judgement;  ‘The 
minister’s  aptness,  or  insufficiency,  otherwise  than  by 
reading,  to  instruct  the  flock,  standeth  in  this  place  as 
a stranger,  with  whom  our  Common  Prayer  has  no 
thing  to  do.’ — Hooker.  A young  person  is,  therefore 
still  more  incompetent  to  form  a fixed  opinion  on  an} 
one  subject,  because  he  can  have  made  himself  mas 
ter  of  none ; ‘ Laymen,  with  equal  advantages  of 
parts,  are  not  the  most  incompetent  judges  of  sacrec 
things.’ — Dryden. 

Incapable  is  applied  sometimes  to  the  moral  clia 
racter,  to  signify  the  absence  of  that  which  is  bad 
insufficient  and  incompetent  always  convey  the  idea 
of  a deficiency  in  that  which  is  at  least  desirable : it 
is  an  honour  to  a person  to  be  incapable  of  falsehood, 
or  incapable  of  doing  an  ungenerous  action  ; but  to  be 
insufficient  and  incompetent  are,  at  all  events,  qualities 
not  to  be  boasted  of,  although  they  may  not  be  expressly 
disgraceful.  These  terms  are  likewise  applicable  to 
things,  in  which  they  preserve  a similar  distinction 
infidelity  is  incapable  of  affording  a man  any  comfort, 
when  the  means  are  insufficient  for  obtaining  the  ends 
it  is  madness  to  expect  success ; it  is  a sad  condition  of 
humanity  when  a man’s  resources  axe  incompetent  tc 
supply  him  with  the  first  necessaries  of  life. 

Inadequate  is  relative  in  its  signification,  like  insuf- 
ficient and  incompetent ; Dut  the  relation  is  different 
A thing  is  insufficient  which  does  not  suffice  either  foi 
the  wishes,  the  purposes,  or  necessities,  of  any  one, 
in  particular  or  in  general  cases;  thus  a quantity  of 
materials  may  be  insufficient  for  a particular  building  ; 
‘The  insufficiency  of  the  light  of  nature  is,  by  the 
light  of  Scripture,  fully  supplied.’ — Hooker.  Incom- 
petency is  an  insufficiency  for  general  purposes,  in  thinga 
of  the  first  necessity  ; thus,  an  income  may  be  incom- 
petent to  support  a family,  or  perform  an  office  ; ‘ Every 
speck  does  not  blind  a man,  nor  does  every  infirmity 
make  one  unable  to  discern,  or  incompetent  to  reprove, 
the  grosser  faults  of  others.’ — Government  of  the 
Tongue.  Inadequacy  is  still  more  particular,  for  ij 
denotes  any  deficiency  which  is  measured  by  compa- 
rison with  the  object  to  which  it  refers;  thus,  the 
strength  of  an  animal  may  be  inadequate  to  thelaboui 
which  is  required,  or  a reward  may  be  inadequate  to 
the  service;  ‘All  the  attainments  possible  in  our  pre- 
sent state  are  evidently  inadequate  to  our  capacities  of 
enjoyment.’— Johnson. 

WIT,  HUMOUR,  SATIRE,  IRONY, 
BURLESaUE. 

Wit,  like  wisdom,  according  to  its  original,  frnii 
weissen  to  know,  signifies  knowledge,  but  it  has  si 


:o 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


extended  its  meaning  as  to  signify  that  faculty  of  the 
mind  by  which  knowledge  or  truth  is  perceived.  The 
first  property  of  wrt,  as  an  exertion  of  the  intellectual 
faculty,  is  that  it  be  spontaneous,  and  as  it  were  in- 
stinctive : laboured  or  forced  wit  is  no  wit.  Reflection 
and  experience  supply  us  with  wisdom ; study  and 
labour  supply  us  with  learning ; but  wit  seizes  with 
an  eagle  eye  that  which  escajjes  the  notice  of  the  deep 
thinker,  and  elicits  truths  which  are  in  vain  sought 
for  with  any  severe  eflbrt ; ‘ Wit  lies  more  in  the  as- 
semblage of  ideas,  and  putting  those  together  with 
quickness  and  varie*'  ' — Addison.  Humour  is  a 
pecies  of  wit  which  flows  out  of  the  humour  of  a 
erson ; 

For  sure  by  wit  is  chiefly  meant 

Applying  well  what  we  invent : 

What  humour  is  not,  all  the  tribe 

Of  logick-mongers  can  describe; 

Here  nature  only  acts  her  part. 

Unhelp’d  by  practice,  books,  or  art. — Swift. 
/F/t,  as  distinguished  from  humour,  may  consist  of  a 
single  brilliant  thought ; 

In  a true  piece  of  icit  all  things  must  be. 

Yet  all  things  there  agree. — Cowley. 

But  humour  runs  in  a vein  ; it  is  not  a striking,  but  an 
equable  and  pleasing  flow  of  wit;  ‘There  is  a kind 
of  nature,  a certain  regularity  of  thought,  which  must 
discover  the  writer  (of  humour)  to  be  a man  of  sense 
at  the  same  time  that  he  appears  altogether  given  up 
to  caprice’ — Addison.  Of  this  description  of  witMr. 
Addison  has  given  us  the  most  admirable  specimens  in 
his  writings,  who  knew  best  how  to  explain  what  wit 
and  humour  were,  and  to  illustrate  them  by  his  practice. 
Humour  may  likewise  display  itself  in  actions  as  well 
as  words,  whereby  it  is  more  strikingly  distinguished 
from  wit,  which  displays  itself  only  in  the  happy  ex- 
pression of  happy  thoughts;  ‘ I cannot  help  remarking 
that  sickness,  which  often  destroys  both  wit  and  wis- 
dom, yet  seldom  has  power  to  remove  that  talent  which 
we  call  humour.  Mr.  Wycherley  showed  his  in  his  last 
compliment  paid  to  his  young  wife  (whom  he  made 
promise,  on  his  dying  bed,  that  she  would  not  marry  an 
old  man  again).’ — Pope. 

Satire,  from  satyr,  probably  from  sat  and  ira 
abounding  in  anger,  and  irony,  from  the  Greek  eipwvia 
simulation  and  dissimulation,  are  personal  and  censo 
rious  sorts  of  wit;  the  first  of  which  openly  points  at 
the  object,  and  the  second  in  a covert  manner  takes  its 
aim  ; ‘ The  ordinary  subjects  of  satire  are  such  as  ex- 
cite the  greatest  indignation  in  the  best  tempers.’ — 
Addison.  ‘ In  writings  of  humour,  figures  are  some- 
times used  of  so  delicate  a nature,  that  it  shall  often 
happen  that  some  people  will  see  things  in  a direct  con- 
trary sense  to  what  the  author,  and  the  majority  of  the 
eaders  understand  them : to  such  the  most  innocent 
irony  may  appear  irreligion.’ — Cambridge.  Bur' 
lesque  is  rather  a species  of  humour  than  direct  wit, 
which  consists  in  an  assemblage  of  ideas  extrava- 
gantly discordant ; ‘ One  kind  of  burlesque  represents 
mean  persons  in  the  accoutrements  of  heroes.’ — 
Addison.  The  satire  and  irony  are  the  most  ill-na- 
tured kinds  of  wit ; burlesque  stands  in  the  lowest  rank. 

TASTE,  GENIUS. 

Taste,  in  all  probability  from  the  Latin  tactum  and 
tango  to  touch,  seems  to  designate  the  capacity  to  de- 
rive pleasure  from  an  object  by  simply  coming  in  con- 
tact with  it ; ‘ This  metaphor  would  not  have  been  so 
general  had  there  not  been  a conformity  between  the 
mental  taste  and  that  sensitive  taste  which  gives  a re- 
lish of  every  flavour,’ — Addison.  Genius  designates 
the  power  we  have  for  accomplishing  any  object; 
‘ Taste  consists  in  the  power  of  Judging,  genius  in  the 
power  of  executing.’ — Blair.  He  who  derives  parti- 
cular pleasure  from  musick  may  be  said  to  have  a taste 
for  musick ; he  who  makes  very  great  proficiency  in  the 
theory  and  p*ractice  of  musick  may  be  said  to  have  a 
genius  for  it.  Taste  is  in  some  degree  an  acquired 
faculty,  or  at  least  is  dependant  on  cultivation,  as  also 
on  our  other  faculties,  for  its  perfection ; ‘ The  cause 
of  a wrong  taste  is  a defect  of  Judgement.’ — Burke. 
Genius,  from  the  Latin  gigno  to  generate,  is  a perfectly 
natural  gift  which  rises  to  perfection  by  its  own  native 
strength  ; the  former  belongs  to  the  critick,  and  the  lat- 
ter to  the  poet ; 


’Tis  with  our  Judgements  as  out  watches,  none 
Go  Just  alike,  yet  each  believes  his  own ; 

In  poets  as  true  genius  is  rare. 

True  taste  as  seldom  is  the  critick’s  share. — Pope. 

It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  we  may  have  a tasU 
without  having  genius ; but  it  would  not  be  possible  to 
have  genius  for  a thing  without  having  a taste  for  it . 
for  nothing  can  so  effectually  give  a taste  for  any  ac 
complishment,  as  the  capacity  to  learn  it,  and  the  sus 
ceptibility  of  all  its  beauties,  which  circumstances  ar 
inseparable  from  genius. 

INGENUITY,  WIT. 

Both  these  terms  imply  acuteness  of  understanding, 
and  differ  mostly  in  the  mode  of  displaying  themselves 
Ingenuity,  in  Latin  ingenuitas,  signifies  literary  free- 
dom of  birth,  in  distinction  from  slavery,  with  which 
condition  have  been  naturally  associated  nobleness  o( 
character  and  richness  in  mental  endowments,  in 
which  latter  sense  it  is  allied  to  wit.  Ingenuity  com- 
prehends invention ; wit  comprehends  knowledge.  In- 
genuity displays  itself  in  the  mode  of  conducting  an 
argument ; ‘ Men  were  formerly  won  over  to  opinions, 
by  the  candour,  sense,  and  ingenuity  ol  those  who  had 
the  right  on  their  side.’ — Addison.  Wit  is  mostly  dis 
{)layed  in  aptness  of  expression  and  illustration : ‘ When 
I broke  loose  from  that  great  body  of  writers,  who  have 
eu! ployed  their  wit  and  parts  in  propagating  vice  and 
irreligion,  I did  not  question  but  I should  be  treated  as 
an  odd  kind  of  fellow.’ — Addison.  One  is  ingenious 
in  matters  either  of  art  or  science;  one  is  witty  o\\\y 
in  matters  of  sentiment ; things  may,  therefore,  be  in 
genious,  but  not  witty;  witty,  but  not  ingenious, ox  both 
witty  and  ingenious.  A mechanical  invention,  or  any 
ordinary  contrivance,  is  ingenious  but  not  witty;  an 
ingenious,  not  a witty  solution  of  a difficulty  ; a flash 
of  wit,  not  a flash  of  ingenuity ; a witty  humour,  a 
witty  conversation ; not  an  ingenious  humour  or  con- 
versation  : on  the  other  hand,  a conceit  is  ingenious, 
as  it  is  the  fruit  of  one’s  own  mind ; it  is  witty,  as  it 
contains  point,  and  strikes  on  the  understanding  of 
others. 


SENSE,  JUDGEMENT. 

Sense,  from  the  Latin  sensus  and  sentio  to  feel  ot 
perceive,  signifies  in  general  the  faculty  of  feeling  cor- 
poreally, or  perceiving  mentally;  in  the  first  case  it  is 
allied  to  feeling  {v.  Feeling),  in  the  second  it  is  synony- 
mous with  judgement,  which  is  a special  operation  of 
the  mind.  The  sense  is  that  primitive  portion  of  the 
understanding  which  renders  an  account  of  thingt 
through  the  medium  of  the  senses; 

Then  is  the  soul  a nature,  which  contains 

The  power  of  sense  within  a greater  power. 

Davies. 

And  the  judgement,  that  portion  of  the  reason  which 
selects  or  rejects  from  this  account.  The  sense  is,  so 
to  speak,  the  reporter  which  collects  the  details,  and 
exposes  the  facts ; the  judgement  is  the  judge  that 
passes  sentence  upon  them.  According  to  the  strict 
import  of  the  terms,  the  judgement  depends  upon  the 
sense,  and  varies  with  it  in  degree.  He  who  has  no 
sense,  has  no  judgement ; and  he  who  loses  sense, 
loses  judgement : since  sense  supplies  the  knowledge 
of  things,  and  judgement  pronounces  upon  them,  it  is 
evident  that  there  must  be  sense  before  there  can  be 
judgement. 

On  the  other  hand,  sense,  when  taken  to  denote  the 
mental  foculty  of  perceiving,  may  be  so  distinguished 
(torn  judgement,  that  there  may  be  sense  without 
ment,  and  judgement  without  sense  ; sense  is  the 
faculty  of  perceiving  in  general;  it  is  applied  to  ab- 
stract science  as  well  as  general  knowledge 
is  the  faculty  of  determining  either  in  matters  of  prac- 
tice or  theory.  It  is  the  lot  of  many,  therefore,  to  have 
sense  i i matters  of  theory,  who  have  no  judgment  in 
matters  of  practice,  while  others,  on  the  contrary, 
who  have  nothing  above  common  sense,  will  have  a 
soundness  of  judgement  that  is  not  to  be  surpassed 

Nay,  further,  it  is  possible  for  a man  to  nave  good 
sense,  and  yet  not  a solid  judgement:  as  they  are 
both  natural  faculties,  men  are  gifted  with  them  as 

* Vide  Riband-  “ Sens,  jugement  ” 


ENGLISH  SYNONIMES. 


7j 


/atiously  ai  with  every  other  fact  liy.  By  good  sense 
a mail  is  enabled  to  discern,  as  it  were  intuitively,  tliat 
vvhicli  requires  another  of  less  sense  to  ponder  over 
and  study ; 

There’s  something  previous  ev’n  to  taste:  ’tis  sense, 
Good  sense ; which  only  is  the  gift  of  heav’n. 

And,  though  no  science,  fairly  worth  the  seven ; 

A light  within  yourself  you  must  perceive, 

Jones  and  LeJ\'otie  have  it  not  to  give. — Pope. 

By  a sohii  jud gem etit  a man  is  enabled  to  avoid  those 
erroiirs  in  conduct,  which  one  of  a weak  judgement  is 
always  falling  into ; ‘ In  all  instances,  where  our  ex- 
perience of  the  {last  has  been  extensive  and  uniform, 
our  judgement  concerning  the  future  amounts  to  moral 
certainty.’ — Beattie.  There  is,  however,  this  dis- 
tinction between  sense  and  j udgment,  that  the  deficien- 
cies of  the  former  may  be  supplied  by  diligence  and 
attention ; but  a defect  in  the  latter  is  to  be  supplied 
by  no  efforts  of  one’s  own.  A man  may  improve  his 
sense  in  proportion  as  he  has  the  means  of  infor- 
mation ; but  a weakness  ni  judgement,  is  an  irreme- 
diable evil. 

When  employed  as  epithets,  the  term  sensible  and 
judicious  serve  still  more  clearly  to  distinguish  the  two 
primitives.  A writer  or  a speaker  is  said  to  be  sensi- 
ble; ‘I  have  been  tired  with  accounts  from  sensible 
men,  furnished  with  matters  of  fact,  which  have  hap- 
pened within  their  own  knowledge.’ — Addison.  A 
friend,  or  an  adviser,  to  be  judicious ; ‘ Your  observa- 
tions areso  judicious,  I wish  you  had  not  been  so  sparing 
of  them.’ — Sir  W.  Jones.  The  sense  displays  itself 
•n  the  conversation,  or  the  communication  of  one’s 
ideas  ; the  judgment  in  the  propriety  of  one’s  actions. 
A sensible  man  may  be  an  entertaining  companion ; 
out  a judicious  man,  in  any  post  of  command,  is  an 
inestimable  treasure.  Sensible  remarks  are  always 
calculated  to  please  and  interest  sensible  people  ;_/m- 
dicious  measures  have  a sterling  value  in  themselves, 
that  is  appreciated  according  to  the  importance  of  the 
object.  Hence,  it  is  obvious,  that  to  be  sensible  is  a 
desirable  thing;  but  to  he  judicious  is  an  indispensable 
requisite. 


DISCERNMENT,  PENETRATION,  DISCRIMI- 
NATION, JUDGEMENT. 

Discernment  expresses  the  judgement  or  power  of 
iiscerning,  whicli,  from  the  Latin  discerno,  or  dis  and 
r.crno,  signifies  to  look  at  apart,  so  as  to  form  a true 
eslirnate  of  things  ; penetration  denotes  the  act  or 
power  of  penetrating,  from  penetrate,  in  Latin  pene- 
tratus,  partici{jle  of  jyenefro  and  penitus,  within,  signi- 
fying to  see  into  the  interiour  ; discrimination  denotes 
the  act  or  power  of  discriminating  '’rom  discriminate, 
in  Latin  discriminatus,  participl  f discrimino,  to 
make  a difference;  judgement  denc.es  the  power  of 
judging,  from  judge,  in  Latin  judico,  compounded  of 
jus  and  dico,  signifying  to  pronounce  right. 

The  first  three  of  these  terms  do  not  express  different 
powers,  but  different  modes  of  the  same  power; 
namely,  the  power  of  seeing  intellectually,  or  exerting 
the  intellectual  sight. 

Discernment  is  not  so  powerful  a mode  of  intellec- 
tual vision  as  penetration ; the  former  is  a common 
faculty,  the  latter  is  a higher  degree  of  the  same 
faculty;  it  is  the  power  of  seeing  quickly,  and  seeing 
in  spite  of  all  that  intercepts  the  sight,  and  keeps  the 
object  out  of  view ; a man  of  common  discernment  dis- 
cerns characters  which  are  not  concealed  by  any  par- 
ticular disguise;  ‘ Great  part  of  the  country  was  aban- 
doned to  the  spoils  of  the  soldiers,  who,  not  troubling 
themselves  to  discern  between  a subject  and  a rebel, 
while  their  liberty  lasted,  made  indifferently  profit  of 
both.’ — Hayward.  A man  of  penetration  is  not  to  be 
deceived  by  any  artifice,  however  thoroughly  cloaked 
or  secured,  even  from  sus{)icion  ; ‘ He  is  as  slow  to 
decide  as  he  is  quick  to  apprehend,  calmly  and  delibe- 
rately weighing  every  opposite  reason  that  is  offered, 
and  tracing  it  with  a most  judicious  penetration.' — 
Melmoth  {Letters  of  Pliny). 

Discernment  and  penetration  serve  for  the  discovery 
of  individual  things  by  their  outward  marks;  discrimi- 
nation is  employed  in  the  discovery  of  differences 
between  two  or  more  objects ; the  former  consists  of 
simple  observation,  the  latter  combines  also  com- 
parison ; discernment  and  penetration  are  great  aids 


towards  discrimination;  he  who  can  discert  the 
springs  of  human  action,  or  penetr  ate  the  views  of 
men,  will  be  most  fitted  for  discriminating  between 
the  characters  of  different  men ; • Perhaps  there  is  no 
character  through  all  Shakspeare  drawn  with  more 
spirit  and  just  discrimination  than  Shylock’s.’— 
Henley. 

Although  derives  much  assistance  fioin 

the  three  former  operations,  it  is  a totally  distinct 
power;  the  former  only  discover  the  things  that  are; 
it  acts  on  external  objects  by  seeing  them:  the  latter 
is  creative;  it  produces  by  deduction  from  that  which 
passes  inwardly.*  The  former  are  speculative ; they 
are  directed  to  that  which  is  to  be  Known,  and  are 
confined  to  jiresenl  objects;  they  serve  to  discover 
truth  or  falsehood,  perfections  and  defects,  motives 
and  pretexts : the  latter  is  practical ; it  is  directed  to 
that  which  is  to  be  done,  and  extends  its  views  to  the 
future;  it  marks  the  relations  and  connexions 
things:  it  foresees  their  consequences  and  effects; 
love  him,  I confess,  extremely  ; but  my  affection  does 
by  no  means  prejudice  my  judgement.') — Melmoth 
{Letters  of  Pliny). 

Of  discernment,  we  say  that  it  is  clear;  it  serves  to 
remove  all  obscurity  and  confusion  : of  penetration, 
we  say  that  it  is  acute ; it  pierces  every  veil  which 
falsehood  draws  before  truth,  and  prevents  us  from 
being  deceived;  of  discrimination,  we  say  that  it  is 
nice  ; it  renders  our  ideas  accurate,  and  serves  to  pre- 
vent us  from  confounding  objects:  of  judgement,  we 
say  that  it  is  solid  or  sound;  it  renders  the  conduct, 
prudent,  and  prevents  us  from  committing  mistakes, 
or  involving  one’s  self  in  embarrassments. 

When  the  question  is  to  estimate  the  real  qualities 
of  either  persons  or  things,  we  e.xercise  discernment : 

Cool  age  advances  venerably  wise. 

Turns  on  all  hands  its  deep  discerning  eyes. — Pops 
When  it  is  required  to  lay  open  that  which  art  or 
cunning  has  concealed,  we  must  exercise  penetration ; 

‘ A penetration  into  the  abstruse  difficulties  and  depths 
of  modern  algebra  and  fluxions,  is  not  worth  the 
labour  of  those  who  design  either  of  the  three  learned 
professions.’— Watts.  When  the  question  is  to  de 
terminethe  proportions  and  degrees  of  qualities  in  per 
sons  or  things,  we  must  use  discrimination ; ‘A  satire 
should  expose  nothing  but  what  is  corrigible,  and 
make  a due  discrimination  between  those  wlio  are, 
and  those  who  are  not,  proper  objects  of  it.’ — Addison. 
When  called  upon  to  take  any  step,  or  act  any  part, 
we  must  employ  Wie  judgement ; '^Judgement,  a cool  and 
slow  faculty,  attends  not  a man  in  the  rapture  of  poeti- 
cal composition.’ — Dennis.  Discernment  is  more  or 
less  indispensable  for  every  man  in  private  or  public 
station ; he  who  has  the  most  promiscuous  dealings 
with  men,  has  the  greatest  need  of  it : penetration,  is 
of  peculiar  importance  for  princes  and  statesmen ; dis 
crimination  is  of  great  utility  for  commanders,  and 
all  who  have  the  power  of  distributing  rewards  and 
punishments;  is  an  absolute  requisite  for  all 

to  whom  the  execution  or  management  of  concerns  b 
intrusted. 


REASONABLE,  RATIONAL, 

Are  both  derived  from  the  same  Latin  word  ratio, 
reason,  which,  from  ratus  and  reor,  to  think,  signifies 
the  thinking  faculty. 

Reasonable  signifies  accordant  with  reason ; rational 
signifies  having  reason  in  it : the  former  is  more  com- 
monly applied  in  the  sense  of  right  reason,  projiriety, 
or  fairness  ; the  latter  is  employed  in  the  original  sense 
of  the  word  reason  ; hence  we  term  a man  reasonable 
who  acts  according  to  the  principles  of  rignt  reason  ; 
and  a being  rational,  who  is  possessed  of  the  rational 
or  reasoning  faculty,  in  distinction  from  the  brutes.  It 
is  to  be  lamented  that  there  are  much  fewer  reasonable 
than  there  are  rational  creatures.  The  same  distinction 
exists  between  them  when  applied  to  things  ; ‘ A law 
may  be  reasonable  in  itself,  although  a man  does  not 
allow  it,  or  does  not  know  the  reason  of  the  lawgivers  ’ 
—Swift.  ‘ The  evidence  which  is  afforded  for  a future 
state  is  sufficient  for  a rational  ground  of  conduct.’— 
Blair. 

• Vide  Abbe  Girard . “.Discernement,  jugemenl” 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


^rENTAL,  INTEI.LECTUAL. 

Tlieie  is  the  same  difference  between  mental  and 
intellectual  as  between  mind  and  intellect : the  mind 
comprehends  ths  thinking  faculty  in  general  with  all 
us  operations;  the  intellect  includes  only  that  part  of 
it  which  consists  in  understanding  and  judgement ; 
mental  is  therefore  opposed  to  corporeal ; intellectual 
is  opposed  to  sensual  or  physical : mental  exertions  are 
not  to  be  expected  from  all ; intellectual  enjoyments 
fall  to  the  lot  of  comparatively  few. 

Objects,  pleasures,  pains,  operations,  gifts,  &c.  are 
denominated  mental;  ‘To  collect  and  reposite  the 
v arious  forms  of  things  is  far  the  most  pleasing  part 
)t  menial  occupation.’ — Johnson.  Subjects,  conver- 
sation, pursuits,  and  the  like,  are  entitled  intellectual; 
Man ’s  more  divine,  the  master  of  all  these, 

Lord  of  the  wide  world,  and  wide  wat’ry  seas. 
Endued  with  intellectual  sense  and  soul. 

Shakspeare. 

it  IS  not  always  easy  to  distinguish  our  mental  pleasures 
from  those  corporeal  pleasures  which  we  enjoy  in  com- 
mon with  the  brutes ; the  latter  are  however  greatly 
heightened  by  the  former  in  whatever  degree  they  are 
blended ; in  a society  of  well-informed  persons  the  con- 
versation will  turn  principally  on  intellectual  subjects. 

MEMORY,  REMEMBRANCE,  RECOLLECTION, 
REMINISCENCE. 

.Memory^  in  Latin  memoria  or  memor,  Greek  yvtjfxwv 
and  yvdoyai,  comes,  in  all  probability,  from  yevos,  the 
mind,  because  memory  is  the  principal  faculty  of  the 
mind  ; remembrance,  from  the  v’erb  remember,  con- 
tracted from  re  and  memoro,  to  bring  back  to  the  mind, 
is  a verbal  substantive,  denoting  the  exercise  of  that 
laculty ; recollection,  from  recollect,  compounded  of  re 
and  collect,  signifies  collecting  again,  i.  e.  carefully, 
and  from  different  quarters  by  an  elfort  of  the  memory ; 
reminiscence,  in  Latin  rcminisccntia,  from  rtminiscor 
and  memor,  is  the  bringing  back  to  the  mind  what  was 
there  before. 

Memory  is  the  power  of  recalling  images  once  made 
on  the  mind  ; remembrance,  recollection,  and  reminis- 
cence, are  opeiatioiis  or  e.xertions  of  this  power,  which 
vary  in  their  mode. 

The  memory  is  a power  which  exerts  itself  either  in- 
dependently of  the  will,  or  in  conformity  with  the  will ; 
but  all  the  other  terms  express  the  acts  of  conscious 
agents,  and  consequently  are  more  or  less  connected 
with  the  will.  In  dreams  the  memory  exerts  itself,  but 
we  should  not  say  that  we  have  then  any  remembrance 
or  recollection  of  objects. 

Remembrance  is  the  exercise  of  memory  in  a con- 
scious agent ; it  is  the  calling  a thing  back  to  the  mind 
which  has  been  there  before,  but  has  passed  away  ; 

Forgetfulness  is  necessary  to  remembrance.' — John- 
son. This  may  be  the  effect  of  repetition  or  habit,  as 
ia  the  case  of  a child  who  remembers  his  le.sson  after 
having  learned  it  several  times;  or  of  a horse  who 
remembers  the  road  which  he  has  been  continually 
passing;  or  it  may  be  the  effect  of  association  and  cir- 
cumstances, by  which  images  are  casually  brought 
back  to  the  mind,  as  happens  to  intelligent  beings  con- 
tinually as  they  exercise  their  thinking  faculties; 

Remember  thee! 

Ah,  thou  poor  ghost,  while  memory  holds  a seat 
In  this  distracted  globe. — Shakspeare. 

In  these  cases  remembrance  is  an  involuntary  act ; 
for  things  return  to  the  mind  before  one  is  aware  of  it, 
as  in  the  case  of  one  who  hears  a particular  name,  and 
remembers  that  he  has  to  call  on  a person  of  the  same 
name ; or  of  one  who,  on  seeing  a particular  tree, 
remembers  all  the  circumstances  of  his  youth  whicli 
were  connected  with  a similar  tree. 

Remembrance  is  however  likewise  a voluntary  act, 
and  the  consequence  of  a direct  determination,  as  in 
me  case  of  a child  who  strives  to  remember  what  it  has 
been  told  by  its  parent ; or  of  a friend  who  remembers 
the  hour  of  meeting  another  friend  in  consequence 
of  the  interest  which  it  has  excited  in  his  mind ; nay 
indeed  experience  teaches  us  that  scarcely  any  thing 
in  ordinary  cases  is  more  under  the  subservience  of 
the  w.ll  than  the  memory ; for  it  is  now  become  almost 
a maxim  to  say,  that  one  may  remember  whatever  one 
visiles. 


The  power  of  memory,  and  ihe  simple  exercise  ol 
that  power  in  the  act  of  remembering,  are  possessed 
in  common,  though  in  diflerent  degrees  by  man  and 
brute ; but  recollection  and  reminiscence  are  exercises 
of  the  memory  that  are  connected  with  the  highei 
faculties  of  man,  his  judgement  and  understanding 
To  remember  is  to  call  to  mind  that  which  has  once 
been  presented  to  the  mind  ; but  to  recollect  is  tc 
remember  afresh,  to  remember  what  has  been  remem 
bered  before.  Remembrance  busies  itself  with  objects 
that  are  at  hand  ; recollection  carries  us  back  to  dis- 
tant periods ; simple  remembrance  is  engaged  in  things 
that  have  but  just  left  the  mind,  which  are  more  or 
less  easily  to  be  recalled,  and  more  or  less  faithfully  to 
be  represented ; but  recollection  tries  to  retrace  the 
faint  images  of  things  that  have  been  so  tong  unthougbt 
of  as  to  be  almost  obliterated  from  the  me'xc’y.  In  this 
manner  we  are  said  to  remember  in  one  half  hour  what 
was  told  us  in  the  preceding  half  hour,  or  to  remember 
what  passes  from  one  day  to  another;  but  we  recollect 
the  incidents  of  childhood;  we  recollect  what  happened 
in  our  native  place  after  many  years’  absence  from  it. 
The  remembrance  is  that  homely  every-day  exercise  of 
the  memory  which  renders  it  of  essential  service  in  the 
acquirement  of  knowledge,  or  in  the  performance  of 
one’s  duties  ; ‘ Memory  may  be  assisted  by  method, 
and  the  decays  of  knowledge  repaired  by  stated  times 
of  recollection.' — Johnson.  The  recollection  is  that  ex- 
alted exercise  of  the  memory  which  affords  us  the  purest 
of  enjoyments,  and  serves  the  noblest  of  purposes  ; the 
recollection  of  all  the  minute  incidents  of  childhood  is 
a more  sincere  pleasure  than  any  which  the  presen' 
iiioment  can  afford. 

Reminiscence,  if  it  deserve  any  notice  as  a word  of 
English  use,  is  altogether  an  abstract  exercise  of  th , 
memory,  which  is  employed  on  purely  intellectual  idea.-- 
in  distinction  from  those  which  are  awakened  by  sen- 
sible objects  ; the  mathematician  makes  use  of  remi 
niscence  in  deducing  unknown  truths  from  those  which 
he  already  knows;  ^Reminiscence  is  the  retrieving  <? 
thing  at  present  forgot,  or  confusedly  remembered,  by 
setting  the  mind  to  hunt  over  all  its  notions.’ — South. 

Reminiscence  among  the  disciples  of  Socrates  was 
the  remembrance  of  things  purely  intellectual,  or  of 
that  natural  knowledge  which  the  souls  had  had  before 
their  union  with  the  body  ; while  the  memory  was 
e.xercised  upon  sensible  things,or  thatknowledge  which 
was  acquired  through  the  medium  of  the  senses ; there- 
fore the  Latins  said  that  reminiscentia  belonged  exclu- 
sively to  man,  because  it  was  purely  intellectual,  but 
that  memory  was  common  to  all  animals,  because  it 
was  merely  the  depot  of  the  senses;  but  this  di.=;tinc 
tion,  from  what  has  been  before  observed,  is  only  pre 
served  as  it  respects  the  meaning  of  reminiscence. 

Memory  is  a generic  term,  as  has  been  already 
shown : it  includes  the  common  idea  of  reviving  former 
impressions,  but  does  not  qualify  the  nature  of  the 
ideas  revived:  the  term  is  however  extended  in  its 
application  to  signify  not  merely  a power,  but  also  a 
seat  or  resting  place,  as  is  likewise  remembrance  and 
recollection ; but  still  with  this  difference,"  that  the 
memory  is  spacious,  and  contains  every  thing ; the 
remembrance  and  recollection  are  partial,  and  compre- 
hend only  passing  events  : we  treasure  up  knowledge 
in  our  memory ; tlie  occurrences  of  the  preceding  year 
are  still  fresh  in  our  remembrance  or  recollection. 


FORGETFULNESS,  OBLIVION. 
Forgetfulness  cliaracterizes  the  person,  or  that  which 
is  personal ; oblivion  the  state  of  the  thing : the  former 
refers  to  him  who  forgets ; ‘I  have  read  in  ancient 
authors  invitations  to  lay  aside  care  and  anxiety,  and 
give  a loose  to  that  pleasing  forgetfulness  wherein 
men  put  off  their  characters  of  business.’— Steele. 
The  latter  to  that  which  is/or^o<tera; 

O’er  all  the  rest,  an  undistinguished  crew. 

Her  wing  of  deepest  shade  oblivion  drew. — Falconer 

We  blame  a person  for  his  forgetfulness ; but  we  some 
times  bury  things  in  oblivion 

FANCY,  IMAGINATION. 

Fancy,  considered  as  a power,  simply  brings  the  oL 
ject  to  the  mind,  or  makes  it  appear,  from  the  Latin 
phantasia,  and  the  Greek  (bavraala  and  djalvw  to 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


appear ; but  imagination,  ji’oin  image,,  in  Latin  imago, 
er  imilago,  or  imitatio,  is  a power  which  presents  the 
images  or  likenesses  of  things.  The  fancy,  therefore, 
only  employs  itself  about  things  without  regarding 
their  nature;  but  the  imagination  aims  at  tracing  a 
resemblance,  and  getting  a true  copy  ; 

And  as  imagination  bodies  forth 

The  forms  of  things  unknown,  the  poet’s  pen 

Turns  them  to  shape. — Shakspeark. 

I’in  fancy  consequently  forms  combinations,  cither 
cal  or  unreal,  as  chance  may  direct ; but  the  imagina- 
tion is  seldorner  led  astray.  The  fancy  is  busy  in 
b earns,  or  when  the  mind  is  in  a disordered  slate ; 
There  was  a certain  lady  of  thin  airy  shape,  who 
vas  very  active  in  this  solemnity : her  name  was 
Fancy.' — Addison.  But  the  imagination  is  supposed 
.()  act  when  the  intellectual  powers  are  in  full  play. 
The  fancy  is  employed  on  light  and  trivial  objects, 
wliicli  are  present  to  the  senses;  the  soars 

aliove  all  worldly  objects,  and  carries  us  from  the  world 
of  matter  into  the  world  of  spirits,  from  time  present 
to  the  time  to  come.  A milliner  or  mantua-maker  may 
jiiipioy  hey  fancy  in  the  decorations  of  a cap  or  gown  ; 
Bhilosophy  ! I say,  and  call  it  He  ; 

For  whatsoe’er  the  painter’s  fancy  be. 

It  a male  virtue  seems  to  me. — Cowley. 

But  the  poet’s  imagination  depicts  every  thing  grand, 
every  thing  bold,  and  every  thing  remote  ; ‘ Whatever 
1);;  Jiis  subject,  Milton  never  fails  to  fill  the  imagina- 
tion.'— Johnson. 

Although  Mr.  Addison  has  thought  proper,  for  his 
convenience,  to  use  the  words  f ancy  and  imagination 
[iromiscuously  when  writing  on  this  subject,  yet  the 
distinction,  as  above  pointed  out,  has  been  observed 
both  in  familiar  discourse  and  in  writing.  We  say 
that  we  fancy,  not  that  we  imagine,  that  we  see  or 
hear  something ; the  pleasures  of  the  imagination,  not 
of  the  fancy. 


IDEA,  THOUGHT,  IMAGINATION. 

Idea,  in  Latin  idea,  Greek  tiBia,  signifies  the  form  oi 
image  of  an  object,  fro.m  edtin  to  see,  that  is,  the  thing 
seen  in  the  mind.  Thought  literally  signifies  the  thing 
thought,  and  imagination  the  thing  imagined. 

The  idea  is  the  simple  representation  of  an  object ; 
the  thought  is  the  reflection ; and  the  imagination  is 
ihe  combination  of  ideas : we  have  ideas  of  the 
sun,  the  moon,  and  all  material  objects ; we  have 
thougits  on  moral  subjects ; vve  have  imaginations 
drawn  from  the  ideas  already  existing  in  the  mind. 
The  ideas  are  formed ; they  are  the  rude  materials  with 
which  the  thinking  faculty  exerts  itself:  the  thoughts 
arise  in  the  mind  by  means  of  association,  or  recur 
in  the  mind  by  the  power  of  the  memory;  they  are 
flic  materials  with  which  the  thinking  faculty  employs 
iiself : the  imaginations  are  created  by  the  mind’s  re- 
action on  itself;  they  are  the  materials  with  which  the 
understanding  seeks  to  enrich  itself. 

The  word  idea  is  not  only  the  most  general  in  sense, 
but  the  most  universal  in  application;  thought  and 
imagination  are  particular  terms  used  only  in  con- 
nexion with  the  agent  thinking  or  imagining.  All 
these  words  have  therefore  a distinct  office,  in  which 
they  cannot  properly  be  confounded  with  each  other. 
Idea  is  used  in  all  cases  for  the  mental  representation, 
abstractedly  from  the  agent  that  represents  them : hence 
ideas  are  either  clear  or  distinct ; ideas  are  attached  to 
words;  ideas  are  analyzed,  confounded,  and  the  like; 
in  which  cases  the  word  thought  could  not  be  substi- 
tuted ; Every  one  finds  that  many  of  the  ideas  which 
he  desired  to  retain  have  slipped  away  irretrievably.’ 
•—Johnson.  The  thought  belongs  only  to  thinking  and 
rational  beings  : the  brutes  may  be  said  to  have  ideas, 
but  woi  thoughts : hence are  either  mean,  fine, 
grovelling,  or  sublime,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
mind  in  which  they  exist: 

The  warring  passions,  and  tumultuous  thoughts 
That  rage  within  thee! — Rowe. 

Hence  we  say  with  more  propriety,  to  indulge  a 
thought,  than  to  indulge  an  idea;  to  express  one’s 
thoughts,  rather  than  one’s  ideas,  on  any  subject : 
although  the  latter  term  idea,  o i account  of  its  compre- 
hensive use,  may  with  > t violation  of  any  express  rule 


- 72 

be  indifferently  employed  in  general  discourse  foi 
thought;  but  the  former  term  does  net  cii  this  account 
lose  its  characteristic  meaning. 

The  imagination  is  not  only  the  fruit  of  thought,  but 
of  peculiar  thought:  the  thought  may  be  another’s; 
the  imagination  is  one’s  own:  the  thought  occurs  and 
recurs ; it  comes  audit  goes ; it  is  retained  or  rejected  at 
the  pleasure  of  the  thinking  being : the  imagination  is 
framed  by  special  desire  ; it  is  cherished  with  the  par 
tialily  of  a parent  for  its  offspring.  The  thoughts  are 
busied  with  the  surrounding  objects ; the  imaginations 
are  employed  on  distant  and  strange  objects  ; hence  the 
thoughts  are  denominated  sober,  chaste,  and  the  like  ; 
the  imaginations,  wild  and  extravagant.  The  thoughts 
engage  the  mind  as  circumstances  give  rise  to  them  : 
they  are  always  supposed  to  have  a foundation  in  some 
thing:  the  imaginations,  on  the  other  hand,  are  often 
the  mere  fruit  of  a disordered  brain  ; they  are  always 
regarded  as  unsubstantial,  if  not  unreal ; they  fre- 
quently owe  their  origin  to  the  suggestions  of  the  appe- 
tites and  passions;  whence  they  are  termed  the  imagi 
nations  of  the  heart : ‘Different  climates  produce  ir 
men,  by  a different  mixture  of  the  humours,  a difleren- 
and  unequal  course  of  imaginations  and  passions. 
— Temple. 


IDEAL,  IMAGINARY. 

Ideal  does  not  strictly  adhere  to  the  sense  of  its  pn 
mitive  idea  {v.  Idea) : the  idea  is  the  representation  of 
a real  object  in  the  mind ; but  ideal  signifies  belonging  tc 
the  idea  independent  of  the  reality  or  the  external  object 
Imaginary  preserves  the  signification  of  its  primitivo 
imagination  {v.  Fancy,  also  v.  Idea),  as  denoting  whai 
is  created  by  the  mind  itself. 

The  ideal  is  not  directly  opposed  to,  but  abstracted 
from,  the  reality ; ‘ There  is  not,  perhaps,  in  all  the 
stores  of  ideal  anguish,  a thought  more  painful  than 
the  consciousness  of  having  propagated  corruption.’ 
— Johnson.  The  imaginary,  on  the  other  hand,  is  di 
rectly  opposed  to  the  reality;  it  is  the  unreal  thing 
formed  by  the  imagination ; ‘ Superiour  beings  know 
well  the  vanity  of  those  imaginary  perfections  that 
swell  the  heart  of  man.’ — Addison.  Ideal  happiness 
is  the  happiness  which  is  formed  in  the  mind,  without 
having  any  direct  and  actual  prototype  in  nature  ; but 
it  may,  nevertheless,  be  something  possible  to  be  real 
ized  ; it  may  be  above  nature,  but  not  in  direct  contra 
diction  to  it : the  imaginary  is  that  v.'hich  is  opposite  to 
some  positive  existing  reality ; the  pleasure  which  a 
lunatic  derives  from  the  conceit  of  being  a king  is  alto- 
gether imaginary. 


INHERENT,  INBRED,  INBORN,  INNATE. 

The  inherent,  from  haereo  to  stick,  denotes  a perma 
■*11601  quality  or  property,  as  opposed  to  that  which  is 
adventitious  and  transitory.  Inbred  denotes  that  pro 
perty  which  is  derived  principally  from  habit  or  by  a 
gradual  process,  as  opposed  to  the  one  acquired  by 
actual  efforts.  Inborn  denotes  that  which  is  purely 
natural,  in  opposition  to  the  artificial.  Inherent  is  in 
its  sense  the  most  general ; for  what  is  inbred  ami 
inborn  is  naturally  inherent;  but  all  is  not  inbred  and 
inborn  which  is  inherent.  Inanimate  objects  have 
inherent  properties ; but  the  inbred  and  inborn  exist 
only  in  that  which  receives  life;  solidity  is  an  inherent^ 
but  not  an  inbred  or  inborn  property  of  matter:  a love 
of  truth  is  an  inborn  property  of  the  human  mind:  it 
is  consequently  inherent,  in  as  much  as  nothing  cau 
totally  destroy  it ; 

When  my  new  mind  had  no  infusion  known. 
Thou  gav’st  so  deep  a tincture  of  thine  own, 

That  ever  since  I vainly  try 

To  wash  away  th’  inherent  dye.— -Cowley. 

That  which  is  inbred  is  bred  or  nurtured  in  us  from  ou' 
birth ; hence,  likewise,  the  properties  of  animals  art 
inbred  in  them,  in  as  much  as  they  are  derived  througl. 
the  medium  of  the  breed  of  which  the  parent  partakes , 
that  which  is  inborn  is  simply  born  in  us:  a property 
may  be  inborn,  but  not  inbred;  it  cannot,  however,  be 
inbred  and  not  inborn.  Habits  which  are  ingrafted 
into  the  natural  disposition  are  properly  inbred ; whence 
the  vulgar  proverb  that  ‘ what  is  bred  in  the  bone  will 
never  be  out  of  the  flesh;’  to  denote  the  influ  me 


4 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


\rhich  parents  have  on  the  characters  of  their  children, 
loth  physically  and  morally ; 

But  he,  my  inbred  enemy. 

Forth  issu’d,  brandishing  his  fatal  dart, 

Made  to  destroy ; I fled,  and  cry’d  out  death 

Milton. 

Propensities,  on  the  other  hand,  which  are  totally  inde- 
pendent of  education  or  external  circumstances,  are 
troperly  inborn.,  as  an  inborn  love  of  freedom  ; 

Despair  and  secret  shame,  and  conscious  thought 
Of  inbirn  worth,  his  lab’ring  soul  oppress’d. 

Dryden. 

InbuTTi  and  innate,  from  the  Latin  natus  born,  are 
piecisely  the  same  in  meaning, yet  they  difler  somewhat 
in.  application.  Poetry  and  the  grave  style  have  adopted 
inborn;  philosophy  has  adopted  innate:  genius  is 
inborn  in  some  men;  nobleness  is  inborn  mothers: 
there  is  an  inborn  talent  in  some  men  to  command,  and 
an  inborn  fitness  in  others  to  obey.  Mr.  Locke  and  his 
followers  are  pleased  to  say,  there  is  no  such  thing  as 
nnate  ideas ; and  if  they  only  mean  that  there  are  no 
sensible  impressions  on  the  soul,  until  it  is  acted  upon 
by  external  objects,  they  maybe  right:  but  if  they  mean 
to  say  that  there  are  no  inborn  characters  or  powers  in 
the  soul,  which  predispose  it  for  the  reception  of  certain 
impressions,  they  contradict  the  experience  of  the 
learned  and  the  unlearned  in  all  ages,  who  believe,  and 
that  from  close  observation  on  themselves  and  others, 
that  man  has,  from  his  birth,  not  only  the  general  cha- 
racter, which  belongs  to  him  in  common  with  his 
species,  but  also  those  peculiar  characteristicks  which 
distinguish  individuals  from  their  earliest  infancy : all 
these  characters  or  characteristicks  are,  therefore,  not 
supposed  to  be  produced,  but  elicited,  by  circumstances ; 
and  the  ideas,  which  are  but  the  sensible  forms  that  the 
soul  assumes  in  its  connexion  with  the  body,  are,  on 
that  account,  in  vulgar  language  termed  innate; 

Grant  these  inventions  of  the  crafty  priest, 

Yet  such  inventions  never  could  subsist. 

Unless  somt  glimmerings  of  a future  state 
Were  with  the  mind  coeval  and  innate. 

Jenyns. 


ro  CONCEIVE,  APPREHEND,  SUPPOSE, 
IMAGINE. 

To  conceive,  from  the  Latin  concipio,  or  con  and  capio 
to  put  together,  is  to  put  an  image  together  in  the 
mind,  or  to  form  an  idea ; to  apprehend,  from  appre- 
kendo  to  lay  hold  of,  is  to  seize  with  the  understanding ; 
to  suppose,  in  French  supposer,  hatin  vupposui,  perfect 
of  suppono,  or  sub  and  pono  to  put  one  thing  in  the 
place  of  another,  is  to  have  one  thing  in  one’s  mind  in 
lieu  of  another ; to  imagine,  in  French  imaginer, 
Latin  imagine,  from  imago  an  image,  signifies  to  reflect 
as  an  image  or  phantom  in  the  mind. 

Conceive,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  is  the 
genenck,  the  others  thespecifick  terms:  since  in  appre- 
hending, imagining,  and  supposing,  we  always  con- 
ceiveor  form  an  idea,  but  not  vice  versa ; the  difference 
consists  in  the  mode  and  object  of  the  action : we 
conceive  of  things  as  proper  or  improper,  and  just  or 
unjust,  right  or  wrong,  good  or  bad,  this  is  an  act  of  the 
judgement;  ‘ Conceive  of  things  clearly  and  distinctly  in 
their  own  natures ; conceive  of  things  completely  in  all 
their  own  parts;  conceive  of  things  comprehensively  in 
all  their  properties  and  relations;  conceive  of  things 
extensively  in  all  their  kinds;  conceive  of  things  orderly, 
cr  in  a proper  method.’ — Watts.  We  apprehend  the 
meaning  of  another;  this  is  by  the  power  of  simple 
perception ; 

Yet  this  I apprehend  not,  why  to  those 
Among  whom  God  will  deign  to  dwell  on  earth 
So  many  and  so  various  laws  are  given. — Milton. 
Apprehension  is  considered  by  logicians  as  the  first 
power  or  operation  of  the  mind  being  employed  on  the 
Simplest  objects;  ‘Simple  apprehension  denoteg  no 
more  than  the  soul’s  naked  intellection  of  an  object, 
without  either  composition  or  deduction.’ — Glanville. 

Conceiving  is  applied  to  objects  of  any  magnitude 
which  are  not  above  the  stretch  of  human  power ; 

O,  what  avails  me  now  that  honour  high 
To  have  conceived  of  God,or  that  salute 
Hail  highly  favour’d  among  women  blest.— Miiton. 


.Apprehending  is  a momentary  or  sudden  act  ; 

I nam’d  them  as  they  pass’d,  and  understood 
Their  nature,  with  such  knowledge  God  indued 
My  sudden  apprehension. — Milton. 

Conceiving,  which  is  a process  of  nature,  is  often  slofi 
and  gradual,  as  to  conceive  a design;  ‘This  man  con 
ceived  the  duke’s  death,  but  what  was  the  motive  of 
thatfelonious  conception  is  in  the  clouds.’ — Wolton 
What  is  conceived,  is  conclusive  or  at  least  deter 
minate;  ‘A  state  of  innocence  and  happiness  is  so 
remote  from  all  that  we  have  ever  seen,  that  although 
we  can  easily  conceive  it  is  possible,  yet  our  specula 
tions  upon  it  must  be  general  and  confused.’ — Johnson. 
What  is  apprehended  may  be  dubious  or  indetermi- 
nate : hence  the  term  apprehend  is  taken  in  the  sense 
of  fear ; 

Nothing  is  a misery, 

Unless  our  weakness  apprehend  it  so. 

Conceive  and  apprehend  are  exercises  of  the  under 
standing ; suppose  and  imagine  of  the  imagination  ; 
but  the  former  commonly  r^sts  on  some  ground  of 
reality,  the  latter  may  be  the  mere  offspring  of  the 
brain.  Suppose  is  used  in  opposition  to  positive  know- 
ledge ; no  person  supposes  that,  of  which  he  is  posi- 
tively informed  ; ‘ It  can  scarce  be  supposed  that  the 
mind  is  more  vigorous  when  we  sleep,  than  when  we 
are  awake.’ — Hawkesworth.  Imagine  is  employed 
for  that  which,  in  all  probability,  does  not  exist;  we 
shall  not  imagine  what  is  evident  and  undeniable; 
‘ The  Earl  of  Rivers  did  not  imagine  there  could  exist, 
in  a human  form,  a mother  that  would  ruin  her  own 
son  without  enriching  herself.’ — Johnson  {Life  of 
Savage). 


TO  CONCEIVE,  UNDERSTAND,  COM 
PREHEND. 

These  terms  indicate  the  intellectual  opeiations  of 
forming  ideas,  that  is,  ideas  of  the  complex  kind  in  dis- 
tinction from  the  simple  ideas  formed  by  the  act  of 
perception.  To  conceive,  is  to  put  together  in  the 
mind  ; to  understand,  is  to  stand  under,  or  near  to  the 
mind  ; to  comprehend,  from  the  Latin  com  or  cum  and 
prehendo  to  take,  signifies  to  seize  or  embrace  in  the 
mind. 

Conception  is  the  simplest  operation  of  the  three; 
when  we  conceive  we  may  have  but  one  idea,  when 
we  understand  or  comprehend  we  have  all  the  ideas 
which  the  subject  is  capable  of  presenting.  We  can- 
not understand  or  comprehend  without  conceiving ; 
but  we  may  often  conceive  that  which  we  neither  un- 
derstand nor  comprehend;  ‘Whatever  they  canno! 
immediately  conceive  they  consider  as  too  high  to  be 
reached,  or  too  extensive  to  be  comprehended.' - 
Johnson. 

That  which  we  cannot  conceive  is  to  us  nothing  ^ 
but  the  conception  of  it  gives  it  an  existence,  at  least 
in  our  minds;  but  understanding  or  comprehending 
is  not  essential  to  the  belief  of  a thing’s  existence.  Sc 
long  as  we  have  reasons  sufficient  to  conceive  a thing  as 
possible  or  probable,  it  is  not  necessary  either  to  under- 
stand or  comprehend  them  in  order  to  authorize  our  be 
lief.  The  mysteries  of  our  holy  religion  are  objects  of 
conception,  but  not  of  comprehension ; 

Our  finite  knowledge  cannot  comprehend 

The  principles  of  an  abounded  sway.— Shirley. 
We  conceive  that  a thing  may  be  done  without  under- 
standing how  it  is  done ; we  conceive  that  a thing  may 
exist  without  comprehending  the  nature  of  its  exist- 
ence. We  conceive  clearly,  understand  fully,  compre- 
hend minutely. 

Conception  is  a species  of  invention  ; it  is  the  fruit 
of  the  mind’s  operation  within  itself;  ‘If,  by  a more 
noble  and  more  adequate  conception  that  be  considered 
as  wit  which  is  at  once  natural  and  new,  that  which, 
though  not' obvious,  is,  upon  its  first  production,  ac- 
knowledged to  be  just ; if  it  be  that,  which  he  that 
never  found  it,  wonders  how  he  missed ; to  wit  of 
this  kind  the  metaphysical  poets  have  seldom  risen.’ — 
Johnson.  Understanding  and  comprehension  are  em- 
ployed solely  on  external  objects  ; we  understand  and 
comprehend  that  which  actually  exists  before  us,  and 
presents  itself  to  our  observation  ; ‘ Swift  pays  no  court 
to  the  nassions ; he  excites  neither  surar  se  nor  adm» 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


-75 


.-Btion  ; he  always  understands  himself,  and  his  read- 
ers always  understand  him.’— Johnson.  Conceiving 
is  the  oflice  of  the  imagination,  as  well  as  the  judge- 
ment; understanding  and  comprehension  are  the  office 
of  the  reasoning  faculties  exclusively. 

*■  Conceiving  is  employed  with  regard  to  matters  of 
taste,  to  arratigements,  designs,  and  projects ; under- 
standing is  employed  on  familiar  objects  which  pre- 
sent themselves  in  the  ordinary  discourse  and  business 
of  men  ; comprehending  respects  principles,  lessons, 
and  speculative  knowledge  in  general.  The  artist 
conceives  a design,  and  he  who  will  execute  it  must 
understand  it ; the  poet  conceives  that  whicli  is  grand 
and  sublime,  and  he  who  wili  enjoy  the  perusal  of  liis 
conceptions  must  have  refinement  of  mind,  and  ca- 
pacity to  comprehend  the  grand  and  sublime.  The 
builder  conceives  plans,  the  scholar  understands  lan- 
guages, the  metaphysician  comprehends  subtle  ques- 
tions. 

A ready  conception  supplies  us  with  a stock  of  ideas 
on  all  subjects ; a quick  understanding  catches  the 
intentions  of  others  with  half  a word  ; a penetrating 
mind  comprehends  the  abstrusest  points.  There  are 
human  beings  involved  in  such  profound  ignorance, 
that  they  cannot  conceive  of  the  most  ordinary  things 
that  exist  in  civilized  life : there  are  those  who,  though 
slow  at  und'-f standing  words,  will  be  quick  Vii  under- 
standing looks  and  signs : and  there  are  others  who, 
though  dull  at  conceiving  .or  understanding  common 
matters,  will  have  a power  for  comprehending  the 
abstruser  parts  of  the  mathematics. 

CONCEPTION,  NOTION. 

Conception^  from  conceive  (?;.  To  conceive),  signifies 
the  thing  conceived ; notion,  in  French  notion,  Latin 
notio,  from  notfis  participle  of  nosco  to  know,  signifies 
the  thing  known. 

t'cnception  is  the  mind’s  own  work,  what  it  pictures 
to  itself  from  the  exercise  of  its  own  powers  ; ‘ Words 
signify  not  immediately  and  primely  things  themselves, 
but  the  conceptions  of  the  mind  concerning  things.’ — 
South.  Motion  is  the  representation  of  objects  as 
they  are  drawn  from  observation ; ‘ The  story  of 
Telemachus  is  formed  altogether  in  the  spirit  of 
Homer,  and  will  give  an  unlearned  reader  a notion  of 
that  great  poet’s  manner  of  writing.’ — Addison.  Con- 
ceptione  are  the  fruit  of  the  imagination ; ‘ It  is  natural 
for  the  imaginations  of  men  who  lead  their  lives  in  too 
solitary  a manner  to  prey  upon  thein.selves,  and  form 
from  their  own  conceptions  beings  and  things  which 
have  no  place  in  nature.’ — Steele.  Motions  are  the 
result  of  reflection  and  experience ; ‘ Considering  that 
the  happiness  of  the  other  world  is  to  be  the  happiness 
of  the  while  man,  who  can  question,  but  there  is  an 
infinite  variety  in  those  pleasures  we  are  speaking  of  7 
Revelation,  likewise,  very  much  confirms  this  notion 
under  the  different  views  it  gives  us  of  our  future  hap- 
piness.’— Addison.  Conceptions  are  formed  ; notions 
are  entertained.  Conceptions  are  either  grand  or  mean, 
gross  or  sublime,  either  clear  or  indistinct,  crude  or 
distinct ; notions  are  either  true  or  false,  just  or  absurd. 
Iiitellectual  culture  serves  to  elevate  the  co?iceph'o7is; 
the  extet'iSion  of  knowledge  serves  to  correct  and  refine 
the  notions. 

Some  heathen  philosophers  had  an  indistinct  concc;>- 
tion  of  the  Deity,  whose  attributes  and  character  are 
unfolded  to  us  in  his  revelation;  the  ignorant  have 
often  false  notions  of  their  duty  and  obligations  to 
their  superiours.  The  unenlightened  express  their  gross 
and  crude  conceptions  of  a Superiour  Being  by  some 
material  and  visible  object ; the  vulgar  nolion  of 
gliosts  and  spirits  is  not  entirely  banished  from  the 
most  cultivated  parts  of  England. 

PERCEPTION,  IDEA,  CONCEPTION,  NOTION. 

Perception  expresses  either  the  act  of  perceiving  or 
the  impression  produced  by  that  act;  in  this  latter 
sense  it  is  analogous  to  an  idea  {v.  Idea).  The  im- 
pression of  an  object  that  is  present  to  us  is  termed  a 
perception;  the  revival  of  that  impression,  when  the 
olqect  is  removed,  is  an  idea.  A combination  of  ideas 
by  which  any  image  is  presented  to  the  mind  is  a con- 

* Vide  Abbe  Girard;  Entendre,  com  prendre,  con- 
cevnlr.” 


ception  {v.  To  comprehend) ; the  association  of  two  ci 
more  ideas,  so  as  to  const.tute  it  a decision,  is  a notion 
Perceptions  are  clear  or  confused,  according  to  the 
state  of  the  sensible  organs,  and  Ihcperceptive  faculty, 
ideas  are  faint  or  vivid,  vague  or  distinct,  according  to 
the  nature  of  tho  perception , conceptions  are  gross  oi 
refined  according  to  the  number  and  extent  of  one’s 
ideas  ; notions  are  true  or  false,  correct  or  incorrect, 
according  to  the  extent  of  one’s  knowledge.  The  per 
ception  which  we  have  of  remote  objects  is  softietiuies 
so  indistinct  as  to  leave  hardly  any  traces  of  the  image 
on  the  mind  ; we  have  in  that  case  a perception,  but 
not  an  idea. 

What  can  the  fondest  mother  wish  for  more, 

Ev’n  for  her  darling  son,  than  solid  sense. 

Perceptions  clear,  and  flowing  eloquence. — Wynne. 
If  we  read  the  description  of  any  object,  we  may  have 
an  idea  of  it;  but  we  need  not  have  any  immediate 
perception  : the  idea  in  this  case  being  complex,  and 
formed  of  many  images  of  which  we  have  already  had 
a perception ; ‘ Imagination  selects  ideas  from  the 
treasures  of  remembrance.’ — Johnson. 

If  we  present  objects  to  our  minds,  according  to  dif 
ferent  images  wliich  liave  already  been  impressed,  we 
are  said  to  have  a conception  of  them ; in  this  case, 
however,  it  is  not  necessary  for  the  objects  really  to 
exist ; they  may  be  the  offspring  of  the  mind’s  opera- 
tion within  itself;  ‘ It  is  not  a head  that  is  filled  with 
extravagant  conceptions,  which  is  capable  of  furnish- 
ing the  world  with  diversions  of  tliis  nature  (I'rom 
humour).’ — Addison.  But  with  regard  to  Motions  it  is 
different,  for  they  are  formed  respecting  objects  that  do 
really  exist,  although  perhaps  the  properties  or  circum 
stances  which  we  assign  to  them  are  not  real ; ‘ Those 
notions  wliich  are  to  be  collected  by  reason,  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  senses,  will  seldom  stand  forward  in  the 
mind,  but  be  treasured  in  the  remoter  repositories  of 
the  memory.’ — Johnson.  If  I look  at  the  moon,  I 
iiave  ti  perception  of  it;  if  it  disappear  from  my  sight, 
and  the  impression  remains,  I have  an  idea  of  it;  if  an 
object,  differing  in  shape  and  colour  from  that  or  any 
thing  else  which  I may  have  seen,  present  itself  to  my 
mind,  it  is  a conception ; if  of  this  moon  I conceive 
that  it  is  no  bigger  than  what  it  appears  to  my  eye,  thin 
is  a notion,  which  in  the  pre.sent  instance,  assigns  an 
unreal  property  to  a real  object. 

TO  THINK,  SUPPOSE,  IMAGINE,  BELIEVE, 
DEEM. 

To  think,  in  Saxon  thincan,  German  denken,  &c. 
from  the  Hebrew  to  rule  or  judge,  is  the  generick 
term.  It  expresses,  in  common  with  the  other  terms, 
the  act  of  having  a particular  idea  in  the  mind  ; but  it 
is  indefinite  as  to  the  mode  and  the  object  of  the 
action.  To  think  may  be  the  act  of  the  understand 
ing,  or  merely  of  the  imagination : to  suppose  and 
imagine  are  rather  the  acts  of  the  imagination  than  of 
the  understanding.  To  think,  that  is,  to  have  any 
thought  or  opinion  upon  a subject,  requires  reflection  ; 
it  is  the  work  of  time ; 

If  to  conceive  how  any  thing  can  be 
From  shape  extracted,  and  locality. 

Is  hard;  what  thinkyon  of  the  Deity  7 — Jenyns. 
To  suppose  and  imagine  may  be  the  acts  of  the  mo- 
ment. We  think  a thing  right  or  wrong;  we  suppose 
it  to  be  true  or  false;  ‘It  is  absurd  to  suppose  that 
while  the  relations,  in  which  we  stand  to  our  fellow- 
creatures,  naturally  call  forth  certain  sentiments  and 
affections,  there  should  be  none  to  correspond  to  the 
first  and  greatest  of  all  beings.’ — Blair.  We  imagine 
it  to  be  real  or  unreal.  To  think  is  employed  promis- 
cuously in  regard  to  all  objects,  whether  actually  ex- 
isting or  not;  to  suppose  ap[)lies  to  those  which  areun 
certain  or  precarious;  imagine,  to  those  wliich  are  un- 
real ; ‘ How  ridiculous  must  it  be  to  imagine  that  the 
clergy  of  England  favour  popery,  when  they  cannot  be 
clergymen  without  renouncing  it.’ — Beveridge.  Think 
BlX\A  Imagine  are  said  of  that  which  affects  the  senses 
immediately  ; suppose  is  only  said  of  that  which  oc 
copies  the  mind.  We  think  that  we  hear  a noise  as 
soon  as  the  sound  catches  our  attention;  in  certain 
states  of  the  body  or  mind  we  imagine  we  hear  noises 
which  were  never  made  ; we  think  that  a person  will 
come  to-day,  because  he  has  informed  us  that  he  in 
tends  to  do  so  ; we  suppose  that  he  will  come  to-day, 


76 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


at  a certain  hour,  because  h j came  at  the  same  hour 
vesterday. 

When  applied  to  the  events  and  circumstances  of 
life,  to  think  may  be  applied  to  any  time,  past,  present, 
or  to  come,  or  where  no  time  is  expressed : to  suppose 
ts  more  aptly  applied  to  a future  time ; and  imagine  to 
a past  or  present  time.  We  think  that  a person  has 
done  a thing,  is  doing  it,  or  will  do  it ; we  suppose 
that  he  will  do  it ; we  imagine  that  he  has  done  it,  or 
is  doing  it.  A person  thinks  that  he  will  die ; imagines 
that  he  is  in  a dangerous  way;  we  think  that  the 
weather  will  be  fine  to-day,  we  suppose  that  the  affair 
will  be  decided. 

In  regard  to  moral  points,  in  wliich  case  the  word 
ieem  may  be  compared  with  the  others ; to  think  is  a 
conclusion  drawn  from  certain  premises.  I think  that 
a man  has  acted  wrong : to  suppose  is  to  take  up  an 
idea  arbitrarily  or  at  pleasure ; we  argue  upon  a 
supposed  case,  merely  for  the  sake  of  argument:  to 
imagine  is  to  take  up  an  idea  by  accident,  or  without 
any  connexion  with  the  truth  or  reality ; we  imagine 
that  a person  is  offended  with  us,  without  being  able 
to  assign  a single  reason  for  the  idea  ; imaginary  evils 
are  even  more  numerous  than  those  which  are  real : 
to  deem  is  to  form  a conclusion;  things  arc  deemed 
hurtful  or  otherwise  in  consequence  of  observation ; 
‘ An  empty  house  is  by  the  players  deemed  ‘he  most 
dreadful  sign  of  popular  disapprobation.’— Hxwkes- 
WORTH. 

To  think  and  believe  are  both  opposite  to  knowing 
or  perceiving;  but  to  think  is  a more  partial  action 
than  to  believe:  we  think  as  the  thing  strikes  us  at 
the  time  ; we  bdieve  from  a settled  deduction  : hence,  it 
expresses  much  less  to  say  that  I thimk  a person  speaks 
the  truth,  than  that  I belie~te  that  he  speaks  the  truth  ; 
For  they  can  conquer  wl»  believe  they  can. — Dryden. 

I think,  from  what  I can  recollect,  that  such  and 
such  were  the  words,  i^  a vague  mode  of  speech,  not 
admissible  in  a court  of  law  as  positive  evidence;  the 
oatural  question  which  follows  upon  this  is,  do  you 
irmly  believe  iti  to  which,  whoever  can  answer  in  the 
rffirmative,  with  the  appearance  of  sincerity,  must  be 
idmilted  as  a testimony.  Hence  it  arises,  that  the 
word  can  only  be  employed  in  matters  that  require  but 
ittle  thought  in  order  to  come  to  a conclusion;  and 
relieve  tii  applicable  to  things  that  must  be  admitted 
Tily  on  Bnbstanlial  evidence.  We  are  at  liberty  to  say 
ha*^  I thMc,  or  I believe,  that  the  account  is  made  out 
;irht ; hut  we  must  sa}'^,  that  I believe,  not  think,  that 
■•'le  Bible  is  the  word  of  God. 


TO  THL\K,  REFLECT,  PONDER,  MUSE. 

Think,  in  Saxon  thincan,  German  denken.  Sec., 
:omcs  from  the  Hebrew  to  direct,  rule,  or  judge; 
reficct,  ill  Latin  rcjlecto,  signifies  literally  to  bend 
back,  that  is,  to  bend  the  mind  back  on  itself ; ponder, 
from  pondus  a weight,  signifies  to  weigh  ; muse,  from 
musa,  a song,  signifies  to  dwell  upon  with  the  imagi- 
nation. 

To  think  is  a general  and  indefinite  term  ; to  reflect 
is  a particular  mode  of  thinking ; to  ponder  and  muse 
are  different  modes  of  reflecting,  the  former  on  grave 
matters,  the  latter  on  matters  that  interest  either  the 
affections  or  the  imagination  ; we  think  whenever  we 
receive  or  recall  an  idea  to  the  mind;  but  we  reflect 
only  by  recalling,  not  one  only,  but  many  ideas : we 
think  if  we  only  suflfer  the  ideas  to  revolve  in  succes- 
sion in  the  mind  : but  in  reflecting  we  compare,  com- 
bine, and  judge  of  those  ideas  which  thus  pass  in  the 
mind ; we  think,  therefore,  of  things  past,  as  they  are 
pleasurable  or  otherwise ; we  reflect  upon  them  as  they 
are  applicable  to  our  present  condition : we  may  think 
on  things  past,  present,  or  to  come ; we  reflect,  ponder, 
and  muse  mostly  on  that  which  is  jiast  or  present. 
The  man  thinks  on  the  days  of  his  childhood,  and 
wishes  them  back  ; the  child  thinks  on  the  time  when 
he  shall  be  a man,  and  is  impatient  until  it  is  come; 
‘ No  man  was  ever  weary  of  thinking,  much  less  of 
thinking  that  he  had  done  well  or  virtuously.’— South. 
A man  reflects  on  his  past  follies,  and  tries  to  profit 
by  experience ; ‘ Let  men  but  reflect  upon  their  own 
observation,  and  consider  impartially  with  thetnselves 
how  few  in  the  world  they  have  known  made  better 
by  age.’— South.  One  ponders  on  anj  serious  concern 
'imt  affects  his  de.stiny ; 


Stood  on  the  brink  of  hell,  and  look’d  awhile, 
Pond'ring  his  voyage.— Milton. 

One  muses  on  the  happy  events  of  his  childhood ; 1 
was  sitting  on  a sofa  one  evening,  after  I had  betn 
caressed  by  Amurath,  and  my  imagination  kindled  aa 
I mused.' — Hawke  s worth. 


TO  CONTEMPLATE,  MEDITATE,  MUSE. 

Contemplate,  in  Latin  contemplatus,  participle  of 
contemplor,  probably  comes  from  templum  the  temple, 
that  being  the  place  most  fitted  for  contemplation. 
Meditate,  in  Latin  meditatus,  participle  of  meditor, 
is  probably  changed  from  melitor,  in  Greek  peXerdu), 
to  modulate,  or  attune  the  thoughts,  as  sounds  are  har- 
monized. Muse  is  derived  from  musa,  owing  to  the 
connexion  between  the  harmony  of  a song,  and  the 
harmony  of  the  thoughts  in  musing. 

Different  species  of  reflection  are  marked  by  these 
terms. 

We  contemplate  what  is  present  or  before  our  eyes , 
we  meditate  on  what  is  past  or  absent ; we  muse  on 
what  is  present  or  past. 

The  lieavens,  and  all  the  works  of  the  Creator,  are 
objects  of  contemplation;  ‘I  sincerely  wish  myself 
with  you  to  contemplate  the  wonders  of  God  in  the 
firmament,  rather  than  the  madness  of  man  on  the 
earth.’ — Pope.  The  ways  of  Providence  are  fit  sub- 
jects for  meditation;  ‘But  a very  small  part  of  the 
moments  spent  in  meditation  on  the  past,  produce  any 
reasonable  caution  or  salutary  sorrow.’ — Johnson. 
One  muses  on  the  events  or  circumstances  which  have 
been  just  passing. 

We  may  contemplate  and  meditate  for  the  future, 
but  never  muse.  In  this  case  the  two  former  terms 
have  the  sense  of  contriving  or  purposing ; what  is 
contemplated  to  be  done,  is  thought  of  more  indis- 
tinctly than  when  it  is  meditated  to  be  done:  many 
things  are  had  in  contemplation  which  are  never 
sexions\y  meditated  upon;  ‘Life  is  the  immediate  gift 
of  God,  a right  inherent  by  nature  in  every  individual, 
and  it  begins  in  contemplation  of  law  as  soon  as  an 
infant  is  able  to  stir  in  the  mother’s  womb.’ — Black- 
stone.  Between  contemplating  and  meditating  there 
is  oftener  a greater  difference  than  between  meditatino 
and  e.xecuting ; 

Thus  plung’d  in  ills  and  meditating  more. 

The  people’s  patience,  tried,  no  longer  bore 
The  raging  monster. — Drydkn. 

Contemplation  may  be  a temporary  action  direcica 
to  a single  object;  ‘There  is  not  any  property  or  cir 
cumstances  of  my  being  that  I contemplate  with  more 
joy  than  my  immortality.’ — Berkeley.  Meditatiiq 
is  a permanent  and  serious  action  directed  to  severa. 
objects;  '•Meditate  till  you  make  some  act  of  piety 
upon  the  occasion  of  what  you  meditate,  either  get  some 
new  arguments  asrainst  sin,  or  some  new  encourage- 
ment to  virtue.’ — Taylor.  Musing  is  partial  and  un- 
important: meditation  is  a religious  duty,  it  cannot 
be  neglected  without  injury  to  a person’s  spiritual  im- 
provement ; musing  is  a temporary  employment  of  the 
mind  on  the  ordinary  concerns  of  life,  as  they  happen 
to  excite  an  interest  for  the  time ; 

Musing  as  wont  on  this  and  that. 

Such  trifles  as  I know  not  what. — Francis. 

Contemplative  and  mtising,  as  epithets,  have  a 
strong  analogy  to  each  other. 

Contemplative  is  a habit  of  the  mind  ; musing  is  a 
particular  state  of  the  mind.  A person  may  iiave  a 
contemplative  turn,  or  be  in  a musing  mood 


TO  CONSIDER,  REFLECT. 

Consider,  in  French  considerer,  Latin  considero, 
a factative,  from  consido  to  sit  down,  signifies  to 
make  to  settle  in  the  mind.  Reflect,  in  Latin  reflecto, 
compounded  of  re  and  flecto,  signifies  to  turn  back,  or 
upon  itself,  srfter  the  manner  of  the  mind. 

The  operation  of  thought  is  expressed  by  these  two 
words,  but  it  varies  in  the  circumstances  of  the  action. 

Consideration  is  employed  for  practical  purposes, 
reflection  for  matters  of  speculation  or  moral  improve- 
ment. Common  objects  call  for  consideration ; the 
workings  of  the  mind  itself,  or  objects  purely  spiritual 
occupy  reflection.  It  is  necessary  to  consider  wlat  is 


ENItLISH  synonymes. 


- ,77 


proper  to  be  done,  before  we  take  any  step ; ‘ It  seems 
necessary,  in  the  choice  of  persons  for  greater  employ- 
ments, to  consider  their  bodies  as  well  as  their  minds, 
and  ages  and  health  as  well  as  their  abilities.’ — Tem- 
ple. It  is  consistent  with  our  natures,  as  rational 
beings,  to  rcfiect  on  what  we  are,  what  we  ought  to  be, 
and  what  we  shall  be ; ‘ Whoever  reflects  frequently 
on  the  uncertainty  of  his  own  duration,  will  find  out 
that  the  state  of  others  is  not  more  permanent  than  his 
own.’ — Johnson. 

Without  consideration  we  shall  naturally  commit 
the  most  flagrant  errors ; without  reflection  we  shall 
never  understand  our  duty  to  our  Maker,  our  neigh- 
bour, and  ourselves. 


TO  CONSIDER,  REGARD. 

To  consider  (u.  To  consider)  signifies  to  take  a view 
ivf  a thing  in  the  mind,  which  is  the  result  of  thought ; 
to  regard  is  literally  to  look  back  upon,  from  the 
Frencli  regarder,  that  is.  re  and  garder,  to  keep  or 
watch,  which  is  derived  from  the  old  German  wahren 
to  see,  of  wl’jch  there  are  still  traces  in  the  words 
bewahren  to  guard  against,  marten  to  wait,  and  the 
English  to  be  aware  of. 

There  is  more  caution  or  thought  in  considering  ; 
more  personal  interest  in  regarding.  A man  may 
consider  his  reputation  so  as  to  be  deterred  from 
taking  a particular  step;  if  he  regards  his  reputation, 
this  regard  has  a general  influence  on  all  he  does. 
‘ J'he  king  had  not,  at  that  time,  one  person  about 
him  of  his  council,  who  had  the  least  consideration  of 
his  cwn  honour,  or  friendship  for  those  who  sat  at 
the  helm  of  afiairs,  the  Duke  of  Lennox  excepted.’— 
Clarendon. 

If  much  you  note  him, 

V ou  offend  him  ; feed  and  regard  him  not. 

Shakspeare. 

A similar  distinction  exists  between  these  words 
when  not  expressly  personal:  to  consider  a thing  in  a 
certain  light,  is  to  take  a steady  view  of  it ; ‘ I con- 
sider the  soul  of  man  as  the  ruin  of  a glorious  pile  of 
buildings.’ — Steele.  To  regard  a thing  is  to  view 
it  with  a certain  interest ; ‘ I regard  trade  not  only  as 
highly  advantageous  to  the  commonwealth  in  general, 
but  as  the  most  natural  and  likely  method  of  making  a 
man’s  fortune.’ — Budgell. 


CONSIDERATION,  REASON. 

Consideration.,  or  that  which  enters  into  a person’s 
consideration,  has  a reference  to  the  person  consider- 
ing Reason,  or  that  which  influences  the  reason,  is 
taken  absolutely : considerations  are  therefore  for  the 
most  part  partial,  as  affecting  particular  interests,  or 
dependent  on  particular  circumstances.  ‘ He  had  been 
made  general  upon  very  partial,  and  not  enough  de- 
liberatetl  considerations' — Clarendon. 

Reasons  on  the  contrary  may  be  general,  and  vary 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  subject;  ‘The  reasons 
assigned  in  a law  of  the  3Cth  year  of  Edward  III.  for 
having  pleas  and  judgements  in  the  English  tongue, 
might  have  been  urged  for  having  the  laws  themselves 
in  that  language.’ — Tyrwhitt. 

When  applied  to  matters  of  practice  the  considera- 
tion influences  the  particular  actions  of  an  individual 
or  individuals;  no  consideration  of  profit  or  emolument 
should  induce  a person  to  forfeit  his  word ; ‘ He  was 
obliged,  antecedent  to  all  other  considerations,  to 
search  an  asylum.’ — Dryden 

The  reason  influences  a iine  of  conduct ; the  reasons 
which  men  assign  for  their  conduct  are  often  as  absurd 
as  they  are  false ; 

I mask  the  business  from  the  common  eye 
For  sundry  weighty  reasams.— Shakspeare. 

In  the  same  manner,  when  applied  to  matters  of 
theory,  the  consideration  is  that  which  enters  into  a 
man’s  consideration,  or  which  he  offers  to  the  consider- 
ation of  others;  ‘The  folly  of  ascribing  temporal  pun- 
ishments to  any  particular  crimes,  may  appear  from 
several  considerations.' — Addison.  The  reason  is  that 
which  flows  out  of  the  nature  of  the  thing;  ‘ If  it  be 
natural,  ought  we  not  rather  to  conclude  that  there  is 
some  ground  or  reason  for  those  fears,  and  that  nature 
hath  not  planted  them  in  us  to  no  puijiose  V — Til- 

OTSON. 


TO  ARGUE,  EVINCE,  PROVE. 

To  argue,  from  the  Latin  arguo,  and  tire  Greek 
apyds  clear,  signifies  to  make  clear ; to  evince,  in  Latin 
evinco,  compounded  of  vinco  to  proveox  make  out,  and 
e forth,  signifies  to  bring  to  light,  to  make  to  appear 
clear;  to  prove,  in  French  prouver,  in  Latin  probo, 
from  probus  good,  signifies  to  make  good,  or  make  to 
appear  good. 

These  terms  in  general  convey  the  idea  of  evidence, 
but  with  gradations;  argue  denotes  the  smallest  degree, 
and  prove  the  highest  degree.  To  argue  is  to  serve 
as  an  indication  amounting  to  probability;  to  evince 
denotes  an  indication  so  clear  as  to  remove  doubt;  tc 
prove  marks  an  evidence  so  positive  as  to  produce  con- 
viction. 

It  argues  St  want  of  candour  in  any  man  to  conceal 
circumstances  in  his  statement  which  are  any  ways 
calculated  to  affect  the  subject  in  question;  ‘ It  is  not 
the  being  singular,  but  being  singular  for  something, 
that  argues  either  extraordinary  endowments  of  nature 
or  benevolent  intentions  to  mankind,  which  draws  the 
admiration  and  esteem  of  the  world.’ — Berkeley. 
The  tenour  of  a person’s  conversation  may  evince  the 
refinement  of  his  mind  and  the  purity  of  his  taste; 
‘ The  nature  of  the  soul  itself,  and  particularly  its 
immateriality,  has,  I think,  been  evinced  almost  to  a 
demonstration.’ — Addison.  When  we  see  men  sacri- 
ficing their  peace  of  mind  and  even  their  integrity  of 
character  to  ambition,  it  proves  to  us  how  important  it 
is  even  in  early  life  to  check  this  natural,  and  in  seme 
measure  laudable,  but  still  insinuating  and  dangerous 
passion ; 

What  object,  what  event  the  moon  beneath, 

But  argues  or  endears  an  after-scene"? 

To  reason  proves,  or  weds  it  to  desire  1 — Young 

ARGUMENT,  REASON,  PROOF. 

.Argument,  from  argue  {v.  To  argue),  signifies  either 
the  thing  that  argues,  or  that  which  is  brought  forward 
in  arguing:  reason,  in  French  raison,  Latin  ratio, 
from  ratus,  participle  of  reor  to  think,  signifies  the 
thing  thought  or  estimated  in  the  mind  by  the  power 
oi reason;  proof,  from  to  prove,  signifies  the  thing  that 
proves. 

An  argument  serves  for  defence;  a reason  for  justi 
fication;  a proof  for  conviction.  Arguments  are 
adduced  in  support  of  an  hypothesis  or  proposition; 
‘ When  the  arguments  press  equally  on  both  sides  in 
matters  that  are  indifferent  to  us,  the  safest  method  is 
to  give  up  ourselves  to  neither.’ — Addison.  Reasons 
are  assigned  in  matters  of  belief  and  practice; 

The  reasons,  with  his  friend’s  experience  join  il, 
Encourag’d  much,  but  more  disturb’d  his  mind. 

Dryden. 

Proofs  are  collected  to  ascertain  a fact; 

One  soul  in  both,  whereof  good  proof 

This  day  affords.— Milton. 

Arguments  are  either  strong  or  weak ; reasons  solid 
or  futile ; proofs  clear  and  positive,  or  vague  and  inde- 
finite. We  confute  an  armament,  overpower  a reason, 
and  invalidate  a proof.  Whoever  wishes  to  defend 
Christianity  will  be  in  no  want  of  arguments ; ‘ This, 
before  revelation  had  enlightened  the  world,  was  the 
very  best  argument  for  a future  state.’ — Atterbury. 
The  believer  need  never  be  at  a loss  to  give  a reason 
for  the  hope  that  is  in  him ; ‘Virtue  and  vice  are  not 
arbitrary  things,  but  there  is  a natural  and  eternal 
reason  for  that  goodness  and  virtue,  and  against 
vice  and  wickedness.’ — Tillotson.  Throughout  the 
whole  of  Divine  revelation  there  is  no  circumstance 
that  is  substantiated  with  such  irrefragable  proofs  as 
the  resurrection  of  our  Saviour ; 

Are  there  (still  more  amazing !)  who  resist 
The  rising  thought,  who  smother  in  its  birth 
The  glorious  truth,  who  struggle  to  be  brutes? 
WhoTfight  the  proofs  of  immortaKty  ? — Young. 

CAUSE,  REASON,  MOTIVE. 

Cause  is  supposed  to  signify  originally  the  same  a* 
case ; it  means  however  now,  by  distinction,  the  case 
or  thing  happening  before  another  as  its  cause;  the 
reason  is  the  thing  that  acts  on  the  reason  or  under 
standing;  the  motive,  in  French  motif,  from  the  Latip 


78 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


notus  participle  of  ntoveo  to  move,  ia  that  which 
brings  into  action. 

Catise  respects  the  order  and  connexion  of  things; 
reason  the  moveineiits  and  operations  of  the  mind; 
motives  the  movements  of  the  mind  and  body.  Cause  is 
properly  the  genenck ; reason  and  motive  are  specifick ; 
.;very  reason  or  motive  is  a cause,  but  every  cause  is 
not  a reason  or  motive. 

Cause  is  said  of  all  inanimate  objects ; reason  and 
motive  of  rational  agents;  whatever  liappens  in  the 
world,  happens  from  some  cause  mediate  or  imme- 
diate; the  primary  or  first  cause  of  all,  is  God;  ‘The 
wise  and  learned  among  the  very  heathens  themselves, 
nave  all  acknowledged  some  first  cause,  whereupon 
originally  the  being  of  all  things  dependeth,  neither 
have  they  otherwise  spoken  of  that  cause,  than  as  an 
agent  which,  knowing  what  and  why  it  worketh, 
obscrveth  in  working  a most  exact  order  or  law.’ — 
Hooker.  Whatever  opinions  men  hold,  they  ought  to 
be  able  to  assign  a substantial  reason  for  them ; ‘ if  we 
commemorate  any  mystery  of  our  redemption,  or  arti- 
cle of  our  faith,  we  ought  to  confirm  our  belief  of  it  by 
considering  all  those  reasons  upon  which  it  is  built.’ — 
Nelson.  For  whatever  men  do  they  ought  to  have  a 
sufficient^  77/ofii;e;  ‘Every  principle  that  is  a motive  lo 
good  actions  ought  to  be  encouraged.’ — Addison. 

As  the  cause  gives  birth  to  the  effect,  so  does  the 
reason  give  birth  to  the  conclusion,  and  the  motive  gives 
birth  to  the  action.  Between  cause  and  effect  there  is 
a necessary  connexion ; whatever  in  the  natural  world 
is  capable  of  giving  birth  to  another  thing  is  an  ade- 
quate cause ; 

Cut  off  the  causes,  and  the  effects  will  cease. 

And  all  the  moving  madness  fall  to  peace. 

Dryden. 

But  in  the  moral  world  there  is  not  a necessary  con- 
nexion between  reasons  and  their  results,  or  motives 
and  their  actions;  the  state  of  the  agent’s  mind  is  not 
always  such  as  to  be  acted  upon  according  to  the 
nature  of  things ; every  adequate  reason  will  not  be  fol- 
lowed by  its  natural  conclusion,  for  every  man  will  not 
believe  who  has  reasons  to  believe,  nor  yield  to  the 
reasons  that  would  lead  lo  a right  belief;  and  every 
motive  will  not  be  accompanied  with  its  corresponding 
acUon,  for  every  man  will  not  act  who  has  a motive 
for  acting,  nor  act  in  the  manner  in  which  his  motives 
ought  to  dictate ; the  causes  of  our  diseases  often  lie  as 
hidden  as  the  reasons  of  our  opinions,  and  the  motives 
for  our  actions. 


CONCLUSION,  INFERENCE,  DEDUCTION. 

Conclusion,  from  conclude,  and  tire  Latin  conclaudo, 
or  con  and  cludo  to  shut  up,  signifies  literally  the 
winding  up  of  all  argutnents  and  reasoning;  inference, 
from  infer,  in  Latin  infero,  signifies  what  is  brought 
in : deduction,  from  deduct,  in  Latin  deductus  and 
deduce  to  bring  out,  signifies  the  bringing  or  drawing 
one  thing  from  another. 

A conclusion  is  full  and  decisive;  an  inference  is  par- 
tial and  indecisive;  a conclusion  leaves  the  mind  in  no 
doubt  or  hesitation;  it  puts  a stop  to  all  farther  rea- 
soning; 

I only  deal  by  rules  of  art. 

Such  as  are  lawful,  and  judge  by 
Conclusions  of  astrology. — Hudibrxs. 
Inferences  are  special  conclusions  from  particular  cir- 
cumstances ; they  serve  as  links  in  the  chain  of  reason- 
ing; ‘Though  it  may  chance  to  be  right  in  the  con- 
clusion, it  is  yet  unjust  and  mistaken  in  the  method  of 
inference.' — Glanville  Conclusion  in  the  logical 

sense  is  the  concluding  proposition  in  a syllogism, 
drawn  from  the  two  others,  which  are  called  the  pre- 
mises, and  may  each  of  them  be  inferences. 

Conclusions  are  drawn  from  real  facts,  inferences 
are  drawn  from  the  appearances  of  things,  deductions 
only  from  arguments  or  assertions.  Conclusions  are 
practical ; inferences  raliocinaiive ; deductions  are 
final. 

We  conclude  from  a person’s  conduct  or  declarations 
what  he  intends  to  d« , or  leave  undone ; 

He  praises  wine,  and  we  conclude  from  thence 
He  lik’d  his  glass,  on  his  own  evidence. — Addison. 
We  infer  from  the  appearance  of  the  clouds,  or  the 
■liinkness  of  the  atmosphere,  that  tlnne  wi  1 be  a heavy 


fall  of  rain  or  snow ; ‘You  might,  from  tlie  single  peo 
pie  departed,  make  some  useful  inferences  or  guesses 
how  many  there  are  left  unmarried.’ — Steele.  We 
deduce  from  a combination  of  facts,  inferences,  and 
assertions,  that  a story  is  fabricated ; ‘ There  is  a con- 
sequence which  seems  very  naturally  deducible  from 
the  foregoing  considerations.  If  the  scale  of  being  rises 
by  such  a regular  progress  so  high  as  man,  we  may  by 
a parity  of  reason  suppose  that  it  still  proceeds  gradu- 
ally through  those  beings  which  are  of  a superior 
nature  to  him.’— Addison.  Hasty  conclusions  betray 
a want  of  judgement,  or  firmness  of  mind;  contrary 
inferences  are  frequently  drawn  from  the  same  circum- 
stances to  serve  the  purposes  of  party,  and  support  a 
favourite  position  ; the  deductions  in  such  cases  are  not 
unfrequently  true  when  the  inferences  are  false. 


BELIEF,  CREDIT,  TRUST,  FAITH. 

Belief,  from  believe,  in  Saxon  gelyfan,  geleavan,  in 
German ^-ZawAen,  kilauban,  &c.  comes,  in  all  possibility, 
from  lief,  in  German  belieben  to  please,  and  the  Latin 
libet  it  pleaseth,  signifying  the  pleasure  or  assent  of  tiie 
mind.  Credit,  in  French  credit,  Latin  creditus,  parti- 
ciple of  credo,  compounded  of  cor  the  heart,  and  do  to 
give,  signifies  also  giving  the  heart.  Trust  is  con- 
nected with  the  old  word  trow,  in  Saxon  treowian, 
German  trauen,  old  German  thravahn,  thruven,  &.c.  to 
hold  true,  and  probably  from  the  Greek  ddppeiv  to  have 
confidence,  signifying  to  depend  upon  as  true.  Faith, 
in  Latin  jides,  from  fido  to  confide,  signifies  also  de- 
pendence upon  as  true. 

Belief  is  the  generick  term,  the  others  specifick ; we 
believe  when  we  credit  and  trust,  but  not  always  vice 
versa.  Belief  rests  on  no  particular  person  or  thing ; 
but  credit  and  trust  rest  on  the  authority  of  one  or 
more  individuals.  Every  thing  is  the  subject  of  belic^ 
which  produces  one’s  assent;  the  events  of  human  life 
are  credited  upou  the  authority  of  the  narrator : the 
words,  promises,  or  the  integrity  of  individuals  arc 
trusted:  the  power  of  persons  and  the  virtue  of  things 
are  objects  of  faith. 

Belief  and  credit  are  particular  actions,  or  senti- 
ments; trust  and  /a?t/t  are  permanent  dispositions  of 
the  mind.  Things  are  entitled  to  our  belief;  persons 
are  entitled  to  our  credit : but  people  repose  a trust  in 
others ; or  have  a faith  in  others. 

Our  belief  or  unbelief  is  not  always  regulated  by  our 
reasoning  faculties,  or  the  truth  of  things;  we  often 
believe  from  prejudice  and  ignorance,  things  to  be  true 
which  are  very  false ; 

Oh : I’ve  heard  him  talk 

Like  the  first-born  child  of  love,  when  every  word 

Spoke  in  his  eyes,  and  wept  to  be  believ'd, 

And  all  to  ruin  me.— Southern. 

With  the  bulk  of  mankind,  assurance  goes  furthei 
than  any  thing  else  in  obtaining  credit : gross  false- 
hoods, pronounced  with  confidence,  will  be  credited 
sooner  than  plain  truths  told  in  an  unvarnished  style ; 

Oh ! I will  credit  my  Scamandra’s  tears  ! 

Nor  think  them  drops  of  chance  like  other  women’s. 

Lee. 

There  are  no  disappointments  more  severe  than  those 
which  we  feel  on  finding  that  we  have  trusted  to  men 
of  base  principles ; 

Capricious  man!  To  good  or  ill  inconstant 
Too  much  to  fear  or  trust  is  equal  weakness. 

Johnson. 

Ignorant  people  have  commonly  a more  implicit  faith 
in  any  nostrum  recommended  to  them  by  persons  of 
their  own  class,  than  in  the  prescriptions  of  professional 
men  regularly  educated; 

Tor  faith  repos’d  on  seas  and  on  theflatt’ring  sky 

Thy  naked  corpse  is  doomed  on  shores  unknown  to  lie 

Dryden. 

Belief,  trust,  and  faithha.ve  a religioua  application, 
which  credit  has  not.  Belief  is  simply  an  act  of  the 
understanding;  trust  and  faith  are  active  moving 
principles  of  the  mind  in  which  the  heart  is  conceined. 
Belief  does  not  extend  beyond  an  assent  of  the  mind  to 
any  given  proposition ; trust  and  faith  are  lively  sen- 
timents which  impel  to  action.  Belief  is  to  trust  and 
faith,  as  cause  to  effect:  there  may  be  belief  without 
eilhnr  trust  or  faith:  but  there  can  be  no  trust  oi 


ENGLISH  SYINONYMES. 


.79 


rattA  w Itho  ut  beliej  . we  believe  that  there  is  a God, 
who  18  the  creator  and  preserver  of  all  his  creatures; 
we  therefore  trust  in  him  for  his  protection  of  our- 
selves: we  believe  that  Jesus  Christ  died  for  the  sins  of 
men;  we  have  tlierefore  faith  in  his  redeeming  grace 
to  save  us  from  our  sins. 

Belief  is  common  to  all  religions ; ‘ The  Epicureans 
contented  themselves  with  the  denial  of  a Providence, 
asserting  at  the  same  lime  the  existence  of  gods  in 
general;  because  they  would  not  shock  the  common 
belief  of  mankind.’ — Addison.  Trust  is  peculiar  to 
the  believers  in  Divine  revelation  ; ‘ What  can  be  a 
stronger  motive  to  a firm  trust  and  reliance  on  the 
mercies  of  our  Maker,  than  the  giving  us  his  Son  to 
suffer  for  us  ?’ — Addison.  Faith  is  employed  by  dis- 
tinction for  the  Christian  faith;  ‘ The or  persua- 
sion of  a Divine  revelation  is  a Divine  faith,  not  only 
with  respect  to  the  object  of  it,  but  likewise  in  respect 
of  the  author  of  it,  which  is  the  Divine  Spirit.’ — Til- 
LOTSON.  Belief  is  purely  speculative;  and  trust  and 
faith  are  operative  : the  for  mer  operates  on  the  mind  ; 
the  latter  on  the  outward  conduct.  Trust  in  God 
serves  to  dispel  all  anxious  concern  about  the  future. 
“ Faith,"  says  the  Apostle,  “is  dead  without  works.” 
Theorists  substitute  belief  for  faith ; enthusiasts  mis- 
take passion  for  faith.  True  faith  must  be  grounded 
an  a right  belief,  and  accompanied  with  aright  practice. 


FAITH,  CREED. 

Faith  (v.  Belief)  denotes  either  the  principle  of 
trusting,  or  the  thing  trusted  ; creed,  from  the  Latin 
credo  to  believe,  denotes  the  thing  believed. 

These  words  are  synonymous  when  taken  for  the 
thing  trusted  in  or  believed;  but  they  differ  in  this,  that 
faith  has  always  a reference  to  the  principle  in  the 
mind  ; creed  only  respects  the  thing  which  is  the  object 
of  faith:  the  former  is  likewise  taken  generally  and 
indefinitely ; the  latter  particularly  and  definitely,  sig- 
nifying a set  form  or  a code  of  faith ; hence  we  say, 
to  be  of  the  same  faith,  or  to  adopt  the  same  creed. 
The  holy  martyrs  died  for  the  faith,  as  it  is  in  Christ 
Jesus  ; ‘ St.  Paul  affirms  that  a sinner  is  at  first  justified 
and  received  into  the  favour  of  God,  by  a sincere  pro- 
fession of  the  Christian  faith.' — Tillotson.  Every 
established  tbrm  of  religion  will  have  its  peculiar  creed. 
The  Church  of  England  has  adopted  that  creed  which 
It  considers  as  containing  the  purest  principles  of 
Christian  faith;  ‘Supposing  all  the  great  points  of 
atheism  were  formed  into  a kind  of  creed,  I would  fain 
ask  whether  it  would  not  require  an  infinitely  greater 
measure  of  faith  than  any  set  of  articles  which  they 
so  violently  oppose  V — Addison. 


CONVICTION,  PERSUASION. 

Conviction,  from  convince,  denotes  either  the  act  of 
convincing  or  the  state  of  being  convinced ; persuasion, 
which,  from  the  Latin  persuadeo,  or  suadeo,  and  the 
Greek  fjSvi  sweet,  signities  to  make  thoroughly  agree- 
able to  the  taste,  expresses  likewise  the  act  of  per- 
suading, or  the  state  of  being  persuaded. 

What  convinces  binds;  what  persuades  attracts. 
We  convince  by  arguments;  it  is  the  understanding 
which  determines  • we  axe  persuaded  by  entreaties  and 
personal  influence;  it  is  the  imagination,  the  passions, 
or  the  will  which  decide.  Our  conviction  respects 
solely  matters  of  belief  or  faith ; ‘ When  therefore  the 
Apostle  requireth  ability  to  convict  hereticks,  can  we 
think  he  judgeth  it  a thing  unlawful,  and  not  rather 
needful,  to  use  the  principal  instrument  of  their  convic- 
tion, \he  light  of  reason.’ — Hooker.  Onr  persuasion 
respects  matters  of  belief  or  practice ; ‘ I should  be  glad 
if  I could  persuade  him  to  write  such  another  critique 
on  any  thing  of  mine,  for  when  he  condemns  any  of  n.y 
poems,  he  makes  the  world  have  a better  opinion  of 
them.’ — Dryden.  We  are  convinced  that  a thing  is 
true  or  false;  we  are  persuaded  that  it  is  either  right  or 
wrong,  advantageous  or  the  contrary.  A person  will 
have  half  effected  a thing  who  is  convinced  that  it  is  in 
his  power  to  effect  it ; he  will  be  easily  persuaded  to  do 
that  which  favours  his  own  interests. 

Conviction  respects  our  most  important  duties 
‘Their  wisdom  is  only  of  this  world,  to  put  false 
colours  upon  things,  to  call  good  evil,  and  evil  good, 
against  the  conviction  of  their  own  consciences.’ — 
SwiKT  Perswas?oM  is  frequently  a'^plied  to  matters  ot 


indifference;  ‘Philoclea’s  beauty  not  only  persuadeo, 
but  so-persuaded  that  all  hearts  must  yield.’ — Sidney 
The  first  step  to  true  repentance  is  a thorough  convic- 
tion of  the  enormity  of  sin.  The  cure  of  people’s  mala 
dies  is  sometimes  promoted  to  a surprising  degree  bj 
their  persuasion  of  the  efficacy  of  the  remedy 

As  conviction  is  the  effect  of  substantial  evidence,  it 
is  solid  and  permanent  in  its  nature ; it  cannot  be  so 
easily  changed  and  deceived-,  persuasion,  depending  on 
our  feelings,  is  influenced  by  external  objects,  and  ex- 
posed to  various  changes;  it  may  vary  both  in  the 
degree  and  in  the  object.  Conviction  answers  in  our 
minds  to  positive  certainty ; persuasion  answers  to  pro- 
bability. 

The  practical  truths  of  Christianity  demand  oui 
deepest  conviction ; ‘ When  men  have  settled  in  them- 
selves a conviction  that  there  is  nothing  honourable 
which  is  not  accompanied  with  innocence;  nothing 
mean  but  what  has  guilt  in  it;  riches,  pleasures,  and 
honours  will  easily  lose  their  charms,  if  they  stand  be 
tween  us  and  our  integrity.’ — Steele.  Of  the  specu 
lative  truths  of  Christianity  we  ought  to  have  a rationaJ 
persuasion ; ‘Let  the  mind  be  possessed  with  the  per 
suasion  of  immortal  happiness  annexed  to  the  act,  and 
there  will  be  no  want  of  candidates  to  struggle  for  the 
glorious  prerogative.’ — Cumberland. 

The  conviction  of  the  truth  or  falsehood  of  that 
which  we  have  been  accustomed  to  condemn  or  admire 
cannot  be  effected  without  powerful  means;  but  w« 
may  be  persuaded  of  the  propriety  of  a thing  to-day 
which  to-morrow  we  shall  regard  with  indifference 
We  ought  to  be  convinced  of  the  propriety  of  avoiding 
every  thing  which  can  interfere  with  the  good  order  of 
society;  we  may  he  persuaded  of  the  truth  of  a person’s 
narrative  or  not,  according  to  the  representation  mada 
to  us;  we  may  he  persuaded  to  pursue  any  study  or  lay 
it  aside. 


UNBELIEF,  INFIDELITY,  INCREDULITY 
Unbelief  {v.  Belief)  respects  matters  in  general;  infi, 
delity,  from  fides  faithful,  is  unbelief  as  respects  Divine 
revelation  ; incredulity  is  unbelief  in  ordinary  matters 
Unbelief  is  taken  in  an  indefinite  and  negative  sense; 
it  is  the  want  of  belief  in  any  particular  thing  that  may 
or  may  not  be  believed:  infidelity  is  a more  active  statg 
of  mind ; it  supposes  a violent  and  total  rejection  of  tha! 
which  ought  to  be  believed : incredulity  is  also  an  active 
state  of  mind,  in  which  we  oppose  a belief  to  matters 
that  may  be  rejected.  Unbelief  does  not  of  itself  con 
vey  any  reproachful  meaning;  it  depends  upon  the 
thing  disbelieved ; we  may  be  unbelievers  in  indifferent 
as  well  as  the  most  important  matters ; but  absolutely 
taken  it  means  one  who  disbelieves  sacred  truths, 
‘ Such  a universal  acquaintance  with  things  will  keep 
you  from  an  excess  of  credulity  and  unbelief;  i.  e.  a 
readiness  to  believe  ordeny  every  thing  at  first  hearing. 
— Watts.  ‘One  gets  by  heart  a catalogue  of  title 
pages  and  editions ; and  immediately,  to  become  con- 
spicuous, declares  that  he  is  an  unbeliever.' — Addison 
Infidelity  is  taken  in  the  worst  sense  for  a blind  and 
senseless  perversity  in  refusing  belief;  ‘ Belief  and  pro- 
fession will  speak  a Christian  but  very  faintly,  when 
thy  conversation  proclaims  thee  an  infidel.' — South 
Incredulity  is  often  a mark  of  wisdom,  and  not  unfre- 
quently  a mark  of  the  contrary ; ‘ I am  not  altogether 
incredulous  thattliere  may  be  such  candles  as  are  made 
of  salamander’s  wood,  being  a kind  of  mineral  which 
v.'hiteneth  in  the  burning  and  consumeth  not.’ — Bacon 
‘ The  youth  hears  all  the  predictions  of  the  aged  with 
obstinate  incredulity.' — Johnson.  The  Jews  are  unbe, 
hevers  in  the  mission  of  our  Saviour  ; the  Turks  are 
infidels,  inasmuch  as  they  do  not  believe  in  the  Bible 
Deists  and  Atheists  are  likewise  infidels,  inasmuch  as 
they  set  themselves  up  against  Divine  revelation;  well 
informed  people  are  always  incredulous  of  stories 
respecting  ghosts  and  apparitions. 

DISBELIEF,  UNBELIEF 
Disbelief  properly  implies  the  believing  that  a thing 
is  not,  or  refusing  to  believe  that  it  is.  Unbelief  ex- 
presses properly  a believing  the  contrary  of  what  one 
has  believed  before ; disbelief  is  qualified  as  to  its  nature 
by  the  thing  disbelieved . ‘ The  belief  or  disbelief  of  a 
thing  does  not  alter  the  nature  of  the  thing.’ — Tillot 
son.  Our  disbelief  of  the  idle,  tales  which  are  told  b 


80 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


ccggars,  is  justified  by  the  frequent  detection  of  their 
falsehood ; ‘ The  atheist  lias  not  found  his  post  tenable, 
and  is  therefore  retired  into  deism,  and  a disbelief  of 
revealed  religion  only.’ — Addison.  Our  Saviour  had 
compassion  on  Thomas  for  his  unbelief,  and  gave  him 
such  evidences  of  his  identity,  as  dissipated  every 
doubt;  ‘ The  opposites  to  faith  are  unbelief  and  credm 
'iry.’ — Tillotson, 

DOCTRINE,  PRECEPT,  PRINCIPLE. 

Doctrine,  in  French  doctrine,  Latin  doctrina,  from 
dcceo  to  teach,  signifies  the  thing  taught ; precept,  from 
the  Latin  prmcipio,  signifies  the  thing  laid  down  ; and 
principle,  in  French  prmcrpe,  Latin  principium,  signi- 
fies the  beginning  of  things,  that  is,  their  first  or  origi- 
nal component  parts. 

The  doctrine  requires  a teacher ; the  p recept  requires 
a superiour  with  authority  ; theprinciple  requires  only 
an  illustrator.  The  doctrine  is  always  framed  by 
some  one ; the  precept  is  enjoined  or  laid  down  by 
some  one  ; the  principle  lies  in  the  thing  itself.  The 
doctrine  \s  composed  of  principles;  the  precept  xc.’s.is, 
upon  principles  or  doctrines.  Pythagoras  taught  the 
doctrine  of  the  metempsychosis,  and  enjoined  many 
precepts  on  his  disciples  for  the  regulation  of  their  con- 
duct, particularly  that  they  should  abstain  from  eating 
animal  food,  and  be  only  silent  hearers  for  the  first  five 
years  of  their  scholarship;  the  former  of  these  rules 
depended  upon  the  preceding  doctrine  of  the  soul’s 
transmigration  to  the  bodies  of  animals;  the  latter 
rested  on  that  simple  principle  of  education,  the  entire 
devotion  of  the  scholar  to  the  master. 

We  are  said  to  believe  in  doctrines ; to  obey  pre- 
cepts ; to  imbibe  or  hold  principles.  The  doctrine  is 
that  which  enters  into  the  composition  of  our  faith  ; 

‘ To  make  new  articles  of  faith  and  doctrine  no  man 
thinketh  it  lawful;  new  laws  of  government  what 
church  or  commonwealth  is  there  which  maketh  not 
either  at  one  time  or  other.’ — Hooker.  ‘ This  sedi- 
iious,  unconstitutional  doctrine  of  electing  kings  is  now 
publickly  taught,  avowed,  and  printed.’ — Burke.  The 
precept  is  that  which  is  recommended  for  practice; 
•Pythagoras’s  first  rule  directs  us  to  worship  the  gods, 
as  is  ordained  by  law,  for  that  is  the  most  natural  in- 
terpretation of  tha  precept.' — Adrison.  Both  are  the 
subjects  of  rational  assent,  and  suited  only  to  the 
matured  understanding:  principles  are  often  admitted 
without  examination;  and  imbibed  as  frequently  from 
observation  and  circumstances,  as  from  any  direct 
personal  eiforts ; children  as  well  as  men  get  prin- 
ciples ; ‘ If  we  had  the  whole  history  of  zeal,  from  the 
days  of  Cain  to  our  times,  we  should  see  it  filled  with 
so  many  scenes  of  slaughter  and  bloodshed,  as  would 
make  a wise  man  very  careful  not  to  suffer  himself  to 
be  actuated  by  such  principle,  when  it  regards  mat- 
ters of  opinion  and  speculation.’ — Addison. 

DOCTRINE,  DOGMA,  TENET. 

The  doctrine  {v.  Doctrine)  originates  with  the  indi- 
vidual who  teaches,  in  application  to  all  subjects;  the 
doctrine  is  whatever  is  taught  or  recommended  to  the 
belief  of  others  ; the  dogma,  from  the  Greek  ^dypaand 
ioKfu)  to  think,  signifies  the  thing  thought,  admitted,  or 
taken  for  granted  ; this  lies  with  a body  or  number  of 
individuals;  the  tenet,  from  the  Latin  teneo  to  hold  or 
maintain,  signifies  the  thing  held  or  maintained,  and  is 
a species  of  principle  {v.  Doctrine'^  specifically  main- 
tained in  matters  of  opinion  by  persons  in  general. 

The  doctrine  rests  on  the  authority  of  the  individual 
by  whom  it  is  framed ; 

Unpractis’d  he  to  fawn  or  seek  for  power 
By  doctrines  fashion’d  to  the  varying  hour; 

Far  other  aims  his  heart  had  learn’d  to  prize. 

More  skill’d  to  raise  the  wretch’d,  than  to  rise. 

Goldsmith. 

The  dogma  rests  on  the  authority  of  the  body  by  whom 
it  is  maintained ; ‘ Our  poet  was  a stoick  philosopher, 
and  all  his  moral  sentences  are  drawn  from  the  dogmas 
of  that  sect.’ — Dryden.  The  tenet  rests  on  its  own 
intrinsick  merits  or  demerits;  ‘ One  of  the  purit.anical 
tenets  was  the  illegality  of  all  games  of  chance.’ — 
Johnson.  Many  of  the  doctrines  of  our  blessed 
Saviour  are  held  by  faith  in  him  ; they  are  subjects  of 
persuasion  by  the  exercise  of  our  rational  powers;  the 
ifigmat  of  the  Romish  church  are  admitted  by  none 


but  such  as  admit  its  authority : the  tenets  of  reptfe 
licans,  levellers,  and  freethinkers,  have  been  unbluah 
ingly  maintained  both  in  publick  and  private 

TENET,  POSITION. 

The  tenet  {v.  Doctrine)  is  the  opinion  vi  hich  we 
hold  in  our  own  minds  ; the  position  is  that  which  vve 
lay  down  for  others.  Our  tenets  may  be  hurtful,  oui 
positions  false.  He  who  gives  up  his  tenets  readily 
evinces  an  unstable  mind;  he  who  argueu  on  a false 
position  shows  more  tenacity  and  subtlety  than  gooc 
sense.  The  tenets  of  the  diferent  denominations  of 
Christians  are  scarcely  to  be  known  or  distinguished; 
they  often  rest  upon  such  trivial  points ; ‘ The  occa- 
sion of  Luther’s  being  first  disgusted  with  the  tenets 
of  the  Romish  church,  is  known  to  every  one,  the 
least  conversant  with  history.’— Robertson.  The 
positions  which  an  author  lays  down  must  be  very 
definite  and  clear  when  he  wishes  to  build  upon  them 
any  theory  or  system ; ‘ To  the  position  of  Tully,  that 
if  virtue  could  be  seen,  she  must  be  loved,  may  be 
added,  that  if  truth  could  be  heard,  she  must  be 
obeyed.’— Johnson. 

THEORY,  SPECULATION. 

Theory,  from  the  Greek  dedopai  to  behold,  ands^ccu 
lation,  from  the  Ijatin  speculor  to  watch  for  or  espyi 
are  both  employed  to  express  what  is  seen  with  the 
mind’s  eye.  Theory  is  the  fruit  of  reflection,  it  serves 
the  purposes  of  science ; practice  will  be  incomplete 
when  the  theory  is  false ; 

True  piety  without  cessation  tost 
By  theories,  the  practice  past  is  lost. — Denham. 
Speculation  belongs  more  to  the  imagination ; it  ha; 
therefore  less  to  do  with  realities:  it  is  that  which  can 
not  be  reduced  to  practice,  and  can  therefore  never  bt 
brought  to  the  test  of  experience  ; ‘ In  all  these  things 
being  fully  persuaded  that  what  they  did,  it  was  obe- 
dience to  the  will  of  God,  and  that  all  men  should  do 
the  like ; there  remained  after  speculation  practice 
whereunto  the  whole  world  might  be  framed.’— 
Hooker.  Hence  it  arises  that  theory  is  contraste/f 
sometimes  with  the  practice  to  designate  its  insul? 
ciency  to  render  a man  complete  ; 

True  Christianity  depends  on  fact. 

Religion  is  not  theory,  but  act. — Harte. 

And  speculation  is  put  for  that  which  is  fanciful  oi 
unreal ; ‘ This  is  a consideration  not  to  be  neglected  or 
thought  an  indifferent  matter  of  mere  speculation.' — 
Leslie.  A general  who  is  so  oidy  in  theory  will 
acquit  himself  miserably  in  the  field;  a religionist 
who  is  only  so  in  speculation  will  make  a wretched 
Christian. 


OPINION,  SENTIMENT,  NOTION. 

Opinion,  in  Latin  opinio  from  opinor,  and  the  Greek 
hivotu),  to  think  or  judge,  is  the  work  of  the  head ; 
sentiment,  from  sentio  to  feel,  is  the  work  of  the  heart ; 
notion  (vide  Perception)  is  a simple  operation  of  the 
thinking  faculty. 

We  form  opinions:  we  have  sentiments : we  get 
notions.  Opinions  are  formed  on  speculative  matters ; 
they  are  the  result  of  reading,  experience,  or  reflec- 
tion: sentiments  are  entertained  on  matters  of  prac- 
tice ; they  are  the  consequence  of  habits  and  circum- 
stances: notions  are  gathered  upon  sensible  objects, 
and  arise  out  of  the  casualties  of  hearing  and  seeing. 
We  have  opinions  on  religion  as  respects  its  doctrines  ; 
we  have  sentiments  on  religion  as  respects  its  practice 
and  its  precepts.  The  unity  of  the  Godhead  in  the 
general  sense,  and  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  in  the 
particular  sense,  are  opinions  ; honour  and  gratitude 
towards  the  Deity,  the  sense  of  our  dependence  upon 
him,  and  obligations  to  him,  are  sentinients. 

Opinions  are  more  liable  to  errour  than  sentiments : 
the  former  depend  upon  knowledge,  and  must  there- 
fore be  inaccurate  ; the  latter  depend  rather  upon  in- 
stinct, and  a well  organized  frame  of  mind  ; ‘ Time 
wears  out  the  fictions  of  opinion,  and  doth  by  degrees 
discover  and  unma.sk  that  fallacy  of  ungrounded  per- 
suasions, but  confirms  the  dictates  and  sentiments  of 
nature.’ — Wilkins.  JVotions  are  still  more  liable  to 
erro-”  than  either  ; they  are  the  irninatured  decisions  c/ 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


SI 


tiie  uninformed  mind  on  ilic  appearances  of  things; 

There  is  nothing  made  a more  common  subject  of 
discourse  than  nature  and  its  laws,  and  yet  few  agree 
in  their  notions  about  these  words.’— Chkyne. 

The  difference  of  opinion  among  men,  on  the  most 
Important  questions  of  human  life,  is  a sufficient  evi- 
dence that  the  mind  of  man  is  very  easily  led  astray 
in  matters  of  opinion;  ‘No,  cousin,  (said  Henry  IV. 
when  charged  by  the  Duke  of  Bouillon  with  having 
changed  hii  religion)  I have  changed  no  religion,  but 
an  opinion.' — Howkl.  Whatever  difference  of  opi- 
nion there  may  be  among  Christians,  there  is  but  one 
sentiment  of  love  and  good-will  among  those  who  fol- 
low the  example  of  Christ,  rather  than  their  own  pas- 
sions; ‘ There  are  never  great  numbers  in  any  nation 
who  can  raise  a pleasing  discourse  from  their  own 
stock  of  sentiments  and  images.’ — Johnson.  The  no- 
tions of  a Deity  are  so  imperfect  among  savages  in 
general,  that  they  seem  to  amount  to  little  more  than 
an  indistinct  idea  of  some  superiour  invisible  agent ; 
' Being  we  are  at  this  time  to  speak  of  the  proper  no- 
tion of  the  church,  therefore  I shall  not  look  upon  it  as 
<iny  more  than  the  sons  of  men.’ — Pe-uison. 


DEITY,  DIVINITY 

Deity.,  from  Deus  a God,  signifies  a divine  person. 
Divinity,  from  divinus,  signifies  the  divine  essence  or 
power:  the  deities  o^  the  heathens  had  little  of  divi- 
nity in  them ; ‘ The  first  original  of  the  drama  was 
religious  worship,  consisting  only  of  a chorus,  which 
was  nothing  else  but  a hymn  to  a Deity.' — Addison. 
The  divinity  of  our  Saviour  is  a fundamental  article  in 
the  Christian  faith ; 

Why  shrinks  the  soul 

Back  on  herself,  and  startles  at  destruction  7 
•Tis  tlie  divinity  that  stirs  within  us. — Addison. 


CELESTIAL,  HEAVENLY. 

Celestial  and  heavenly  derive  their  difference  in  sig- 
nification from  their  different  origin ; they  both  literally 
imply  belonging  to  heaven ; but  the  former,  from  the 
Latin  ccehstum,  signifies  belonging  to  the  heaven  of 
heathens;  the  latter,  which  has  its  origin  among  be- 
lievers in  the  true  God,  has  acquired  a superiour  sense, 
in  regard  to  heaven  as  the  habitation  of  the  Almighty. 
This  distinction  is  pretty  faithfully  observed  in  their 
application  : celestial  is  applied  mostly  in  the  natural 
sense  of  the  heavens ; AeauenZy  is  employed  more  com- 
monly in  a spiritual  sense.  Hence  we  speak  of  the 
i-Aestial  globe  as  distinguished  from  the  terrestrial,  of 
♦he  celestial  bodies,  of  Olympus  as  the  celestial  abode 
j{  Jupitnr,  of  the  celestial  deities; 

Twice  warn’d  by  the  celestial  messenger, 

The  pious  prince  arose,  with  hasty  fear. — Dryden. 
Unhappy  son  1 (fair  Thetis  thus  replies. 

While  tears  celestial  trickle  from  her  eyes.) — Pope. 
But  on  the  other  hand,  of  the  heavenly  habitation,  of 
heavenly  ioys  or  bliss,  of  heavenly  spirits  and  the  like. 
There  are  doubtless  many  cases  in  which  celestial  im.y 
be  used  for  heavenly  in  the  moral  sense ; 

Thus  having  said,  the  hero  bound  his  brows 
With  leafy  branches,  then  perform’d  his  vows ; 
Adoring  first  the  genius  of  the  place. 

Then  Earth,  the  mother  of  the  heavenly  race. 

Dryden. 

But  there  are  cases  in  which  heavenly  cannot  so  pro- 
perly be  substituted  by  celestial ; ‘ As  the  love  of  hea- 
ven makes  one  heavenly,  the  love  of  virtue  virtuous, 
so  doth’  the  love  of  the  world  make  one  become 
worldly.’ — Sidnex-  Heavenly  is  frequently  employed 
in  the  sense  of  superexcellent; 

But  now  he  seiz’d  Briseis’  heav'nly  charms. 

And  of  my  valour’s  prize  defrauds  my  arms. — Pope. 
The  poets  have  also  availed  themselves  of  the  license 
to  use  celestial  in  a similar  sense,  as  occasion  might 
serve. 

TO  ADORE,  WORSHIP. 

Adore,  in  French  adorer,  Latin  adoro,  or  ad  and 
aro,  signifies  literally  to  pray  to.  Worship,  in  Saxon 
veorthscype.,  is  contracted  from  worthship,  implying 
jither  the  object  that  i.«  worth,  or  the  worth  itself; 


whence  it  has  been  employed  to  designate  the  action 
of  doing  suitable  homage  to  the  object  which  has  worth 
and,  by  a just  distinction,  of  paying  l^mage  to  out 
Maker  by  religious  rites. 

Adoration,  strictly  speaking,  is  the  service  of  the 
heart  towards  a Superiour  Being,  in  which  we  ac 
knowledge  our  dependence  and  obedience,  by  petition 
and  thanksgiving:  worship  consists  in  the  outward 
form  of  showing  reverence  to  some  supposed  superiour 
being.  Adoration  can  with  propriety  be  paid  only  ta 
the  one  true  God;  ‘Menander  says,  that  “God,  tht 
Lord  and  Fathei  of  all  things,  is  alone  worthy  of  our 
humble  adoration,  being  at  once  the  maker  and  givei 
of  all  blessings.”  ’ — Cu.mberland.  But  worship  is 
offered  by  heathens  to  stocks  and  stones ; 

By  reason,  man  a Godhead  can  discern. 

But  how  he  should  be  worship' d cannot  learn. 

Dryden 

We  may  adore  our  Maker  at  all  times  and  in  all 
places,  whenever  the  heart  is  lifted  up  towards  him; 
but  we  worship  him  only  at  stated  times,  and  accord- 
ing to  certain  rules ; ‘ Solemn  and  serviceable  worship 
we  name,  for  distinction  sake,whatsoever  belongeth 
to  the  church  or  publick  society  of  God,  by  way  of 
external  adoration.'— Hook&r.  Outward  signs  arc  but 
secondary  in  the  act  of  adoration;  and  in  divine  wor- 
ship there  is  often  nothing  existing  but  the  outward 
form.  We  seldom  adore  without  worshipping ; but 
we  too  frequently  worship  without  adoring. 

TO  ADORE,  REVERENCE,  VENERATE, 
REVERE. 

Adoration  has  been  before  considered  only  in  rela 
tion  to  our  Maker  ; it  is  here  employed  in  an  improper 
and  extended  application  to  express,  in  the  strongest 
possible  manner,  the  devotion  of  the  mind  towards 
sensible  objects : Reverence,  in  Latin  reverentia, 
reverence  or  awe,  implies  to  show  reverence,  from 
revereor,  to  stand  in  awe  of:  Venerate,  in  Latin  vene- 
ratus,  participle  of  veneror,  probably  from  venere 
beauty,  signifying  to  hold  in  very  high  esteem  for  its 
superiour  qualities : revere  is  another  form  of  the  same 
verb. 

Reverence  is  equally  engendered  by  the  contempla- 
tion of  superiority  in  a being,  whether  of  the  Supreme 
Being,  as  our  Creator,  or  any  earthly  being  as  oui 
parent.  It  differs,  however,  from  adoration,  in  as 
much  as  it  has  a mixture  of  fear  arising  from  the  con- 
sciousness of  weakness  and  dependence,  or  of  obliga 
tion  for  favours  received;  ‘The  fear  acceptable  to 
God,  is  a filial  fear,  an  awful  reverence  of  the  Divine 
Nature,  proceeding  from  a just  esteem  for  his  perfec- 
tions, which  produces  in  us  an  inclination  to  his  ser- 
vice, and  an  unwillingness  to  offend  him.’— Rogers. 

To  revere  and  venerate  are  applied  only  to  human 
beings,  and  that  not  so  much  from  the  relation  we 
stand  in  to  them,  as  from  their  characters  and  endow 
ments ; on  which  account  these  two  latter  terms  are 
applicable  to  inanimate  as  well  as  animate  objects. 

Adoration  in  this  case,  as  in  the  former,  essentially 
requires  no  external  form  of  expression;  it  is  best 
expressed  by  the  devotion  of  the  individual  to  the 
service  of  him  whom  he  adores;  “‘There  is  no  end 
of  his  greatness.”  The  most  exalted  creature  he  has 
made  is  only  capable  of  adoring  it;  none  but  himself 
can  comprehend  it.’ — Addison.  Reverencing  our 
Maker  is  altogether  an  inward  feeling;  but  reverencing 
our  parents  includes  in  it  an  outward  expression  of  out 
sentiments  by  our  deportment  towards  them ; 

The  war  protracted,  and  the  siege  delay’d. 

Were  due  to  Hector’s  and  this  hero’s  hand, 

Both  brave  alike,  and  equal  in  command; 

AEneas,  not  inferiour  in  the  field. 

In  pious  reverence  to  the  gods  excell’d. — Dryden 
Revering  and  venerating  are  confined  to  the  breast  of 
the  individual,  but  they  may  sometimes  display  them 
selves  in  suitable  acts  of  homage. 

Good  princes  are  frequently  adored  by  their  subjects: 
it  is  a part  of  the  Christian  character  to  reverence  our 
spiritual  pastors  and  masters,  as  well  as  all  temporM 
authorities ; ‘ It  seems  to  be  remarkable  that  death  in-  . 
creases  our  veneration  for  the  good,  and  extenuates 
our  hatred  of  the  bad.’ — Johnson.  We  ought  to  vene- 
rate all  truly  good  men  while  living,  and  to  revert 
their  memories  when  they  are  dead  • 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


B2 

And  had  not  men  the  hoary  head  rever'd, 

And  boys  paid  reverence  when  a man  appear’d, 

Botii  must  have  died,  though  riclier  skins  they  wore, 
\nd  saw  more  heaps  of  acorns  iu  their  store. 

Creech. 

OFFERING,  OBLATION. 

Offering,  from  offer,  and  oblation,  from  ohlatio  and 
oblatus  or  ojlatus,  come  botli  from  offero  (v.  To  offer)  : 
the  former  is  iiowever  a term  of  much  more  general 
and  familiar  use  than  the  latter.  Offerings  are  both 
moral  and  religious ; oblation,  in  the  proper  sense,  is 
religious  only;  the  money  which  is  put  into  the 
sacramental  plate  is  an  offering;  the  consecrated 
bread  and  wine  at  the  sacrament  is  an  oblation.  The 
offering,  in  a religious  sense,  is  whatever  one  offers  as 
a gift  by  way  of  reverence  to  a superiour ; 

They  are  polluted  offerings,  more  abhorr’d 

Than  spotted  livers  in  the  sacrifice. 

Shakspeark. 

The  winds  to  heav’n  the  curling  vapours  bore, 
tTngrateful  off'ring  to  the  immortal  pow’rs. 

Whose  wrath  hung  heavy  o’er  the  Trojan  tow’rs. 

Pope. 

The  oblation  is  the  offering  which  is  accompanied 
with  some  particular  ceremony;  ‘Many  conceive  in 
the  oblation  of  Jephtha’s  daughter,  not  a natural  but 
a civil  kind  of  death.’ — Brown.  The  wise  men  made 
an  offering  to  our  Saviour  ; but  not  properly  an  obla- 
tion ; the  Jewish  sacrifices,  as  in  general  all  religious 
sacrifices,  were  in  the  proper  sense  oblations.  The 
term  oblation,  iir  a figurative  sense,  may  be  as  gene- 
rally applied  as  offering ; 

Ve  mighty  princes,  your  oblations  bring. 

And  pay  due  honours  to  your  awful  king. — Pitt. 
The  kind  oblation  of  a falling  tear.— Dryden. 

MALEDICTION,  CURSE,  IMPRECATION,  EX- 
ECRATION, ANATHEMA. 

. Malediction,  from  maU  and  dko,  signifies  a saying 
111,  that  is,  declaring  an  evil  wish  against  a person  : 
curse,  in  Saxon  hursian,  comes  in  all  probability  from 
the  Greek  xvpdut,  to  sanction  or  ratify,  signifying  a bad 
wish  declared  upon  oath,  or  in  a solemn  manner:  im- 
precation, from  im  and  preco,  signifies  a praying  down 
evil  upon  a person : execration,  from  the  Liitin  exc- 
cror,  that  is,  £ sacris  excludere,  signifies  the  same  .as  to 
excommunicate,  with  every  form  of  solemn  impreca- 
tion : anathema,  in  Greek  dvdOepa,  signifies  a setting 
out,  that  is,  a putting  out  of  a religious  community  by 
way  of  penance. 

The  malediction  is  the  most  indefinite  and  general 
term,  signifying  simply  the  declaration  of  evil:  curse 
is  a solemn  denunciation  of  evil : the  former  is  em- 
ployed mostly  by  men  ; the  latter  by  God  or  man  : the 
rest  are  species  of  tlie  curse  pronounced  only  by  man. 
The  malediction  is  caused  by  simple  anger  : the  curse 
is  occasioned  by  some  grievous  offence : men,  in  the 
heat  of  their  passions,  will  utter  maledictions  against 
any  object  that  offends  them ; ‘ With  many  praises  of 
his  good  play,  and  many  maledictions  on  the  power 
of  chance,  he  took  up  the  cards  and  threw  them  in  the 
fire.’ — Mackenzie.  God  pronounced  a curse  upon 
Adam,  and  all  his  posterity,  after  the  fall ; 

But  know,  that  ere  your  promis’d  walls  you  build. 
My  curses  shall  severely  be  fulfill’d. — Dryden. 

The  curse  differs  in  the  degree  of  evil  pronounced 
or  wished;  the  imprecation  and  execration  always 
imply  some  positive  great  evil,  and,  in  fact,  as  much 
evil  as  can  be  conceived  by  man  in  his  anger;  ‘ Thus 
either  host  their  imprecations  join’d.’ — Poi*e.  The 
anathema  respects  the  evil  which  is  pronounced  ac- 
cording to  the  canon  law,  by  which  a man  is  not  only 
put  out  of  the  church,  but  held  up  as  an  object  of 
offence.  The  malediction  is  altogether  an  unallowed 
expression  of  private  resentment;  the  curse  was  ad- 
mitted, in  some  cases,  according  to  the  Mosaic  law ; 
and  that,  as  well  as  the  anathema,  at  one  time  formed 
a part  of  the  ecclesiastical  discipline  of  the  Christian 
church;  ‘The  htive  anathemas  of  the  church  fall  like 
so  many  bruta  fulmina  upon  the  obstinate  and  schis- 
matical.’— South.  The  imprecation  formed  a part  of 
the  heathenish  ceremony  of  religion,  where' )y  they 


invoked  the  Dirae  to  bring  down  every  evil  on  the 
heads  of  their  enemies.  They  had  different  formulas 
of  speech  for  different  occasions,  as  to  an  enemy  on  his 
departure ; ‘ Abeas  nunquam  rediturus.'  Mela  in- 
forms us  that  the  Abrantes,  a people  of  Africa,  used  to 
salute  the  rising  and  setting  sun  after  this  manner. 

The  execration  is  always  the  informal  expression 
of  the  most  violent  personal  anger;  ‘I  have  seen  in 
Bedlam  a man  that  has  held  up  his  face  in  a posture 
of  adoration  towards  heaven  to  utter  execrations  and 
blasphemies.’— S feele. 

TEMPLE,  CHURCH, 

These  words  designate  an  edifice  destined  foi  tlie 
exercise  of  religion,  but  with  collateral  ideas,  which 
sufficiently  distinguish  them  from  each  other.  The 
templum  of  the  Latin  signified  originally  an  open 
elevated  spot  marked  out  by  the  augurs  with  their 
lituus,  or  sacred  wand,  whence  they  could  best  survey 
the  heavens  on  all  sides ; the  idea,  therefore,  of  spa- 
cious, open,  and  elevated,  enters  into  the  meaning  of 
this  word  in  the  same  manner  as  it  does  in  the  Hebrew 
word  derived  from  which  in  the  Arabick 

signifies  great  and  lofty.  The  Greek  vaffg,  from  vaioi 
to  inhabit,  signifies  a dwelling-place,  and  by  distinction 
the  dwelling-place  of  the  Almighty,  in  which  sense  the 
Hebrew  word  is  also  taken  to  denote  the  high  and 
holy  place  where  Jehovah  peculiarly  dwelleth,  other- 
wise called  the  holy  heavens,  Jehovali’s  dwelling  or 
resting-place;  whence  St.  Paul  calls  our  bodies  the 
temples  of  God  when  the  spirit  of  God  dwelleth  in  us. 
The  Roman  poets  used  the  word  templum  in  a similar 
sense ; 

Coeli  tonitralia  templa.— Lucret.  (Lib.  I.) 

Qui  templa  cceli  summa  sonitu  concutit. 

Terent.  (Eun.) 

Contremuit  templum  magnum  Jovis  altitonantis. 

Ennius. 

The  word  temple,  therefore,  strictly  signifies  a spacious 
open  place  set  apart  for  the  peculiar  presence  and 
worship  of  the  Divine  Being,  and  is  applied  with  pecu 
liar  propriety  to  the  sacred  edifices  of  the  Jews. 

Church,  which,  through  the  medium  of  the  Saxos 
circe,  cyric,  and  the  German  kirche,  is  derived  from 
the  Greek  icvpiaKbi,  signifying  literally  what  belonged 
to  Kvpiog,  the  Lord  ; whence  it  became  a word  among 
the  earliest  Christians  for  the  Lord’s  Supper,  the 
Lord’s  day,  the  Lord’s  house,  and  also  for  an  assembly 
of  the  faithful,  and  is  still  used  in  the  two  latter  mean- 
ings; ‘ That  churches  were  consecrated  unto  none  but 
the  Lord  only,  the  very  general  name  chiefly  doth  suf- 
ficiently show  ; church  doth  signify  no  other  thing 
than  the  Lord’s  house.’ — Hooker.  ‘ The  church  being 
a supernatural  society,  doth  differ  from  natural  so- 
cieties in  this  ; that  the  persons  unto  whom  we  asso- 
ciate ourselves  in  the  one,  are  men  simply  considered 
as  men ; but  they  to  whom  we  be  joined  in  the  other, 
are  God,  angels,  and  holy  men.’ — Hooker.  The  word 
church,  having  acquired  a specifick  meaning,  is  never 
used  by  the  poets,  or  in  a general  application  like  the 
word  temple ; ‘ Here  we  have  no  temple  but  the  wood, 
no  assembly  but  horn-beasts.’ — Shakspeark.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  has  a diversity  of  particular  meanings; 
being  taken  sometimes  in  the  sense  of  the  ecclesiastical 
power  in  distinction  from  the  state,  sometimes  for 
holy  orders,  &c. 


TO  DEDICATE,  DEVOTE,  CONSECRATE, 
HALLOW. 

Dedicate,  in  Latin  dedicatus,  participle  from  de  and 
dico,  signifies  to  set  apart  by  a promise ; devote,  in  Latin 
devotus,  participle  from  devoveo,  signifies  to  vow  for 
an  express  purpose ; consecrate,  in  Latin  consecratus, 
from  consecro  or  con  and  sacro,  signifies  to  make  sacied 
by  a special  act ; hallow  from  holy,  or  the  German 
heilig,  signifies  to  make  holy. 

Tliere  is  something  more  positive  in  the  act  of  dedi- 
cating than  in  that  of  devoting;  but  less  so  than  in  that 
of  consecrating. 

To  dedicate  and  devote  may  be  employed  in  both 
temporal  and  spiritual  matters ; to  consecrate  and  hal- 
low only  in  the  spiritual  sense:  we  may  dedicate  oi 
devote  any  thing  that  is  at  oar  disposal  to  the  serv  c<i 


IlJNGLISH  synonymes 


'<iZ 


om'some  object;  but  the  former  is  employed  mostly  in 
regard  to  superiours,  and  the  latter  to  persons  without 
distinction  of  rank;  we  dedicate  a house  to  the  service 
of  God ; 

Warn’d  by  the  seer,  to  her  offended  name 
We  raise  and  dedicate  this  wond’ious  frame. 

Dryden. 

Or  we  devote  our  time  to  the  benefit  of  our  friends,  or 
the  relief  of  the  poor;  ‘Gilbert  West  settled  himself 
in  a very  pleasant  house  at  Wickham  in  Kent,  where 
he  d-'voted  himself  to  piety.’ — Johnson.  We  may 
dedicate  or  devote  ourselves  to  an  object;  but  the  former 
always  implies  a solemn  setting  apart,  springing  from  a 
sense  of  duty  ; the  latter  an  entire  application  of  one’s 
self  from  zeal  and  affection ; in  this  manner  he  who 
dedicates  himself  to  God  abstracts  himself  from  every 
object  which  is  not  immediately  connected  with  the 
service  of  God ; he  who  devotes  himself  to  the  ministry 
pursues  it  as  the  first  object  of  his  attention  and  regard' 
such  a dedication  of  ourself  is  hardly  consistent  with 
our  other  duties  as  members  of  society ; but  a devotion 
of  one’s  powers,  one’s  time,  and  one’s  knowledge  to 
the  spread  of  religion  among  men  is  one  of  the  most 
honourable  and  sacred  kinds  of  devotion. 

To  consecrate  is  a species  of  formal  dedication  by 
virtue  of  a religious  observance ; it  is  applicable  mostly 
to  places  and  things  connected  with  religious  works ; 
‘ The  greatest  conqueror  in  this  holy  nation  did  not  only 
compose  the  words  of  his  divine  odes,  but  generally 
set  them  to  music-k  himself;  after  which  his  works, 
though  they  were  consecrated  to  the  tabernacle,  became 
the  national  entertainment.’ — Addison.  Hallow  is  a 
species  of  informal  consecration  applied  to  the  same 
jbjects:  the  church  is  consecrated ; particular  days  are 
iallowed ; 

Without  the  walls  a ruin’d  temple  stands. 

To  Ceres  hallowed  once. — Dryden. 


FORM,  CEREMONY,  RITE,  OBSERVANCE. 

Form  in  nis  sense  respects  the  form  or  manner  of 
.1.3  action  ; ceremony,  in  Latin  ceremoma,  is  supposed 
W'  signvty  fee  rites  of  Ceres ; rite,  in  Latin  ritus,  is 
probably  changed  from  ratns,  signifying  a custom  that 
s esteemed ; observance  signifies  the  thing  observed. 

All  the.se  terms  are  employed  with  regard  to  particu- 
lar modes  of  action  in  civil  society.  Forjn  is  here  the 
most  general  in  its  sense  and  application ; ceremony, 
rite,  and  observance  are  particular  kinds  of  form, 
suited  to  particular  occasions.  Form,  in  its  distinct 
application,  respects  all  modes  of  acting  and  speaking, 
that  are  adopted  by  society  at  large,  in  every  transac- 
tion of  lift ; ceremony  respects  those /orms  of  outward 
behaviour  which  are  made  the  expressions  of  respect 
and  deference ; rite  and  observance  are  applied  to 
national  ceremonies  in  matters  of  religion.  A certain 
form  is  requisite  for  the  sake  of  order,  method,  and 
decorum,  in  every  social  matter,  whether  in  affairs  of 
state,  in  a court  of  law,  in  a place  of  worship,  or  in  the 
private  intercourse  of  friends.  So  long  as  distinctions 
are  admitted  in  society,  and  men  are  agreed  to  express 
their  sentiments  of  regard  and  respect  to  each  other,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  preserve  the  ceremonies  of  polite- 
ness which  have  been  established.  Every  country  has 
adopted  certain  rites  founded  upon  its  peculiar  religious 
faith,  and  prescribed  certain  observances  by  which 
individuals  could  make  a publick  profession  of  their 
faith.  Administering  oaths  by  the  magistrate  is  a ne- 
cessary/orm  in  law ; ‘ A long  table  and  a square  table, 
or  seat  about  the  walls,  seem  things  of  form,  but  are 
things  of  substance;  for  at  a long  table,  a few  at  the 
upper  end,  in  effect,  sway  all  the  business ; but  in  the 
other  form,  there  is  more  use  of  the  counsellors’  opi- 
nions that  sit  lower.’ — Bacon.  Kissing  the  king’s  hand 
is  a ceremony  practised  at  court ; 

And  what  have  kings  that  privates  have  not  too, 

Save  ceremony  ? — Shakspeare. 

Baptism  is  one  rite  of  initiation  into  the  Christian 
church,  and  confirmation  another ; prayer  ending 
the  Scriptures,  and  preaching  are  different  ..eligious 
observances. 

As  respects  religion,  the/orw*3is  the  established  prac- 
tice, comprehending  the  rite,  ceremony,  and  observance, 
but  the  word  is  mostly  applied  to  that  which  is  exter 
naJ,  iTtJ  suited  for  a community;  He  who  iffirmetl 


speech  to  be  necessary  smong  all  men  throug'nout  Ih 
world  doth  not  thereby  import  that  all  men  must  ne- 
cessarily speak  one  language;  even  so  the  necessity 
of  polity  and  regimen  in  all  churches  may  be  held 
without  holding  any  one  certain  form  to  be  necessary 
in  them  all.’ — Hooker.  The  ceremony  may  be  said 
either  of  an  individual  or  a community ; the  rite  is 
said  only  of  a community ; the  observance,  more  pro- 
perly of  the  individual  either  in  publick  or  private. 
The  ceremony  of  kneeling  during  the  time  of  prayer  is 
the  most  becoming  posture  for  a suppliant,  whether  in 
publick  or  private ; 

Bring  her  up  to  the  high  altar,  that  she  may 
The  sacred  ceremonies  there  partake. — Spenser 
The  discipline  of  a Christian  church  consists  in  its  rites, 
to  which  every  member,  either  as  a layman  or  a priest, 
is  obliged  to  conform  ; 

Live  thou  to  mourn  thy  love’s  unhappy  fate. 

To  bear  my  mangled  body  from  the  foe. 

Or  buy  it  back,  and  fun’ral  rites  bestow. — Dryden. 
Publick  worship  is  an  observance  which  no  Christian 
thinks  himself  at  liberty  to  neglect ; ‘ Incorporated 
minds  will  always  feel  some  inclination  towards  exte- 
riour  ac.ts  and  ritual  observances.' — Johnson. 

It  betrays  either  gross  ignorance  or  wilful  imperti 
ne.nce,  in  the  man  who  sets  at  nought  any  of  the  esta- 
blished forms  of  society,  particularly  in  religious  mat- 
ters ; ‘ You  may  discover  tribes  of  men  without  policy, 
or  laws,  or  cities,  or  any  of  the  arts  of  life ; but  no 
where  will  you  find  them  without  some  /oj-m  of  reli 
gion.’ — Blair.  When  ceremonies  are  too  numerous, 
they  destroy  the  ease  of  social  intercourse ; but  the 
absence  of  ceremony  destroys  all  decency ; ‘ Not  to  use 
ceremonies  at  all,  is  to  teach  others  not  to  use  them 
again,  and  so  diminish  respect  to  himself.’ — Bacon. 
In  publick  worship  the  excess  of  ceremony  is  apt  to  ex 
tinguish  the  warmth  and  spirit  of  devotion ; but  the 
want  of  ceremony  deprives  it  of  all  solemnity. 


LORD’S  SUPPER,  EUCHARIST,  COMMUNION, 
SACRAMENT. 

The  Lord's  supper  is  a term  of  familiar  and  general 
use  among  Christians,  as  designating  in  literal  lenns 
the  supper  of  our  Lord  ; that  is,  either  the  last  solemn 
supper  which  he  took  with  his  disciples  previous  to  hi 
crucifixion,  or  the  commemoration  of  that  event  which 
conformably  to  his  commands  has  been  observed  bi 
the  professors  of  Christianity ; ‘To  the  worthy  parti 
cipation  of  the  Lord's  supper,  there  is  indispensably 
required  a suitable  preparation.’ — South.  Eucharist 
is  a term  of  peculiar  use  among  the  Roman  Catholicks, 
from  the  Greek  iuxop/^w  to  give  thanks,  because  per 
sonal  adoration,  by  way  of  returning  thanks,  consti 
tutes  in  their  estimation  the  chief  part  of  the  cere- 
mony ; ‘ This  ceremony  of  feasting  belongs  most  pro- 
perly both  to  marriage  md  to  the  eucharist,  as  both  of 
them  have  the  nature  of  a covenant.’— South.  As 
the  social  affections  are  kept  alive  mostly  by  the  com- 
mon participation  of  meals,  so  is  brotherly  love,  the 
essence  of  Christian  fellowship,  cherished  and  vnormed 
in  the  highest  degree  by  the  common  participation  in 
this  holy  festival : hence,  by  distinction,  it  has  been 
denominated  the  communion;  ‘ One  woman  he  could 
not  bring  to  the  communion,  and  when  he  teproved 
or  exhorted  her,  she  only  answered  that  she  was  no 
scholar.’ — JnriNsoN.  As  the  vows  which  are  made 
at  the  altar  oi  our  Lord  are  the  most  solemn  which  a 
Christian  can  make,  comprehending  in  them  the  entire 
devotion  of  himself  to  Christ,  the  general  term  serra- 
ment,  signifying  an  oath,  has  been  employed  by  w 'v 
of  emphasis  for  this  ordinance ; ‘ I could  not  have  th. 
consent  of  the  physicians  to  go  to  church  yesterday  ; 
I therefore  received  the  holy  sacrament  at  home.’ — 
Johnson.  The  Roman  Catholicks  have  employed 
the  same  term  to  six  other  ordinances ; but  the  Pro 
testants,  who  attach  a similar  degree  of  sacrednoss  to 
no  other  than  baptism,  annex  this  appellation  only  lu 
these  two. 

MARRIAGE,  WE.  DING,  NUPUALS. 

Marriage,  from  to  marry,  denotes  the  act  of  marry 
ing;  we'^iing  and  nuptials  denote  the  ceremony  of 
i«ing  7”  .fried.  As  marry,  in  French  marrier,  comes 
'-erri  tne  I .atSn  marito  to  be  joined  to  a male  ; hencA! 


^4 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


marriagts  iomprehenda  the  act  of  choosing  and  being 
legally  bound  to  a man  or  a woman : wedding  from 
wed^  and  the  Teutonick  wetten^  to  promise  or  betroth, 
implies  the  ceremony  of  marrying^  inasmuch  as  it  is 
binding  upon  tlie  parlies.  JVuptials  comes  from  the 
Latin  jiubo  to  veil,  because  the  Roman  ladies  were 
veiled  at  the  time  of  marriage  : lienee  the  word  has 
been  put  for  the  whole  ceremony  itself.  Marriage  is 
a general  term,  which  conveys  no  collateral  meaning. 
Marriage  is  an  institution  which,  by  those  who  have 
been  blessed  with  the  light  of  Divine  revelation,  has 
always  been  considered  as  sacred ; 

O fatal  maid  ! thy  mari-iage  is  endow’d 
With  Phrygian,  Latian,  and  Rutulian  blood. 

Dryden. 

jr idding  has  always  a reference  to  the  ceremony ; 
with  some  persons,  particularly  among  the  lower  orders 
of  society,  the  day  of  their  wedding  converted  into 
a day  of  riot  and  intemperance;  ‘AsKSJsyone  how 
he  has  been  employed  to-day : he  will  tell  you,  per- 
haps, I have  been  at  the  ceremony  of  taking  the  manly 
robe : this  friend  invited  me  to  a wedding ; that  de- 
sired me  to  attend  the  hearing  of  his  cause.’ — Mel- 
MOTH  {Letters  of  Pliny).  JVuptials  may  either  be 
used  in  a general  or  particular  import ; among  the 
Roman  Caiholicks  in  England  it  is  a practice  for  them 
to  have  their  nuptials  solemnized  by  a priest  of  their 
own  persuasion  as  well  as  by  the  Protestant  clergy- 
man ; 

Fir’d  with  disdain  for  Turnns  dispossess’d. 

And  the  new  nuptials  of  the  Trojan  guest. — Dryden. 


MARRIAGE,  MATRIMONY,  WEDLOCK. 

Marriage  {v.  Marriage)  is  oftener  an  act  than  a 
state ; matrimony  and  wedlock  both  describe  states. 

Marriage  is  taken  in  the  sense  of  an  act,  when  we 
speak  of  the  laws  of  marriage.,  the  day  of  one’s  mar- 
riage, the  congratulations  upon  one’s  marriage,  a 
happy  or  unhappy  marriage,  &c. ; ‘ Marriage  is  re- 
warded with  some  honourable  distinctions  which  celi- 
bacy is  forbidden  to  usurp.’ — Johnson.  It  is  taken  in 
the  sense  of  a slate,  when  we  speak  of  the  pleasures 
or  pains  of  marriage;  but  in  this  latter  case,  matri- 
mony, which  signifies  a married  life  abstractedly  from 
all  agents  or  acting  persons,  is  preferable  ; so  likewise, 
to  think  of  matrimony,  and  to  enter  into  the  holy  state 
of  matrimony,  are  expressions  founded  upon  the  signi- 
fication of  the  term.  As  matrimony  is  derived  from 
mater  a mother,  because  married  women  are  in  gene- 
ral mothers,  it  has  particular  reference  to  the  domestick 
state  of  the  two  parlies  ; broils  are  but  too  frequently 
the  fruits  of  matrimony,  yet  there  are  few  cases  in 
which  they  might  not  be  obviated  by  the  good  sense 
of  those  who  are  engaged  in  them.  Hasty  marriages 
cannot  be  expected  to  produce  happiness ; young  peo- 
ple who  are  eager  for  matrimony  before  they  are  fully 
aware  of  its  consequences  will  purchase  their  expe- 
rience at  the  expense  of  their  peace ; ‘ As  love  generally 
produces  matrimony,  so  it  often  happens  that  matri- 
mony produces  love.’ — Spectator. 

Wedlock  is  the  old  English  word  for  matrimony,  and 
is  in  consequence  admitted  in  law,  when  one  speaks 
of  children  born  in  wedlock ; agreeably  to  its  deriva- 
tion it  has  a reference  to  the  bond  of  union  which  fol- 
lows the  marriage : hence  one  speaks  of  living  hap- 
pily in  a state  of  wedlock,  of  being  joined  in  holy  wed- 
lock ; ‘ The  men  who  would  make  good  husbands,  if 
they  visit  publick  places,  are  frighted  at  wedlock  and 
resolve  to  live  single.’— Johnson. 

FUNERAL,  OBSEQUIES. 

Funeral,  in  Latin  funus,  is  derived  from  funis  a 
cord,  because  lighted  cords,  or  torches,  were  carried 
before  the  bodies  which  were  interred  by  night ; the 
funeral,  therefore,  denotes  the  ordinary  solemnity 
which  attends  the  consignment  of  a body  to  the  grave. 
Obsequies,  in  Latin  exisquice,  are  both  derived  from 
sequor,  which,  in  its  compound  sense,  signifies  to  per- 
form or  execute ; they  comprehend,  therefore,  funerals 
attended  with  more  than  ordinary  solemnity. 

We  speak  of  the  funeral  as  the  last  sad  office 
which  we  perform  for  a friend  ; it  is  accompanied  by 
nothing  but  by  mourning  and  sorrow; 


That  pluck’d  my  nerves,  those  tender  strings  of  lifa, 
Which,  pluck’d  a little  more,  will  loll  the  bell 
That  calls  my  few  friends  to  my  funeral.— \ oono. 
We  speak  of  the  obsequies  as  the  tribute  of  respeci 
which  can  be  paid  to  the  person  of  one  who  was  high 
in  station  or  publick  esteem ; 

His  body  shall  be  royally  interr’d. 

I will,  myself, 

Be  the  chief  mourner  at  his  obsequies. — Dryden 
The  f uneral,  by  its  frequency,  bscemes  so  familiar  an 
object  that  it  passes  by  unheeded ; the  obsequies  which 
are  performed  over  the  remains  of  the  great,  attract 
our  notice  from  the  pomp  and  grandeur  with  whieh 
they  are  conducted.  The  funeral  is  performed  for 
one  immediately  after  his  decease ; but  the  obsequies 
may  be  performed  at  any  period  afterward,  and  ia 
this  sense  is  not  confined  alone  to  the  great ; 

Some  in  the  flow’r-strewn  grave  the  corpse  have  lay’d 
And  annual  obsequies  around  it  paid. — Jenyns. 

BURIAL,  INTERMENT,  SEPULTURE. 
Burial,  tnom  bury,  in  Saxon  birian,  birigan,  Ger 
man  bergeu,  signifies,  in  the  original  sense,  to  conceal 
Interment,  from  inter,  compounded  of  in  and  terra, 
signifies  the  pultmg  into  the  ground.  Sepulture,  in 
French  sepulture,  Latin  sepultura,  from  sepultus, 
participle  of  sepelio  to  bury,  comes  from  sepes  a 
hedge,  signifying  an  enclosure,  and  probably  likewise 
from  the  Hebrew  lo  puf  to  rest,  or  in  a state 

of  privacy. 

Under  burial  is  comprehended  simply  the  purpose 
of  the  action  ; under  interment  and  sepulture,  the 
manner  as  well  as  the  motive  of  the  action.  We  bury 
in  order  to  conceal ; ‘ Among  our  Saxon  ancestors,  the 
dead  bodies  of  such  as  were  slain  in  the  field  were 
not  laid  in  graves ; but  lying  upon  the  ground  were 
covered  with  turves  or  clods  of  earth,  and  the  more 
in  reputation  the  persons  had  been,  the  greater  and 
higher  were  the  turves  raised  over  their  bodies.  This 
some  used  to  call  biriging,  some  beorging  of  the  dead  ; 
all  being  one  thing  though  differently  pronounced, 
and  from  whence  we  yet  retain  our  speech  of  burying 
the  dead,  that  is,  hiding  the  dead.’ — Versteqan 
Interment  and  sepulture  are  accompanied  with  reli 
gions  ceremonies. 

*Bury  is  confined  to  no  object  or  place ; we  bur^ 
whatever  we  deposite  in  the  eartli,  and  wherever  w« 
please ; 

When  he  lies  along 

After  your  way  his  tale  pronounc'd,  shall  bury 

His  reasons  with  his  body.— Shakspeare. 

But  interment  and  sepulture  respect  only  the  bodies 
of  the  deceased  when  deposited  in  a sacred  place. 
Burial  requires  that  the  object  be  concealed  under 
ground ; interment  may  be  used  for  depositing  in 
vatdts.  Self-murderers  are  buried  in  the  highways; 
Christians  in  general  are  buried  in  the  church-yard , 

If  you  have  kindness  left,  there  see  me  laid ; 

To  bury  decently  the  injur’d  maid 
Is  all  the  favour. — Waller. 

The  kings  of  England  were  formerly  interred  in  West 
minster  Abbey ; 

His  body  shall  be  royally  interr'd, 

And  the  last  funeral  pomps  adorn  his  hearse. 

Dryden. 

Burial  is  a term  in  familiar  use  ; interment  serves 
frequently  as  a more  elegant  expression  ; 

But  good  iEneas  ordered  on  the  shore 
A stately  tomb,  whose  top  a trumpet  bore ; 

Thus  was  his  friend  interred,  and  deathless  fame 
Still  to  the  lofty  cape  consigns  his  name. — Dryden. 
Sepulture  is  an  abstract  term  confined  to  particular 
cases,  as  in  speaking  of  the  rights  and  privileges  ol 
sepulture  ; 

Ah : leave  me  not  for  Grecian  dogs  to  tear. 

The  common  rites  of  sepulture  bestow ; 

To  sooth  a lather’s  and  a mother’s  wo ; 

Let  their  large  gifts  procure  an  urn  at  least, 

And  Hector’s  asl>  in  his  country  rest. — Pope 

* Vide  Tia*^er ; “ To  bury,  inter " 


ENGLISH  SVN 


ES, 


Jfntennent  and  sepulture  never  depart  from  their 
riSigious  import ; bury  is  used  figuratively  for  other 
objects  and  purposes.  A man  is  said  to  bury  himself 
alive  who  shuts  himself  out  from  the  world  ; he  is  said 
io  bury  the  talent  of  which  he  makes  no  use,  or  to  bury 
in  oblivion  what  he  does  not  wish  to  call  to  mind ; 
This  is  the  way  to  make  the  city  flat 
And  bury  all,  which  yet  distinctly  ranges 
In  heaps  and  piles  of  ruin. — Shakspeare. 
fnter  is  on  one  occasion  applied  by  Shakspeare  also 
•o  other  objects  • 

The  evil  that  men  do  lives  after  them. 

The  good  is  oft  interred  with  their  bones. 

Shakspeare. 


BEATIFICATION,  CANONIZATION. 

These  are  two  acts  emanating  from  the  pontifical 
authority,  by  which  the  Pope  declares  a person,  whose 
life  has  been  exemplary  and  accompanied  with  mira- 
cles, as  entitled  to  enjoy  eternal  happiness  after  his 
death,  and  determines  in  consequence  the  sort  of  wor- 
ship which  should  be  paid  to  him. 

In  the  act  of  beatification  the  Pope  pronounces  only 
as  a private  person,  and  uses  his  own  authority  only 
in  granting  to  certain  persons,  or  to  a religious  order, 
the  privilege  of  paying  a particular  worship  to  a beati- 
fied object. 

In  the  act  of  canonization.,  the  Pope  speaks  as  a judge 
after  a judicial  examination  on  the  state,  and  decides 
the  sort  of  worship  which  ought  to  be  paid  by  the  whole 
church. 


FEAST,  FESTIVAL,  HOLIDAY. 

Feast,  in  Latin  festmn,  or  fcstus,  changed  most 
probably  from  fesi(B,  or  feria;,  which,  in  all  proba- 
bility, comes  from  the  Greek  kpo?,  sacred,  because 
these  days  were  kept  sacred  or  vacant  from  all  secular 
labour : festival  and  holiday,  as  the  words  themselves 
denote,  have  precisely  the  same  meaning  in  their  ori- 
ginal sense,  with  this  difterence,  that  the  former  derives 
its  origin  from  heathenish  superstition,  the  latter  owes 
its  rise  to  the  establishment  of  Christianity  in  its  re- 
formed state. 

A feast,  in  the  Christian  sense  of  the  word,  is  ap- 
plied to  every  day,  except  Sundays,  which  are  regarded 
as  sacred,  and  observed  .vith  particular  solemnity  ; a 
kolyday,  or,  according  to  its  modern  orthography,  a 
holiday,  is  simply  a day  on  which  the  ordinary  busi- 
ness is  suspended ; among  the  Roman  Catholicks,  there 
are  many  days  which  are  kept  holy,  and  consequently 
by  them  denominated  feasts,  which  in  the  English 
reformed  church  are  only  observed  as  holidays,  or  days 
of  exemption  from  publick  business ; of  this  description 
are  the  Saints’  days,  on  which  the  pnblick  offices  are 
shut : on  the  other  hand,  Christmas,  Easter,  and  Whit- 
suntide, are  regarded  in  both  churches  more  as  feasts 
than  as  holidays. 

Feast,  as  a technical  term,  is  applied  only  to  certain 
specified  holidays  ; 

First,  I provide  myself  a nimble  thing. 

To  be  my  page,  a varlet  of  all  crafts  ; 

Next,  two  new  suits  for  feasts  and  gala  days. 

Cumberland. 

A holiday  is  an  indefinite  term,  it  may  be  employed 
for  any  day  or  time  in  which  there  is  a suspension  of 
business ; there  are,  therefore,  many  feasts  where 
there  are  no  holidays,  and  many  holidays  where  there 
are  no  feasts  ; a feast  is  altogether  sacred ; a holiday 
has  frequently  nothing  sacred  in  it,  not  even  in  its 
cause;  it  may  be. a simple,  ordinary  transaction,  the 
act  of  an  individual ; 

It  happen’d  on  a summer’s  holiday. 

That  to  the  green  wood  shade  he  took  his  way. 

Dryden. 

A festival  has  always  either  a sacred  or  a serious 
object;  ‘In  so  enlightened  an  age  as  the  present,  I 
ohall  perhaps  be  ridiculed  if  1 hint,  as  my  opinion, 
that  the  observation  of  certain  festivals  is  something 
more  than  a mere  political  institution.’ — Walpole.  A 
feast  is  kept  by  religious  worship  ; a holiday  is  kept 

* Girard;  “Beatification,  canonization.” 


by  idleness ; ‘ Many  worthy  persons  urged  how  great 
the  harinoay  was  between  \he  holidays  and  their  attri- 
butes (if  1 may  call  them  so),  and  what  a confusion 
would  follow  if  Michaelmas-day,  for  instance,  waa 
not  to  be  celebrated  when  stubble  geese  are  in  their 
highest  perfection.’— Walpole.  A fesivval  is  kept 
by  mirth  and  festivity  ; some  feasts  are  festivals,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  carnival  at  Rome  ; some  festivals 
are  holidays,  as  in  the  case  of  weddings  and  publick 
thanksgivings. 

CLERGYMAN,  PARSON,  PRIEST,  MINISTER. 

Clergyman,  altered  from  clerk,  clcricus,  signified 
any  one  holding  a regular  office,  and  by  distinction 
one  who  held  the  holy  office  ; parson  is  either  changed 
from  person,  that  is,  by  distinction  the  person  who 
spiritually  presides  over  a parish,  or  contracted  from 
parochiauus  ; priest,  in  German,  &c.  priester,  is  con- 
tracted from  presbyter,  in  Greek  npea^vTtpoi,  signifying 
an  elder  who  holds  the  sacerdofal  office ; minister,  in 
Latin  minister,  a servant,  from  minus,  less  or  inferior, 
signifies  literally  one  who  performs  a subordinate  office, 
and  has  been  extended  in  its  meaning,  to  signify  gene- 
rally one  who  officiates  or  performs  an  office. 

The  word  clergyman  apidies  to  such  as  are  regularly 
bred  according  to  the  forms  of  the  national  religion, 
and  applies  to  none  else.  In  this  sense  we  speak  of  the 
English,  the  French,  and  Scotch  clergy,  without  dis- 
tinction ; ‘ By  a clergyman  I mean  one  in  holy  Riders.’ — 
Steele.  ‘To  the  lime  of  Edward  III.  it  is  probable 
that  the  French  and  English  languages  subsisted  to- 
gether throughout  the  kingdom  ; the  higher  orders,  both 
of  the  clergy  and  laity,  speaking  almost  universally 
French ; the  lower  retaining  the  use  of  their  native 
tongue.' — Tvrwhitt.  A is  a species  of  cler- 

gyman, who  ranks  the  highest  in  the  three  orders  of 
inferiour  ; that  is,  parson,  vicar,  and  curate; 

the  parson  being  a technical  term  for  the  rector,  or  him 
who  holds  the  living:  in  its  technical  sense  it  has  now 
acquired  a definite  use ; but  in  general  conversation  it 
is  become  almost  a nickname.  The  word  clergyman 
is  always  substituted  for  parson  in  polite  society. 
When  priest  respects  the  Christian  religion  it  is  a 
species  of  clergyman,  that  is,  one  who  is  ordained  to 
officiate  at  tlie  altar  in  distinction  from  the  deacon,  who 
is  only  an  assistant  to  the  priest.  But  the  term  priest 
has  likewise  an  extended  meaning  in  reference  to  such 
as  hold  the  sacerdotal  character  in  any  form  of  religion, 
as  the  priests  of  the  Jews,  or  those  of  the  Greeks,  Ro- 
mans, Indians,  and  the  like  ; ‘ Call  a man  a priest,  or 
parson,  and  you  set  him  in  some  men’s  esteem  ten  de- 
grees below  his  own  servant.’ — South.  A minister  is 
one  who  actually  or  habitually  officiates.  Clergymen 
are  therefore  not  always  strictly  ministers ; nor  are  all 
ministers  clergymen.  If  a clergyman  delegates  his 
functions  altogether  he  is  not  a minister;  nor  is  he 
who  presides  over  a dissenting  congregation  a clergy- 
man. In  the  former  case,  however,  it  would  be  invidious 
to  deprive  the  clergyman  of  the  name  of  minister  of 
the  gospel,  but  in  the  latter  case  it  is  a misuse  of  the 
term  clergyman  to  apply  it  to  any  minister  wdio  does 
not  officiate  according  to  the  form  of  an  established 
religion; 

With  leave  and  honour  enter  our  abodes, 

Ye  sacred  ministers  of  men  and  gods.— Pope. 

BISHOPRICK,  DIOCESS. 

Bishoprick,  compounded  of  bishop  and  rick  or  reich 
empire,  signifies  the  empire  or  government  of  a bishop ; 
Diocess,  in  Greek  Sioi'Xfiois,  compbunded  of  Sid  and 
biKto),  signifies  an  administration  throughout. 

Both  these  words  describe  the  extent  of  an  episcopal 
jurisdiction;  the  first  with  relation  to  the  person  who 
officiates,  the  second  with  relation  to  the  charge 
There  may,  therefore,  be  a bishoprick,  either  where 
there  are  many  diocesses  or  no  diocess  ; but  accordina 
to  the  import  of  the  term,  there  is  properly  no  diocess 
where  there  is  no  bishoprick.  When  the  jurisdiction 
is  merely  titular,  as  in  countries  where  the  Catholick 
religion  is  not  recognised,  it  is  a bishoprick,  but  not  a 
diocess.  On  the  other  hand,  the  bishoprick  of  Rome  or 
that  of  an  archbishop  comprehends  all  the  diocesses 
of  the  subordinate  bishops.  Hence  it  arises  that  whei 
we  speak  of  the  ecclesiastical  distribution  of  a country 
we  term  the  divisions  hishopricks ; but  w.’ien  we  speax 


it 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


of  me  actual  office,  we  term  it  a diocess  England  is 
divided  into  a certain  number  of  bishopricks,  not  dio- 
cessea.  Every  bishop  visits  his  diocess,  not  his  bishop- 
rick,  at  stated  intervals. 


ECCLESIASTICK,  DIVINE,  THEOLOGIAN. 

An  ecclesiastick  derives  his  title  from  the  office  which 
he  bears  in  the  ecclesia  or  church ; a divine  and  theo- 
logian from  their  pursuit  after,  or  engagement  in, 
divine  or  theological  matters.  An  ecclesiastick  is  con- 
nected with  an  episcopacy ; a divine  or  theologian  is 
not  essentially  connected  witli  any  form  of  church  go- 
vernment. 

An  ecclesiastick  need  not  in  his  own  person  perform 
any  office,  although  he  fills  a station  : a divine  not 
only  fills  a station,  but  actually  performs  Uie  office  of 
teaching;  a theologian  neither  fills  any  particular  sta- 
tion, nor  discharges  any  specifick  duty,  but  merely  fol- 
lows the  pursuit  of  studying  theology.  An  ecclesiastick 
is  not  always  a divine,  nor  a divine  an  ecclesiastick ; a 
divine  is  always  more  or  less  a theologian,  but  every 
theologian  is  not  a divine. 

Among  the  Roman  Catholicks  all  monks,  and  in  the 
Church  of  England  the  various  dignitaries  who  perform 
the  episcopal  functions,  are  entitled  ecclesiasticks ; 
‘ Our  old  English  monks  seldom  let  any  of  their  kings 
depart  in  peace,  who  had  endeavoured  to  diminish  the 
power  or  wealth  of  which  the  ecclesiasticks  were  in 
those  times  possessed.’ — Addison.  There  are  but  few 
denominations  of  Christians  who  have  not  appointed 
teachers  who  are  called  divines ; ‘ Nor  shall  I dwell  on 
our  excellence  in  metaphysical  speculations;  because, 
he  that  reads  the  works  of  our  divines  will  easily  dis- 
cover how  far  human  subtilty  has  been  able  to  pene- 
trate.’— Johnson.  Professors  or  writers  on  theology 
are  peculiarly  denominated  theologians  ; ‘ I looked  on 
that  sermon  (of  Dr.  Price’s)  as  the  publick  declaration 
of  a man  much  connected  with  literary  caballers.  in- 
triguing philosophers,  and  political  theologians.' — 
Bukke. 


CLOISTER,  CONVENT,  MONASTERY. 

Cloister,  in  French  * clditre,  from  the  word  clos  close, 
signifies  a certain  close  place  in  a convent,  or  an  enclo- 
sure of  houses  for  canons,  or  in  general  a religious 
house  ; convent,  from  the  Latin  conventus,  a meeting, 
and  convenio  to  come  together,  signifies  a religious  as- 
sembly; monastery,  m French  monastire,  signifies  a 
habitation  for  monks,  from  the  Greek  pdvoj  alone. 

The  proper  idea  of  cloister  is  that  of  seclusion ; the 
proper  idea  of  convent  is  that  of  community ; the  proper 
idea  of  a monastery  is  that  of  solitude.  One  is  shut 
up  in  a cloister,  put  into  a convent,  and  retires  to  a 
monastery. 

Whoever  wishes  to  take  an  absolute  leave  of  the 

orld,  shuts  himself  up  in  a cloister  ; 

Some  solitary  cloister  will  T choose. 

And  there  with  holy  virgins  live  immur’d. 

Dryden. 

Whoever  wishes  to  attach  himself  to  a community 
that  has  renounced  all  commerce  with  the  world,  goes 
into  & convent ; ‘Nor  were  the  new  abbots  less  indus- 
trious to  stock  their  convents  with  foreigners.’ — Tyr- 
WHiTT.  Whoever  wishes  to  shun  all  human  inter- 
course retires  to  a monastery;  ‘I  drove  my  suitor  to 
forswear  the  full  stream  of  the  world,  and  to  live  in  a 
nook  merely  monastick.' — Shakspeare. 

In  the  cloister  our  liberty  is  sacrificed  : in  the  convent 
our  worldly  habits  are  renounced,  and  those  of  a regular 
••eligious  community  being  adopted,  we  submit  to  the 
yoke  of  established  order  s : in  a monastery  we  impose  a 
sort  of  voluntary  exile  upon  ourselves ; we  live  with 
the  view  of  living  only  to  God. 

In  the  ancient  and  true  monasteries,  the  members 
divided  their  time  between  contemplation  and  labour; 
but  as  population  increased,  and  towns  multiplied, 
monasteries  were,  properly  speaking,  succeeded  by 
convents. 

In  ordinary  discourse,  cloister  is  employed  in  an  ab- 
solute and  indefinite  manner:  we  speak  of  the  cloister 
to  designate  a monastick  state  ; as  entering  a cloister  ; 

* Vide  Abbe  Roubaud ; “ Clditre,  convent,  mo- 
nnet^re.” 


burying  one’s  self  in  a cloister ; penances  and  mortib 
cations  arc  practised  in  a cloister ; but  it  is  not  tht 
same  thing  when  we  speak  of  thecioister  of  the  Bens^ 
dictines  and  of  their  monastery  ; or  the  cloister  of  th« 
Capuchins  and  their  convent. 


CONVERT,  PROSELYTE. 

Convert,  from  the  Latin  converto,  signifies  cisMted 
to  something  in  conformity  with  the  views  of  anoi^fer; 
proselyte,  from  the  Greek  npoarikvTOS  and  iff<!Tipx.apai, 
signifies  come  over  to  the  side  of  another. 

Convert  is  more  extensive  in  its  sense  and  application 
than  proselyte  : convert  in  its  full  sense  includes  every 
change  of  opinion,  without  respect  to  the  subject; 
proselyte  in  its  strict  sense  refers  only  to  changes  from 
one  religious  belief  to  another;  there  are  many  converts 
to  particular  doctrines  of  Christianity,  and  proselytes 
from  the  Pagan,  Jewish,  or  Mahomedan,  to  the  Christian 
faith  : there  are  political  as  well  as  religious  converts, 
who  could  not  with  the  same  strict  propriety  be  termed 
proselytes. 

Conversion  is  a more  voluntary  act  than  proseZj/tzsTn  ; 
it  emanates  entirely  from  the  mind  of  the  agent,  inde 
pendent  of  foreign  influence  ; it  extends  not  merely  to 
the  abstract  or  speculative  opinions  of  the  individual, 
but  to  the  whole  current  of  his  feelings  and  spring  of 
his  actions  r it  is  the  conversion  of  the  heart  and  soul. 
Proselytism  is  an  outward  act,  which  need  not  extend 
beyond  the  conformity  of  one’s  words  and  actions  to  a 
certain  rule ; convert  is  therefore  always  taken  in  a 
good  sense  : it  bears  on  the  face  of  it  the  stamp  of  sin 
cerity  ; ‘ A believer  may  be  excused  by  the  most  hard- 
ened atheist  for  endeavouring  to  make  him  a convert, 
because  he  does  it  with  an  eye  to  both  their  interests.’ — 
Addison.  Proselyte  is  a term  of  more  ambiguous 
meaning  ; the  proselyte  is  often  the  creature  and  tool 
of  a party;  there  may  be  many /jroseZytes  where  there 
are  no  converts ; ‘ False  teachers  commonly  make  use 
of  base,  and  low,  and  temporal  considerations,  of  little 
tricks  and  devices,  to  make  disciples  and  gain  prose- 
lytes.'— Tillotson. 

’ The  conversion  of  a sinner  is  the  work  of  God’s  grace, 
either  by  his  special  interiiosition,  or  by  the  ordinary 
influence  of  his  Holy  Word  on  the  heart;  it  is  an  act 
of  great  presumption,  therefore,  in  those  men  who  rest 
so  strongly  on  their  own  particular  modes  and  forms  in 
bringing  about  this  great  work : they  may  without  any 
breach  of  charity  be  suspected  of  rather  wishing  to 
make  proselytes  to  their  own  party. 


TO  TRANSFIGURE,  TRANSFORM, 
METAMORPHOSE. 

Transfigure  is  to  make  to  pass  over  into  another 
figure ; transform  and  metamorphose  is  to  put  into 
another  form:  the  former  being  said  mostly  of  spiritual 
beings,  and  particularly  in  reference  to  our  Saviour ; 
the  other  two  terms  being  applied  to  that  which  has  a 
corporeal  form. 

Transformation  is  commonly  applied  to  that  which 
changes  its  outward  form  ; in  this  manner  a harlequin 
transforms  himself  into  all  kinds  of  shapes  and  like- 
nesses ; 

Something  you  have  heard 
Of  Hamlet’s  transformation ; so  I call  it. 

Since  not  the  exteriour,  nor  the  inward  man 
Resembles  what  it  was. — Shakspearb. 

Sometimes  however  the  word  is  applied  to  moral  ob- 
jects ; ‘ Can  a good  intention,  or  rather  a very  wickeJ 
one  so  miscalled,  transform  perjury  and  hypocrisy  into 
merit  and  perfection  V — South.  Metamorphosis  is 
applied  to  the  form  internal  as  well  as  external,  that  is, 
to  the  whole  nature  ; in  this  manner  Ovid  describes 
among  others,  the  metamorphoses  of  Narcissus  into  a 
flower,  and  Daphne  into  a laurel : with  the  same  idea 
we  may  speak  of  a lustick  being  metamorphosed,  by 
the  force  of  art,  into  a fine  gentleman ; ‘ A lady’s  shift 
may  be  metamorphosed  into  billets-doux,  and  come  into 
her  possession  a second  time.’ — Addison.  Transfigu- 
ration is  frequently  taken  for  a painting  of  our  Sa- 
viour’s transfiguration ; ‘ We  have  of  this  gentleman 
a piece  of  the  transfiguration,  which  I think  is  held  a 
work  s4econd  to  none  h the  world.’— Steele. 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  til 


PRAYER,  FETlTIOPf,  REaUEST,  ENTREATY, 
SUIT. 

Prayer,  from  the  Latin  prcco,  and  the  Greek  ttapa 
and  Ivxopai  to  pray,  is  a general  term,  including  the 
common  idea  of  application  to  some  person  for  any 
favour  to  be  granted;  petition^  from peto  to  seek;  re- 
quest, from  the  I<atin  requisitus  and  requiro,  or  re, 
and  qumro  to  look  after,  or  seek  for  with  desire  ; en- 
treaty, from  the  French  en  and  traiter,  signifying  to 
act  upon;  suit,  from  sue,  in  French  suivre,  Latin 
sequor  to  follow  after ; denote  different  modes  of 
prayer,  varying  in  the  circumstances  of  the  action  and 
the  object  acted  upon. 

The  prayer  is  made  more  commonly  to  the  Supreme 
Being ; the  petition  is  made  more  generally  to  one’s 
fellow-cieatures;  we  may,  however,  pray  our  fellow- 
creatures,  and  petition  our  Creator : the  prayer  is  made 
for  eveiy  thing  which  is  of  the  first  importance  to  us 
as  living  beings;  the  petition  is  made  for  that  which 
may  satisfy  our  desires:  hence  ovir  prayers  to  the  Al- 
mighty respect  all  our  circumstances  as  moral  and 
responsible  agents ; oex  petitioiis  respect  the  temporary 
circumstances  of  our  present  existence.  When  the 
term  prayer  is  applied  to  one’s  fellow-creatures  it  car- 
ries with  it  the  idea  of  earnestness  and  submission  ; 
‘ Prayer  among  men  is  supposed  a means  to  cliange 
tlie  person  to  whom  we  pray ; but  prayer  to  God  dotli 
not  change  him,  but  fits  us  to  receive  the  things  prayed 
for.’ — Stillingfleet. 

Torture  him  with  thy  softness. 

Nor  till  thy  prayers  arc  granted  set  him  free. 

Otway. 

The  petition  and  request  are  alike  made  to  our  fellow- 
creatures;  but  the  former  is  a publick  act,  in  which 
many  express  their  wishes  to  the  Supreme  Authority  ; 
the  latter  is  an  individual  act  between  men  in  their 
private  relations ; the  people  petition  the  king  or  the 
parliament ; a school  of  boys  petition  their  master ; 
She  tdikes,  petitions,  and  dispenses  laws. 

Hears  and  determines  every  private  cause. 

Dryden. 

A child  makes  a request  to  its  parent ; one  friend 
makes  a request  to  another  ; 

Thus  spoke  Ilioneus  ; the  Trojan  crew, 

With  cries  and  clamours  his  request  renew. 

Dryden. 

The  request  marks  an  equality,  but  the  entreaty  de- 
fines no  condition  ; it  differs,  however,  from  the  former 
in  the  nature  of  the  object  and  the  mode  of  prefer- 
ring : the  request  is  but  a simple  expression ; the  en- 
treaty is  urgent:  the  request  mwy  be  made  in  trivial 
matters;  the  entreaty  is  made  in  matters  that  deeply 
interest  the  feelings : we  make  the  request  of  a friend 
to  lend  a book  ; we  use  every  entreaty  in  order  to  di- 
vert a person  from  the  purpose  which  we  think  detri- 
mental : one  complies  with  a request ; one  yields  to 
entreaties.  It  was  the  dying  request  of  Socrates,  that 
they  would  sacrifice  a cock  to  Aesculapius  ; Regulus 
was  deaf  to  every  entreaty  of  his  friends,  who  wished 
him  not  to  return  to  Carthage ; ‘Arguments,  entreaties, 
and  promises  were  employed  in  order  to  sooth  them 
(the  followers  of  Cortes).’ — Robertson. 

The  suit  is  a higher  kind  of  prayer,  varying  both  in 
the  nature  of  the  subject,  and  the  character  of  the 
agent.  A gentleman  pays  his  suit  to  a lady  ; a cour- 
tier makes  his  suit  to  the  prince  ; ‘ Seldom  or  ne\  er  is 
there  much  spoke,  whenever  any  one  comes  to  prefer 
a suit  to  another.’ — South. 


TO  ATONE  FOR,  EXPIATE. 

■itone,  or  at  one,  signifies  to  be  in  unity,  at  peace, 
ar  good  friends;  expiate,  in  Latin  expiatus,  participle 
of  expio,  compounded  of  ex  and  pio,  signifies  to  put 
out  or  make  clear  by  an  act  of  piety. 

Both  these  terms  express  a satisfaction  for  an  of- 
fence; but  ataree  is  general,  ezyfate  is  particular.  We 
may  atone  for  a fault  by  any  species  of  suffering  ; we 
expiate  a crime  only  by  suffering  a legal  punishment. 
A female  often  snfliciently  atones  for  her  violation  of 
chastity  by  the  misery  she  entails  on  herself; 

O let  the  blood,  already  spilt,  atone 

For  the  past  crimes  of  curs’d  Laomedon. — Dryden 


There  are  too  many  unfortunaee  wretches  in  England 
wlio  expiate  their  crimes  on  a gallows ; 

How  sacred  ought  kings’  lives  be  held, 

When  but  the  death  of  one 

Demands  an  empire’s  blood  for  expiation. — Lee 

Neither  atonement  nor  expiation  always  necessarily 
require  punishment  or  even  suffering  from  the  offender 
The  nature  of  the  atonement  depends  on  the  will  of 
the  individual  who  is  offended ; and  oftentimes  th; 
word  implies  simply  an  equivalent  given  or  ottered  foT 
something;  ‘ I would  earnestly  desire  the  story-teller 
to  consider,  that  no  wit  or  mirth  at  the  end  of  a story 
can  atone  for  the  half  hour  that  has  been  lost  before 
they  come  at  it.’ — Steele.  Expiations  are  frequently 
made  by  means  of  performing  certain  religious  rites  or 
acts  of  piety.  Offences  between  man  and  man  are 
sometimes  atoned  for  by  an  acknowledgment  of  errour  ; 
but  ofiences  towards  God  require  an  expiatory  sacri- 
fice, which  our  Saviour  has  been  pleased  to  make  of 
himseli,  ihat  we,  through  Him,  might  become  par- 
takers of  eternal  life.  Expiation,  therefore,  in  the 
religious  sense,  is  to  atonement  as  the  means  to  the 
end:  atonement  is  often  obtained  by  an  expiation 
there  may  be  expiations  where  there  is  no  atonement. 

Jitonenient  replaces  in  a state  of  favour ; expiation 
produces  only  a real  or  supposed  exemption  from  sin 
and  its  consequences.  Among  the  Jews  and  heathens 
there  was  expiation,  but  no  atonement;  under  the 
Christian  dispensation  there  is  atonement  as  well  as 
expiation. 


ABSTINENCE,  FAST. 

Abstinence  is  a general  term,  applicable  to  any  object 
from  which  we  abstain  ; fast  is  a species  of  o,bsti- 
nence,  namely,  an  abstaining  from  food  ; ‘ Fridays  are 
appointed  by  the  Church  as  days  of  abstinence;  and 
Good  Friday  as  a day  of  fast.' — Taylor.  The  gene- 
ral term  is  likewise  used  in  the  particular  sense,  to 
imply  a partial  abstinence  from  particular  food  ; but 
fast  signifies  an  abstinence  from  food  altogether ; ‘I 
am  verily  persuaded  that  if  a whole  people  were  tc 
enter  into  a course  of  abstinence,  and  eat  nothing  but 
water  gruel  for  a fortnight,  it  would  abate  the  rage  and 
animosity  of  parties;’  ‘ Such  a fast  would  have  the 
natural  tendency  to  the  procuring  of  those  ends  for 
which  a fast  is  proclaimed.’ — Addison. 


TO  FORGIVE,  PARDON,  ABSOLVE,  REMIT. 

Forgive,  compounded  of  the  privative /or  and  give; 
and  pardon,  in  French  pardonner,  compounded  like 
wise  of  the  privative  par  or  per  and  donner  to  give, 
both  signify  not  to  give  the  punishment  that  is  due,  to 
relax  from  the  rigour  of  justice  in  dematiding  retribu- 
tion. Forgive  is  the  familiar  term  ; pardon  is  adapted 
to  the  serious  style.  InUividuals  forgive  each  other 
personal  ofiences ; they  pardon  offences  against  law 
and  morals:  the  former  is  an  act  of  Christian  charity; 
the  latter  an  act  of  clemency : the  former  is  an  act  that 
is  confined  to  no  condition  ; the  latter  is  peculiarly  the 
act  of  a superiour.  He  who  lias  the  right  of  being 
offended  has  an  opportunity  of  forgiving  the  offender: 

No  more  Achilles  draws 
His  conqu’ring  sword  in  any  woman’s  cause. 

The  gods  command  me  to  forgive  the  past. 

But  let  this  first  invasion  be  the  last. — Pope. 

He  who  has  the  authority  of  punishing  the  offence 
may  pardon  ; ‘ A being  who  has  nothing  to  pardon  in 
himself  may  reward  every  man  according  to  his  works ; 
but  he  whose  very  best  actions  must  be  seen  with  a 
grain  of  allowance,  cannot  be  too  mild,  moderate,  and 
forgiving.' — Atdison.  Next  to  the  princijile  of  not 
taking  offence  easily,  that  of  forgiving  real  injuries 
should  be  instilled  into  the  infant  mind  : it  is  the  happy 
prerogative  of  the  monarch  that  he  can  extend  his 
pardon  to  all  criminals,  except  to  those  whose  crimes 
have  rendered  them  unworthy  to  live ; they  may  be 
both  used  in  relation  to  our  Maker,  but  with  a similar 
distinction  in  sense.  God  forgives  the  sins  of  his 
creatures  as  a father  pitying  his  children;  he  pardons 
their  sins  as  a judge  extending  mercy  to  criminals,  ai 
fur  U.S  is  consistent  with  jus*  ce. 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMEfe. 


* Pardon,  v/lief:  ::omi)ared  with  remission,  is  the 
consequence  of  offence  ; it  respects  principally  the  per- 
son offending  ; it  depends  upon  him  who  is  offended  ; 
it  produces  reconciliation  when  it  is  sincerely  granted 
and  sincerely  demanded.  Remission  is  the  conse- 
quence of  the  crime  ; it  has  more  particular  regard  to 
the  punishment ; it  is  granted  either  by  the  prince  or 
magistrate ; it  arrests  the  execution  of  justice ; 

With  suppliant  j)rayers  their  powers  appease  ; 

The  soft  Napsean  race  will  soon  repent 

Their  anger,  and  remit  the  punishment. — Dryden. 
Remission,  like  pardon,  is  peculiarly  applicable  to  the 
sinner  with  regard  to  his  Maker.  Absolution  is  taken 
in  no  other  sense : it  is  the  consequence  of  the  fault  or 
the  sin,  and  properly  concerns  the  state  of  the  culprit ; 
it  properly  loosens  him  from  the  tie  with  which  he  is 
bound ; it  is  pronounced  either  by  the  civil  judge  or 
the  ecclesiastical  minister;  it  re-establishes  the  accused 
or  the  penitent  in  the  rights  of  innocence ; 

Round  in  his  urn  the  blended  balls  he  rolls 
Absolves  the  just,  and  dooms  the  guilty  souls. 

Dryden. 

T\\epardono^  sin  obliterates  that  which  is  past,  and 
restores  the  sinner  to  the  Divine  favour;  it  is  promised 
throughout  Scripture  to  all  men  on  the  condition  of 
faith  and  repentance  ; remission  ot'  sin  only  averts  the 
Divine  vengeance,  which  otherwise  would  fall  upon 
those  who  are  guilty  of  it;  it  is  granted  peculiarly  to 
Christians  upon  the  ground  of  Christ’s  expiatory  sacri- 
fice, which  satisfies  Divine  justice  for  all  ofieiices  : ab- 
solution of  sin  is  the  work  of  God’s  grace  on  the  heart ; 
it  acts  for  the  future  as  well  as  the  past,  by  lesseiiiirg 
the  dominion  of  sin,  and  maki’.ig  those  free  who  were 
before  in  bondage.  The  Roman  Catholicks  look  u[)on 
absolution  as  the  immediate  act  of  the  Pope,  by  virtue 
of  his  sacred  relationship  to  Christ ; but  the  Protestants 
look  to  Christ  only  as  the  dispenser  of  this  blessing  to 
men,  and  his  ministers  simply  as  messengers  to  declare 
the  Divine  will  to  men. 


REPENTANCE,  PENITENCE,  CONTRITION, 
COMPUNCTION,  RE.MORSE. 

Reperatance,  from  re  back,  and7)ffi?i*<cf  to  be  sorry, 
signifies  looking  back  with  sorrow  on  what  one  has 
done  amiss;  penitence,  from  the  same  source,  signifies 
simply  sorrow  for  what  is  amiss.  Contrition,  from 
contero  to  rub  together,  or  bruise  as  it  were  with  sor- 
row ; compunction,  from  conipunffo  to  prick  thorougli- 
ly ; and  remorse,  i\o\\\  remordeo  to  have  a gnawing 
pain ; all  express  modes  of  penitence  differing  in  de- 
gree and  circumstance. 

Repentance  refers  more  to  the  change  of  one’s  mind 
with  regard  to  an  object,  and  is  properly  confined  to  the 
time  when  this  cliange  takes  place ; we  therefore, 
strictly  speaking,  repent  of  a thing  but  once  ; we  may, 
however,  have  penitence  for  the  same  thing  all  our 
lives.  Repentance  may  be  felt  for  trivial  matters  ; we 
may  repent  of  going  or  not  going,  speaking  or  not 
speaking:  penitence  only  to  serious  matters  ; we 

axe  penitent  only  for  our  sins.  Errours  of  judgement 
will  always  be  attended  with  repentance  in  a mind  that 
is  striving  to  do  right ; there  is  no  human  being  so  per- 
fect but  that,  in  the  sight  of  God,  he  will  have  occa- 
sion to  be  penitent  for  many  acts  of  commission  and 
omission. 

Repentance  may  be  felt  for  errours  which  concern 
only  ourselves,  or  at  most  offences  against  our  fellow 
creatures ; penitence,  and  the  other  terms,  are  appli- 
cable only  to  offences  against  the  moral  and  divine 
l*>w,  that  law  which  is  engraven  on  the  heart  of  every 
man.  We  may  rejaewt  of  not  having  made  a bargain 
that  we  afterward  find  would  have  been  advantageous, 
or  we  may  repent  of  having  done  any  injury  to  our 
neighbour;  but  oux  penance  is  awakened  when  we 
reflect  on  our  unworthiness  or  sinfulness  in  the  sight 
cf  oar  Maker.  This  penitence  is  a general  sentiment, 
which  belongs  to  all  men  as  offending  creatures;  but 
contrition,  compunction , and  remorse  are  awakened 
by  reflecting  on  particular  offences : contrition  is  a 
continued  and  severe  sorrow,  appropriate  to  one  who 
has  been  in  a continued  state  of  peculiar  sinfulness; 

Vii’e  Abbe  Girard : “ Absolution,  pardon,  remis- 

Hon  ” 


compunction  is  rather  an  occasional,  b at  sharp  sorrow 
provoked  by  a single  offence,  or  a moment’s  reflection 
remorse  may  be  temporary,  but  it  is  a still  sharpei 
pain  awakened  by  some  particular  offence  of  peculiar 
magnitude  and  atrocity.  The  prodigal  son  was  a 
contrite  sinner ; the  brethren  of  Joseph  felt  great  com 
punction  when  they  were  carried  back  with  their  sacks 
to  Egypt ; David  was  struck  with  remorse  for  the  mur- 
der of  Uriah. 

These  four  terms  depend  not  so  much  on  the 
measure  of  guilt  as  on  the  sensibility  of  the  offender 
Whoever  reflects  most  deeply  on  the  enormity  of  sin, 
will  be  most  sensible  of  repentance,  when  he  sees  his 
own  liability  to  oflend  ; ‘ This  is  the  sinner’s  hard  lot, 
that  the  same  thing  which  makes  him  need  repentance, 
makes  him  also  in  danger  of  not  obtaining  it.’ — South 
In  those  who  liave  most  offended,  ami  are  vtnne  to  a 
sense  of  their  own  condition,  pvnitenceviiW  rise  to  deep 
contrition ; 

Heaven  may  forgive  a c .ime  to  penitence, 

For  heaven  can  judge  if  fienitcnce  be  true. — Dryden. 
‘ Contrition,  though  it  m <y  melt,  ought  not  to  sink,  or 
overpower  the  heart  of  i Christian.’ — Blair.  There 
is  no  man  so  hardened  that  he  will  not  some  time  or 
other  feel  compunction  *'ox  the  crimes  he  has  commit 
ted;  ‘Ail  men,  even  the  most  depraved,  are  subject 
more  or  less  to  compunctions  oi  conscience.' — Blair 
He  who  lias  the  liveliest  sense  of  the  Divine  goodness, 
will  feel  keen  remorse  whenever  he  reflects  on  any 
thing  that  he  has  done,  by  which  he  fears  to  have  for 
felted  the  favour  of  so  good  a Being ; 

The  heart. 

Pierc’d  with  a sharp  remorse  for  guilt,  disclaim^" 

The  costly  poverty  of  hecatombs, 

And  offers  the  best  sacrifice  itself. — Jeffry. 


CONSCIENTIOUS,  SCRUPULOUS. 

Conscieptious  marks  the  quality  of  having  s nict 
conscience;  scrupulous,  that  of  having  a scruple 
Conscience,  in  Latin  conscientia,  from  consciens,  sig- 
nifies that  by  which  a man  becomes  conscious  to  him- 
self of  right  and  wrong.  Scruple,  in  Latin  scrupulus 
a little  hard  stone,  signifies  that  which  gives  pain  tc 
the  mind,  as  the  stone  does  to  the  foot  in  walking. 

Conscientious  is  to  scrupulous  as  a whole  to  a part 
A conscientious  man  is  so  altogether ; a scrupulous 
man  may  have  only  particular  scruples:  the  one  ia 
therefore  always  taken  in  a good  sense;  and  the  other 
at  least  in  an  indifferent,  if  not  a bad  sense. 

A conscientious  man  does  nothing  to  offend  his  con 
science ; ‘ A conscientious  person  would  rather  distrust 
his  own  judgement  than  condemn  his  species.  He 
would  say,  I have  observed  without  attention,  or 
judged  upon  erroneous  maxims;  I have  trusted  to 
profe.ssion  when  I ouglit  to  havd  attended  to  conduct.’ 
Burke. — But  a scrupulous  man  has  often  his  scruples 
on  trifling  or  minor  points;  ‘ Others  by  their  weakness, 
and  fear,  and  scrupulousness,  cannot  fully  satisfy  their 
own  thoughts.’ — Puller.  The  Pharisees  were  scru- 
pulous without  being  conscientious ; we  must  there- 
fore strive  to  be  conscientious  without  being  over  scru- 
pulous ; ‘ I have  been  so  very  scrupulous  in  this 
particular,  of  not  hurting  any  man’s  reputation,  that 
have  forborne  mentioning  even  such  authors  as  I could 
not  name  with  honour.  —Addison. 


HOLINESS,  SANCTITY. 

Holiness,  which  comes  from  the  nortliern  languages, 
has  altogether  acquired  a Christian  signification;  it 
respects  the  life  and  temper  of  a Christian  ; sanctity 
which  is  derived  from  the  Latin  savetus  and  sanctio, 
to  sanction,  has  merely  a moral  signification,  which  it 
derives  from  the  sanction  of  human  authority. 

Holiness  is  to  the  mind  of  a man  what  sanctity  is  to 
his  exteriour  ; with  this  difference,  that  holiness  to  a 
certain  degree,  ought  to  belong  to  every  man  professing 
Christianity;  but  sanctity,  as  it  lies  in  the  manners, 
the  outward  garb,  and  deportment,  is  becoming  only  tc 
certain  persons,  and  at  certain  times. 

Holiness  is  a thing  not  to  be  affected  it  is  lliai 
genuine  characteristick  of  Christianity  which  is  alto- 
gether spiritual,  and  cannot  be  counterfeited ; Habitua' 
preparation  for  the  Sacrament  consists  in  a perma 
nent  habit  or  principle  of  holiness' — South.  Sanctity 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


OH  the  other  hand,  is  from  Its  very  nature  expose?!  to  I 
ftlseliood,  and  tlie  least  to  be  trusted  ; when  it  displays' 
itself  in  individualj,  either  by  the  sorrowfulness  of 
their  looks,  or  the  singular  cut  of  their  garments,  or 
other  singularities  of  action  and  gesture,  it  is  of  the 
most  questionable  nature ; but  in  one  who  performs 
the  sacerdotal  office,  it  is  a useful  appendage  to  the 
solemnity  of  the  scene,  which  excites  a reverential 
regard  to  the  individual  in  the  mind  of  the  beholder, 
and  the  most  exalted  sentiments  of  that  religion  which 
he  thus  adorns  by  his  outward  profession;  ‘About  an 
age  ago  it  was  the  fashion  in  England  for  every  one 
that  would  be  thought  religious,  to  throw  as  much 
sanctity  as  possible  into  his  face.’ — Addison.  ‘ It  was 
an  observation  of  the  ancient  Romans,  that  their  em- 
pire had  not  increased  more  by  the  strength  of  their 
arms,  than  by  the  sanctity  of  their  manners.’— Ad- 
dison 


HOLY,  PIOUS,  DEVOUT,  RELIGIOUS. 

Holy  is  here  taken  in  the  sense  of  holiness,  as  in  the 
preceding  article  ; -pious,  in  Latin  pius,  is  most  proba- 
bably  changed  from  dius  or  dens,  signifying  regard  for 
the  gods';  devout,  in  Latin  dcvotus,  from  devoveo  to 
engage  by  a vow,  signifies  devoted  or  consecrated ; 
religious,  in  Latin  religiosus,  comes  from  religio  and 
rcligo,  to  bind,  because  religion  binds  the  mind,  and 
produces  in  it  a fixed  principle. 

A strong  regard  to  the  Supreme  Being  is  expressed 
by  all  these  epithets ; but  holy  conveys  tlie  most  com- 
prehensive idea ; pious  and  devout  designate  most 
fervour  of  mind;  religious  is  the  most  general  and 
abstract  in  its  signification.  A holy  man  is  in  all 
respects  heavenly-minded;  he  is  more  fit  for  heaven 
than  earth:  holiness,  to  whatever  degree  it  is  pos- 
sessed, abstracts  the  thoughts  from  sublunary  objects, 
and  fixes  them  cn  things  that  are  above ; it  is  therefore 
a Christian  quality,  which  is  not  to  be  attained  in  its 
full  perfection  by  human  beings,  in  their  present  im- 
perfect state,  and  is  attainable  by  some  to  a much 
greater  degree  than  by  others.  Our  Saviour  was  a 
perfect  pattern  of  holiness  ; his  apostles  after  him,  and 
innumerable  saints  and  good  men,  both  in  and  out  of 
the  ministry,  have  striven  to  imitate  his  example,  by 
the  holiness  of  their  life  and  conversation  : in  such, 
however,  as  have  exclusively  devoted  themselves  to 
his  service,  this  holiness  may  shine  brighter  than  in 
those  who  are  entangled  with  the  affairs  of  the  world; 
‘ The  holiest  man,  by  conversing  with  the  world  in- 
sensibly draws  something  of  soil  and  taint  from  it.’ — 
South. 

Pioris  is  a term  more  restricted  in  its  signification, 
and  consequently  more  extended  in  its  application, 
than  holy : piety  is  not  a virtue  peculiar  to  Christians, 
it  is  common  to  all  believers  in  a Supreme  Being;  it  is 
the  homage  of  the  heart  and  the  affections  to  a supe- 
riour  Being:  from  a similarity  in  the  relationship 
between  a heavenly  and  an  earthly  parent,  devotedness 
of  the  mind  has  in  both  cases  been  denominated  piety. 
Piety  towards  God  naturally  produces  piety  towards 
parents ; for  the  obedience  of  the  heart,  which  gives 
rise  to  the  virtue  in  the  one,  seems  instantly  to  dictate 
the  exercise  of  it  in  the  other.  The  difference  between 
holiness  and  piety  is  obvious  from  this,  that  our  Saviour 
and  his  apostles  are  characterized  as  holy,  but  not 
pious,  because  pfety  is  swallowed  up  in  holiness.  On 
the  other  hand,  Jew  and  Gentile,  Christian  and 
Heathen,  are  alike  termed  pious,  when  they  cannot  be 
called  holy,  because  piety  is  not  only  a more  practi- 
cable virtue,  but  because  it  is  more  universally  appli- 
cable to  the  dependant  condition  of  man;  ‘In  every 
age  the  practice  has  prevailed  of  substituting  certain 
appearances  of  piety  in  the  place  of  the  great  duties  of 
humanity  and  mercy.’ — Blair. 

Devotion  is  a species  of  piety  peculiar  to  the  wor- 
shipper; it  bespeaks  that  devotedness  of  mind  which 
displays  itself  in  the  temple,  when  the  individual 
seems  by  his  outward  services  solemnly  to  devote  him- 
self, soul  and  body,  to  the  service  of  his  Maker ; 
‘ Dereotion  expresses  not  so  much  the  performance  of 
any  particular  duty,  as  the  spirit  which  must  animate 
ail  religious  duties.’ — Blair.  Piety,  therefore,  lies  in 
the  heart,  and  may  appear  externally  ; but  devotion 
does  not  properly  exist  except  in  an  external  ob- 
servance: a man  piously  resigns  himself  to  the  will  of 
God.  in  the  midst  of  his  afflictions;  he  prays  devoutly 


I in  the  bosom  of  his  family;  ‘A  state  bf  temperance, 
sobriety,  and  justice,  without  devotion,  is  a lifeless  in- 
sipid condition  of  virtue.’ — Addison. 

Religious  is  a term  of  less  import  than  either  of  the 
other  terms;  it  denotes  little  more  than  the  simple 
existence  of  religion,  or  a sense  of  religion  in  tlie 
mind  : the  religious  man  is  so,  more  in  his  principles 
than  in  his  affections ; he  irreligious  in  his  sentiments, 
in  as  much  as  he  directs  all  his  views  according  to  the 
will  of  his  Maker ; and  he  is  religious  in  his  conduct, 
in  as  much  as  he  observes  the  outward  formalities  of 
homage  that  are  due  to  his  Maker.  A holy  man  fits 
himself  for  a higher  state  of  existence,  after  which  he 
is  always  aspiring ; a pious  man  has  God  in  all  his 
thoughts,  and  seeks  to  do  his  will ; a devout  man  bends 
himself  in  humble  adoration  and  pays  his  vows  of 
prayer  and  thanksgiving;  a religious  man  conforms 
in  all  things  to  what  the  dictates  of  his  conscience 
require  ffom  him,  as  a responsible  being,  and  a mem- 
ber of  society. 

When  applied  to  things  they  preserve  a similar  dis- 
tinction : we  speak  of  the  holy  sacrament ; of  a pious 
discourse,  a pious  ejaculation  ; of  a devout  exercise, 
a devout  air ; a religious  sentiment,  a religious  life,  a 
religious  education,  &c. 


HOLY,  SACRED,  DIVINE. 

Holy  is  here,  as  in  the  former  article,  a tenn  ol 
higher  import  than  either  sacred  or  divine : sacred,  in 
Latin  sacet,  is  derived  either  from  the  Greek  dyfos 
holy  or  o-dos  whole,  perfect,  and  the  Hebrew  zacah  pure 
Whatever  is  most  intimately  connected  with  religion 
and  religious  worship,  in  its  purest  state,  is  holy,  is  un- 
hallowed by  a mixture  of  inferiour  objects,  is  elevated 
in  the  greatest  possible  degree,  so  as  to  suit  the  nature 
of  an  infinitely  perfect  and  exalted  Being.  Among  the 
Jews,  the  holy  of  holies  was  that  place  which  was 
intended  to  approach  the  nearest  to  the  heavenly 
abode,  consequently  was  preserved  as  much  as  possi 
ble  from  all  contamination  with  that  which  is  earthly ; 
among  Christians,  that  religion  or  form  of  religion  is 
termed  holy,  which  is  esteemed  purest  in  its  doctrine, 
discipline,  and  ceremonies,  and  is  applied  with  equal 
propriety  by  the  Roman  Catholicks  and  the  English 
Protestants  to  that  which  they  have  in  common  ; ‘To 
fit  us  for  a due  access  to  the  holy  Sacrament,  we  must 
add  jjictual  preparation  to  habitual.’ — South.  Upon 
this  ground  we  speak  of  the  church  as  a holy  place,  of 
the  sacrament  as  the  holy  sacrament,  and  the  ordinances 
of  the  church  as  holy. 

Sacred  is  less  than  holy ; the  sacred  derives  its  sane 
tion  from  human  institutions,  and  is  connected  rathei 
with  our  moral  than  our  religious  duties;  what  is  holy 
is  altogether  spiritual,  and  abstracted  from  the  earthly ; 
what  is  sacred  may  be  simply  the  human  purified  from 
what  is  gross  and  corrupt:  what  is  holy  must  be 
regarded  with  awe,  and  treated  with  every  possible 
mark  of  reverence ; what  is  sacred  must  not  be  violated 
nor  infringed  upon.  The  laws  are  sacred,  but  not 
holy ; a man’s  word  should  be  sacred,  though  not  holy  ; 
for  neither  ot  these  things  is  to  be  reverenced,  but  both 
are  to  be  kept  free  from  injury  or  external  violence. 
The  holy  is  not  so  much  opposed  to,  as  it  is  set  above 
every  tiling  else ; the  sacred  is  opposed  to  the  (irofane  • 
the  Scriptures  are  properly  denominated  holy,  because 
they  are  the  word  of  God,  and  the  fruit  of  liis  Holy 
Spirit;  but  other  writings  may  be  termed  sacred  which 
appertain  to  religion,  in  distinction  from  the  profane, 
which  appertain  only  to  worldly  matters;  ‘Common 
sense  could  tell  them,  that  the  good  God  could  not  be 
pleased  with  any  thing  cruel,  nor  the  most  holy  God 
with  any  thing  filthy  and  unclean.’— South.  ‘ Religion 
properly  consists  in  a reverential  esteem  of  things 
sacred.' — South. 

Divine  is  a term  of  even  less  import  than  sacred  ; it 
signifies  either  belonging  to  the  Deity,  or  being  like  tiw 
Deity ; but  from  the  looseness  of  its  application  it  has 
lost  in  some  respects  the  dignity  of  its  meaning.  The 
divine  is  often  contrasted  with  the  human : but  there 
are  many  human  things  which  are  denominated  divine: 
Milton’s  poem  is  entitled  a divine  poem,  not  merely  on 
account  of  the  subject,  but  from  the  exalted  manner  in 
which  the  poet  has  treated  his  subject  : what  is  divine^ 
therefore,  may  be  so  superlatively  excellent  as  to  be  con- 
ceived of  ns  having  the  stamp  of  inspinition  from  the 


90 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


Deity,  wliicli  of  course,  as  it  respects  human  perform 
ances,  is  but  z hyperbolical  mode  of  speech. 

From  the  ab)ve  explanation  of  these  terms,  it  is  cleat 
that  there  is  a manifest  difference  between  them,  and 
yet  that  their  resemblance  is  sufficiently  great  for  them 
to  be  applied  to  the  same  objects.  We  speak  of  the 
I/oli/  Spirit,  and  of  Divine  inspiration;  by  the  first  of 
which  epithets  is  understood  not  only  what  is  super- 
human, but  what  is  a constituent  part  of  the  Deity : by 
the  second  is  represented  merely  in  a general  manner 
ffie  source  of  the  inspiration  as  coming  from  the  Deity, 
and  not  from  man;  ‘ When  a man  resteth  and  assureth 
himself  upon  Divine  protection,  he  gathereth  a force 
and  faith  which  human  nature  in  itself  could  not 
obtain.’— Bacon.  Subjects  are  denominated  either 
sacred  or  divine,  as  when  we  speak  of  sacred  poems, 
or  divine  hymns ; sacred  here  characterizes  the  subjects 
of  the  poems,  as  those  which  are  to  be  held  sacred; 
and  divine  designates  the  subject  of  the  hymns  as  not 
being  ordinary  or  merely  human ; it  is  clear,  therefore, 
that  what  is  holy  is  in  its  very  nature  sacred,  but  not 
vice  versa;  and  that  what  is  holy  and  sacred  is  in  its 
very  nature  divine;  but  the  divine  is  not  always  cither 
holy  or  sacred. 


GODLIKE,  DIVINE,  HEAVENLY. 

Godlike  bespeaks  its  own  meaning,  as  like  Ood,  or 
aAer  the  manner  of  God  • divine,  in  Latin  divinus  from 
divas  or  Dens,  signifies  appertaining  to  God;  heavenly, 
or  heavenlike,  signifies  like  or  appertaining  to  heaven. 

Godlike  is  a more  expressive,  but  less  common  term 
than  divine ; the  former  is  used  only  as  an  epithet  of 
peculiar  praise  for  a particular  object ; divine  is  gene- 
rally employed  for  that  which  appertains  toasuperiour 
being,  in  distinction  from  that  which  is  humam  Bene- 
volence is  a godlike  property : 

Sure  he  that  made  us  with  such  large  discourse, 
Looking  before  and  after,  gave  us  not 
That  capability  and  godlike  reason. 

To  rust  in  us  unus’d. — Shakspeark. 

The  Divine  image  is  stamped  on  the  features  of  man, 
whence  the  face  is  called  by  Milton  ‘ the  human  face 
Divine.'  ‘Tlie  benefit  of  nature’s  light  is  not  thought 
excluded  as  unnecessary,  because  the  necessity  of  a 
divine  light  is  magnified.’— Hooker.  Divine  is  how- 
ever frequently  used  by  the  poets  for  what  is  sup«J' 
excellent. 

Of  all  that  see  or  read  thy  comedies. 

Whoever  in  those  glasses  looks  may  find 
The  spots  return’d,  or  graces  of  his  mind ; 

And  by  the  help  of  so  divine  an  art. 

At  leisure  view  and  dress  his  nobler  part. 

Waller. 

As  divine  is  opposed  to  human,  so  is  heavenly  to 
earthly:  the  Divine  Being  is  a term  of  distinction  for 
the  Creator  from  all  other  beings;  but  a heavenly  being 
denotes  the  angels  or  inhabitants  of  heaven,  in  distinc- 
tion from  earthly  beings  or  the  inhabitants  of  earth. 
A divine  influence  is  to  be  sought  for  only  by  prayer 
to  the  Giver  of  all  good  things;  but  a heavenly  temper 
may  be  acquired  by  a steady  contemplation  of  heavenly 
things,  and  an  abstraction  from  those  which  are  earthly. 
The  Divine  will  is  the  foundation  of  all  moral  law  and 
obligation ; 

Instructed  you’d  explore 

Divine  contrivance,  and  a God  adore. — Blackmore 
Heavenly  joys  are  the  fruit  of  all  our  labours  in  this 
earthly  course; 

Reason,  alas ! It  does  not  know  itself ; 

But  man,  vain  raanl  would  with  his  short-lin’d 
plummet 

Fathom  the  vast  abyssof  heavenly iuslice. — Dryden. 

GODLY,  RIGHTEOUS. 

Godly  is  a contraction  of  godlike  {v.  Godlike); 
righteous  signifies  conformable  Xo  right  or  truth. 

These  epithets  are  both  used  in  a spiritual  sense,  and 
cannot,  without  an  indecorous  affectation  of  religion, 
be  introduced  into  any  other  discourse  than  that  which 
is  properly  spiritual.  Godliness,  in  the  strict  sense,  is 
that  outward  deportment  which  characterizes  a hea- 
venly temper ; prayer,  reading  of  the  Scriptures,  publick 
worship,  and  every  religious  act,  enters  into  the  signifi- 


cation of  godliness,  which  at  the  same  time  supposes  a 
temper  of  mind,  not  only  to  delight  in,  but  to  profit  by 
such  exercises:  ‘ The  same  church  is  really  holy  in  thi; 
world,  in  relation  to  all  godly  persons  contained  in  it, 
by  a real  infused  sanctity.’ — Pearson.  Righteousness 
on  the  other  hand  comprehends  Christian  morality,  in 
distinction  from  that  of  the  heathen  or  unbeliever ; a 
righteous  man  does  right,  not  only  because  it  is  right, 
but  because  it  is  agreeable  to  the  will  of  his  Maker,  and 
the  example  of  his  Redeemer : righteousness  is  there- 
fore to  godliness  as  the  effect  to  the  cause ; ‘ ’T  is  the 
gospel’s  v/ork  to  reduce  man  to  the  principles  of  his  first 
creation,  that  is,  to  be  both  good  and  wise.  Our  ances 
tors,  it  seems,  were  clearly  of  this  opinion.  He  that 
was  pious  and  just  was  reckoned  a righteous  man. 
Godliness  and  integrity  was  called  and  accounted 
righteousness.  And  in  their  old  Saxon  righteous  was 
rightwise,  and  righteousness  was  originally  rightwise- 
ness.'— Feltham.  The  godly  man  goes  to  the  sanc- 
tuary and  by  converse  with  his  Maker  assimilates  all 
his  affections  to  the  character  of  that  being  whom  he 
worships ; when  he  leaves  the  sanctuary  he  proves  the 
efficacy  of  his  godliness  by  his  righteous  converse  with 
his  fellow-creatures.  It  is  easy  however  for  men  to 
mistake  the  means  for  the  end,  and  to  rest  with  godli- 
ness without  righteousness,  as  too  many  are  apt  to  do 
who  seem  to  make  their  whole  duty  to  consist  in  an 
attention  to  religious  observances,  and  in  the  induf 
gence  of  extravagant  feelings;  ‘ It  hath  been  the  great: 
design  of  the  devil  and  his  instruments  in  all  ages  tc 
undermine  religion,  by  making  an  unhappy  separation 
and  divorce  between  godliness  and  morality.  But  let 
us  not  deceive  ourselves;  this  was  always  religion,  and 
the  condition  of  our  acceptance  w ith  God,  to  endeavour 
to  be  like  God  in  purity  and  holiness,  in  justice  and 
righteousness.' — Tillotson. 


SECULAR,  TEMPORAL,  WORLDLY. 

Secular  in  Latin  secularis,  from  seculum  an  age  oi 
division  of  time,  signifies  belonging  to  time,  or  this  life; 
temporal,  in  Latin  temporalis,  from  tempus  time,  signi- 
fies lasting  only  for  a time;  worldly  signifies  alter  the 
manner  of  the  world. 

Secular  is  opposed  to  ecclesiastical  or  spiritual,  tem- 
poral and  worldly  ar^*  op[)osed  to  spiritual  or  eternal. 

The  ideas  of  the  world,  or  the  outward  objects  and 
pursuits  of  the  world,  in  distinction  from  that  whk> 
is  set  above  the  world,  is  implied  in  common  by  all  fi-s: 
terms;  but  secular  is  an  indifferent  term,  applicable  la 
the  allowed  pursuits  and  concerns  of  men  ; temporal  is 
used  either  in  an  indifferent  or  a bad  sense ; and 
worldly  mostly  in  a bad  sense,  as  contrasted  with  fftings 
of  more  value. 

The  office  of  a clergyman  is  ecclesiastical,  but  that 
of  a schoohnastei  is  secwZar,  which  is  frequently  vestea 
in  the  same  hands;  ‘This,  in  several  men’s  actions  of 
common  life,  appertaineth  unto  moral;  in  publick  and 
politick  secular  affairs,  unto  civil  wisdom.’ — Hooker, 
The  upper  house  of  parliament  consists  of  lords  spi 
ritual  and  temporal ; ‘ There  is  scarce  any  of  those 
decisions  but  gives  good  light,  by  way  of  authority  or 
reason,  to  some  questions  that  arise  also  between  tem- 
poral dignities,  especially  to  cases  wherein  some  of  our 
subordinate  temporal  titles  have  part  in  the  contro- 
versy.’— Selden.  Worldly  interest  has  a more  pow 
erful  sway  upon  the  minds  of  the  great  bulk  of  man 
•kind,  than  their  spiritual  interests;  ‘Compare  >he  hap- 
piness of  men  and  bea.<ts  no  farther  than  it  results  from 
worldly  advantages.’ — Atterbury.  Whoever  enters 
nto  the  holy  office  of  the  ministry  with  merely  secular 
views  of  preferment,  chooses  a very  unfit  source  of 
emolument ; ‘ Some  saw  nothing  in  what  has  been  done 
in  France  but  a firm  and  temperate  exertion  of  freedom, 
so  consistent  with  morals  and  piety,  as  to  make  it  de- 
serving not  only  of  the  secular  applause  of  dashing 
Machiavelian  politicians,  but  to  make  it  a fit  theme  foi 
all  the  devout  effusions  of  sacred  eloquence.’ — Burke 
A too  eager  pursuit  after  temporal  advantages  and  tern 
poral  pleasures  is  apt  to  draw  the  mind  away  from  its 
regaid  to  those  which  are  eternal;  ‘The  ultimate  pur 
pose  of  government  is  temporal,  and  that  of  religion  is 
eternal  happiness.’ — .Tohnson.  Wordly  applause  will 
weigh  very  light  when  set  in  the  balance  against  the 
reproach  of  one’s  own  conscience  ‘ Worldly  things  are 
n/  «uch  quality  as  to  lessen  unon  Jlvitling.’-  Grove 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


91 


ENTHUSIAST,  FANATfCK,  VISIONARY. 

The  enthusiast,  fanatick,  and  visionary  have  dis- 
ordered imaginations;  but  tlie  enthusiast  is  only 
affected  inwardly  with  an  extraordinary  fervour,  the 
fanatick  and  visional  y betray  that  fervour  by  some  out- 
ward mark ; the  former  by  singularities  of  conduct,  the 
latter  by  singularities  of  doctrine.  Fanaticks  and 
visionaries  are  therefore  always  more  or  less  enthu- 
siasts; but  enthusiasts  are  not  always  fanaticks  or 
visionaries.  'EvOsaias-ai  among  the  Greeks,  from  iv 
in  and  9td;  God,  signified  those  supposed  to  have,  or 
pretending  to  have.  Divine  inspiration.  Fanatici  were 
so  called  among  the  Latins,  from  fana  the  temples  in 
which  they  spent  an  extraordinary  portion  of  their 
time;  they,  like  the  h9saias-aio(  the  Greeks,  pretended 
to  revelations  and  inspirations,  during  the  influence  of 
which  they  indulged  themselves  in  rnai.y  extravagant 
tricks,  cutting  themselves  with  knives,  and  distorting 
themselves  with  every  species  of  antick  gesture  and 
grimace. 

Although  we  are  professors  of  a pure  religion,  yet 
we  cannot  boast  an  exemption  from  the  extravagancies 
which  are  related  of  the  poor  heathens;  we  have  many 
who  indulge  themselves  in  similar  practices  under  the 
idea  of  honouring  their  Maker  and  Redeemer.  There 
are  fanaticks  who  profess  to  be  under  extraordinary 
influences  of  the  spirit ; and  there  are  enthusiasts  whose 
intemperate  zeal  disqualifies  them  lor  taking  a bene- 
ficial part  in  the  sober  and  solemn  services  of  the 
church.  Visionary  signifies  properly  one  who  deals  in 
visions,  that  is,  in  the  pretended  appearance  of  super- 
natural objects;  a species  of  enthusiasts  who  have 
sprung  up  in  more  modern  times.  The  leaders  of  sects 
are  commonly  visionaries,  having  adopted  this  artifice 
:o  establish  their  reputation  and  doctrines  among  their 
deluded  followers ; Mahomet  was  one  of  the  most  suc- 
cessful visionaries  that  ever  pretended  to  divine  inspi- 
ration ; and  since  his  time  there  have  been  visionaries, 
particularly  in  England,  who  have  raised  religious  par- 
ties, by  having  recourse  to  the  same  expedient:  of  this 
description  was  Swedenborg,  Huntington,  and  Brothers. 

Fanatick  was  originally  confined  to  those  who  were 
under  religious  frenzy,  but  the  present  age  has  pre- 
sented us  with  the  monstrosity  of  fanaticks  in  irreli- 
gion  and  anarchy ; ‘ They  who  will  not  believe  that 
the  philosophical  fanaticks  who  guide  in  these  mat- 
ters have  long  entertained  the  design  (of  abolishing 
religion),  are  utterly  ignorant  of  their  character.’ — 
Burke.  Enthusiast  is  a term  applied  in  general  to 
every  one  who  is  filled  with  an  extraordinary  degree 
of  fervour; 

Her  little  soul  is  ravish’d,  and  so  pour’d 

Into  loose  ecstasies,  that  she  is  placed 

Above  herself,  Musick’s  enthusiast. — Crashaw. 

Enthusiasts  pretend  that  they  have  the  gift  of 
prophecy  by  dreams.’ — PtoiTT’s  Heresiography. 
Visionary  is  a term  applied  to  one  who  deals  in  fan- 
ciful speculation ; ‘This  account  exceeded  all  the  Noc- 
tambuli  or  visionaries  I have  met  with.’ — Turner. 
The  former  may  sometimes  be  innocent,  if  not  lauda- 
ble, according  to  the  nature  of  the  object ; the  latter  is 
always  censurable  ; the  enthusiast  has  mostly  a warm 
heart;  the  visionary  has  only  a fanciful  head.  The 
enthusiast  will  mostly  be  on  the  side  of  virtue  even 
though  in  an  errour;  the  visionary  pleads  no  cause  but 
his  own.  The  enthusiast  suffers  his  imagination  to 
follow  his  heart ; the  visionary  makes  his  understand- 
ing bend  to  his  imagination.  Although  in  matters  of 
religion,  enthusiasm  should  be  cautiously  guarded 
against,  yet  we  admire  to  see  it  roused  in  behalf  of 
one’s  country  and  one’s  friends;  ‘ Cherish  true  religion 
as  preciously  as  you  will,  fly  with  abhorrence  and 
contempt,  superstition  and  enthusiasm.' — Chatham. 
Visionaries,  whether  in  religion,  politicks,  or  science, 
are  dangerous  as  members  of  society,  and  offensive  as 
companions ; ‘ The  sons  of  infamy  ridicule  every  thing 
as  romantick  that  comes  in  competition  with  their  pre- 
sent interest,  and  treat  those  persons  as  visionaries 
who,  dare  stand  up  in  a corrupt  age,  for  what  has  not 
its  immediate  reward  joined  to  it.’ — Addison. 

DREAM,  REVERIE. 

oream,  in  Dutch  drom,  <fcc.  comes  either  from  the 
Celtic  drem,  a sight,  or  the  Greek  ipaya,  a fable,  or  a.s 


probably  from  the  word  roam,  signifying  to  wander 
in  Hebrew  to  be  agitated ; reverie,  in  French 
reverie,  like  the  English  rave,  comes  from  the  Latin 
rabies,  signifying  that  which  is  wandering  or  inco 
herent. 

Dreams  and  reveries  are  alike  opposed  to  the  reality 
and  have  their  origin  in  the  imagination  ; but  the 
former  commonly  pass  in  sleep,  and  the  latter  wiien 
awake : the  dream  may  and  does  commonly  arise 
when  the  imagination  is  in  a sound  state  ; the  reverie 
is  the  fruit  of  a heated  imagination  ; ‘ Revery  is  when 
ideas  float  in  our  mind,  without  reflection  or  regard  of 
the  understanding.’ — Lockk.  Dreams  come  in  the 
course  of  nature  ; reveries  are  the  consequence  of  a 
peculiar  ferment. 

When  the  dream  is  applied  to  the  act  of  one  that  is 
awake,  it  admits  of  another  distinction  from  reverie. 
They  both  designate  what  is  confounded,  but  the 
dream  is  less  extravagant  than  the  reverie.  Ambitious 
men  please  themselves  with  dreams  of  future  great- 
ness ; enthusiasts  debase  the  purity  of  the  Christian 
religion  by  blending  their  own  wild  reveries  with  the 
doctrines  of  the  Gospel.  He  who  indulges  himself  in 
idle  dreams  lays  up  a store  of  disappointment  for  him 
self  when  he  recovers  his  recollection,  and  finds  that 
it  is  nothing  but  a dream;  ‘Gay’s  friends  persuaded 
him  to  sell  his  share  of  South-sea  stock,  but  he  dreamed 
of  dignity  and  splendour,  and  could  not  bear  to  obstruct 
his  own  fortune.’ — Johnson.  A love  of  singularity 
operating  on  an  ardent  mind  will  too  often  lead  men 
to  indulge  in  strange  reveries  ; ‘ I continued  to  sit  mo- 
tionless, with  my  eyes  fixed  upon  the  curtain,  some 
moments  after  it  fell.  When  I was  roused  from 
my  reverie  I found  myself  almost  alone.’— Hawkes 

WORTH. 


IRRATIONAL,  FOOLISH,  ABSURD,  PREPOS 
TEROUS. 

Irrational,  compounded  of  ir  or  in  and  ratio,  signi 
fies  contrary  to  reason,  and  is  employed  to  express  the 
want  of  the  faculty  itself,  or  a deficiency  in  the  exer 
cise  of  this  facully  ; foolish  denotes  the  perversion  cS 
this  faculty;  aisaraf,  from  surdus,  deaf,  signifies  thai 
to  which  one  would  turn  a deaf  ear ; preposterous^ 
from  proi  before  and  post  behind,  signifies  literally  thai 
side  foremost  which  is  unnatural  and  contrary  to  com 
mon  sense. 

Irrational  is  not  so  strong  a term  as  foolish : it  h 
applicable  more  frequently  to  the  thing  than  to  the 
person,  to  the  principle  than  to  the  practice ; ‘ The 
schemes  of  freethinkers  are  altogether  irrational,  ^nd 
require  the  most  extravagant  credulity  to  embrace 
them.’ — Addison.  Foolish  on  the  contrary  is  com 
monly  applicable  to  the  person  as  well  as  the  thing , 
to  the  practice  rather  than  the  principle  ; ‘ The  same 
well  meaning  gentleman  took  occasion  at  another  time 
to  bring  together  such  of  his  friends  as  were  addicted 
to  a foolish  habitual  custom  of  swearing,  in  order  to 
show  them  the  absurdity  of  the  practice. — Addison 
Skepticism  is  the  most  irrational  thing  that  exists; 
the  human  mind  is  formed  to  believe,  but  not  to 
doubt : he  is  of  all  men  most  foolish  who  stakes  his 
eternal  salvation  on  his  own  fancied  superiority  of 
intelligence  and  illumination.  Foolish,  absurd,  and 
preposterous,  rise  in  degree : a violation  of  common 
sense  is  implied  by  them  all,  but  they  vary  according 
to  the  degree  of  violence  which  is  done  to  the  under- 
standing: foolish  is  applied  to  any  thing,  howevei 
trivial,  which  in  the  smallest  degree  offends  our  under 
standings:  the  conduct  of  children  is  therefore  often 
foolish,  but  not  absurd  and  preposterous,  which  are 
said  only  of  serious  things  that  are  opposed  to  our 
judgements : it  is  absurd  for  a man  to  persuade  another 
to  do  that  which  he  in  like  circumstances  would  object 
to  do  himself ; 

But  grant  that  those  can  conquer,  these  can  cheat, 

’Tis  phrase  absurd  to  call  a villain  great; 

Who  wickedly  is  wise  or  madly  brave 

Is  but  the  more  a fool,  the  more  a knave. — Pope. 

It  is  preposterous  for  a man  to  expose  himself  to  the 
ridicule  of  others,  and  then  be  angry  with  those  who 
will  not  treat  him  respectfully ; ‘ By  a preposterous 
desire  of  things  in  themselves  indifferent  men  forego 
the  enjoyment  r>f  that  happiness  which  those  thins* 
are  instrumental  to  obtain.’— Berkeley 


92 


ENGLISH  SVNONYMES. 


IRRELIGIOUS,  PROFANE,  IMPIOUS. 

As  epithets  to  designate  the  character  of  the  person, 
they  seem  to  rise  in  degree . the  irreligious  is  nega- 
tive ; the  profane  and  impious  are  positive ; the  lat- 
ter being  much  stronger  than  the  former.  The  profani 
of  the  Latins,  ixom  pro  and  fanutn,  i.  e.  procul  afano, 
far  from  the  temple,  were  those  not  initiated,  who  were 
not  permitted  to  take  any  part  in  the  sacred  mysteries 
and  rites,  whence  by  a natural  consequence  those  who 
despised  what  was  sacred.  All  men  who  are  not  posi- 
tively actuated  by  principles  of  religion  are  irreligious; 

‘ An  officer  of  the  army  in  Roman  Catholick  countries, 
would  be  afraid  to  pass  for  an  irreligious  man  if  he 
should  be  seen  to  go  to  bed  without  offering  up  his 
devotions.’ — Addison.  Who,  if  we  include  all  such 
as  show  a disregard  to  the  outward  observances  of 
religion,  form  a too  numerous  class;  profanity  and 
impiety  are  however  of  a still  more  heinous  nature  ; 
tliey  consist  not  in  the  mere  absence  of  regard  for  reli- 
gion, but  in  a positive  contempt  of  it  and  open  out- 
rage against  its  laws  ; the  profane  man  treats  what  is 
sacred  as  if  it  were  profane  ; ‘ These  have  caused  the 
weak  to  stumble  and  thQ  profane  to  blaspheme,  offend- 
ing the  one  and  hardening  the  other.’ — South.  What 
a believer  holds  in  reverence,  and  utters  with  awe,  is 
pronounced  with  an  air  of  indifference  or  levity,  and 
as  a matter  of  ctimmon  discourse,  by  a profane  man  ; 
he  knowing  no  difference  between  sacred  and  profane; 
but  as  the  former  may  be  converted  into  a source  of 
scandal  towards  others;  ‘Fly,  ye  profane;  if  not, 
draw  near  with  awe.’ — Young.  The  impious  man  is 
directly  opposed  to  the  pious  man ; the  former  is  filled 
with  defiance  and  rebellion  against  his  Maker,  as  the 
latter  is  with  love  and  fear ; the  former  curses,  while 
the  latter  prays ; the  former  is  bloated  with  pride  and 
conceit ; tne  latter  is  full  of  humility  and  self-abase- 
ment : we  have  a picture  of  the  former  in  the  devils, 
and  of  the  latter  in  the  saints.  When  applied  to 
things,  the  term  irreligious  seems  to  be  somewhat 
more  positively  opposed  to  religion : an  irreligious 
book  is  not  merely  one  in  which  there  is  no  religion, 
but  that  also  which  is  detrimental  to  religion,  such  as 
skeptical  or  licentious  writings:  the  profane  in  this 
case  is  not  always  a term  of  reproach,  but  is  employed 
to  distinguish  what  is  expressly  spiritual  in  its  nature, 
from  that  which  is  temporal ; the  history  of  nations  is  i 
profane^  as  distinguished  from  the  sacred  history  con- 
tained in  the  Bible:  the  writings  of  the  heathens  are 
altogether  profane  as  distinguislied  from  the  moral 
writings  of  Christians,  or  the  believers  in  Divine  Reve- 
lation. On  the  other  hand,  when  we  speak  of  a pro- 
fane sentiment,  or  a profane  joke,  profane  lips,  and 
the  like,  the  sense  is  personal  and  reproachful ; ‘ No- 
thing \s  profane  that  serveth  to  holy  things. — Ralegh. 
Impious  is  never  applied  but  to  what  is  personal,  and 
in  the  very  worst  sense ; an  impious  thought,  an  im- 
pious wish,  or  an  impious  vow,  are  the  fruits  of  an 
impious  mind  ; 

Love’s  great  divinity  rashly  maintains 
Weak  impious  war  with  an  immortal  God. 

CUMBERL.AND. 

TO  FORSWEAR,  PERJURE,  SUBORN. 

Forswear  is  Saxon  ; perjure  is  Latin  ; the  preposi- 
tion for  and  per  are  both  privative,  and  the  words 
signify  literally  to  swear  contrary  to  the  truth  ; this  is, 
however,  not  their  only  distinction : to  forswear  is 
applied  to  all  kinds  of  oaths ; to  perjure  is  emjiloyed 
only  for  such  oaths  as  have  been  administered  by  the 
civil  magistrate. 

A soldier  forswears  himself  who  breaks  his  oath  of 
allegiance  by  desertion  ; and  a subject  forswears  him- 
self who  takes  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  his  Majesty 
which  he  afterward  violates  ; 

False  as  thou  art,  and  more  than  forsworn! 

Not  sprung  from  noble  blood,  nor  goddess  born ; 

Why  should  I own  7 what  worse  have  I to  fear  7 

Dryden. 

A man  perjures  himself  in  a court  of  law  who  swears 
to  the  truth  of  that  which  he  knows  to  be  false;  ‘ The 
common  oath  of  the  Scythian  was  by  the  sword  and 
the  fire,  for  that  they  accounted  those  two  special 
divine  powers  which  should  work  veneeance  on  tlio 
perjurers.’— Spenser.  Forswear  is  used  only  in  tlie 
proper  sense  ■.  perjure  may  be  used  figuratively  with 


regard  to  lovers’  vows ; he  w ho  deserts  his  mistress  tc 
whom  he  has  pledged  his  affection  is  a perjured  man ; 

Be  gone,  for  ever  leave  this  happy  sphere  ; 

For  perjur’d  lovers  have  no  mansions  here. — Lee. 

Forswear  and  perjure  are  the  acts  of  individuals ; 
suborn,  from  the  Latin  subornare,  signifies  to  make  to 
forswear:  3. perjured  man  has  all  the  guilt  upon  him 
self ; but  he  who  is  suborned  shares  his  guilt  with  the 
suborner , 

They  wore  suborn'd  ; 

Malcolm  and  Donalbain,  the  king’s  two  sons, 

Are  stole  away  and  fied.— Shakspeark 

DEVIL,  DEMON. 

Devil,  in  old  German  tiefel,  Saxon  deofl,  Welsh 
diafwl,  French  diable,  Italian  diavolo,  Dutch  duyfdel, 
Greek  5id[ioXos,  from  SiajSdWw,  to  traduce,  signifies 
properly  a calumniator,  and  is  always  taken  in  the  bad 
sense,  for  the  spirit  which  incites  to  evil,  and  tempts 
men  through  the  medium  of  their  evil  passions ; 
demon,  in  Latin  deemon,  Greek  6aipu>v,  from  6du)  to 
know,  signifies  one  knowing,  that  is,  having  preter 
natural  knowledge,  and  is  taken  either  in  a bad  or 
good  sense  for  the  power  that  acts  within  us  and  con- 
trols our  actions. 

Since  the  devil*  is  represented  as  the  father  of  all 
wickedness,  associations  have  been  connected  with  the 
name  that  render  its  pronounciation  in  familiar  dis- 
course offensive  to  the  chastened  ear  ; while  demon  is 
a term  of  indifferent  application,  that  is  commonly 
substituted  in  its  stead  to  designate  either  a good  or  an 
evil  spirit. 

Among  Jews  and  Christians  the  term  demon  is  taken 
always  in  a bad  sense ; but  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
understood  by  the  word  deemon  any  spirit  or  genius 
good  or  evil,  but  particularly  the  good  spirit  or  guardian 
angel,  who  was  supposed  to  accompany  a man  from 
his  birth.  Socrates  professed  to  be  always  under  the 
direction  of  such  a dmmon,  and  his  example  has  been 
followed  by  other  heathen  philosophers,  particularly 
those  of  the  Platonick  sect.  Hence  the  use  of  these 
terms  in  ordinary  discourse,  the  devil  being  always 
considered  as  the  supernatural  agent,  who,  by  the 
I divine  permission,  acts  on  the  hearts  and  minds  of 
men;  but  a demon  is  applied  generally  and  indefinitely 
in  the  sense  of  any  spirit.  The  devil  is  said  in  prover- 
bial discourse  to  be  in  such  things  as  go  contrary  to 
the  wish  ; the  demon  of  jealousy  is  said  to  possess  the 
mind  that  is  altogether  carried  away  with  that  passion. 
Men  who  wish  to  have  credit  for  more  goodness  than 
they  possess,  and  to  throw  the  load  of  guilt  off  them- 
selves, attribute  to  the  devil  a perpetual  endeavour  to 
draw  them  into  the  commission  of  crimes ; ‘ The 
enemies  we  are  to  contend  with  are  not  men  but 
devils' — Tillotson.  Wherever  the  demon  of  discord 
has  got  admittance,  there  is  a farewell  to  all  the  com- 
forts of  social  life ; ‘ My  good  demon,  who  sat  at  my 
right  hand  during  the  course  of  this  whole  vision, 
observing  in  me  a burning  desire  to  join  that  glorious 
company,  told  me  he  highly  approved  of  that  generous 
ardour  with  which  I seemed  transported.’ — Addison. 

HERETICK,  SCHISMATICK,  SECTARIAN  OR 
SECTARY,  DISSENTER,  NONCONFORMIST. 

A heretick  is  the  maintainer  of  heresy  (v.  Hetero- 
dox) ; the  schismatick  is  the  author  or  promoter  of 
schism;  the  sectarian  or  sectary  is  the  member  of  a 
sect ; the  dissenter  is  one  who  dissents  from  the  estab- 
lishment; and  the  nonconformist  one  who  does  not 
conform  to  the  establishment.  A man  is  a heretick 
only  for  matters  of  faith  and  doctrine,  but  he  is  a 
schismatick  in  matters  of  discipline  and  practice.  The 
heretick  therefore  is  not  always  a schismatick,  nor  the 
schismatick  a heretick.  Whoever  holds  the  doctrines 
that  arc  common  to  the  Roman  Catholick  and  the 
reformed  Churches,  is  not  a heretick  in  the  Protestant 
sense  of  the  word ; although  he  may  in  many  outward 
formalities  be  a schismatick.  The  Calvinists  are  not 
hnreticks,  but  they  are  for  the  most  part  schismaticks  ; 
on  the  other  hand,  there  are  many  members  of  the 
establishment,  who  hold  though  they  do  not  avow- 
heretical  notions. 

* Vide  Abbe  Girard : “ Diable,  iemon 


^:NGLiSH  SVNONYMES. 


&3 


The  heritick  is  considered  as  such  with  regard  to  the 
Ca»holick  Churcli,  or  the  whole  body  of  Christians, 
holding  the  same  fundamental  principles;  ‘When  a 
Papist  uses  the  word  hereticks  he  generally  means 
Protestants,  when  a Protestant  uses  the  word,  he 
generally  means  any  persons  wilfully  and  contentioiisly 
obstinate  in  fundamental  errours.’ — Watts.  Bui  the 
schismatick  and  sectarian  are  considered  as  such  with 
regard  to  particular  established  bodies  of  Christians. 
Schism,  from  the  Greek  denotes  an 

action,  and  the  schismatick  is  an  agent  who  splits  for 
himself  in  his  own  individual  capacity:  the  sectarian 
does  not  expressly  perform  a part,  he  merely  holds  a 
relation ; he  does  not  divide  any  thing  himself,  but 
belongs  to  that  which  is  already  cut  or  divided.  The 
schismatick,  therefore,  takes  upon  himself  the  whole 
moral  responsibility  of  the  schism  ; but  the  sectarian 
does  not  necessarily  take  an  active  part  in  the  measures 
of  his  sect : whatever  guilt  attaches  to  schism  attaches 
to  the  schismatick ; he  is  a voluntary  agent,  who  acts 
from  an  erroneous  principle,  if  not  an  unchristian  tem- 
per : the  sectarian  is  often  an  involuntary  agent ; he 
follows  that  to  which  he  has  been  incidentally  attached. 
It  is  possible,  therefore,  to  be  a schismatick,  and  not  a 
sectarian  ; as  also  to  be  a sectarian,  and  not  a schis- 
matick. Those  professed  members  of  the  establish- 
ment who  affect  the  title  of  evangelical,  and  wish  to 
palm  upon  the  Church  the  peculiarities  of  the  Calvin- 
istick  doctrine,  and  to  ingraft  their  own  modes  and 
forms  into  its  discipline,  are  schismaticks,  but  not  sec- 
tarians ; ‘ The  schismaticks  disturb  the  sweet  peace 
of  our  Church.’ — Howkl.  On  the  other  hand,  those 
who  by  birth  and  education  are  attached  to  a sect,  are 
sectarians,  but  not  always  schismaticks;  ‘In  the 
house  of  Sir  Samuel  Luke,  one  of  Cromwell’s  officers, 
Butler  observed  so  much  of  the  character  of  the  sec- 
taries, that  he  is  said  to  have  written  or  begun  his  poem 
at  this  time.’ — Johnson.  Consequently,  schismatick 
is  a term  of  much  greater  reproach  than  sectarian. 

The  schismatick' and  sectarian  have  a reference  to 
any  established  body  of  Christians  of  any  country; 
but  dissenter  is  a term  applicable  only  to  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Great  Britain,  and  bearing  relation  only  to 
the  established  Church  of  England : it  includes  not 
only  those  who  have  individually  and  personally  re- 
nounced the  doctrines  of  the  Church,  but  those  who 
are  in  a state  of  dissent  or  difference  from  it.  Dis- 
senters are  not  necessarily  either  schismaticks  or  sec- 
tarians, for  British  Roman  Catholicks,  and  the  Presby- 
terians of  Scotland,  are  all  dissenters,  although  they 
are  the  reverse  of“what  is  understood  by  schismatick 
and  sectarian:  it  is  equally  clear  that  ail  schismaticks 
and  sectarians  are  not  dissenters,  because  every  esta- 
blished community  of  Christians,  all  over  the  world, 
have  had  individuals,  or  smaller  bodies  of  individuals, 
setting  themselves  up  against  them:  the  term  dis- 
senter being  in  a great  measure  technical,  it  may  be 
applied  individually  or  generally  without  conveying 
any  idea  of  reproach ; ‘ Of  the  dissenters.  Swift  did 
not  wish  to  infringe  the  toleration,  but  he  opposed 
their  encroachments.’ — Johnson.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  nonconformist,  which  is  a more  special  term, 
including  only  such  as  do  not  conform  to  some  esta- 
blished or  national  religion;  ‘ Watts  is  at  least  one  of 
the  few  poets  with  whom  youth  and  ignorance  may  be 
safely  pleased ; and  happy  will  that  reader  be,  whose 
mind  is  disposed,  by  his  verses  or  his  prose,  to  imitate 
him  in  all  but  his  nonconformity.' — Johnson.  Con- 
sequently, all  members  of  the  Romish  Church,  or  of 
jiG  Kirk  of  Scotland,  are  excluded  from  the  number 
of  nonconformists ; while,  on  the  other  hand,  all 
British-born  subjects,  not  adhering  to  these  two  forms, 
and  at  the  same  time  renouncing  the  established  form 
of  their  country,  are  of  this  numter,  among  whom  may 
be  reckoned  Independents,  Presbyterians,  Baptists, 
Cluakers,  Methodists,  and  all  other  such  sects  as  have 
been  formed  since  the  reformation. 


HETERODOXY,  HERESY. 

Heterodoxy,  from  the  Greek  erepos  and  SSly,  signifies 
another  or  a different  doctrine ; heresy,  from  the  Greek 
aipcciis  a choice,  signifies  an  opinion  adopted  by  indivi- 
dual choice. 

• To  be  of  a different  persuasion  is  heterodoxy ; to 

• Vide  Roubaud  : “ H^r4tique,  h^l^rodoxe.” 


have  a faith  of  one’s  own  is  heresy ; thft  heterodoxy 
characterizes  the  opinions  formed ; the  heresy  charac- 
terizes the  individual  forming  the  opinion:  the  hete- 
rodoxy exists  independently  and  for  itself;  ‘ All  wrong 
notions  in  religion  are  ranked  under  the  general  name 
oi heterodox.' — Golding.  The  heresy  sets  itself  up 
against  others;  '■Heterodoxies,  false  doctrines,  yea, 
and  heresies,  may  be  propagated  by  prayer  as  well  as 
preaching.’ — Bull.  As  all  division  supposes  errour 
either  on  one  side  or  on  both,  the  words  heterodoxy 
and  heresy  are  applied  only  to  human  opinions,  and 
strictly  in  the  sense  of  a false  opinion,  formed  in  dis- 
tinction from  that  which  is  better  founded ; but  the 
former  respects  any  opinions,  important  or  otherwise ; 
the  latter  refers  only  to  matters  of  importance:  the 
heresy  is  therefore  a fundamental  errour.  There  has 
been  much  heterodoxy  in  the  Christian  world  at  all 
times,  and  among  these  have  been  heresies  denying, 
the  plainest  and  niost  serious  truths  which  have  beer 
acknowledged  by  the  great  body  of  Christians  since 
the  Apostles. 

OMEN,  PROGNOSTICK,  PRESAGE. 

All  these  terms  express  some  token  or  sign  of  what 
is  to  come  ; omen,  in  Latin  om.en,  probably  comes  from 
the  Greek  oioyai  to  think,  because  it  is  what  gives 
rise  to  much  conjecture ; prognostick,  in  Greek  irpoy- 
vee^iKbv,  from  :rpoyvw(7KW,  to  know  before,  signifies  the 
sign  by  which  one  judges  a thing  before  hand,  because 
di  prognostick  is  rather  a deduction  by  the  use  of  the 
understanding  ; the  presage  is  the  sentiment  of  pre- 
saging, or  the  thing  by  which  one  presages. 

The  omen  md  prognostick  are  both  drawn  from  ex- 
ternal objects  ; the  presage  is  drawn  from  one’s  own 
feelings.  The  omen  is  drawn  from  objects  that  have 
no  necessary  connexion  with  the  thing  they  are  made 
to  represent ; it  is  the  fruit  of  the  imagination,  and 
rests  on  superstition  : the  prognostick,  on  the  contrary, 
is  a sign  which  partakes  in  some  degree  of  the  quality 
of  the  thing  denoted.  Omens  were  drawn  by  the 
heathens  from  the  flight  of  birds,  or  the  entrails  of 
beasts;  ‘Aves  dant  omina  dira.’ — Tibullus.  And 
oftentimes  from  different  incidents ; thus  Ulysses, 
when  landed  on  his  native  island,  prayed  to  Jupiter 
that  he  would  give  him  a double  sign  by  which  he 
might  know  that  he  should  be  permitted  to  slay  the 
suitors  of  his  wife  ; and  when  he  heard  the  thunder, 
and  saw  a maiden  supplicating  the  gods  in  the  temple, 
he  took  these  for  omens  that  he  should  immediately 
proceed  to  put  in  execution  his  design ; the  omen  was 
therefore  considered  as  a*supernatural  sign  sent  for  a 
particular  purpose ; ‘ A signal  omen  stopp’d  the  passing 
host.’ — Pope.  Prognosticks,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
discovered  only  by  an  act^aintance  with  the  objects 
in  which  they  exist,  as  the  prognosticks  of  a mortal 
disease  are  known  to  none  so  well  as  the  physician  ; 
the  prognosticks  of  a storm  or  tempest  are  best  known 
to  the  mariner ; 

Though  your  prognosticks  run  too  fast. 

They  must  be  verified  at  last.— Swift. 

In  an  extended  sense,  the  word  omen  is  also  applied  to 
objects  which  serve  as  a sign,  or  enable  a person 
to  draw  a rational  inference,  which  brings  it  nearer  in 
sense  to  the  prognostick  and  the  presage:  but  the 
omen  may  be  used  of  that  which  is  either  good  or  bad, 
the  prognostick  mostly  of  that  which  is  bad.  It  is 
an  omen  of  our  success,  if  we  find  those  of  whom  we 
have  to  ask  a favour  in  a good  humour;  ‘ Hammond 
would  steal  from  his  fellows  into  places  of  his  privacy 
there  to  say  his  prayers,  omens  of  his  future  pacific 
tempt.’  and  eminent  devotion.’ — Fell.  The  spirit  of 
discontent  which  pervades  the  countenances  and  dis- 
course of  a people  is  a prognostick  of  some  popular 
commotion ; 

Careful  observers 

By  ^nxeprognosticks  may  foretell  a shower  - Swift. 
Presage,  when  signifying  a sentiment,  is  commonly 
applied  to  what  is  unfavourable ; ‘ I know  but  one  way 
of  fortifying  my  soul  against  these  gloomy  presages 
that  is,  by  securing  to  myself  the  protection  of  that 
Being  who  disposes  of  events.’— Addison.  But  when 
taken  for  that  by  which  one  presages,  it  Is  understood 
favourably,  or  in  an  indifferent  sense.  The  quickness 
of  powers  discoverable  in  a boy  is  sometimes  a vrf 
sage  of  his  future  greo  ness; 


94 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


Ours  joy  fill’d,  and  shout 
^resaffd  of  victory.— Milton. 


“5  0 AUGUR,  PRESAGE,  FOREBODE, 
BETOKEN,  PORTEND. 

Jtugur,  ill  French  augurer,  Latin  augurium,  comes 
from  avis  a bird,  as  an  augury  was  originally,  and  at 
•■Jl  times,  principally  drawn  from  the  song,  the  flight, 
or  other  actions  of  birds.  The  augurium  of  the 
Latins,  and  the  ohhviaya  of  the  Greeks,  was  a species 
cf  divination  practised  by  the  augurs,  who  professed 
to  foretell  events,  either  from  the  heavenly  phenomena, 
from  the  chattering  or  flight  of  birds,  from  the  sacred 
chickens,  according  to  the  manner  of  their  eating  their 
meat;  from  quadrupeds,  such  as  wolves,  foxes,  goats, 
&c. ; or,  lastly,  from  what  they  called  the  dirce,  or  the 
accidents  which  befell  persons,  as  sneezing,  stumbling, 
spilling  salt,  or  meeting  particular  objects  ; whence  by 
a natural  extension  in  the  meaning  of  the  term,  it  has 
bees  used  to  signify  any  conjecture  respectnig  futurity. 
Presage,  in  French  prdsage,  from  the  Latin  pra  and 
sagio  to  be  instinctively  wise,  signifies  to  be  thus  wise 
about  what  is  to  come  ; forebode  is  compounded  of 
fore,  and  the  Saxon  bodian,  and  the  English  bid,  to 
offer  or  to  declare,  signifying  to  pronounce  on  futurity; 
betoken  signifies  to  serve  as  a token  ; portend,\n  Latin 
portendo,  compounded  of  por  iox  pro  and  tendo,  signi- 
fies to  set  or  show  forth. 

To  augur  signifies  either  to  serve  or  make  use  of  as 
an  augury  ; to  forbode  and  presage  is  to  form  a con- 
clusion in  one’s  own  mind  : to  betoken  ox  portend  is  to 
serve  as  a sign.  Persons  or  things  augur  or  presage ; 
persons  only  forebode ; things  only  betoken  or  portend. 
Auguring  is  a calculation  of  some  future  event,  in 
which  the  imagination  seems  to  «much  concerned 
as  the  understanding:  presaging  ather  a conclusion 
or  deduction  of  what  may  be  from  what  is  ; it  lies  in 
the  understanding  more  than  in  the  imagination  : fore- 
boding lies  altogether  in  the  imagination.  Things  are 
said  to  betoken,  which  present  natural  signs  ; those  are 
said  to  portend,  which  present  extraordinary  or  super- 
natural signs. 

It  akgurs  ill  for  the  prosperity  of  a country  or  a 
state  when  its  wealth  has  increased  so  as  to  take  away 
•he  ordinary  stimulus  to  industry,  and  to  introduce  an 
inordinate  love  of  pleasure ; ‘ There  is  always  an 
augury  to  be  taken  of  what  a peace  is  likely  to  be, 
from  tire  preliminary  steps  that  are  made  to  bring  it 
about.’ — Burke.  We  presage  the  future  greatness  of 
a man  from  the  indications  which  he  gives  of  possess- 
ing an  elevated  character;  ‘ An  opinion  has  been  long 
conceived,  that  quickness  of  invention,  accuracy  of 
udgement,  or  extent  of  kntiwledge,  appearing  before 
the  usual  time,  presage  a short  life.’ — Johnson.  A 
distempered  mind  is  apt  to  forebode  every  ill  from  the 
most  trivial  circumstances;  ‘What  conscience /ore- 
bodes,  revelation  verifies,  assuring  us  that  a day  is  ap- 
pointed when  God  will  render  to  every  man  according 
to  his  works.’ — Blair.  We  see  with  pleasure  those 
actions  in  a child  which  betoken  an  ingenuous  temper; 

All  more  than  common  menaces  an  end : 

A blaze  betokens  brevity  of  life, 

As  if  bright  embers  should  emit  a flame. — Young. 

A mariner  sees  with  pain  the  darkness  of  the  sky 
which  portends  a storm  ; 

Skill’d  in  the  wing’d  inhabitants  of  the  air. 

What  auspices  their  notes  and  flights  declare, 

O ! say— for  all  religious  rites  portend 

A happy  voyage  and  a prosp’rous  end. — Dryden 
The  moralist  augurs  no  good  to  the  morals  of  a nation 
from  the  lax  discipline  which  prevails  in  the  education 
of  youth;  he  presages  the  loss  of  independence  to 
the  minds  of  men  in  whom  proper  principles  of  subor- 
dination have  not  been  early  engendered.  Men  some- 
times/orefeode  the  misfortunes  which  happen  to  them, 
but  they  oilenox  forebode  evils  which  never  r,:)me. 

TO  FORETELL,  PREDICT,  PROPHESY, 
PROGNOSTICATE. 

To  foretell,  compounded  of  fore  and  tell ; predict, 
from  pree  and  dico ; prophesy,  in  French  prophetiser, 
Latin  pro,  hetiso,  Greek  npoipriTtbo},  all  signify  to  tell, 
expound,  or  declare  what  is  to  happen,  and  convey  the 


idea  of  a verbal  communication  of  futurity  to  others 
prognosticate,  from  the  Greek  irpiryivdiffica)  to  know 
beforehand,  to  bode  or  imagine  to  one’s  self  before 
hand,  denotes  the  action  of  feeling  rather  than  speaii 
ing  »f  things  to  come. 

Foretell  is  the  most  general  in  its  sense,  and  familial 
in  its  application  ; we  foretell  common  events ; we  may 
predict  which  is  common  or  uncommon;  prophe- 
cies are  for  the  most  part  important ; foretelling  is  an 
ordinary  gift;  one  foretells  by  a simple  calculation  or 
guess  ; 

Above  the  rest,  the  sun,  who  never  lies. 

Foretells  the  change  of  weather  in  the  skies. 

Dryden. 

To  predict  and  prophesy  are  extraordinary  gifts  ; one 
predicts  either  by  a superiour  degree  of  intelligence,  or 
by  a supernatural  power  real  or  supposed  ; ‘The  con- 
sequences of  suffering  the  French  to  establish  them- 
selves in  Scotland,  are  predicted  with  great  accuracy 
and  discernment.’— Robertson.  ‘ In  Christ  they  all 
meet  with  an  invincible  evidence,  as  if  they  we>-e  not 
predictions,  but  after  relations ; and  the  penmen  of 
them  not  prophets,  but  evangelists.’ — South.  One 
prophesies  by  means  of  inspiration  real  or  supposed ; 

An  ancient  augur  prophesied,  from  hence, 

“ Behold  on  Latian  shores  a foreign  prince !” 

Dryden. 

Men  of  discernment  and  experience  easily  foretell  the 
events  of  undertakings  which  fall  under  their  notice. 
The  priests  among  the  heathens,  like  the  astrologers 
and  conjurers  of  more  modern  times,  pretended  to  pre- 
dict events  that  effected  nations  and  empires.  The 
gift  of  prophecy  was  one  among  the  number  of  the 
supernalura!  gifts  communicated  to  the  primitive 
Christians  by  the  Holy  Ghost  ‘ No  arguments  made 
a stronger  impression  on  these  Pagan  converts,  thapi 
the  predictions  relating  to  our  Saviour,  in  those  old 
prophetick  writings  deposited  among  the  hands  of  the 
greatest  enemies  to  Christianity.’ — Addison. 

Prediction  as  a noun  is  employed  for  both  the  verbs 
foretell  and  predict ; it  is  therefore  a term  of  less  value 
t\\nn.prophecy.  We  speak  of  a prediction  being  veri- 
fied, and  prophecy  fulfilled:  the  predictions  of  alma- 
nack-makers respecting  the  weather  are  as  seldom 
verified  as  the  prophecies  of  visionaries  and  enthusiast# 
are  fulfilled  respecting  the  death  of  princes  or  the 
affairs  of  governments.  To  prognosticate  is  an  act  of 
the  understanding;  it  is  guided  by  outward  symptoms 
as  a rule  ; it  is  only  stimulated  and  not  guided  by  out 
ward  objects  ; a physician  prognosticates  the  crisis  of 
a disorder  by  the  symptoms  discoverable  in  the  patient; 
‘'Who  that  should  view  the  small  beginnings  of  some 
persons  could  ImdiQlne  ox  prognosticate  those  vast  in 
creases  of  fortune  that  have  afterward  followed  them 
— South. 


CONJECTURE,  SUPPOSITION,  SURMISE. 

Conjecture,  in  French  conjecture,  Latin  conjectura 
from  conjicio  or  con  and  jacio  to  throw  together,  sig- 
nifies the  thing  put  together  or  framed  in  the  mind 
without  design  or  foundation;  supposition,  in  French 
supposition,  from  suppono,  compounded  of  sub  and 
pono  to  put  in  the  place  of  a thing,  signifies  to 
one’s  thoughts  in  the  place  of  reality;  surmise,  cc 
pounded  of  sur  or  sub  and  misc,  Latin  missus  pa 
ciple  of  mitto  to  send  or  put  forth,  has  an  origins 
meaning  similar  to  the  former. 

All  these  terms  convey  an  idea  of  something  in  the 
mind  independent  of  the  reality;  but  conjecture  is 
founded  less  on  rational  inference  than  swpjiositzow; 
and  surmise  less  than  either;  any  circumstance,  how 
ever  trivial,  may  give  rise  to  a conjecture  ; some  rea 
sons  are  requisite  to  produce  a supposition ; a parti- 
cular state  of  feeling  or  train  of  thinking  may  of  itself 
create  a surmise. 

Although  the  same  epithets  are  generally  applicabl# 
to  all  these  terms,  yet  we  may  with  propriety  say  that 
a conjecture  is  idle;  a supposition  false;  a surmise 
fanciful. 

Conjectures  are  employed  on  events,  their  causes, 
consequences,  and  contingencies;  ‘In  the  ca>tingof 
lots,  a man  cannot,  upon  any  ground  of  reason,  biing 
the  event  so  much  as  under  conjecture.' — South.  Sup- 
position is  concerned  in  speculative  l oiiits;  ‘ 'I'lds  is 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


95 


only  an  Infallibility  upon  supposition^  that  if  a thing 
be  true  it  is  impossible  to  be  false.’ — Tillotson.  Sur- 
mise is  employed  on  personal  concerns ; ‘ To  let  go 
private  surmises  whereby  the  thing  is  not  made  better 
or  worse ; if  just  and  allowable  reasons  might  lead 
them  to  do  as  they  did,  then  are  these  censures  frus- 
trate.’— Ho  JKKR.  The  secret  measures  of  government 
• give  rise  lo  various  ; all  i\\e  suppositions 

which  are  formed  respecting  comets  seem  at  present  to 
fall  short  of  tlie  truth  : the  behaviour  of  a person  will 
often  occasion  a surmise  respecting  his  intentions  and 
proceedings,  let  them  be  ever  so  disguised.  Antiqua- 
rians and  etymologists  deal  much  in  conjectures;  they 
have  ample  scope  atforded  them  for  asserting  what  can 
be  neither  proved  nor  denied;  ‘Persons  of  studious 
and  contemplative  natures  often  entertain  themselves 
with  the  history  of  past  ages,  or  raise  schemes  and  con- 
ectures  upon  futurity.’ — Addison.  Religionists  are 
pleased  to  build  many  suppositions  of  a doctrinal  na- 
ture on  theSciiptures,  or,  more  properly,  on  their  own 
partial  and  forced  interpretations  of  the  Scriptures ; 
‘Even  in  that  part  which  we  have  of  the  journey  to 
Canterbury,  it  will  be  necessary,  in  the  following  Re- 
view of  Cluiucer,  to  take  notice  of  certain  defects  and 
inconsistencies,  which  can  only  be  accounted  for  upon 
the  supposition  that  the  work  was  never  finished  by 
the  autlior.’ — Tyrwhitt.  It  is  the  part  of  prudence, 
as  well  as  justice,  not  to  express  any  surmises  which 
we  may  entertain,  either  as  to  the  character  or  conduct 
of  otliers,  which  may  not  redound  to  their  credit  ; 
‘ Any  the  least  surmise  of  neglect  has  raised  an  aver- 
sion in  one  man  to  another.’ — South. 


TO  CONJECTURE,  GUESS,  DIVINE 

Conjecturing^  in  the  same  sense  as  before  (vide  Con- 
jecture), in  nearly  allied  to  guessing  and  divining; 
guess,  in  Saxon  and  Low  German  gissen,  is  connected 
with  the  word  ghost,  and  the  German  geist,  &c.  spirit, 
signifying  the  action  of  a spirit ; divine,  from  the  Latin 
divinus  and  Deus  a God,  signifies  to  think  and  know 
as  independently  as  a God. 

We  conjecture  that  which  may  be;  ‘ When  we  look 
upon  such  things  as  equally  may  or  may  not  be,  human 
reason  can  then,  at  the  best,  but  conjecture  what  will 
be.’— South.  We  guess  that  a thing  actually  is  or 
was; 

Incapable  and  shallow  innocents  ! 

You  cannot  ^Mcss  who  caused  your  father’s  death. 

Sh.\kspeare. 

We  conjecture  at  the  meaning  of  a person’s  actions ; 
we  guess  that  it  is  a certain  hour.  The  conjecturing 
Is  opposed  to  the  full  conviction  of  a thing ; the  guess- 
ing is  opposed  to  the  certain  knowledge  of  a thing; 

And  these  discoveries  make  us  all  confess 

That  sublunary  science  is  but  guess. — Denham. 

A child  guesses  at  that  portion  of  his  lesson  which  he 
has  not  properly  learned;  a fanciful  person  employs 
conjecture  wliere  he  cannot  draw  any  positive  con- 
clusion. 

To  guess  and  conjecture  both  imply,  for  the  most 
part,  the  judging  or  forming  an  opinion  without  any 
grounds;  but  sometimes  they  are  used  for  a judgement 
on  some  grounds ; ‘ One  may  guess  by  Plato’s  writings, 
that  his  meaning  as  to  the  interiour  deities,  was,  that 
they  who  would  have  them  might,  and  they  who  would 
not  might  leave  them  alone;  but  tliat  himself  had  a 
right  opinion  concerning  the  true  God.’— Stilling- 
fleet. 

Now  hear  the  Grecian  fraud,  and  from  this  one 

Conjecture  all  the  rest. — Dryden. 

To  guess  and  conjecture  are  the  natural  acts  of  the 
mind : divine,  in  its  proper  sense,  is  a supernatural  act; 
in  this  sense  the  heathens  affected  to  divine  that  which 
was  known  only  to  an  Omniscient  Being;  and  impos- 
tors in  our  time  presume  to  divine  in  matters  that  are 
set  above  the  reach  of  human  comprehension.  The 
l«rm  io  however  employed  to  denote  a speciesof^wess- 
tng  in  different  matters,  as  to  divine  the  meaning  of  a 
wysteiy ; 

Walking  they  talk’d,  and  fruitlessly  divin'd 

What  friend  the  priestess  by  those  words  design’d. 

Dryden. 


TO  DOUBT,  QUESTION,  DISPUTE. 

Doubt,  in  French  douter,  Latin  duhito  from  duhiua^ 
comes  from  Hu)  and  ivSva^w,  in  the  same  manner  aa 
our  frequentative  doubt,  signifying  to  have  two  opin- 
ions ; question,  in  uavm  quwstio,  from  queero,  to  inquire, 
signifies  to  make  a question  or  inquiry:  dispute,  from 
the  Catm  dispute,  or  dis  asunder  awdputo  to  think,  sig 
nifies  literally  to  think  differently. 

These  terms  express  the  act  of  the  mind  in  staying 
its  decision.  The  doubt  lies  altogether  in  the  mind  ; it 
is  a less  active  feeling  than  questioning  or  disputing . 
by  the  former  we  merely  suspend  decision ; by  the  latter 
we  actually  demand  proofs  in  order  to  assist  us  in  de- 
ciding. We  may  doubt  in  silence ; we  cannot  question 
or  dispute  without  expressing  it  directly  or  indirectly. 

He  who  suggests  doubts  does  it  with  caution;  he 
who  makes  a question  throws  in  difficulties  with  a 
degree  of  confidence.  Doubts  insinuate  themselves 
into  the  mind  oftentimes  involuntarily  on  the  part  of  the 
doubter;  questions  are  always  made  with  an  express 
design.  We  doubt  in  matters  of  general  interest,  on 
abstruse  as  well  as  common  subjects,  we  question 
mostly  in  ordinary  matters  that  are  of  a personal  inte- 
rest ; disputing  is  no  less  personal  than  questioning,  but 
the  dispute  respects  the  opinions  or  assertions  of 
another ; the  question  respects  liis  moral  character  or 
qualities;  we  doubt  the  truth  of  a position;  ‘ For  my 
part  I think  the  being  of  a God  is  so  little  to  be  doubted, 
that  I think  it  is  almost  the  only  truth  we  are  sure  of.’ 
— Addison.  We  yuesfioTi  the  veracity  of  an  author; 

Our  business  in  the  field  of  fight 

Is  not  to  question,  but  to  prove  our  might. — Pope. 
The  existence  of  mermaids  was  doubted  for  a great 
length  of  time ; but  the  testimony  of  creditable  jiersons, 
who  have  lately  seen  them,  ought  now  to  put  it  out  of 
all  doubt.  When  the  practicability  of  any  plan  is  ques- 
tioned, it  is  unnecessary  to  enter  any  farther  into  its 
merits.  When  the  authority  of  the  person  is  disputed 
it  is  in  vain  for  him  to  offer  his  advice  or  opinion; 

Now  I am  sent,  and  am  not  to  dispute 
My  prince’s  orders,  but  to  execute. 

The  doubt  is  frequently  confined  to  the  individual, 
the  question  and  dispute  frequently  respect  others. 
We  doubt  whether  we  shall  be  able  to  succeed;  we 
question  another’s  right  to  interfere  ; we  dispute  a per 
son’s  claim  to  any  honour ; we  doubt  whether  a thing 
will  answer  the  end  proposed;  we  question  the  utility 
of  any  one  making  the  attempt;  we  dispute  the  justice 
of  any  legal  sentence ; in  this  application  of  the  terms 
question  and  dispute,  the  former  expresses  a less  deci- 
sive feeling  and  action  than  the  latter. 

There  are  many  doubtful  “teases  in  medicine,  where 
the  physician  is  at  a loss  to  decide ; there  are  many 
questionable  measures  proposed  by  those  who  are  in  or 
out  of  power  which  demand  consideration.  There  are 
many  disputable  points  between  man  and  man  which 
cause  much  angry  feeling  and  disposition;  to  doubt 
every  thing  is  more  inimical  to  the  cause  of  truth,  than 
the  readiness  to  believe  every  thing ; a disposition  to 
question  whatever  is  said  or  done  by  others,  is  much 
more  calculated  to  give  offence  than  to  prevent  decep- 
tion. A disposition  to  dispute  every  thing  another  says 
or  does  renders  a person  very  unfit  to  be  dealt  with. 

DOUBT,  SUSPENSE. 

The  doubt  respects  that  which  we  should  believe ; the 
suspense,  from  the  Latin  suspensus  and  suspendeo  to 
hang  upon,  has  regard  to  that  which  we  wish  to  know 
or  ascertain.  We  are  in  doubt  for  the  want  of  evi- 
dence; we  are  in  suspense  for  the  want  of  certainty. 
The  doubt  interrupts  our  progress  in  the  attainment  of 
truth;  ‘Could  any  difficulty  have  been  proposed,  the 
resolution  would  have  been  as  early  as  the  proposal ; il 
could  not  have  had  time  to  settle  into  doubt.' — South. 
The  suspense  impedes  us  in  the  attainment  of  oui 
objects,  or  in  our  motives  to  action:  the  former  is  con- 
nected principally  with  the  understanding;  the  latter 
acts  upon  the  hopes;  it  is  frequently  a state  between 
hope  and  fear.  We  have  our  doubts  about  things  that 
have  no  regard  to  time ; ‘ Gold  is  a wonderful  clearer 
of  the  understanding;  it  dissipates  every  doubt  and 
scruple  in  an  instant.’— Addison.  We  are  in  suspense 
about  things  that  are  to  happen  in  future,  or  that  are 
about  to  be  done;  ' The  bundle  of  hay  on  either  side 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


striking  his  (the  ass’s)  sight  and  smell  in  the  same  pro- 
portion, would  keep  him  in  perpetual  suspense.' — Addi- 
son. Those  are  the  least  inclined  to  doubt  who  have 
the  most  thorough  knowledge  of  a subject ; those  are 
the  least  exposed  to  the  unpleasant  feeling  of  suspense 
who  confine  their  wislus  to  the  present; 

Ten  days  the  prophet  in  suspense  remain’d, 

Would  no  man’s  fate  pronounce ; at  last  constrain’d 
fly  Ithacus,  he  solemnly  design’d 
Me  for  the  sacrifice. — Dryden. 


DOUBTFUL,  DUBIOUS,  UNCERTAIN,  PRECARIOUS. 

The  doubtful  admits  of  doubt  (v.  Doubt,  suspense) : 
the  dubious  creates  suspense.  The  doubtful  is  said  of 
things  in  which  we  are  required  to  have  an  opinion  ; 
the  dubious  respects  events  and  things  that  must 
speak  for  themselves.  In  doubtful  cases  it  is  advise- 
able  for  a judge  to  lean  to  the  side  of  mercy ; ‘ In 
handling  the  right  of  war,  I am  not  willing  to  inter- 
mix matter  doubtful  with  that  which  is  out  of  doubt.' 
— Bacon.  While  the  issue  of  a contest  dxLbious, 
all  judgment  of  the  parties,  or  of  the  case,  must  be 
carefully  avoided  ; 

His  utmost  pow’r,  with  adverse  power  oppos’d 
In  dubious  battle  on  the  plains  of  heav’n. 

Milton. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark,  however,  that  doubtful  and 
dubious,  being  both  derivations  from  the  same  Latin 
words  dubito  and  dubius,  are  or  may  be  indifferently 
used  in  many  instances,  according  as  it  may  suit 
the  verse  or  otherwise  ; 

The  Greeks  with  slain  Tlepolemus  retir’d, 

Whose  fall  Ulysses  view’d  with  fury  fir’d ; 

Doubtful  if  Jove’s  great  son  he  should  pursue. 

Or  pour  his  vengeance  on  the  Lycian  crew. — Pope. 

‘At  the  lower  end  of  the  room  is  to  be  a side-table 
for  persons  of  great  fame,  but  dubious  existence, 
such  as  Hercules,  Theseus,  .^neas,  Achilles,  Hec- 
tor, and  others.’— Swift. 

Doubtful  and  dubious  have  always  a relation  to 
the  person  forming  the  opinion  on  the  subject  in 
question ; uncertain  and  precarious  are  epithets 
which  designate  the  qualities  of  the  things  them- 
selves. Whatever  is  uncertain  may  from  that  very 
circumstance  be  doubtful  or  dubious  to  those  who 
attempt  to  determine  upon  them ; but  they  may  be 
designated  for  their  uncertainty  without  any  regard 
to  the  opinions  which  they  may  give  rise  to. 

A person’s  coming  may  be  doubtful  or  uncertain ; 
the  length  of  his  stay  is  ®ftener  described  as  uncer- 
tain than  as  doubtful.  The  doubtful  is  opposed  to 
that  on  which  we  form  a positive  conclusion ; the 
uncertain  to  that  which  is  definite  or  prescribed. 
The  efficacy  of  any  medicine  is  doubtful;  fhe  man- 
ner of  its  operation  may  be  uncertain.  While  our 
knowledge  is  limited,  we  must  expect  to  meet  with 
many  things  that  are  doubtful;  ‘In  doubtful  cases 
reason  still  determines  for  the  safer  side ; especially 
if  the  case  be  not  only  doubtful,  but  also  highly  con- 
cerning, and  the  venture  be  a soul,  and  an  eternity.’ 
—South.  As  every  thing  in  the  world  is  exposed 
to  change,  and  all  that  is  future  is  entirely  above 
our  control,  we  must  naturally  expect  to  find  every 
thing  unoertain,  but  what  we  see  passing  before  us  ; 
Near  old  Antandros,  and  at  Ida’s  foot. 

The  timber  of  the  sacred  grove  we  cut 
And  build  our  fleet,  uncertain  yet  to  find 
What  place  the  gods  for  our  repose  assign’d. 

Dryden. 

Precarious,  from  the  Latin  precarius  and  precor  to 
pray,  signifies  granted  to  entreaty,  depending  on  the 
will  or  humor  of  another,  whence  it  is  applicable  to 
whatever  is  obtained  from  others.  Precarious  is  the 
highest  species  of  uncertainty,  applied  to  such  things 
as  depend  on  future  casualties  in  opposition  to  that 
which  is  fixed  and  determined  by  design.  The  wea- 
ther is  uncertain ; the  subsistence  of  a person  who  has 
no  stated  income  or  source  of  living  must  be  precari- 
ous . It  is  uncertain  what  day  a thing  may  take  place, 
until  it  is  determined  ; ‘ Man,  without  the  protec- 
ion  of  a superior  Being,  is  secure  of  nothing  that 


he  enjoys,  and  uncertain  of  every  thing  he  hopes  for. 
— Tillotson.  There  is  nothing  more  precarious  tlvan 
what  depends  upon  the  favour  of  statesmen ; ‘ The 
frequent  disappointments  incident  to  hunting  induced 
men  to  establish  a permanent  property  in  their  flocks 
and  herds,  in  order  to  sustain  themselves  m a less  pre 
carious  manner.’ — Blackston*. 


DEMUR,  DOUBT,  HESITATION,  OBJECTICN 

The  demur,  the  doubt,  and  the  hesitation  are  ner<. 
employed  in  the  sense  either  of  what  causes  demur 
doubt,  and  hesitation,  or  of  the  states  of  mind  tliem 
selves ; the  objection,  from  objicio,  or  ob  and  jacio  to 
throw  in  the  way,  signifies  what  is  thrown  in  the  way 
so  as  to  stop  our  progress. 

Demurs  are  often  in  matters  of  deliberation  ; doubt 
in  regard  to  matters  of  fact ; hesitation  in  matters  of 
ordinary  conduct ; and  objections  in  matters  of  common 
consideration.  It  is  the  business  of  one  who  gives 
counsel  to  make  demurs;  it  is  the  business  of  the  in 
quirer  to  suggest  doubts ; it  is  the  business  of  all  occa 
sionally  to  make  a hesitation  who  are  called  upon  to 
decide ; it  is  the  business  of  those  to  make  objections 
whose  opinion  is  consulted.  Artabanes  made  many 
demurs  to  the  proposed  invasion  of  Greece  by  Xerxes; 

‘ Certainly  the  highest  and  dearest  concerns  of  a tem- 
poral life  are  infinitely  less  valuable  than  those  of  an 
eternal ; a.id  consequently  ought,  without  any  demur 
at  all,  to  be  sacrificed  to  them  whenever  they  come  in 
competition  with  them.’— South.  Doubts  have  been 
suggested  respecting  the  veracity  of  Herodotus  as  an 
historian ; 

Our  doubts  are  traitors. 

And  make  us  lose,  by  fearing  to  attempt 
The  good  we  oft  might  win. — Shakspeare. 

It  is  not  proper  to  ask  that  which  cannot  be  granteu 
without  hesitation;  ‘A  spirit  of  revenge  makes  him 
curse  the  Grecians  in  the  seventh  book,  when  they 
hesitate  to  accept  Hector’s  challenge.’— Pope.  And 
it  is  not  the  part  of  an  amiable  disposition  to  make  a 
hesitation  in  complying  with  a reasonable  request: 
there  are  but  few  things  which  we  either  attempt  to  do 
or  recommend  to  others  that  is  not  liable  to  some  kind 
of  an  objection. 

A demur  stops  the  adjustment  of  any  plan  or  the 
determination  of  any  question : 

But  with  rejoinders  and  replies. 

Long  bills,  and  answers  stufl‘’d  with  lies, 
Demur,  imparlance,  and  assoign. 

The  parties  ne’er  could  issue  join. — Swift 
A doubt  interrupts  the  progress  of  the  mind  in  coming 
to  a stale  of  satisfaction  and  certainty : they  are  both 
applied  to  abstract  questions  or  such  as  are  of  general 
interest ; ‘ This  skeptical  proceeding  will  make  every 
sort  of  reasoning  on  every  subject  vain  and  frivolous, 
even  that  skeptical  reasoning  itself  which  has  per- 
suaded us  to  entertain  a doubt  concerning  the  agree- 
ment of  our  perceptions.’— Burke. 

Hesitation  and  objection  are  more  individual  and 
private  in  their  nature.  Hesitation  lies  mostly  in  the 
slate  of  the  will ; objection  is  rather  the  offspring  of 
the  understanding.  The  hesitation  interferes  with 
the  action;  ‘If  every  man  were  wise  and  virtuous, 
capable  to  discern  the  best  use  of  time  and  resolute  to 
practise  it,  it  might  be  granted,  I think,  without  hesita- 
tion, that  total  liberty  would  be  a blessing.’— Johnson. 
The  objection  affects  the  measure  or  the  mode  of  ac 
tion ; ‘ Lloyd  was  always  raising  objections  and  r«» 
moving  them.’ — Johnson. 

TO  DEMUR,  HESITATE,  PAUSE. 

Demur,  in  French  demeurer,  Latin  demorari,  signifies 
to  keep  back  ; hesitate,  in  Latin  hcesitatum,  participle  of 
hcesito,  a frequentative  from  hmro,  signifies,  first  to  stick 
at  one  thing  and  then  another;  pause,  in  Latin  pansa, 
from  the  Greek  navo),  to  cease,  signifies  to  make  a stand. 

The  idea  of  stopping  is  common  to  these  terms,  to 
which  signification  is  added  some  distinct  collateral 
idea  for  each  : we  demur  from  doubt  or  difficulty  ; we 
hesitate  from  an  undecided  state  of  mind ; we  pause 
from  circumstances.  Demurring  is  the  act  of  an  equal  • 
we  demur  in  givirg  our  assent ; hesitating  is  often  tXit 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


97 


xlof  s.  superlour;  we  henitate  in  giving  our  consent; 
vhen  a proposition  appears  to  be  unjust  we  demur  in 
Hipporting  it  on  the  ground  of  its  injustice;  ‘In  order 
^ banisli  an  evil  out  of  the  world  that  does  not  only 
produce  great  uneasiness  to  private  persons,  but  has 
also  a very  bad  influence  on  the  publick,  I shall  endea- 
vour to  show  the  folly  of  demurring.' — Addison. 
When  a request  of  a dubious  nature  is  made  to  us  we 
hesitate  in  complying  with  it ; ‘ I want  no  solicitations 
for  me  to  comply  where  it  would  be  ungenerous  for  me 
to  refuse ; for  can  I hesitate  a moment  to  take  upon 
myself  the  protection  of  a daughter  of  Correllius?’ — 
Melmoth’s  Letters  of  Pliny-  Prudent  people  are 
most  apt  to  dernwr;  but  people  of  a wavering  temper 
are  apt  to  hesitate:  demurring  may  be  often  unneces- 
sary, but  it  is  seldom  injurious;  hesitating  is  mostly 
injurious  when  it  is  not  necessary  ; the  former  is  em- 
ployed in  matters  that  admit  of  delay;  the  latter  in 
cases  where  immediate  decision  is  requisite. 

Demurring  and  hesitating  are  both  employed  as  acts 
of  the  mind  ; pausing  is  an  external  action ; we  demur 
and  hesitate  in  determining  ; we  pause  in  speaking  or 
doing  any  thing ; 

Think,  O think, 

And  ere  thou  plunge  into  the  vast  abys.-, 

Pause  on  the  verge  awhile,  look  down  and  see 
Thy  future  mansion.— Porteus. 

TO  SCRUPLE,  HESITATE,  WAVER, 
FLUCTUATE. 

1 o scruple  {v.  Conscientious)  simply  keeps  us  from 
deciding;  the  hesitation.,  from  the  Latin  /ncs/to,  fre- 
quentative of  hcereo  to  Stick,  signifying  to  stick  first  at 
one  thing  and  then  another ; the  wavering,  from  the 
word  wave,  signifying  to  move  backward  and  forward 
like  a wave ; and  fluctuation,  from  the  Latin  fluctus  a 
wave,  all  bespeak  the  variable  state  of  the  mind : we 
scruple  simply  from  motives  of  doubt  as  to  the  pro- 
priety of  a thing  ; we  hesitate  and  waver  from  various 
motives,  particularly  such  as  affect  our  interests. 
Conscience  produces  scruples,  fear  produces  Aesitafiora, 
passion  produces  wavering:  a person  scruples  to  do 
an  action  which  may  hurt  his  neighbour  or  offend  his 
Maker ; he  hesitates  to  do  a thing  which  he  fears  may 
not  prove  advantageous  to  him  ; he  wavers  in  his  mind 
between  going  or  staying,  according  as  his  inclinations 
impel  him  to  the  one  or  the  other  : a man  who  does  not 
scruple  to  say  or  do  as  he  pleases  will  be  an  offensive 
companion,  if  not  a dangerous  member  of  society  ; 
‘ The  Jacobins  desire  a change,  and  they  wiil  have  it 
if  they  can  ; if  they  cannot  have  it  by  English  cabal, 
they  wi''  .fiake  no  sort  of  scruple  to  have  it  by  the  cabal 
of  France.’ — Burke.  He  who  hesitates  only  when  the 
doing  of  good  is  proposed,  evinces  himself  a worthless 
member  of  society ; ‘ The  lords  of  the  congregation  did 
not  hesitate  a moment  whether  they  should  employ 
their  whole  strength  in  one  generous  effort  to  rescue 
their  religion  and  liberty  from  impending  destruction.’ 
— Robertson.  He  who  wavers  between  his  duty  and 
his  inclination,  will  seldom  maintain  a long  or  doubtful 
contest ; ‘ It  is  the  greatest  absurdity  to  be  wavering 
and  unsettled  without  closing  with  that  side  which  ap- 
pears the  most  safe  and  probable.’— Addison. 

To  fluctuate  conveys  the  idea  of  strong  agitation  ; 
to  waver,  that  of  constant  motion  backward  and  for- 
ward ; when  applied  in  the  moral  sense,  to  fluctuate 
designates  the  action  of  ttie  spirits  or  the  opinions ; 
to  waver  is  said  only  of  the  will  or  opinions:  he  who 
is  alternately  merry  and  sad  in  quick  succession  is  said 
to  be  fluctuating ; or  he  who  has  many  opinions  in 
quick  succession  is  said  to  fluctuate;  but  he  who  can- 
not form  an  opinion,  or  come  to  a resolution,  is  said  to 
waver. 

Fluctuations  and  waverings  are  both  opposed  to  a 
manly  character;  but  the  former  evinces  the  uncon- 
trolled influence  of  the  passions,  the  total  want  of  that 
equanimity  which  characterizes  the  Christian;  the 
latter  denotes  the  want  of  fixed  principle,  or  the  heces- 
Bary  decision  of  character;  we  can  never  have  occasion 
to  fluctuate,  if  we  never  raise  our  hopes  and  wishes 
oeyond  what  is  attainable ; 

The  tempter,  but  with  show  of  zeal  and  love 
To  man,  and  indignation  at  his  wrong. 

New  part  puts  on,  and  as  to  passion  mov’d 
Fluctuates  disturb’d. — Milton. 


We  can  never  have  occasion  to  leaver,  if  we  know  and 
feel  what  is  right,and  resolve  never  to  swerve  from  it , 

‘ Let  a man,  without  trepidation  or  wavering,  proceed 
in  discharging  his  duty.’ — Blair. 

TO  HESITATE,  FAULTER,  STAMMER, 
STUTTER. 

Hesitate  signifies  the  same  as  in  the  preceding 
article ; falter  or  faulter  seems  to  signify  to  commit  a 
fault  or  blunder,  or  it  may  be  a frequentative  of  to  faii 
signifying  to  stumble ; stammer,  in  the  Teutonic  stam- 
mern,  comes  most  probably  from  the  Hebrew 
to  obstruct ; stutter  is  but  a variation  of  stammer. 

A defect  in  utterance  is  the  idea  which  is  common  in 
the  signification  of  all  these  terms  : they  differ  either  as 
to  the  cause  or  the  mode  of  the  action.  With  regard 
to  the  cause,  a hesitation  results  from  the  state  of  the 
mind,  and  an  interruption  in  the  train  of  thoughts; 
falter  arises  from  a perturbed  state  of  feeling ; stammer 
and  stutter  arise  either  from  an  incidental  circum 
stance,  or  more  commonly  from  a physical  defect  in  the 
organs  of  utterance.  A person  who  is  not  in  the  habits 
of  publick  speaking,  or  of  collecting  his  thoughts  into 
a set  form,  will  be  apt  to  hesitate  even  in  familiar  con 
versation ; he  who  first  addresses  a publick  assembly 
will  be  apt  to  falter.  Children  who  first  begin  to  read 
will  stammer  at  hard  words : and  one  who  has  an 
impediment  in  his  speech  will  stutter  when  he  attempts 
to  speak  in  a hurry. 

With  regard  to  the  mode  or  degree  of  the  action, 
hesitate  expresses  less  than  falter : stammer  less  than 
stutter. 

The  slightest  difficulty  in  uttering  words  constitutes 
a hesitation;  a pause  or  the  repetition  of  a word  may 
be  termed  hesitating;  ‘To  look  with  solicitude  and 
speak  with  hesitation  is  attainable  at  will ; but  the 
show  of  wisdom  is  ridiculous  when  there  is  nothitig  to 
cause  doubt,  as  that  of  valour  when  there  is  nothing  to 
be  feared.’ — Johnson.  To  falter  supposes  a failure 
in  the  voice  as  well  as  the  li[)6  when  they  refuse  to  do 
their  office ; 

And  yet  was  every  faultering  tongue  of  man. 

Almighty  Father  1 silent  in  thy  praise. 

Thy  works  themselves  would  raise  a general  voice 

Thomson.  ' 

Stammering  and  stuttering  are  confined  principally  to 
the  useless  moving  of  the  mouth ; 

Lagean  juice 

Will  stamm'ring  tongues  and  Btagg’ring  feet  produce 

Drydkn. 

He  who  stammers  brings  forth  sounds,  but  not  the  right 
sounds,  without  trials  and  efforts ; he  who  stutters 
remains  for  some  time  in  a state  of  agitation  without 
uttering  a sound. 

QUESTION,  QUERY. 

The  question  is  the  thing  called  in  question,  or  that 
which  is  sought  for  by  a question ; query  is  but  a vari- 
ation of  queere,  from  the  verb  quwro  to  seek  or  inquire, 
signifying  simply  the  thing  sought  for. 

Questions  and  queries  are  both  put  for  the  sake  of 
obtaining  an  answer ; but  the  former  may  be  for  a 
reasonable  or  unreasonable  cause ; a query  is  mostly  a 
rational  question : idlers  may  pul  questions  from  mere 
curiosity;  learned  men  put  queries  for  the  sake  of 
information. 

TO  ASK,  INQUIRE,  QUESTION, 
INTERROGATE. 

Ask,  comes  from  the  Saxon  ascian,  low  German 
esken,  eschen,  German  heischen,  Danish  adske,  &c. 
which  for  the  most  part  signify  to  wish  for,  and  come 
from  the  Greek  ali6o>  to  think  worthy ; whence  this 
word  in  English  has  been  employed  for  an  expression 
of  our  wishes,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  what  we 
want  from  others ; inquire,  Latin  inquire,  compounded 
of  in  and  quwro,  signifies  to  search  after  ; question,  in 
Latin  is  a variation  of  the  same  word  ; interrogate 
Latin  interrogatus,  participle  of  interrogo,  com 
pounded  of  inter  and  rogo,  signifies  to  asA  alternately 
or  an  asking  between  different  persons. 

We  perform  all  these  actions  in  order  to  get  iiPb; 


ENGLISH  Si^NONYMES. 


(nation  ; biC,  »ve  ask  for  general  purposes  of  conve- 
nience ; we  inquire  from  motives  of  curiosity  ; we 
questior.  and  interrogate  from  motives  of  discretion. 
To  ask  respects  simply  one  thing ; to  myKiVe  respects 
one  or  many  subjects  ; to  question  and  interrogate  is 
to  ask  repeatedly,  to  examine  by  questioning  and  in 
terrogating,  and  in  the  latter  case  more  authoritatively 
tlian  in  the  former. 

Indifferent  people  ask  of  each  other  whatever  they 
wish  to  know ; ‘ Upon  my  asking  her  who  it  was,  she 
:old  me  it  was  a very  grave  elderly  gentleman,  but 
hat  she  did  not  know  his  name.’ — .\ddison.  Learners 
nquire  the  reasons  of  things  which  are  new  to  them  ; 

You  have  oft  inquir'd 
After  the  shepherd  that  complain’d  of  love. 

Shakspeare. 

Masters  question  their  servants,  or  parents  their  chil- 
dren, when  they  wish  to  ascertain  the  real  state  of 
any  case ; 

But  hark  you,  Kate, 

I must  not  henceforth  have  you  question  me 
Whither  I go.— Shakspeare. 

Magistrates  interrogate  criminals  when  they  are 
rought  before  them  ; ‘ Thomson  was  introduced  to 
the  Prince  of  Wales,  and  being  gayly  interrogated 
about  the  state  of  his  affairs,  said,  “ that  they  were  in 
a more  poetical  posture  than  formerly.”  ’ — Johnson. 
It  is  very  uncivil  not  to  answer  whatever  is  asked  even 
by  the  meanest  person : it  is  proper  to  satisfy  every 
inp'  ■ so  as  to  remove  doubt : questions  are  some- 
limes  so  impertinent  that  they  cannot  with  propriety 
be  answered:  interrogations  from  una&fhorized  per- 
sons are  little  better  than  insults.  To  ask  and  interro- 
gate are  always  personal  acts ; to  inquire  and  question 
are  frequently  applied  to  things,  the  former  in  the  sense 
of  seeking  (u.  Examination)^  and  the  latter  in  that 
of  doi'‘'‘.ing  {v.  To  Doubt). 

EXAMINATION,  SEARCH,  INaUIRY, 

RESEARCH,  INVESTIGATION,  SCRUTINY. 

Examination  comes  from  the  Latin  examino  and 
examen,  the  beam  by  which  the  poise  of  the  balance  is 
iield,  because  the  judgement  keeps  itself  as  it  were  in 
a balance  irt  examining ; search,  in  French  cherchcr. 
is  a variat'on  of  seek  and  see ; inquiry  signifies  the 
same  as  in  the  preceding  article;  research  is  an  inten- 
sive of  search  ; investigation,  from  the  Latin  vesti- 
n-ium,  a track,  signifies  seeking  by  the  tracks  or  foot- 
steps ; scrutiny,  from  the  Latin  scrutor,  to  search,  and 
scrutum,  lumber,  signifies  looking  for  among  lumber 
and  rubbish,  i.  e.  to  ransack  and  turn  over. 

Examination  is  the  most  general  of  these  terms, 
which  all  agree  in  expressing  an  active  effort  to  find 
out  that  which  is  unknown.  The  examination  is 
made  either  by  the  aid  of  the  senses  or  the  under- 
standing, the  body  or  the  mind ; the  search  is  princi- 
pally a physical  action  ; the  inquiry  is  mostly  intel- 
lectual ; we  examine  a face  or  we  examine  a subject ; 
we  search  a house  or  a dictionary ; we  inquire  into  a 
matter.  An  examination  is  made  for  the  purpose  of 
forming  a judgement ; the  search  is  made  for  ascer- 
taining a fact;  the  inquiry  is  made  in  order  to  arrive 
at  truth.  To  examine  a person,  is  either  by  means 
of  questions  to  get  at  his  mind,  or  by  means  of  looks 
to  become  acquainted  with  his  person  ; to  search  a 
person  is  by  corporeal  contact  to  learn  what  he  has 
about  him.  We  examine  the  features  of  those  who 
•merest  us;  officers  of  justice  search  those  who  are 
suspected ; but,  with  the  prepositions  for  or  after,  the 
verb  search  may  be  en)i)k)yed  in  a moral  application  ; 
‘ If  you  search  purely  for  truth,  it  will  be  indifferent  to 
you  where  you  find  it.’— Budgell.  Examinations  and 
inquiries  are  both  made  by  means  of  questions ; but 
the  former  is  an  official  act  for  a specifick  end,  the 
latter  is  a private  act  for  purposes  of  convenience  or 
pleasure.  Students  undergo  examinations  from  their 
teachers;  they  pursue  their  inquiries  for  themselves. 

An  examination  or  an  inquiry  may  be  set  on  foot 
on  any  subject : but  the  examination  is  direct ; it  is 
the  setting  of  things  before  the  view,  corporeal  or  men- 
tal, in  order  to  obtain  a conclusion ; ‘ The  body  of  man 
s such  a subject  as  stands  the  utmost  test  of  examina- 
tion.'— Adbison  The  inquiry  is  indirect ; it  is  a cir- 
cuitous method  of  coming  to  the  knowledge  of  what 
was  not  known  before:  ‘ Inquiries  after  happiness  are 


not  so  necessary  and  useful  to  mankind  as  the  arts  m 
consolation.’— .Addison.  The  student  examines  the 
evidences  of  Christianity,  that  he  may  strengthen  his 
own  belief;  the  government  institute  an  inquiry  into 
the  conduct  of  subjects.  A research  is  an  inquiry  into 
that  which  is  remote ; an  investigation  is  a minute 
inquiry ; a scrutiny  is  a strict  examination.  Learned 
men  of  inquisitive  tempers  make  their  researches  into 
antiquity ; 

To  all  inferiour  animals  ’tis  giv’n 

T’  enjoy  the  state  allotted  them  by  heav’n  ; 

No  vain  researches  e’er  disturb  their  rest. — Jensns 

Magistrates  investigate  doubtful  and  mysterious  affairs 
physicians  investigate  the  causes  of  diseases;  ‘We 
have  divided  natural  philosophy  into  the  investigation 
of  causes,  and  the  production  of  effects.’— Bacon 
Men  scrutinize  the  actions  of  those  whom  they  liold 
in  suspicion  ; ‘ Before  I go  to  bed,  I make  a scrutiny 
what  peccant  humours  have  reigned  in  me  that  day. 
— Howell.  Acuteness  and  penetration  are  peculiarly 
requisite  in  making  researches ; patience  and  perse- 
verance are  the  necessary  qualifications  of  the  investi 
gator;  a quick  discernment  will  essentially  aid  the 
scrutinizer. 


TO  EXAMINE,  SEEK,  SEARCH,  EXPLORE 
These  words  are  here  considered  as  they  designate 
the  looking  upon  places  or  objects,  in  order  to  get 
acquainted  with  them.  To  examine  {v.  Examination) 
expresses  less  than  to  seek  and  search:  and  these  less 
than  to  explore,  which,  from  the  Latin  ex  and  ploro, 
signifies  to  burst  forth,  whether  in  lamentation  oi 
examination. 

We  examine  objects  that  are  near ; we  seek  those 
that  are  remote  or  not  at  hand  ; search  those  that  are 
hidden  or  out  of  sight ; we  explore  those  that  are  un 
known  or  very  distant.  The  painter  examines  a land 
scape  in  order  to  take  a sketch  of  it ; 

Compare  each  phrase,  examine  ev’ry  ine. 

Weigh  ev’ry  word,  and  ev’ry  thought  *efine. — Pops 
One  friend  seeks  another  when  they  have  parted ; 

I have  a venturous  fairy,  that  shall  seek 

The  squirrel’s  hoard,  and  fetch  thee  thence  new  nut: 

Shakspeare 

The  botanist  searches  after  curious  plants ; the  inqui 
sitive  traveller  explores  unknown  regions  ; the  write 
examines  the  books  from  which  he  intends  to  draw 
his  authorities;  ‘Men  will  look  into  our  lives,  ano 
examine  our  actions,  and  inquire  into  our  conversa 
tions ; by  these  they  will  judge  the  truth  and  realitj 
of  our  profession.’ — Tillotson.  A person  seeks  ab 
opportunity  to  cftect  a purpose ; 

Sweet  peace,  where  dost  thou  dwell  ? 

I humbly  crave 
Let  me  once  know, 

I sought  thee  in  a secret  cave. 

And  ask’d  if  peace  were  there. — Herbek 
The  antiquarian  searches  every  corner  in  which  hv; 
hopes  to  find  a monument  of  antiquity ; 

Not  thou,  nor  they  shall  search  the  thoughts  that  roV 
Up  in  the  close  reces.ses  of  my  soul. — Pope. 

The  classick  explores  the  learning  and  wisdom  of  tin 
ancients; 

Hector,  he  said,  my  courage  bids  me  meet 

This  high  achievement,  and  explore  the  fleet. — Pcpe 

TO  DISCUSS,  EXAMINE. 

Discuss,  in  Latin  discussus,  participle  of  discutio 
signifies  to  shake  asunder  or  to  separate  thoroughly  s' 
as  to  see  the  whole  composition ; examine  has  the  sam< 
signification  as  in  the  preceding  article,  because  thi 
judgement  holds  the  balance  in  examining. 

The  intellectual  operation  expressed  by  these  terms 
is  applied  to  objects  that  cannot  be  immediately  din 
cerned  or  understood,  but  they  vary  both  in  mode  an-j* 
degree.  Discussion  is  altogether  carried  on  by  verbal 
and  personal  communication ; examination  proccedn 
by  reading,  reflectioi*,  and  observation  ; we  often  e.xa- 
mine  therefore  by  diszuscion,  which  is  properly  one 
mode  of  exapane.lio'i : a discussion  is  always  carried 
on  by  two  o"  persons;  an  examination  may  b« 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


- 9P 


riHiried  on  by  one  only;  politicks  are  a frequent  though 
not  always  a pleasant  subject  of  discustian  in  social 
meetings  ; ‘ A country  fellow  distinguishes  himself  as 
much  in  the  church-yard  as  a citizen  does  upon  the 
change ; the  whole  parish  politicks  being  generally 
discussed  in  that  place  either  after  sermon  or  before 
the  bell  rings.’ — Addison.  Complicated  questions  can- 
not be  too  thoroughly  examined;  ‘Men  follow  their 
inclinations  without  examining  whether  there  be  any 
principles  which  they  ought  to  form  for  regulating  their 
conduct.’ — Blair.  Discussion  serves  for  amusement 
rather  than  for  any  solid  purpose  ; the  cause  of  truth 
seldom  derives  any  immediate  benefit  from  it,  although 
the  minds  of  men  may  become  invigorated  by  a col- 
lision of  sentiment : examination  is  of  great  practical 
utility  in  the  direction  of  our  conduct ; all  decisions 
must  be  partial,  unjust,  or  imprudent,  which  are  made 
without  previous  examination. 

TO  PRV,  SCRUTINIZE,  DIVE  INTO. 

Pry  IS  in  all  probability  changed  from  prove,  in  the 
sense  of  try ; scrutinize  comes  from  the  Latin  scrutor 
to  search  thoroughly  {v.  Examination)  dive  expresses 
the  physical  action  of  going  under  water  to  the  bottom, 
and  figuratively  of  searching  to  the  bottom. 

Pry  is  taken  in  the  bad  sense  of  looking  more  nar- 
rowly into  things  than  one  ought : scrutinize  and  dive 
into  are  employed  in  the  good  sense  of  searching  things 
to  the  bottom. 

A person  who  pries  looks  into  that  which  does  not 
belong  to  him  ; and  too  narrowly  also  into  that  which 
may  belong  to  him ; it  is  the  consequence  of  a too 
eager  curiosity  or  a busy,  meddling  temper:  a person 
who  scrutinizes  looks  into  that  which  is  intentionally 
concealed  from  him  ; it  is  an  act  of  duty  flowing  out  j 
of  his  office : a person  who  dives  penetrates  into  that 
which  lies  hidden  very  deep ; he  is  impelled  to  this 
action  by  the  thirst  of  knowledge  and  a laudable 
curiosity. 

A love  of  prying  into  the  private  affairs  of  families 
makes  a person  a troublesome  neighbour;  ‘The  peace- 
able man  never  officiously  seeks  to  pry  into  the  secrets 
of  others.’ — Blair.  It  is  the  business  of  the  magistrate 
to  scrutinize  into  all  matters  which  affect  the  good 
order  of  society ; ‘ He  who  enters  upon  this  scrutiny 
(into  the  depths  of  the  mind)  enters  into  a labyrinth.’ 
— South.  There  are  some  minds  so  imbued  with  a 
love  of  science  that  they  delight  to  dive  into  the  secrets 
of  nature ; 

In  man  the  more  we  dive^  the  more  we  see, 
Heaven’s  signet  stamping  an  immortal  make. 

Young. 


CURIOUS,  INOUISITIVE,  PRYING. 

Curious,  in  French  curieux,  Latin  curiosus,  from 
cura  care, signifying  full  of  care;  inquisitive,  in  Latin 
inquisitus,  from  inquiro  to  inquire  or  search  into, 
signifies  a disposition  to  investigate  thoroughly;  pry- 
ing  signifies  the  disposition  to  pry,  try,  or  sift  to  the 
bottom. 

The  disposition  to  interest  one’s  self  in  matters  not 
of  immediate  concern  to  one’s  self  is  the  idea  common 
to  all  these  terms.  Curiosity  is  directed  to  all  objects 
that  cun  gratify  the  inclination,  taste,  or  understand- 
ing; inquisitiveness  to  such  things  only  as  satisfy  the 
understanding. 

The  curious  person  interests  himself  in  all  the 
works  of  nature  and  art;  he  is  curious  to  try  effects 
and  examine  causes : the  inquisitive  person  endea- 
vours to  add  to  his  store  of  knowledge.  Curiosity  em- 
ploys every  means  which  falls  in  its  way  in  order  to 
procure  gratification ; the  curious  man  uses  his  own 
powers  or  those  of  others  to  serve  his  purpose  ; inqui- 
sitiveness is  indulged  only  by  means  of  verbal  inquiry; 
the  inquisitive  person  collects  all  from  others.  A tra- 
v<;ller  is  curious  who  examines  every  thing  for  him- 
self; ‘Sir  Francis  Bacon  says,  some  have  been  so 
curious  as  to  remark  the  times  and  seasons,  when  the 
stroke  of  an  envious  eye  is  most  effectually  pernicious.’ 
—Steele.  He  is  rngMisitiue  when  he  minutely  ques- 
tions others.  Inquisitiveness  is  therefore  to  curiosity 
as  a part  to  the  whole  ; whoever  is  curious  will  natu- 
rally be  inquisitive,  and  he  who  is  inquisitive  is  so 
from  a species  of  curiosity:  \m\.  inquisitiveness  muY 


sometimes  be  taken  in  an  improper  sense  for  moral 
objects;  ‘Checking  our  inquisitive  solicitude  about 
what  the  Almighty  hath  concealed,  let  us  diligently 
improve  what  he  hath  made  known.’ — Blair. 

Curious  and  inquisitive  may  be  both  used  in  a bad 
sense ; prying  is  never  used  otherwise  than  in  a bad 
sense.  Inquisitive,  as  in  tlie  former  case,  is  a mode 
of  curiosity,  and  prying  is  a species  of  eager  curiosity. 
A curious  person  takes  unallowed  means  of  learning 
that  which  he  ought  not  to  wish  to  know ; an  inquisi- 
tive person  puts  many  impertinent  and  troublesome 
questions;  a prying  temper  is  unceasing  in  its  endea- 
vours to  get  acquainted  with  the  secrets  of  others. 
Curiosity  is  a fault  common  to  females;  inquisitive- 
ness is  most  general  among  children  ; a prying  temper 
belongs  only  to  people  of  low  character. 

A well-disciplined  mind  checks  the  first  risings  of 
idle  curiosity : children  should  be  taught  early  to  sup 
press  an  inquisitive  temper,  which  may  so  easily  be 
come  burdensome  to  others ; those  who  are  of  a pry- 
ing temper  are  insensible  to  every  thing  but  the  desire 
of  unveiling  what  lies  hidden ; such  a disposition  i.s 
often  engendered  by  the  unlicensed  indulgence  of  curio 
sity  in  early  life,  which  becomes  a sort  of  passion  in 
riper  years;  ‘By  adhering  tenaciously  to  his  opinion, 
and  exhibiting  other  instances  of  uprying  disposition. 
Lord  George  Sackville  had  rendered  himself  disa- 
greeable to  the  cominander-in-chief.’ — Smollet 

CONCEIT,  FANCY. 

Conceit  comes  immediately  from  the  Latin  con 
ceptus,  participle  of  concipio  to  conceive,  or  form  in 
the  mind  ; fancy,  in  French  phantasie,  Latin  phan- 
tasia,  Greek  <j>avTama,  from  (Pavrq^o)  to  make  appear, 
and  <palvit)  to  appear. 

These  terms  equally  express  the  working  of  the 
imagination  in  its  distorted  state ; but  conceit  denotes 
a much  greater  degree  of  distortion  than/ancy;  what 
we  conceit  is  preposterous  ; what  we  fancy  is  unreal 
or  only  apparent.  Conceit  applies  only  to  internal  ob- 
jects ; it  is  mental  in  the  operation  and  the  result ; it  is 
a species  of  invention  ; ‘ Strong  conceit,  like  a new 
principle,  carries  all  easily  with  it,  when  yet  above 
common  sense.’ — Locke.  Fancy  is  applied  to  ex- 
ternal objects,  or  whatever  acts  on  the  senses : nervous 
people  are  subject  to  strange  conceits;  timid  people 
fancy  they  hear  sounds,  or  see  objects  in  the  dark 
which  awaken  terror. 

Those  who  are  apt  to  conceit  dftener  conceit  that 
which  is  painful  than  otherwise ; 

Some  have  been  wounded  with  conceit. 

And  died  of  mere  opinion  strait.— Butler. 
Conceiting  either  that  they  are  always  in  danger  ol 
dying,  or  that  all  the  world  is  their  enemy.  There 
are  however  insane  people  who  conceit  themselves  to 
be  kings  and  queens ; and  some  indeed  v/ho  are  not 
called  insane,  who  conceit  themselves  very  learned 
while  they  know  nothing,  or  very  wise  and  clever, 
while  they  are  exposing  themselves  to  perpetual  ridi- 
cule for  their  folly,  or  very  handsome  while  the  world 
calls  them  plain,  or  very  peaceable  while  they  are 
always  quarrelling  with  their  neighbours,  or  very 
humble  while  they  are  tenaciously  sticking  for  their 
own;  it  would  be  well  if  such  conceits  afforded  a 
harmless  pleasure  to  their  authors,  but  unfortunately 
they  only  render  them  more  offensive  and  disgusting 
than  they  would  otherwise  be. 

Those  who  are  apt  to  fancy,  never  fancy  any  thing 
to  please  themselves ; 

Desponding  fear,  of  feeble /ancics  full. 

Weak  and  unmanly,  loosens  every  power. 

Thomson. 

They  fancy  that  things  are  loo  long  or  too  short,  too 
thick  or  too  thin,  loo  cold  or  too  hot,  with  a thousand 
other /ancies  equally  trivial  in  their  nature;  thereby 
proving  that  the  slightest  aberration  of  the  mind  is  a 
serious  evil,  and  productive  of  evil. 

When  taken  in  reference  to  intellectual  objects,  con- 
ceit is  mostly  in  a bad  sense ; ‘ Nothing  can  be  more 
plainly  impossible  than  for  a man  “ to  be  profitable  to 
God,”  and  consequently  nothing  can  be  more  absurd 
than  for  a man  to  cherish  so  irrational  a conceit.' — 
Addison.  But  fancy  may  be  employed  in  a good 
sense  • ‘ My  friend.  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley,  told  me 


100 


ENGLISH  SYNONmES. 


'.’other  day,  he  had  been  reading  my  paper  upon 
Westminster  Abbey,  in  wliich,  says  he,  there  are  a 
great  many  ingenious/aracres.’ — Addison. 


OPINIATED  OR  OPINIATIVE,  CONCEITED, 
EGOISTICAL. 

A fondness  for  one’s  opinion  bespeaks  the  opiniated 
man  ■ a font;  conceit  of  one’s  self  bespeaks  the  con- 
ceited man : a fond  attachment  to  one’s  self  bespeaks 
the  egoistical  man : a liking  for  one’s  self  or  one’s  own 
is  evidently  the  common  idea  that  runs  through  these 
terms  ; they  differ  in  the  mode  and  in  the  object. 

An  opiniated  man  is  not  only  fond  of  his  own 
opinion,  but  full  of  his  own  opinion : he  lias  an  opinion 
on  every  thing,  which  is  the  best  possible  opinion,  and 
is  delivered  therefore  freely  to  every  one,  that  they 
may  profit  in  forming  their  own  opinions ; ‘ Down 
was  he  cast  from  all  his  greatness,  as  it  is  pity  but  all 
such  politick  opiniators  should.’ — South.  A conceited 
man  has  a conceit  or  an  idle,  fond  opinion  of  his  own 
talent ; it  is  not  only  high  in  competition  with  others, 
but  it  is  so  high  as  to  be  set  above  others.  The  con- 
ceited man  does  not  want  to  follow  the  ordinary  means 
of  acquiring  knowledge : his  conceit  suggests  to  him 
that  his  talent  will  supply  labour,  application,  reading 
and  study,  and  every  other  contrivance  which  men 
have  commonly  employed  for  their  improvement ; he 
sees  by  intuition  what  another  learns  by  experience 
and  observation ; he  knows  in  a day  what  others  want 
years  to  acquire ; he  learns  of  himself  what  others  are 
contented  to  get  by  means  of  instruction  ; ‘ No  great 
measure  at  a very  difficult  crisis  can  be  pursued  which 
s not  attended  with  some  mischief ; none  but  conceited 
pretenders  in  publick  business  hold  any  other  lan- 
guage.’— Burke  The  egoistical  man  makes  himself 
the  darling  theme  of  his  own  contemplation  ; he  ad- 
mires and  loves  himself  to  that  degree  that  he  can  talk 
and  think  of  nothing  else  ; his  children,  his  house,  his 
garden,  his  rooms,  and  the  like,  are  the  incessant 
theme  of  his  conversation,  and  become  invaluable 
fforu  the  mere  circumstance  of  belonging  to  him ; 
• To  show  their  particular  aversion  to  speaking  in  the 
first  person,  the  gentlemen  of  Port  Royal  branded 
this  form  of  writing  with  the  name  of  egotism.' — 
Addison. 

An  opiniated  man  is  the  most  unfit  for  conversa- 
tion, which  only  affords  pleasure  by  an  alternate  and 
equable  communication  of  sentiment.  A conceited 
man  is  the  most  unfit  for  co-operation,  where  a junc- 
tion of  talent  and  effort  is  essential  to  bring  things  to 
a conclusion  ; an  egoistical  man  is  the  most  unfit  to 
be  a companion  or  friend,  for  he  does  not  know  how 
<n  value  or  like  any  thing  out  of  himself. 


SELF-WILL,  SELF-CONCEIT,  SELF 
SUFFICIENCY. 

Self-will  signifies  the  will  in  one’s  self : sclf-conceit, 
conceit  of  one’s  self : self-sufficiency,  sufficiency  in 
one’s  self.  As  characteristicks  they  come  very  near 
to  each  other,  but  that  depravity  of  the  will  which 
refuses  to  submit  to  any  control  either  within  or  with- 
out is  born  with  a person,  and  is  among  the  earliest 
indications  of  character ; in  some  it  is  less  predomi- 
nant than  in  others,  but  if  not  early  checked,  it  is 
that  defect  in  our  natures  which  will  always  prevail ; 
self-conceit  is  a vicious  habit  of  the  mind  which  is 
superinduced  on  the  original  character ; it  is  that 
which  determines  in  matters  of  judgement ; a self- 
willed  person  thinks  nothing  of  right  or  wrong : what- 
ever the  impulse  of  the  moment  suggests,  is  the  motive 
to  action ; 

To  wilful  men 

The  injuries  that  they  themselves  procur’d. 

Must  be  their  schoolmasters. — Bhakspeark. 

rite  self -conceited  person  is  always  much  concerned 
about  right  and  wrong,  but  it  is  only  that  which  he 
conceives  to  be  right  and  wrong;  ‘Nothing  so  haughty 
and  assuming  as  ignorance,  where  self-conceit  bids  it 
set  up  for  infallible.’ — South.  Self-sufficiency  is  a 
species  of  self-conceit  applied  to  action : as  a self-con- 
ceited person  thinks  of  no  opinion  but  his  own  ; a self- 
sufficient  person  refuses  the  assistance  of  every  one  in 
whatever  he  is  called  upon  to  do  : 


There  safe  in  self-sufficient  impudence 
Without  experience,  honesty,  or  sense, 

Unknowing  in  her  interest,  trade,  or  laws, 

He  vainly  undertakes  his  country’s  cause.- -Jentne. 


PRIDE,  VANITY,  CONCEIT. 

Pride  is  in  all  probability  connected  with  the  word 
parade,  and  the  German  pracht  show  or  spdendour, 
as  it  signifies  that  high-flown  temper  in  a man  which 
makes  him  paint  to  himself  every  thing  in  himself  as 
beautiful  or  splendid ; vanity,  in  Latin  vanitas,  from 
vain  and  vanus,  is  compounded  of  ve  or  valde  and 
inanis,  signifying  exceeding  emptiness  ; conceit  signi 
lies  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  article  {v.  Conceit, 
Fancy). 

The  valuing  of  one’s  self  on  the  possession  of  any 
property  is  the  idea  common  to  these  terms,  but  they 
differ  either  in  regard  to  the  object  or  the  manner  of 
the  action.  Pride  is  the  term  of  most  extensive  impor 
and  application,  and  comprehends  in  its  significatior 
not  only  that  of  the  other  two  terms,  but  likewise  ideas 
peculiar  to  itself. 

Pride  is  applicable  to  every  object,  good  or  bad 
high  or  low,  small  or  great ; vanity  is  applicable  only 
to  small  objects ; pride  is  therefore  good  or  bad  ; vanity 
is  always  bad,  it  is  always  emptiness  or  nothingness. 
A man  is  proud  who  values  himself  on  the  possession 
of  his  literary  or  scientifick  talent,  on  his  wealth,  on  his 
rank,  on  his  power,  on  his  acquirements,  or  his  supe- 
riority over  his  competitors  ; he  is  vain  of  his  person, 
his  dress,  his  walk,  or  any  thing  that  is  frivolous. 
Pride  is  the  inherent  quality  in  man ; and  while  it 
rests  on  noble  objects,  it  is  his  noblest  characteristick  ; 
vanity  is  the  distortion  of  one’s  nature  flowing  from  a 
vicious  constitution  or  education : pride  shows  itself 
variously  according  to  the  nature  of  the  object  on 
which  it  is  fixed ; a noble  pride  seeks  to  display  itself 
in  all  that  can  command  the  respect  or  admiration  of 
mankind  ; the  pride  of  wealth,  of  power,  or  of  othei 
adventitious  properties,  commonly  displays  itself  in  an 
unseemly  deportment  towards  others ; vanity  shows 
itself  only  by  its  eagerness  to  catch  the  notice  of  others 
‘ Vanity  makes  men  ridiculous,  pride  odious,  and  am 
bition  terrible. — Steele. 

'Tis  an  old  maxim  in  the  schools, 

That  vanity's  the  food  of  fools.— Swift'. 

Pride  (says  Blair)  makes  us  esteem  ourselves : vanity 
makes  us  desire  the  esteem  of  others.  But  if  pride  is, 
as  I have  before  observed,  self-esteem,  or,  which  is 
nearly  the  same  thing,  self- valuation,  it  cannot  properly 
be  said  to  make  us  esteem  ourselves.  Of  vanity  I have 
already  said  that  it  makes  us  anxious  for  the  notice  and 
applause  of  others ; but  I cannot  with  Dr.  Blair  say 
that  it  makes  us  desire  the  esteem  of  others,  because 
esteem  is  too  substantial  a quality  to  be  sought  for  by 
the  vain.  Besides,  that  which  Dr.  Blair  seems  to  assign 
as  a leading  and  characteristick  ground  of  distinction 
between  pride  and  vanity  is  only  an  incidental  tiro 
perty.  A man  is  said  to  be  vain  of  his  clothes,  if  he 
gives  indications  that  he  values  himself  upon  them  as  a 
ground  of  distinction  ; although  he  should  not  expressly 
seek  to  display  himself  to  others. 

Conceit  is  that  species  of  self-valuation  that  respects 
one’s  talents  only  ; it  is  so  far  therefore  closely  allied  to 
pride ; but  a man  is  said  to  be  proud  of  that  which  he 
really  has,  but  to  be  conceited  of  that  which  he  really 
has  not:  a man  may  he  proud  to  an  excess,  of  merits 
which  he  actually  possesses ; but  when  he  is  conceited 
his  merits  are  all  in  his  own  conceit ; the  latter  is  there- 
fore obviously  founded  on  falsehood  altogether ; ‘ The 
self-conceit  of  the  young  is  the  great  source  of  those 
dangers  to  which  they  are  exposed.’— Blair. 

PRIDE,  HAUGHTINESS,  LOFTINESS, 
DIGNITY. 

Pride  is  here  employed  principally  as  respects  the 
temper  of  the  mind ; the  other  terms  are  employed 
either  as  respects  the  sentiment  of  the  mind,  or  the  ex 
ternal  behaviour. 

Pride  is  here  as  before  {v.  Pride)  a generick  term: 
haughtiness,  or  the  spirit  of  being  haughty  or  high 
spirited  {v.  Haughty) ; loftiness,  or  the  spirit  of  being 
lifted  up  ; and  dignity,  or  the  sense  of  worth  or  value, 
are  but  modes  o{ pride.  Pride,  inasmuch  as  it  consists 
purely  of  self  esteem,  is  a positive  sentiment  which  one 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


may  enttrtaiii  independently  of  other  persons ; it  lies  in 
the  inmost  recesses  of  the  human  lieart,  and  mingles 
itself  insensibly  with  our  affections  and  passions ; it 
rs  our  companion  by  night  and  by  day ; in  publick  or  in 
private ; it  goes  with  a man  wherever  he  goes,  and 
stays  with  him  where  he  stays ; it  is  a never-failing 
source  of  satisfaction  and  self-complacency  under  every 
circumstance  and  in  every  situation  of  human  life. 
Haughtiness  is  that  mode  of  pride  which  springs  out 
of  one’s  comparison  of  one’s  self  with  others:  the 
haughty  man  dwells  on  the  inferiority  of  others ; the 
proud  man  in  the  strict  sense  dwells  on  his  own  per- 
fections. Loftiness  is  a mode  of  pride  which  raises 
the  spirit  above  objects  supposed  to  be  inferiour ; it  does 
not  set  a man  so  much  above  others  as  above  himself, 
or  that  which  concerns  himself.  Dignity  is  a mode  of 
pride  which  exalts  the  whole  man,  it  is  the  entire  con- 
sciousness of  what  is  becoming  himself  and  due  to 
himself. 

Pride  assumes  such  a variety  of  shapes,  and  puts  on 
such  an  infinity  of  disguises,  that  it  is  not  easy  always 
to  recognise  it  at  the  first  glance  ; but  an  insight  into 
human  nature  will  suffice  to  convince  us  that  it  is  the 
spring  of  all  human  actions.  Whether  we  see  a man 
professing  humility  and  self-abasement,  or  a singular 
degree  of  self-debasement,  or  any  degree  of  self-exalta- 
tion, we  may  rest  assured  that  his  own  pride  or  con- 
scious self-importance  is  not  wounded  by  any  such 
measures ; but  that  in  all  cases  he  is  equally  stimulated 
with  the  desire  of  giving  himself  in  the  eyes  of  others 
that  degree  of  importance  to  whicli  in  his  own  eyes  he 
is  entitled  ; ‘ Every  demonstration  of  an  implacable 
rancour  and  an  untameablc  pride  were  the  only  en- 
couragements we  received  (from  the  regicides)  to  the 
renewal  of  our  supplications.’ — Burke.  Haughtiness 
is  an  unbending  species  or  mode  of  pride  which  does 
not  stoop  to  any  artifices  to  obtain  gratification ; but 
comnels  others  to  give  it  what  it  fancies  to  be  its  due  ; 

‘ Provoked  by  Edward’s  haughtiness^  even  the  passive 
Baliol  began  to  mutiny.’ — Robertson.  Loftiness  and 
dignity  are  equally  remote  from  any  subtle  pliancy,  but 
they  are  in  no  less  degree  exempt  from  the  unainiable 
characteristick  of  haughtiness  which  makes  a man 
bear  with  oppressive  sway  upon  others.  A loftij  spirit 
and  a dignity  of  character  preserve  a man  from  yielding 
to  the  contamination  of  outward  objects,  but  leave  his 
judgement  and  feeling  entirely  free  and  unbiassed  with 
respect  to  others  ; ‘Waller  describes  Sacharissa  as  a 
predominating  beauty  of  lofty  charms  and  imperious 
influence.’ — Johnson.  ‘ As  soon  as  Almagro  knew  his 
fate  to  be  inevitable,  he  met  it  with  tlie  dignity  and  for- 
titude of  a veteran.’ — Robertson. 

As  respects  the  external  behaviour,  a haughty  car- 
riage is  mostly  unbecoming ; a lofty  tone  is  mostly 
justifiable,  particularly  as  circumstances  may  require ; 
and  a dignified  air  is  without  qualification  becoming  the 
man  who  possesses  real  dignity. 

HAUGHTINESS,  DISDAIN,  ARROGANCE. 

Haughtiness  is  the  abstract  quality  of  haughty,  as  in 
the  preceding  article ; disdain  from  the  French  de- 
daigner,  or  the  privative  de  and  dignus  worthy,  sig- 
nifies thinking  a thing  to  be  worthless ; arrogance.,  from 
arrogate,  or  the  Latin  ar  or  ad  rogo  to  ask,  signifies 
claiming  or  taking  to  one’s  self. 

Haughtiness  (says  Dr.  Blair)  is  founded  on  the  high 
opinion  we  entertain  of  ourselves ; disdain,  on  the  low 
opinion  we  have  of  others;  arrogance  is  the  result  of 
both,  but  if  any  thing,  more  of  the  former  than  the 
latter.  Haughtiness  and  disdain  are  properly  senti- 
ments of  the  mind,  and  arrogance  a mode  of  acting 
resulting  fron  a sVTte  of  mind ; there  may  therefore 
be  haughtiness  and  disdain  which  have  not  betrayed 
themselves  by  any  visible  action ; but  the  sentiment  of 
arrogance  is  always  accompanied  by  its  corresponding 
action  : the  haughty  man  is  known  by  the  air  of  supe- 
riority which  he  assumes ; the  disdainful  man  by  the 
contempt  which  he  shows  to  others ; the  arrogant  man 
‘'y  his  lofty  pretensions. 

Haughtiness  and  arrogance  are  both  vicious;  they 
are  built  upon  a false  idea  of  ourselves ; ‘ The  same 
haughtiness  that  prompts  the  act  of  injustice  will  more 
strongly  incite  its  justification.’ — Johnson.  ‘ Turbu 
lent,  discontented  men  of  quality,  in  proportion  as  they 
are  puffed  up  with  jiersonal  pride  and  arrogance, 
lenerallv  despise  their  own  order,’ — Burke.  Disdain 


iOj 

may  be  justifiable  when  provoked  by  what  is  infamou.? 
a lady  must  treat  with  disdain  the  person  who  insults 
her  honour ; but  otherwise  it  is  a highly  unbecoming 
sentiment ; 

Didst  thou  not  think  such  vengeance  must  await 
The  wretch  that,  with  his  crimes  all  fresh  about  him, 
Rushes,  irreverent,  unprepar’d,  uncall’d, 

Into  his  Maker’s  presence,  throwing  back 
With  insolent  disdain  his  choicest  giftl — Porteus. 

HAUGHTY,  HIGH,  HIGH-MINDED. 

Haughty,  contracted  from  high-hearty,  in  Dutcii 
hoogharty,  signifies  literally  high-spirited,  and  like  the 
word  high,  is  derived  through  the  medium  of  the 
Northern  languages,  from  the  Hebrew  to  be  higln 

Haughty  characterizes  mostly  the  outward  beha- 
viour ; high  respects  both  the  external  behaviour,  and 
the  internal  sentiment ; high-minded  marks  the  senti- 
ment only,  or  the  state  of  the  mind. 

With  regard  to  the  outward  behaviour,  haughty  is  a 
stronger  term  than  high : a haughty  carriage  bespeaks 
not  only  a high  opinion  of  one’s  self,  but  a strong  mix- 
ture of  contempt  for  others:  a high  carriage  denotes 
simply  a high  opinion  of  one’s  self : haughtiness  is 
therefore  always  offensive,  as  it  is  burdensome  to 
others ; but  height  may  sometimes  be  laudable  in  as 
much  as  it  is  justice  to  one’s  self : one  can  never  give  a 
command  in  a haughty  tone  without  making  others 
feel  their  inferiority  in  a painful  degree;  we  may  some- 
times assume  a high  tone  in  order  to  slielter  ourselves 
from  insult. 

With  regard  to  the  sentiment  of  the  mind,  high  de- 
notes either  a particular  or  an  habitual  state ; high 
minded  is  most  commonly  understood  to  designate  an 
habitual  state;  the  former  may  be  either  good  or  bad 
according  to  circumstances;  the  latter  is  expressly  in- 
consistent with  Christian  humility.  He  is  high  whom 
virtue  ennobles ; his /ter§-/tt  is  independent  of  adventi- 
tious circumstances,  it  becomes  the  poor  as  well  as  the 
rich ; he  is  properly  high  who  is  set  above  any  mean 
condescension;  high-mindedness,  on  the  contrary,  in- 
cludes in  it  a self-complacency  that  rests  upon  one’s 
personal  and  incidental  advantages  rather  than  upon 
what  is  worthy  of  ourselves  as  rational  agents,  Supe 
riours  are  apt  to  indulge  a haughty  temper  which  does 
but  excite  the  scorn  and  hatred  of  those  who  are  com 
pelled  to  endure  it ; 

Let  gifts  be  to  the  mighty  queen  design’d, 

And  mollify  with  pray’rs  her  haughty  mind. 

Drydkn 

A high  spirit  is  not  always  serviceable  to  one  in  depen 
dent  circumstances;  but  when  regulated  by  discretion, 
it  enhances  the  value  of  a man’s  character;  ‘Who 
knows  whether  indignation  may  not  succeed  to  terrour, 
and  the  revival  of  high  sentiments,  spurning  away  the 
illusion  of  safety  purchased  at  the  expense  of  glory, 
may  not  drive  us  to  a generous  despair.’ — Burke.  No 
one  can  be  high-minded  without  thinking  better  of 
himself,  and  worse  of  others,  than  he  ought  to  think  ; 

‘ The  wise  will  determine  from  the  gravity  of  the  case ; 
the  irritable,  from  sensibility  to  oppression ; the  high- 
minded  from  disdain  and  indignation  at  abusive  power 
in  unworthy  hands. — Burke. 


TO  CONTEMN,  DESPISE,  SCORN,  DISDAIN 

Contemn,  in  Latin  contemno,  compounded  of  con  and 
temno,  is  probably  changed  from  tamino,  and  is  derived 
from  the  Hebrew  to  pollute  or  render  worthless, 

which  is  the  cause  of  contempt ; despise,  in  Latin 
despicio,  compound  of  de  and  specio,  signifies  to  look 
down  upon,  which  is  a strong  mark  of  contempt ; scorn, 
varied  from  our  word  shorn,  signifies  stripped  of  all 
honours  and  exposed  to  derision,  which  situation  is  the 
cause  of  scorn ; disdain  has  the  same  signification  as 
in  the  preceding  article. 

The  above  elucidations  sufficiently  evince  the  feeling 
towards  others  which  gives  birth  to  all  these  actions. 
But  the  feeling  of  contempt  is  not  quite  so  strong  as  thal 
of  despising,  nor  that  of  despising  so  strong  as  those 
of  scorning  and  disdaining ; the  latter  of  which  ex 
presses  the  strongest  sentiment  of  all.  Persons  are 
centemned  for  their  moral  qualities;  tliey  are  despised 
on  account  of  heir  outward  circi mstances,  their 


02 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


characters,  or  their  endowjntnts.  Supenours  maybe 
contemned ; inferiours  only,  real  or  supposed,  arc  de- 
spised. 

Contempt,  as  applied  to  persons,  is  not  incompatible 
with  a Christian  temper  when  justly  provoked  by  their 
character;  but  despising  is  distinctly  forbidden  and 
seldom  warranted.  Yet  it  is  not  so  much  our  business 
,X)  contemn  others  as  to  contemn  that  which  is  con- 
temptible; but  we  are  not  equally  at  liberty  to  despise 
the  person,  or  any  thing  belonging  to  the  person,  of 
another.  Whatever  springs  from  the  free  will  of  an 
other  maybe  a subject  of  contempt;  but  the  casualties 
of  fortune  or  the  gifts  of  Providence,  which  are  alike 
,'ndependent  of  personal  merit,  should  never  expose  a 
person  to  be  despised.  We  may,  however,  contemn  a 
person  for  his  impotent  malice,  or  despise  liim  for  his 
meanness. 

Persons  are  not  scorned  or  disdained,  but  they  may 
ae  treated  with  scorn  or  disdain ; they  are  both  impro- 
per expressions  of  contempt  or  despite  ; scorn  marks 
the  sentiment  of  a little,  vain  mind  ; disdain  of  a 
haughty  and  perverted  mind.  A beautiful  woman 
looks  with  scorn  on  her  whom  she  despises  for  the 
want  of  this  natural  gift.  The  wealthy  man  treats 
with  disdain  him  whom  he  despises  for  his  poverty. 
There  is  nothing  excites  the  contempt  of  mankind  so 
powerfully  as  a mixture  of  pride  and  meanness  ‘ Con- 
tempt and  derision  are  hard  words ; but  in  what  man- 
ner can  one  give  advice  to  a youth  in  the  pursuit  and 
possession  of  sensual  pleasures,  or  afford  pity  to  an  old 
man  in  the  impotence  and  desire  of  enjoying  them.’ — 
Steele.  A moment’s  reflection  will  teach  us  the  folly 
and  wickedness  of  despising  another  for  that  to  which 
by  the  will  of  Providence  we  may  the  next  moment  be 
e.xposed  ourselves ; ‘ It  is  seldom  that  the  great  or  the 
wise  suspect  that  they  are  cheated  and  despised.' — 
Johnson.  There  are  silly  persons  who  will  scorn  to 
be  seen  in  the  company  of  such  as  have  not  an  equal 
share  of  finery 

Infamous  wretch ! 

So  much  below  my  scorn,  I dare  not  kill  thee. 

Dryden. 

And  there  are  weak  upstarts  of  fortune,  who  disdain 
to  look  at  those  who  cannot  measure  purses  with  them- 
selves ; 

Yet  not  for  those. 

For  what  the  potent  victor  in  his  rage 

Can  else  inflict,  do  I repent  or  change. 

Though  chang’d  in  outward  lustre,  that  fix’d  mind 

And  high  disdainUom  setise  of  injur’d  merit. 

Milton. 

In  speaking  of  things  independently  of  others,  or  as 
immediately  connected  with  ourselves,  all  these  terms 
may  be  sometimes  employed  in  a good  or  an  indifferent 
sense. 

When  we  contemn  a mean  action,  and  scorn  to  con- 
ceal by  falsehood  what  we  are  called  upon  to  acknow- 
ledge, we  act  the  part  of  the  gentleman  as  well  as  the 
Christian  ; ‘ A man  of  spirit  should  contemn  the  praise 
of  the  ignorant.’ — Steele.  And  it  is  inconsistent 
with  our  infirm  and  dependent  condition,  that  we 
should  feel  inclined  to  despise  any  thing  that  falls  in 
our  way ; 

Thrice  happy  they,  beneath  their  northern  skies. 

Who  that  worst  fear,  the  fear  of  death,  despise; 

Provoke  approaching  fate,  and  bravely  scorn 

To  spare  that  life  which  must  so  soon  return. 

Rowe. 

Much  less  are  we  at  libet^y  to  disdain  to  do  any  thing 
which  our  station  requires;  ‘It  is  in  some  sort  owing 
to  the  bounty  of  Providence  that  disdaining  a cheap 
and  vulgar  happiness,  they  frame  to  themselves  imagi- 
nary goods,  in  which  there  is  nothing  can  raise  desire 
but  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  them.’ — Berkeley.  We 
ought  to  think  nothing  unworthy  of  us,  nothing  de- 
grading to  us,  but  that  which  is  inconsistent  with  the 
will  of  God  : there  are,  however,  too  many  who  affect 
to  despise  small  favours  as  not  reaching  their  fancied 
deserts,  and  others  who  disdain  to  receive  any  favour 
at  all,  from  mistaken  ideas  of  dependence  and  obliga- 
tion; 

Virtue  disdains  to  lend  an  ear 

To  ll  e mad  people’s  sense  of  right. — Francis. 


CONTEMPTIBLE,  CONTEMPTUOUS. 

These  terms  are  very  frequently,  though  verj  wo 
neously,  confounded  in  common  discourse. 

Contemptible  is  applied  to  the  thing  deserving  esn- 
tempt ; Contemptuous  to  that  which  is  expressive  of 
contempt.  Persons,  or  what  is  done  by  persons,  may 
be  either  contemptible  or  contemptuous ; but  a thing  is 
only  contemptible. 

A production  is  contemptible;  a sneer  or  look  is  con- 
temptuous; ‘Silence,  ora  negligent  indifference,  pro- 
ceeds from  anger  mixed  with  scorn,  that  shows  an- 
other to  be  thought  by  you  too  contemptible  to  be  re- 
garded.’— Addison.  ‘ My  sister’s  principles  in  many 
particulars  differ;  but  there  has  been  always  such  a 
harmony  between  us  that  she  seldom  smiles  upon  those 
who  have  suffered  me  ic  pass  with  a contemptuous 
negligence.’ — Hawkeswortii. 

CONTEMPTIBLE,  DESPICABLE,  PITIFUL. 

Contemptible  is  not  so  strong  as  despicable  or  pitif  ul 

A person  may  be  contemptible  for  his  vanity  or  weak 
ness;  but  he  is  despicable  for  his  servility  and  base- 
ness of  character;  he  is  pitiful  for  his  want  of  man 
liness  and  becoming  spirit.  A lie  is  at  all  times  con 
tcmptiblc  ; it  is  despicable  when  it  is  told  for  purposes 
of  gain  or  private  interest;  it  is  pitiful  when  accom 
panied  with  indications  of  unmanly  fear.  It  is  con 
temptiblc  to  take  credit  to  one’s  self  for  the  good  action 
one  has  not  performed  ; ‘ Were  every  man  persuaded 
from  how  mean  and  low  a principle  this  passion  (for 
flattery)  is  derived,  there  can  be  no  doubt  but  the 
person  who  should  attempt  to  gratify  it  would  then  be 
as  contemptible  as  he  is  now  successful.’ — Steele.  It 
is  despicable  to  charge  another  with  the  faults  which 
we  ourselves  have  committed ; ‘ To  put  on  an  artful 
part  to  obtain  no  other  but  an  unjust  praise  from  the 
undiscerning  is  of  all  endeavours  the  most  despicable.' 
— Steele.  It  is  pitiful  to  offend  others,  and  then 
attempt  to  screen  ourselves  from  their  resentment 
under  any  shelter  which  offers  ; ‘ There  is  something 
pitifully  mean  in  the  inverted  ambition  of  that  man 
who  can  hope  for  annihilation,  and  please  himself  to 
think  that  Iris  whole  fabrick  shall  crumble  into  dust.’ — 
Steele.  It  is  contemptible  for  a man  in  a superiour 
station  to  borrow  of  his  inferiours  ; it  is  despicable  in 
him  to  forfeit  his  word ; it  is  pitiful  in  him  to  attempt 
to  conceal  aught  by  artifice. 


CONTEMPTUOUS,  SCORNFUL,  DISDAINFUL 
These  epithets  rise  in  sense  by  a regular  gradation 
Contemptuous  is  general,  and  ajiplied  to  whatever 
can  express  contempt : scornful  and  disdainful  arc 
particular  ; they  apply  only  to  outward  marks : one  is 
contemptuous  who  is  scornful  or  disdainful,  but  not 
vice  versd. 

Words,  actions,  and  looks  are  contemptuous  ; looks 
sneers,  and  gestures  are  scornful  and  disdainful. 

Contemptuous  expressions  are  always  unjustifiable 
whatever  may  be‘the  contempt  which  a person’s  con- 
duct deserves,  it  is  unbecoming  in  another  to  give  him 
any  indications  of  the  sentiment  he  feels.  Scornful 
and  disdainful  smiles  are  resorted  to  by  the  weakest  or 
the  worst  of  mankind ; ‘ Prior  never  sacrifices  accuracy 
to  haste,  nor  indulges  himself  in  contemptuous  negli- 
gence or  impatient  idleness.’ — Johnson.  ‘As  soon  as 
Mavia  began  to  look  round,  and  saw  the  vagabond 
Mirtillo  who  had  so  long  absented  himself  from  her 
circle,  she  looked  upon  him  with  that  glance  which 
in  the  language  of  oglers  is  called  the  scornful ' 
Steele. 

In  vain  he  thus  attempts  her  mind  to  move. 

With  tears  and  prayers  and  late  repenting  love  : 
Disdainfidly  she  looked,  then  turning  round. 

She  fix’d  her  eyes  unmov’d  upon  the  ground. 

Drydbw 


TO  LAUGH  AT,  RIDICULE. 

Laugh,  through  the  medium  of  the  Saxon  hlahan 
old  German  lahan,  Greek  ycAdw,  comes  from  the  He 
brew  pnV  with  no  variation  in  the  meaning;  ridi 
cule,  from  Latin  rideo,  has  the  same  original  meaning 
Both  these  verbs  are  used  here  in  the  improper  sense 
for  laughter,  blended  with  more  or  less  of  contempt 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


lui  the  ibrmer  displays  itself  by  the  natural  expression 
t»t  laughter ; the  latter  shows  itself  hy  a verbal  ex- 
pression : the  former  is  produced  by  a feelina;of  mirth, 
on  observing  the  real  or  supposed  weakness  of  an- 
other ; the  latter  is  produced  by  a strong  sense  of  the 
absurd  or  irrational  in  another : the  former  is  more  im- 
mediately directed  to  the  person  who  lias  excited  the 
feeling ; the  latter  is  more  commonly  produced  by  the 
thing  than  by  persons.  We  laugh  at  a person  to  his 
face;  but  we  ridicule  his  notions  by  writing  or  in  the 
course  of  conversation ; we  laugh  at  the  individual; 
we  ridicule  that  which  is  maintained  by  one  or  many, 
[t  is  better  to  laugh  at  the  fears  of  a child  than  to 
atteiiipt  to  restrain  them  by  violence,  but  it  is  still  belter 
to  overcome  them  if  possible  by  the  force  of  reason  ; 
‘ Men  laugh  at  one  another’s  cost.’ — Swift.  Ridicule 
is  not  the  test  of  truth  ; he  therefore  who  attempts  to 
misuse  it  against  the  cause  of  truth,  will  bring  upon 
himself  the  contempt  of  all  mankind  ; but  folly  can  be 
assailed  with  no  weapon  so  effectual  as  ridicule ; 
‘ It  is  easy  for  a man  who  sits  idle  at  home  and  lias  no- 
body to  please  but  himself,  to  ridicule  or  censure  the 
common  practices  of  mankind.’— Johnson.  The  phi- 
losopher Democritus  preferred  to  laugh  at  the  follies  of 
men,  rather  than  weep  for  them  like  Heraclitus;  infi- 
dels have  always  employed  ridicule  against  Chris- 
tianity, by  which  they  have  betrayed  not  only  their 
want  of  argument,  but  their  personal  depravity  in 
laughing  where  they  ought  to  be  most  serious. 


LAUGHABLE,  LUDICROUS,  RIDICULOUS, 
COMICAL,  OR  COMICK,  DROLL. 

Laughable  signifies  exciting  or  fit  to  excite  laughter  ; 
ludicrous,  in  Latin  ludicer  or  ludicrus,  from  ludus  a 
game,  signifies  causing  game  or  sport;  ridiculous  ex- 
citing or  fit  to  excite  ridicule;  comical,  or  comic k,  in 
Latin  comicus,  from  the  Greek  comedy,  and 

Ku/o;  a village,  because  comedies  were  first  performed 
in  villages,  signifies  after  the  manner  of  comedy  ; 
droll,  in  French  drdlc,  is  doubtless  connected  with  the 
German  rolle  a part,  in  the  phrase  eine  rolle  spielen  to 
play  a trick  or  perform  a part. 

Either  the  direct  action  of  laughter  or  a correspond- 
ing sentiment  is  included  in  the  signification  of  all 
these  terms ; they  differ  principally  in  the  cause  which 
oroduces  the  feeling ; the  laughable  consists  of  objects 
in  general  whether  personal  or  otherwise ; the  ludi- 
crous and  ridiculous  have  more  or  less  reference  to 
that  which  is  personal.  What  is  laughable  may  excite 
simple  merriment  independently  of  all  personal  refer- 
ence, unless  we  admit  what  Mr.  Hobbes,  and  after 
him  Addison,  have  maintained  of  all  laughter,  that  it 
springs  from  pride.  But  without  entering  into  this 
nice  question,  I am  inclined  to  distinguish  between  the 
laughable  which  arises  from  the  reflection  of  what  is 
to  our  own  advantage  of  pleasure,  and  that  which 
arises  from  reflecting  on  what  is  to  the  disadvantage  of 
another.  The  droll  tricks  of  a monkey,  or  the  hu- 
morous stories  of  wit,  are  laughable  from  the  nature 
of  the  things  themselves;  without  any  apparent  allu- 
sion, however  remote,  to  any  individual  but  the  one 
whose  senses  or  mind  is  gratified  ; 

They’ll  not  show  their  teeth  in  way  of  smile. 

Though  Nestor  swear  the  jest  be  laughable. 

Shakspeare. 

The  ludicrous  and  ridiculous  are  however  species  of 
the  laughable  which  arise  altogether  from  reflecting 
on  that  which  is  to  the  disadvantage  of  another.  The 
ludicrous  lies  mostly  in  the  outward  circumstances  of 
the  individual,  or  such  as  are  exposed  to  view  and 
serve  as  a show  ; ‘ The  action  of  the  theatre,  though 
modern  states  esteem  it  but  ludicrous  unless  it  be  sati- 
rical and  biting,  was  carefully  watched  by  the  ancients 
’bat  it  might  Improve  mankind  in  virtue.’ — Bacon. 
Vlw .ridiculous  applies  to  every  thing  personal,  whe- 
ther external  or  internal;  ^ Infelix  paupertas  has  no- 
thing in  it  more  intolerable  than  this,  that  it  renders 
men  ridiculous' — South.  The  ludicrous  does  not 
comprehend  that  which  is  so  much  to  the  desparage- 
ment  of  the  individual  as  the  ridiculous;  whatever 
there  is  in  ourselves  which  excites  laughter  in  others, 
s accompanied  in  their  minds  with  a sense  of  our  in- 
feriority ; and  consequently  the  ludicrous  always  pro- 
duces this  feeling;  but  only  in  a slight  degree  com- 
pared ».  ill)  the  ridiculous,  which  awakens  a positive 


sense  of  contempt.  Whoever  is  In  a ludicrous  situ 
aiion  is,  let  it  be  in  ever  so  small  a degree,  placed  in 
an  inleriour  station,  with  regard  to  those  by  whom  he 
is  thus  viewed  ; but  he  who  is  rendered  ridiculous  is 
[lositively  degraded.  It  is  possible,  therefore,  for  a 
person  to  be  in  a ludicrous  situation  without  any  kind 
of  moral  demerit,  or  the  slightest  depreciation  of  his 
moral  character;  since  that  which  renders  his  situation 
ludicrous  is  altogether  independent  of  himself ; or  it 
becomes  ludicrous  only  in  the  eyes  of  incompetent 
judges.  “ Let  an  ambassador,”  says  Mr.  Pope,  “ speak 
the  best  sense  in  the  world,  and  deport  himself  in  the 
most  graceful  manner  before  a prince,  yet  if  the  tail  of 
his  shirt  hajipen,  as  I have  known  it  happen  to  a very 
wise  man,  to  hang  out  behind,  more  people  will  laugh 
at  that  than  attend  to  the  other.”  This  is  the  ludi- 
crous. The  same  can  seldom  be  said  of  the  ridiculous , 
for  as  this  springs  from  positive  moral  causes,  it  re 
fleets  on  the  person  to  whom  it  attaches  in  a less  ques 
tionable  shape,  and  produces  positive  disgrace.  Per- 
sons very  rarely  appear  ridiculous  without  being  reall} 
so ; and  he  who  is  really  ridiculous  justly  excites  con- 
tempt. 

Droll  and  comical  are  in  the  proper  sense  ap[ilied  to 
things  which  cause  laughter,  as  when  we  speak  of  a 
droll  story,  or  a comical  incident,  or  a comicic  song ; 

A comick  subject  loves  an  humble  verse, 

Thyestes  scorns  a low  and  comick  style. 

Roscommon 

‘ In  the  Augustine  age  itself,  notwithstanding  the  cen 
sure  of  Horace,  they  preferred  the  low  buffoonery  and 
drollery  of  Plautus  to  the  delicacy  of  Terence.’— 
Warton.  These  epithets  may  be  applied  to  the  per 
son,  but  not  so  as  to  reflect  disadvantageously  on  the 
individual,  like  the  preceding  terms. 


TO  DERIDE,  MOCK,  RIDICULE,  RALLY, 
BANTER. 

Deride,  compounded  of  de  and  the  Latin  rideo ; and 
ridicule,  from  ridro,  both  signify  to  laugh  at;  mock,  in 
French  moquer,  Dutch  mockev,  Greek  poiKaoi,  signifies 
likewise  to  laugh  at ; rally  is  doubtless  connected  with 
rail,  which  is  in  all  probability  a contraction  of  revile  ; 
and  banter  is  possibly  a corruption  of  the  French 
badincr  to  jest. 

Strong  expressions  of  contempt  are  designated  by  all 
these  terms. 

Derision  and  mockery  evince  themselves  by  the  out- 
ward actions  in  general ; ridicule  consists  more  in 
words  than  actions;  rallying  and  bantering  almost 
entirely  in  vvoids.  Deride  is  not  so  strong  a term  as 
mock,  but  much  stronger  than  ridicule.  There  is 
always  a mixture  of  hostility  in  derision  and  mockery ; 
but  ridicule  is  frequently  unaccompanied  with  any 
personal  feeling  of  displeasure.  Derision  is  often 
deep,  not  loud ; it  discovers  itself  in  suppressed  laughs, 
contemptuous  sneers  or  gesticulations,  and  cutting  ex- 
pressions: mockery  is  mostly  noisy  and  outrageous;  it 
breaks  forth  in  insulting  bufetonery,  and  is  sometimes 
accompanied  with  personal  violence:  the  former  con- 
sists of  real  but  contemptuous  latighter;  the  latter 
often  of  affected  laughter  and  grimace.  Derision  and 
mockery  are  alw.tys  personal ; ridicule  may  be  directed 
to  things  as  well  as  persons.  Derision  and  mockery 
are  a direct  attack  on  the  individual,  the  latter  still 
more  so  than  the  former  ; ridicule  is  as  often  used  in 
writing  us  in  personal  intercourse. 

Derision  and  mockery  are  practised  by  persons  in 
any  station  ; ridicule  is  mostly  used  by  equals.  A 
person  is  derided  and  mocked  for  that  which  is  offen- 
sive as  well  as  apparently  absurd  or  extravagant;  he 
is  ridiculed  for  what  is  apparently  ridiculous.  Our 
Saviour  was  exposed  both  to  \ \\e  derision  and  mockery 
of  his  enemies:  they  derided  him  for  what  they  dared 
to  think  his  false  pretensions  to  a superioer  mission  ; 
they  mocked  him  by  planting  a crown  of  thorns,  and 
acting  the  farce  of  royally  before  him. 

Derision  may  be  provoked  by  ordinary  circum 
stances  ; mockery  by  that  which  is  extraordinary. 
When  the  prophet  Elijah  in  his  holy  zeal  mocked  tl;e 
false  prophets  of  Baal,  or  when  the  children  mocked 
the  prophet  Elisha,  the  term  deride  would  not  have 
suited  either  for  the  occasion  or  the  action ; but  twr 
people  may  deride  each  other  in  their  angry  disputes 
or  unprincipled  people  may  deride  those  whom  tl  ey 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


:annut  imitate,  or  ca;detnn.  Derision  and  mockery 
are  altogether  incompatibie  with  the  Christian  temper ; 
ridicule  is  justifiable  in  certain  cases,  particularly  when 
It  is  not  personal.  When  a man  renders  himself  an 
object  of  derision^  it  does  not  follow  that  any  one  is 
justified  in  deriding  him  ; 

Satan  beheld  their  plight, 

And  to  his  mates  thus  in  derision  call’d  : 

O friends,  why  come  not  on  those  victors  proud  1 

Milton. 

Insults  are  not  the  means  for  correcting  faults ; mockery 
is  very  seldom  used  but  for  the  gratification  of  a malig- 
nant disposition ; hence  it  is  a strong  expression  when 
used  figuratively ; 

Impell’d  with  steps  unceasing  to  pursue 

Some  fleeting  good  that  mocks  me  with  the  view. 

Goldsmith. 

Although  ridicule  is  not  the  test  of  truth,  and  ought 
not  to  be  employed  in  the  place  of  argument,  yet  there 
are  some  follies  too  absurd  to  deserve  more  serious 
treatment ; 

Want  is  the  scorn  of  every  fool. 

And  wit  in  rags  is  turn’d  to  ridicule. — Dryden. 

Rally  and  banter.,  like  derision  and  mockery,  are 
altogether  personal  acts,  in  which  application  they  are 
very  analogous  to  ridicule.  Ridicule  is  the  most  gene- 
ral term  of  the  three ; we  often  rally  and  banter  by 
ridiculing.  There  is  more  exposure  in  ridiculing; 
reproof  in  rallying;  and  provocation  in  bantering.  A 
person  may  be  ridiculed  on  account  of  his  eccentri- 
cities ; he  is  rallied  for  his  defects ; he  is  bantered  for 
accidental  circumstances:  the  two  former  actions  are 
often  justified  by  some  substantial  reason ; the  latter  is 
an  .iction  as  puerile  as  it  is  unjust,  it  is  a contemptible 
species  of  mockery.  Self-conceit  and  extravagant  fol- 
lies are  oftentimes  best  corrected  by  good-natured  ridi- 
cule; a man  may  deserve  sometimes  to  be  for 

his  want  of  resolution;  ‘ The  only  piece  of  pleasantry 
in  Paradise  Lost,  is  where  the  evil  spirits  are  described 
as  rallying  the  angels  upon  the  success  of  their  new 
invented  artillery.’ — Addison.  Those  who  are  of  an 
ill-natured  turn  of  mind  will  banter  others  for  their 
misfortunes,  or  their  personal  defects,  rather  than  not 
say  something  to  their  annoyance  ; ‘ As  to  your  man- 
ner of  behaving  towards  these  unhappy  young  gentle- 
men (at  College)  you  describe,  let  it  be  manly  and 
easy  ; if  they  banter  your  regularity,  order,  decency, 
and  love  of  study,  banter  in  return  their  neglect  of  it.’ 

ClIATH-iM. 

RIDICULE,  SATIRE,  IRONY,  SARCASM. 

Ridicule  signifies  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  arti- 
cle ; satire  and  irony  have  the  same  original  meaning 
as  given  under  the  head  of  Wit;  sarcasm,  irom  the 
Greek  aapKadybi,  and  trapict^w,  from  edp^  flesh,  signifies 
literally  to  tear  the  flesh. 

Ridicule  has  simple  laughter  in  it ; satire  has  a mix- 
ture of  ill-nature  or. severity ; the  former  is  employed 
in  matters  of  a shameless  or  trifling  nature,  sometimes 
improperly  on  deserving  objects ; ‘ Notliing  is  a greater 
mark  of  a degenerate  and  vicious  age  than  the  com- 
mon ridicule  which  passes  on  this  state  of  life  (mar- 
riage).’— Addison.  Satire  is  employed  either  in  per- 
sonal or  grave  matters ; ‘ A man  resents  with  more 
bitterness  a satire  upon  his  abilities  than  his  practice.’ 
' Hawkksworth.  Irony  is  disguised  satire;  an 
ironist  seeing  to  praise  that  which  he  really  means  to 
condemn ; ‘ When  Regan  (in  King  Lear)  counsels  him 
to  ask  her  sister  forgiveness,  he  falls  on  his  knees  and 
asks  her  with  a striking  kind  of  irony  how  such  sup- 
plicating language  as  this  becometh  him.’ — Johnson. 
Sarcasm  is  bitter  and  personal  satire ; all  the  others 
may  be  successfully  and  properly  employed  to  expose 
folly  and  vice;  but  sarcasm,  which  is  the  indulgence 
only  of  personal  resentment,  is  never  justifiable ; ‘The 
'ceverity  of  this  sarcasm  stung  me  with  intolerable 
•'age.' — Hawkesworth. 

TO  JEST,  JOKE,  MAKE  GAME,  SPORT. 

Jest  is  in  all  probability  abridged  from  gesticulate, 
.>ecause  the  ancient  mimicks  used  much  gesticulation 
in  breaking  theirjests  on  the  company ; joke,  in  Latin 
iocus,  comes  in  all  probability  from  the  Hebrew 


to  laugh  ; to  make  game  signifies  hero  to  maks  the  strts 
jectof  game  or  play  ; to  sport  signifies  here  to  spor 
with,  or  convert  into  a subject  of  amusement. 

One  jests  in  order  to  make  ethers  laugh ; one  jokes 
in  order  to  please  one’s  self  The  jest  is  directed  at 
the  object ; the  joke  is  practised  with  the  person  or  on 
the  person.  One  attempts  to  make  a thing  laughable 
or  ridiculous  by  jesting  about  it,  or  treating  it  in  a 
jesting  manner  ; one  attempts  to  excite  good  humoui 
in  others,  or  indulge  it  in  one’s  self  by  joking  with 
them.  Jests  are  therefore  seldom  harmless : jokes  arc 
frequently  allowable.  The  most  serious  subject  may 
be  degraded  by  being  turned  into  a.  jest ; 

But  those  who  aim  at  ridicule. 

Should  fix  upon  some  certain  rule. 

Which  fairly  hints  they  are  in  jest.— S‘.vift. 
Melancholy  or  dejection  of  the  mind  may  be  conve 
niently  dispelled  by  a joke; 

How  fond  are  men  of  rule  and  place. 

Who  court  it  from  the  mean  and  base. 

They  love  the  cellar’s  vulgar  jaAe, 

And  lose  their  hours  in  ale  and  smoke. — Gay. 
Court  fools  and  buffoons  used  formerly  to  break  their 
jests  upon  every  subject  by  which  they  thought  to  en- 
tertain their  employers : those  who  know  how  to  joke 
with  good-nature  and  discretion  may  contribute  to  the 
mirth  of  the  company  : to  make  game  of  is  applicable 
only  to  persons:  to  make  a sport  of  or  sport  with,  is 
ajiplied  to  objects  in  general,  whether  persons  or  things  . 
both  are  employed  like  jest  in  the  bad  sense  of  treating 
a thing  more  lightly  than  it  deserves ; ‘ When  Sam- 
son’s eyes  were  out,  of  a public  magistrate  he  was 
made  a public  sport.' — South. 

Tojest  consists  of  words  or  corresponding  signs  ; it 
is  peculiarly  appropriate  to  one  who  acts  a part : to 
joke  consists  not  only  of  words,  but  of  simple  actions, 
which  are  calculated  to  produce  mirth  ; it  is  peculiarly 
applicable  to  the  social  intercourse  of  friends : to  make 
game  of  consists  more  of  laughter  than  any ; it  has 
not  the  ingenuity  of  the  jest,  nor  the  good-nature  of 
the  jo/re;  it  is  the  part  of  the  fool  who  wishes  to  make 
others  appear  what  he  himself  really  is:  to  sport  with 
or  to  make  sport  of,  consists  not  only  of  simple  actions, 
but  of  conduct;  it  is  the  errour  of  a weak  mind  that 
does  not  know  how  to  set  a due  value  on  any  thing , 
the  fool  sports  with  his  reputation,  when  he  risks  the 
loss  of  it  for  a bauble 


TO  SCOFF,  GIBE,  JEER,  SNEER. 

Scoff  comes  from  the  Greek  ckwitto}  to  deride  ; gibe 
and  jeer  are  connected  with  the  word  gabble  and  jab 
her,  denoting  an  unseemly  mode  of  speech  ; sneer  is 
connected  with  sneeze  and  nose,  the  member  by  which 
sneering  is  performed. 

Scoffing  is  a general  term  for  expressing  contempt ; 
we  may  scoff  either  by  gibes,  jeers,  or  sneers ; or  we 
may  scoff  by  opprobrious  language  and  contemptuous 
looks : to  gibe,  jeer,  and  sneer,  are  personal  acts  ; the 
gibe  and  jeer  consist  of  words  addressed  to  an  indivi 
dual ; the  former  has  most  of  ill-nature  and  reproach 
in  it ; 

Where  town  and  country  vicars  flock  in  tribes. 

Secur’d  by  numbers  from  the  laymen’s  gibes. — Swift 
The  latter  has  more  of  ridicule  or  satire  in  it; 

Midas,  expos’d  to  all  their  jecr5. 

Had  lost  his  art,  and  kept  his  ears. — Swift. 

They  are  both,  however,  applied  to  the  actions  of 
vulgar  people,  who  practise  their  coarse  jokes  on  each 
other ; 

Shrewd  fellows  and  such  arch  wags ! A tribe 
That  meet  for  nothing  but  to  gibe. — Swift. 

‘ That  jeering  demeanour  is  a quality  of  great  of.'mce 
to  others,  and  danger  towards  a man’s  self.’ — I/Ord 
Wentworth.  Scoff  and  sneer  are  directed  either  tc 
persons  or  things  as  the  object ; gibe  and  jeer  only 
towards  persons:  scoff  is  taken  only  in  the  pioper 
sense;  sneer  derives  its  meaning  from  the  literal  .act 
of  sneering : the  scoffer  speaks  lightly  of  tlia.t  which 
deserves  serious  attention ; 

The  fop,  with  learning  at  defiance 
Scoffs  at  the  pedant  and  the  science. —Gay 
The  sneerer  speaks  cither  actually  with  a sneer  or  as 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


-105 


H wae  by  implication  with  a sneer;  ‘There  is  one 
short  passage  still  remaining  (of  Alexis  the  poet’s) 
which  conveys  a sneer  at  Pythagoras.’ — Cumberland. 
The  scoffers  at  religion  set  at  naught  all  thoughts  of 
decorum,  they  openly  avow  the  little  estimation  in 
which  they  hold  it ; the  sneerers  at  religion  are  more 
sly,  but  not  less  malignant ; they  wish  to  treat  religion 
with  contempt,  but  not  to  bring  themselves  into  the 
contempt  they  deserve; 

And  sneers  as  learnedly  as  they. 

Like  females  o’er  their  morning  tea. — Swift 


TO  DISPARAGE,  DETRACT,  TRADUCE, 
DEPRECIATE,  DEGRADE,  DECRY. 

Disparage^  compounded  of  dis  and  parage^  from 
par  equal,  signifies  to  make  unequal  or  below  what  it 
ought  to  be;  detract^  in  Latin  detractum,  participle 
of  dctraho,  from  de  and  traho  to  draw  down,  signifies 
to  set  a thing  below  its  real  value;  traduce^  in  Latin 
traduco  or  transduco,  signifies  to  carry  from  one  to 
another  that  which  is  unfavourable;  depreciate,  iwm 
the  Latin  pretium,  a price,  signifies  to  bring  down  the 
price ; degrade,  compounded  of  de  and  grade  or  gradus 
a step,  degree,  signifies  to  bring  a degree  or  step  lower 
than  one  has  been  before ; decry  signifies  literally  to 
cry  down. 

'Phe  idea  of  lowering  the  value  of  an  object  is  com- 
mon to  all  these  words,  which  differ  in  the  circum- 
stances and  object  of  the  action.  Disparagement  is 
the  most  indefinite  in  the  manner  : detract  and  traduce 
are  specifick  in  the  forms  by  which  an  object  is  lowered : 
disparagement  respects  the  mental  endowments  and 
qualifications:  detract  and  traduce  are  said  of  the 
moral  character ; the  former,  however,  in  a less  specifick 
manner  than  the  latter.  We  disparage  a man’s  per- 
formance by  speaking  slightingly  of  it ; we  detract 
from  the  merits  of  a person  by  ascribing  his  success  to 
chance  ; we  traduce  him  by  handing  about  tales  that 
are  unfavourable  to  his  reputation ; thus  authors  are 
apt  to  disparage  the  writings  of  their  rivals;  ‘It  is  a 
hard  and  nice  subject  for  a man  to  speak  of  himself;  it 
grates  his  own  heart  to  say  any  thing  of  disparagement, 
and  the  reader’s  ears  to  hear  any  thing  of  praise  from 
him.’ — Cowley.  A person  may  detract  from  the  skill 
of  another;  ‘I  have  very  often  been  tempted  to  write 
invectives  upon  those  who  have  detracted  from  my 
works;  but  I look  upon  it  as  a peculiar  happiness  that 
I have  always  hindered  my  resentments  from  proceed- 
ing to  this  extremity.’ — Addison.  Or  he  may  traduce 
him  by  relating  scandalous  reports  ; ‘ Both  Homer  and 
Virgil  had  their  compositions  usurped  by  others;  both 
were  envied  and  traduced  during  their  lives.’ — Walsh. 

To  disparage,  detract,  and  traduce,  can  be  applied 
only  to  persons,  or  that  which  is  personal ; depreciate, 
degrade,  and  decry,  to  whatever  is  an  object  of  esteem  ; 
we  depreciate  and  degrade,  therefore,  things  as  well  as 
persons,  and  decry  things ; to  depreciate  is,  however, 
not  so  strong  a term  as  to  degrade ; for  the  language 
which  is  employed  to  depreciate  will  be  mild  compared 
with  that  used  for  degrading : we  may  depreciate  an 
object  by  implication,  or  in  indirect  terms;  but  harsh 
and  unseemly  epithets  are  employed  for  degrading: 
thus  a man  may  be  said  to  depreciate  human  nature, 
who  does  not  represent  it  as  capable  of  its  true  eleva- 
tion ; he  degrades  it  who  sinks  it  below  the  scale  of 
rationality.  We  may  depreciate  or  degrade  an  indi- 
vidual, a language,  and  the  like;  we  decry  measures 
and  principles : the  two  former  are  an  act  of  an  indi- 
viduaJ  ; the  latter  is  properly  the  act  of  many.  Some 
men  have  such  perverted  notions  that  they  are  always 
iepreciating  whatever  is  esteemed  excellent  in  the 
world  ; ‘Tiie  business  of  our  modish  French  authors 
is  to  depreciate  human  nature,  and  consider  it  under 
its  worst  appearances.’ — Addison.  They  whose  in- 
terests have  stifled  all  feelings  of  humanity,  have  de- 
graded the  poor  Africans,  in  order  to  justify  tlie  en- 
slaving of  them  ; ‘ Akenside  certainly  retained  an  unne- 
cessary and  outrageous  zeal  for  what  he  called  and 
thought  liberty ; a zeal  which  sometimes  disguises 
from  the  world  an  envious  desire  of  plundering  wealth, 
or  degrading  greatness.’ — Johnson.  Political  parti- 
sans commonly  decry  the  measures  of  one  party,  in 
order  to  exalt  those  of  another;  ‘Ignorant  men  are 
very  subject  to  decry  those  beauties  in  a celebrated 
work  which  they  have  not  eyes  to  discover.’ — Addiron 


TO  DISPARAGE,  DEROGATE,  DEGRADE. 

Disparage  and  degrade  have  the  same  meaning  a< 
given  in  the  preceding  article;  derogate,  in  Latin 
derogatus,  from  derogo  to  repeal  in  part,  signifies  to 
take  from  a thing. 

Disparage  is  here  ernpl  ayed,  not  as  die  act  of  per 
sons,  but  of  things,  in  which  case  it  is  allied  to  dero- 
gate, but  retains  its  indefinite  and  general  sense  as 
before:  circnmstances  may  disparage  the  perform- 
ances of  a writer ; or  they  may  derogate  from  the 
honours  and  dignities  of  an  individual : it  would  be  a 
high  disparagement  to  an  author  to  have  it  known 
that  he  had  been  guilty  of  plagiarism ; it  derogates 
from  the  dignity  of  a magistrate  to  take  part  in  popular 
measures.  To  degrade  is  here,  as  in  the  former  case, 
a much  stronger  expression  than  the  other  two : what- 
ever disparages  or  derogates  does  but  take  away 
a part  from  the  value  ; but  whatever  degrades  sinks  it 
many  degrees  in  the  estimation  of  those  in  whose  eyes 
it  is  degraded ; in  this  manner  religion  is  degraded  by 
the  low  arts  of  its  enthusiastick  profes.snrs ; ‘ Of  the 
mind  that  can  deliberately  pollute  itself  with  ideal 
wickedness,  for  the  sake  of  spreading  the  contagion  in 
society,  I wish  not  to  conceal  or  excuse  the  depravity. 
Such  degradation  of  the  dignity  of  genius  cannot  be 
contemplated  but  with  grief  and  indignation.’ — John- 
son. Whatever  may  tend  to  ihG  disparagement  of  a 
religious  profession,  does  injury  to  the  cause  of  truth  ; 
‘’Tis  no  disparagement  io  philosophy,  that  it  cannot 
deify  us.’ — Glanville.  Whatever  derogates  from 
the  dignity  of  a man  in  any  office  is  apt  to  degrade  the 
office  itself;  ‘ I think  we  may  say,  without  derogating 
from  those  wonderful  performances  (the  Iliad  and 
iEneid),  that  there  is  an  unquestionable  magnificence 
in  every  part  of  Paradise  Lost,  and  indeed  a much 
greater  than  could  have  been  formed  upon  any  Pagan 
system.’ — Addison. 


TO  ASPERSE,  DETRACT,  DEFAME, 
SLANDER,  CALUMNIATE. 

Asperse,  in  Latin  aspersus,  participle  of  aspergo  tc 
sprinkle,  signifies  in  a moral  sense  to  stain  with  spots, 
detract  has  the  same  signification  as  given  under  the 
head  of  disparage;  defame,  in  Latin  defamo,  com- 
pounded of  the  privative  de  and/ama  fame,  signifies  tc 
deprive  of  reputation ; sZawder  is  doubtless  connected 
with  the  words  slur,  sully,  and  soil,  signifying  to  stain 
with  some  spot ; calumniate,  from  the  Latin  calumnia. 
and  the  Hebrew  qSd  infamy,  signifies  to  load  with 
infamy. 

All  these  terms  denote  an  effort  made  to  injure  tht 
character  by  some  representation.  Asperse  and  de 
tract  mark  ah  indirect  misrepresentation ; defame 
slander,  and  calumniate,  a positive  assertion. 

To  asperse  is  to  fix  a stain  on  a moral  character  ; tc 
detract  is  to  lessen  its  merits  and  excellencies.  Asper- 
sions always  imply  something  bad,  real  or  supposed ; 
detractions  are  always  founded  on  some  supposed 
good  in  the  object  that  is  detracted:  to  defame  is 
openly  to  advance  some  serious  charge  against  the 
character  : to  slander  is  to  expose  the  faults  of  another 
in  his  absence:  to  calumniate  is  to  communicate  se- 
cretly, or  otherwise,  circumstances  to  the  injury  of 
another. 

Aspersions  and  detractions  are  never  positive  false- 
hoods, as  they  never  amount  to  more  than  insinuations ; 
defamationisihe  publick  communication  of  facts,  whe- 
ther true  or  false  : slander  involves  the  discussion  of 
moral  qualities,  and  is  consequently  the  declaration  of 
an  opinion  as  well  as  the  communication  of  a fact: 
calumny,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a positive  communica- 
tion of  circumstances  known  by  the  narrator  at  the 
time  to  be  false.  Aspersions  are  the  effect  of  malice 
and  meanness ; they  are  the  resource  of  the  basest 
persons,  insidiously  to  wound  the  characters  of  those 
w'hom  they  dare  not  openly  attack : the  most  virtuous 
are  exposed  to  the  malignity  of  the  asperser ; ‘It  is 
certain,  and  observed  by  the  wisest  writers,  that  there 
are  women  who  are  not  nicely  chaste,  and  men  not 
severely  honest,  in  all  families;  therefore  let  those 
who  may  be  apt  to  raise  aspersions  upon  ours,  please 
to  give  us  an  impartial  account  of  their  own,  and  we 
shall  be  satisfied.’ — Steele.  Detraction  is  the  effect 
of  envy : when  a man  is  not  disposed  or  able  to  follow 
the  example  of  another,  he  strives  to  detract  from  the 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


/Ub 


merit  &/  his  actions  by  questioning  the  purity  of  his  i 
motives ; distinguished  persons  are  the  most  exposed 
io  llie  evil  tongues  of  detractors ; ‘ What  made  their 
enmity  the  more  entertaining  to  all  the  rest  of  their 
sex  was,  that  in  their  detraction  from  each  other,  nei- 
»her  could  fall  upon  terms  which  did  not  hit  herself  as 
much  as  her  adversary.’—SxEELE.  Defamation  is  the 
consequence  of  personal  resentment,  or  a busy  inter- 
'’erence  with  other  men’s  affairs  ; it  is  an  unjustifiable 
exposure  of  their  errours  or  vices,  which  is  often  visited 
with  the  due  vengeance  of  the  law  upon  the  offender  ; 

• What  shall  we  say  of  the  pleasure  a man  takes  in  a 
defamatory  libel  1 Is  it  not  a heinous  sin  in  the  sight 
of  God  V — Addison.  Slander  arises  either  from  a 
mischievous  temper,  or  a gossipping  humour  ; it  is  the 
resource  of  ignorant  and  vacant  minds,  who  are  in 
want  of  some  serious  occupation  : the  slanderer  deals 
unmercifully  with  his  neighbour,  and  speaks  without 
regard  to  truth  or  falsehood ; 

Slander,  that  worst  of  poisons,  ever  finds 

An  easy  entrance  to  ignoble  minds. — Hervey. 

Calumny  is  the  worst  of  actions,  resulting  from  the 
worst  of  motives  ; to  injure  the  reputation  of  another 
by  the  sacrifice  of  truth,  is  an  accumulation  of  guilt 
which  is  hardly  exceeded  by  any  one  in  the  whole 
catalogue  of  vices ; ‘ The  way  to  silence  calumny,  says 
Bias,  is  to  be  always  exercised  in  such  things  as  are 
praiseworthy.’ — Addison.  Slanderers  and  calumni- 
ators are  so  near  a-kin,  that  they  are  but  too  often 
found  in  the  same  person:  it  is  to  be  expected  that 
when  the  slanderer  has  exhausted  all  his  surmises  and 
censure  upon  his  neighbour,  he  will  not  hesitate  to 
calumniate  him  rather  than  remain  silent. 

If  I speak  slightingly  of  my  neighbour,  and  insi- 
nuate any  thing  against  the  purity  of  his  principles,  or 
the  rectitude  of  his  conduct,  I asperse  him : if  he  be 
a charitable  man,  and  I ascribe  his  charities  to  a selfish 
motive,  or  otherwise  take  away  from  the  merit  of  his 
conduct,  I am  guilty  of  detraction : if  I publish  any 
thing  openly  that  injures  his  reputation,  1 am  a de- 
fainer  : if  I communicate  to  others  the  reports  that  are 
in  circulation  to  his  disadvantage,  I am  a slanderer : 
if  I fabricate  any  thing  myself  and  spread  it  abroad,  I 
am  a calumniator. 


TO  ABASE,  HUMBLE,  DEGRADE,  DISGRACE, 
DEBASE. 

To  abase  expresses  the  strongest  degree  of  self-hu- 
miliation, from  the  French  abaisser,  to  bring  down  or 
make  low,  which  is  compounded  of  the  intensive  sylla- 
ble a or  ad  and  baisser  from  bas  low,  in  Latin  basis 
the  base,  which  is  the  lowest  part  of  a column.  It  i.s 
at  present  used  principally  in  the  Scripture  language, 
ar  in  a metapho.’-ical  style,  to  imply  the  laying  aside  all 
the  high  pretensions  which  distinguish  us  from  our 
fellow-creatures,  the  descending  to  a smte  compara- 
tively low  and  mean;  to  humble,  in  French  humilier, 
from  the  Latin  AitmiZis  humble,  and  humus  the  ground, 
naturally  marks  a prostration  to  the  ground,  and  figura- 
tively a lowering  the  thoughts  and  feelings.  Accord- 
ing to  the  principles  of  Christianity  whoever  aboseth 
himself  shall  be  exalted,  and  according  to  tlie  same 
principles  whoever  reflects  on  his  own  littleness  and 
unworthiness  will  daily  humble  himself  before  his 
Maker. 

To  degrade  {v.  To  disparage),  signifies  to  lower  in 
the  estimation  of  others.  It  supposes  already  a state 
of  elevation  either  in  outward  circumstances  or  in  pub- 
lick  opinion;  disgrace  is  compounded  of  the  privative 
dis  and  the  noun  grace  or  favour.  To  disgrace  pro- 
perly implies  to  put  out  of  favour,  which  is  always  at- 
tended more  or  less  with  circumstances  of  ignominy, 
and  reflects  contempt  on  the  object ; debase  is  com- 
pounded of  the  intensive  syllable  de  and  the  adjective 
base,  signifying  to  make  very  base  or  low. 

The  modest  man  abases  himself  by  not  insisting  on 
the  distinctions  to  which  he  may  be  justly  entitled  : 
the  penitent  man  humbles  himself  jjy  confessing  his 
errours;  the  man  of  rank  degrades  himself  by  a too 
familiar  deportment  with  his  inferiours ; he  disgraces 
himself  by  his  meanness  and  irregularities,  and  debases 
Ins  character  by  his  vices. 

We  can  never  be  abased  by  abasing  ourselves,  but 
we  may  be  humbled  by  unseasonable  humiliations,  or 
improper  concessions ; we  may  be  degraded  by  de- 


I scending  from  our  rank,  and  disgraced  by  the  exposur? 
of  our  unworthy  actions. 

The  great  atid  good  man  may  be  abased  and  hum 
bled,  but  never  degraded  or  disgraced  ; Ins  glory  fol 
lows  him  in  his  abasement  or  humiliation ; his  groat 
ness  protects  him  from  degradation,  and  his  virtut 
shields  him  from  disgrace. 

’Tis  immortality,  ’tis  that  alone 
Amid  life’s  pains,  abasements,  emptiness. 

The  soul  can  comfort. — Young. 

My  soul  is  justly  humbled  in  the  dust.— Row*. 

It  is  necessary  to  abase  those  who  will  exalt  them 
selves ; to  humble  those  who  have  lofty  opinions  of 
themselves  ; ‘ If  the  mind  be  curbed  and  humbled  too 
much  in  children ; if  their  spirits  be  abased  and  broken 
much  by  too  strict  a hand  over  them ; they  lose  all 
their  vigour  and  industry.’ — Locke.  Those  who  act 
inconsistently  with  their  rank  and  station  are  fre- 
quently degraded  ; but  it  is  more  common  for  others  to 
be  unjustly  degraded  through  the  envy  and  ill-will  of 
their  inferiours ; ‘ It  is  very  disingenuous  to  level  the 
best  of  mankind  with  the  worst,  and  for  the  faults  of 
particulars  to  degrade  the  whole  species.’ — Hughes 
Folly  and  wickedness  bring  disgrace  on  courts,  where 
the  contrary  ought  to  be  found  ; 

You’d  think  no  fools  disgraced  the  former  reign. 

Did  not  some  grave  examples  still  remain.— Pope. 
The  misuse  of  things  for  inferiour  purposes  debase 
their  value  ; ‘ It  is  a kind  of  taking  God’s  name  in 
vain,  to  debase  religion  with  such  frivolous  disputes.’— 
Hooker. 

Of  all  these  terms  degrade  and  disgrace  are  the 
most  nearly  allied  to  eachotlier;  but  the  former  has 
most  regard  to  the  external  rank  and  condition,  the 
latter  to  the  moral  estimation  and  character.  What 
ever  is  low  and  mean  is  degrading  for  those  who  are 
not  of  mean  condition;  whatever  is  immoral  is  dis- 
graceful to  all,  but  most  so  to  those  who  ought  to  know 
better.  It  is  degrading  for  a nobleman  to  associate 
with  prize-fighters  and  jockeys;  it  \s  disgracefulXox 
him  to  countenance  the  violation  of  the  laws,  which 
he  is  bound  to  protect;  it  is  degrading  for  a clergyman 
to  take  part  in  the  ordinary  pleasures  and  occupations 
of  mankind  in  general;  it  is  disgraceful  for  him  to 
indulge  in  any  levities;  Dornitian  degraded h\n\se\i  by 
the  amusement  which  he  chose  of  catching  flies;  he 
disgraced  himself  by  the  cruelty  which  he  mixed  with 
his  meanness;  king  John  of  England  degraded  liimself 
by  his  mean  compliances  to  the  pope  and  the  barons, 
and  disgraced  himself  by  many  acts  of  injustice  and 
cruelty. 

The  higher  the  rank  of  the  individual  the  greater  his 
degraaation : the  higher  his  character,  or  the  more 
sacred  his  office,  the  greater  his  disgrace,  if  he  act  in- 
consistently with  its  dignity  : but  these  terms  are  nol 
confined  to  any  rank  of  life;  there  is  that  which  is 
degrading  and  disgracef  ul  for  every  person,  however 
low  his  station ; when  a man  forfeits  that  which  he 
owes  to  himself,  and  sacrifices  his  independence  to  his 
vices,  he  degrades  himself;  ‘When  a hero  is  to  be 
pulled  down  and  degraded  it  is  best  done  in  doggerel.’ 
— Addison.  ‘ So  deplorable  is  the  degradation  of  our 
nature,  that  whereas  before  we  bore  the  image  of  Goo, 
we  now  only  retain  the  image  of  men.’ — South.  He 
who  forfeits  tlie  good  opinion  of  those  who  know  him 
is  disgraced,  and  he  who  fails  to  bestow  on  an  object 
the  favour  or  esteem  whicli  it  is  enlitled  to  disgraces 
it ; ‘ We  may  not  so  in  any  one  kind  admire  her,  that 
We  disgrace  her  in  any  other ; but  let  all  her  ways 
be  according  unto  their  place  and  degree  adored.’ — 
Hooker.  But  although  the  term  disgrace  when  gene- 
rally applied  is  always  taken  in  a bad  seitse,  yet  in  re 
gard  to  individuals  it  may  be  taken  in  an  indifferent 
sense ; it  is  possible  to  be  disgraced,  or  to  lose  the 
favour  of  a patron,  through  his  caprice,  without  any 
fault  on  the  part  of  the  disgraced  person  ; ‘ Philips  died 
honoured  and  lamented,  before  any  part  of  his  reputa- 
tion had  withered,  and  before  his  patron  St.John  had 
disgraced  him.’ 

Men  are  very  liable  to  err  in  their  judgements  on 
what  is  degrading  and  disgraceful ; but  all  who  are 
anxious  to  uphold  the  station  atid  character  in  which 
they  have  been  placed,  may  safely  observe  this  rult^ 
that  nothing  can  be  so  degrading  as  the  violation  of 
truth  and  sincerity,  and  nothing  so  disgrnr.ef  ul  as  a 
I breach  of  moral  rectitude  nr  nrepriety. 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


These  tetms  maybe  employed  with  a similar  dis- 
(inctiun  in  regard  to  things  ; a thing  is  degraded  which 
falls  any  degree  in  the  scale  of  general  estimation  ; 

All  higher  knowledge,  in  her  presence,  falls 
Degraded. — Milton. 

A thing  is  disgraced  when  it  becomes  or  is  made  less 
lovely  and  desirable  than  it  was ; 

And  where  the  vales  with  violets  once  were  crown’d. 
Now  knotty  burrs  and  thorns  disgrace  the  ground. 

Drydkn. 


TO  ABASH,  CONFOUND,  CONFUSE. 

Abash  is  an  intensive  of  abase.,  signifying  to  abase 
thoroughly  in  spirit ; confound  and  confuse  are  derived 
from  different  parts  of  the  same  Latin  verb  confundo, 
and  its  participle  confusus.  Confundo  is  compounded 
of  con  Andfundo  to  pour  together.  To  confound  and 
confuse  then  signify  properly  to  melt  together  or  into 
one  mass  what  ought  to  be  distinct ; and  figuratively, 
as  it  is  here  taken,  to  derange  the  thoughts  in  such 
manner  as  that  they^eem  melted  together. 

Abash  expresses  more  than  confound,  and  confound 
more  than  confuse;  shame  contributes  greatly  to 
abashment ; what  is  sudden  and  unaccountable  serves 
to  confound ; bashfulness  and  a variety  of  emotions 
give  rise  to  confusion. 

The  haughty  man  is  abashed  when  he  is  humbled  in 
the  eyes  of  others,  or  the  sinner  when  he  stands  con- 
victed ; ‘ If  Peter  was  so  abashed  when  Christ  gave 
him  a look  after  his  denial ; if  there  was  so  much 
dread  in  his  looks  when  he  was  a prisoner ; how  much 
greater  will  it  be  when  he  sits  as  a judge.’ — South. 
The  wicked  man  is  confounded  when  his  villany  is 
suddenly  detected ; 

Alas!  I am  afraid  they  have  awak’d. 

And  ’tis  not  done : th’  attempt,  and  not  the  deed. 

Confounds  us  ! — Shakspeark. 

A modest  person  may  be  confused  in  the  presence  of 
his  superiours;  ‘The  various  evils  of  disease  and 
poverty,  pain  and  sorrow,  are  frequently  derived  from 
others;  but  shame  and  confusion  are  supposed  to  pro- 
ceed from  ourselves,  and  to  be  incurred  only  by  the 
misconduct  which  they  furnish.’ — Hawkesworth. 

Abash  is  always  taken  in  a bad  sense;  neither  the 
scorn  of  fools,  nor  the  taunts  of  the  oppressor,  will 
abash  him  who  has  a conscience  void  of  offence  to- 
wards God  and  man.  To  be  confounded  is  not  always 
the  consequence  of  guilt:  superstition  and  ignorance 
are  liable  to  be  confounded  by  extraordinary  pheno- 
mena ; and  Providence  sometimes  thinks  fit  to  con- 
found the  wisdom  of  the  wisest  by  signs  and  wonders, 
far  above  the  reach  of  human  comprehension.  Con- 
fusion is  at  the  best  an  infirmity  more  or  less  excusa- 
ble according  to  the  nature  of  the  cause:  a steady 
mind  and  a clear  head  are  not  easily  confused,  but  per- 
sons of  quick  sensibility  cannot  always  preserve  a 
perfect  collection  of  thought  in  trying  situations,  and 
those  who  have  any  consciousness  of  guilt,  and  are 
not  very  hardened,  will  be  soon  thrown  into  confusion 
by  close  interrogatories. 

DISHONOUR,  DISGRACE,  SHAME. 

Dishonour  implies  the  state  of  being  without  honour, 
or  the  thing  which  does  away  honour  ; disgrace  signi- 
fies the  state  of  disgrace,  or  that  which  causes  the  dis- 
grace [v.  Abase);  shame  denotes  either  the  feeling  of 
being  ashamed,  or  that  which  causes  this  feeling. 

Disgrace  is  more  than  dishonour,  and  less  than 
shame.  The  disgrace  is  applicable  to  those  who  are 
not  sensible  of  the  dishonour,  and  the  shame  for  those 
who  are  not  sensible  of  the  disgrace.  The  tender 
mind  is  alive  to  dishonour : those  who  yield  to  their 
passions,  or  are  hardened  in  their  vicious  courses,  are 
alike  insensible  to  disgrace  or  shame.  Dishonour  is 
seldom  the  consequence  of  any  offence,  or  offered  with 
any  intention  of  punishing;  it  lies  mostly  in  the  con- 
sciousness of  the  individual.  Disgrace  and  shame 
are  the  direct  consequences  of  misconduct:  but  the 
lormer  applies  to  circumstances  of  less  importance 
than  the  latter ; consequently  the  feeling  of  being  in 
disgrace  is  not  so  strong  as  that  of  shame.  A citizen 
feels  it  a dishonour  not  to  be  chosen  to  those  offices  of 
just  and  honour  for  which  he  considers  himself  eligi-. 


lo: 

ble ; it  is  a disgrace  to  a schoolboy  to  be  placed  tht 
lowest  in  his  class ; which  is  heightened  into  shame  if 
it  brings  him  into  punishment; 

Like  a dull  actor  now, 

I have  forgot  my  part,  and  I am  out 
Even  to  a full  disgrace. — Shakspeare. 

‘I  was  secretly  concerned  to  see  human  nature  in  sc 
much  wretchedness  and  disgrace,  but  could  not  for- 
bear smiling  to  hear  Sir  Roger  advise  the  old  woman 
to  avoid  all  communications  with  the  devil.’ — iVn- 
msoN. 

The  fear  of  dishonour  acts  as  a laudable  stimulus  tc 
the  discharge  of  one’s  duty  ; the  fear  of  disgrace  or 
shame  serves  to  prevent  the  commission  of  vices  or 
crimes.  A soldier  feels  it  v dishonour  not  to  be  placed 
at  the  post  of  danger ; 

’T  is  no  dishonour  for  the  brave  to  die. — Drydkn. 
But  he  is  not  always  sufficiently  alive  to  the  disgrace 
of  being  punished,  nor  is  he  deterred  from  his  irregu- 
larities by  the  open  shame  to  which  he  is  sometimes  put 
in  the  presence  of  his  fellow-soldiers ; 

Where  the  proud  theatres  disclose  the  scene 

Which  interwoven  Britons  seem  to  raise. 

And  show  the  triumph  which  their  shame  displays. 

Drydkn. 

As  epithets  these  terms  likewise  rise  in  sense,  and  are 
distinguished  by  other  characteristicks  ; a dishonourable 
action  is  that  which  violates  the  principles  of  honour  ; 
a disgraceful  action  is  that  which  reflects  disgrace ; a 
shameful  action  is  that  of  which  one  ought  to  be  fully 
ashamed : it  is  very  dishonourable  for  a man  not  to 
keep  his  word,  or  for  a soldier  not  to  maintain  his 
post; 

He  did  dishonourable  find 
Those  articles  which  did  our  state  decrease. 

Dan;.t:l. 

It  is  very  disgracef  ul  for  a gentleman  to  associate  with 
those  who  are  his  inferiours  in  station  and  education  ; 

‘ Masters  must  correct  their  servants  with  gentleness, 
prudence,  and  mercy,  not  with  upbraiding  and  dis- 
graceful language.’ — Taylor  {Holy  Living).  It  is 
very  shamef  ul  for  a gentleman  to  use  his  rank  and  in 
fluence  over  the  lower  orders  only  to  mislead  them  from 
their  duty ; 

This  all  through  that  great  prince’s  pride  did  fall, 
And  came  to  shameful  end. — Spenser. 

A person  is  likewise  said  to  be  dishonourable  who  is 
disposed  to  bring  dishonour  upon  himself;  but  things 
only  are  disgraceful  or  shameful:  a dishonourable  man 
renders  himself  an  outcast  among  his  equals ; he  must 
then  descend  to  his  inferiours,  among  whom  he  may 
become  familiar  with  the  disgraceful  and  the  shameful: 
men  of  cultivation  are  alive  to  what  is  dishonourable ; 
men  of  all  stations  are  alive  to  that  which  is  for  them 
disgraceful,  or  to  that  which  is  in  itself  shameful : the 
sense  of  what  is  dishonourable  is  to  the  superiour  what 
the  sense  of  the  disgraceful  is  to  the  inferiour;  but  the 
sense  of  what  is  shameful  is  independent  of  rank  or 
station,  and  forms  a part  of  that  moral  sense  which  is 
inherent  in  the  breast  of  every  rational  creature.  Who- 
ever therefore  cherishes  in  himself  a lively  sense  of 
what  is  dishonourable  or  disgracef  ul  is  tolerably  secure 
of  never  committing  any  thing  that  is  shameful. 


DISCREDIT,  DISGRACE,  REPROACH, 
SCANDAL. 

Discredit  signifies  the  loss  of  credit ; disgrace,  the 
loss  of  grace,  favour,  or  esteem ; reproach  stands  for 
the  thing  that  deserves  to  be  reproathed  ; and  scandal 
for  the  tiling  that  gives  scandal  or  oflenoe. 

The  conduct  of  men  in  their  various  relations  with 
each  other  may  give  rise  to  the  unfavourable  sentiment 
which  is  expressed  in  common  by  these  terms.  Things 
are  said  to  reflect  discredit,  or  disgrace  to  bring  reproack 
or  scandal,  on  the  individual.  These  terms  seem  to 
rise  in  sense  one  upon  the  other : disgrace  is  a stronger 
term  than  discredit;  reproach  than  disgrace;  anc 
scandal  than  reproach. 

Discredit  interferes  with  a man’s  credit  or  respecta 
bility;  disgrace  marks  him  out  as  an  object  of  unfa 
vourable  distinction  ; reproach  makes  him  a subject  o( 
reproachful  conversation  ; scandal  makes  hhu  ait 


108 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES 


of  offence  or  even  abhorrence.  As  regularity  in  hour.s, 
regularity  in  habits  or  modes  of  living,  regularity  in 
payments,  are  a credit  to  a family ; so  is  any  deviation 
from  this  order  to  its  discredit : as  moral  rectitude, 
kindness,  charity,  and  benevolence,  serve  to  ensure  the 
good-will  and  esteem  of  men  ; so  do  instances  of  unfair 
dealing,  cruelty,  inhumanity,  and  an  unfeeling  temper, 
tend  to  the  disgrace  of  the  offender;  as  a lil'e  of  dis- 
tinguished virtue  or  particular  instances  of  moral  ex- 
cellence, may  cause  a man  to  be  spoken  of  in  strong 
terms  of  commendation ; so  will  flagrant  atrocities  or  a 
course  of  immorality  cause  his  name  and  himself  to  be 
(he  general  subject  of  reproach : as  the  profession  of  a 
Christian  with  a consistent  practice  is  the  greatest  or- 
nament which  a man  can  put  on : so  is  the  profession 
with  an  inconsistent  practice  the  greatest  deformity 
that  can  be  witnessed;  it  is  calculated  to  bring  a scartdai 
on  religion  itself  in  the  eyes  of  those  who  do  not  know 
and  feel  its  intrinsick  excellencies. 

Discredit  depends  much  on  the  character,  circum- 
stances, and  situation  of  those  who  discredit  and  those 
who  are  discredited.  Those  who  are  in  responsible 
situations,  and  have  had  confidence  reposed  in  them, 
must  have  a peculiar  guard  over  their  conduct  not  to 
Dring  discredit  on  themselves ; disgrace  depends  on  the 
temper  of  men’s,  minds  as  well  as  collateral  circum- 
stances ; where  a nice  sense  of  moral  propriety  is  pre- 
valent in  any  community,  disgrace  inevitably  attaches 
10  a deviation  from  good  morals.  Reproach  and  scandal 
refer  more  immediately  to  the  nature  of  the  actions  than 
the  character  of  the  persons;  the  former  being  em- 
ployed in  general  matters ; the  latter  mostly  in  a reli- 
gious application:  it  is  greatly  to  the  discredit  oi  all 
heads  of  publick  institutions,  when  they  allow  of  abuses 
lhat  interfere  with  the  good  order  of  the  establishment, 
)r  divert  it  from  its  original  purpose ; ‘ ’T  is  the  duty 
jf  every  Christian  to  be  concerned  for  the  reputation 
3r  discredit  his  life  may  bring  on  liis  profession.’— 
Rogers.  ‘ When  a man  is  made  up  wholly  of  the  dove 
vvithout  the  least  grain  of  the  serpent  in  his  composi- 
tion, he  becomes  ridiculous  in  many  circumstances  of 
his  life,  and  very  often  discredits  his  best  actions.’ — 
Addison.  In  Sparta  the  slightest  intemperance  re 
fl'^cted  great  disgrace  on  the  offender; 

And  he  whose  affluence  disdain’d  a place. 

Brib'd  by  a title,  makes  it  a disgrace. — Brown. 

In  the  present  age,  when  the  views  of  men  on  Chris- 
tianity and  its  duties  are  so  much  more  enlightened  than 
they  ever  were,  it  is  a reproach  to  any  nation  to  con- 
tinue to  traffick  in  the  blood  of  its  fellow-creatures ; 
‘The  cruelty  of  Mary’s  persecution  equalled  the  deeds 
of  those  tyrants  who  have  been  the  reproach  to  human 
nature.’— Robertson.  The  blasphemous  indecencies 
of  which  religious  enthusiasts  are  guilty  in  the  excess 
of  their  zeal.is  a scandal  to  all  sober-minded  Christians ; 

His  lustful  orgies  he  enlarged 
Even  to  the  hill  of  scandal,  by  the  grove 
Of  Moloch  homicide. — Milton. 


INFAMOUS,  SCANDALOUS. 

Infamous,  like  infamy  {v.  Infamy),  is  applied  to  both 
persons  and  things ; scandalous,  or  causing  scandal, 
only  to  things ; a character  is  infamous,  or  a transaction 
is  infamous;  but  a transaction  only  is  scandalous. 
Infamous  and  scandalous  are  both  said  of  that  which 
is  calculated  to  excite  great  displeasure  in  the  minds  of 
all  who  hear  it,  and  to  degrade  the  offenders  in  the 
general  estimation;  but  the  infamous  seems  to  be  that 
which  produces  greater  publicity,  and  more  general 
reprehension,  than  the  scandalous,  consequently  is  that 
whicli  is  more  serious  in  its  nature,  and  a greater  vio- 
lation of  good  morals.  Many  of  the  leaders  in  the 
French  revolution  rendered  themselves  infamous  by 
their  violence,  their  rapine,  and  their  murders ; ‘ There 
is  no  crime  more  infamous  than  the  violation  of  truth.’ 

-Johnson.  The  trick  which  was  played  upon  the  sub- 
scribers to  the  South  Sea  Company  was  a scandalous 
fraud , ‘ It  is  a very  great,  though  sad  and  scandalous 
truth,  that  rich  men  are  esteemed  and  honoured,  while 
the  ways  by  which  they  grow  rich  are  abhorred.’ — 
South 

INFAMY,  IGNOMINY,  OPPROBRIUM. 

Infamy  is  the  opposite  to  good  fame;  it  consists  in 


an  evil  report ; ignominy,  from  nomcn  a name,  signifiC'S 
an  ill  name,  a stained  name ; opprobrium,  a Latin 
word,  compounded  of  op  or  ob  and  probrum,  signifies 
the  highest  degree  of  reproach  or  stain. 

The  idea  of  discredit  or  disgrace  in  the  highest  pos 
fible  degree  is  common  to  all  these  terms : but  infamy 
is  that  which  attaches  more  to  the  thing  than  to  the 
person  ; ignominy  is  thrown  upon  the  person  ; and  op 
probrium  is  thrown  upon  the  agent  rather  than  the 
action. 

The  infamy  causes  either  the  person  or  thing  to  be 
ill  spoken  of  by  all ; abhorrence  of  both  is  expressed  by 
every  mouth,  and  the  ill  report  spreads  from  mouth  to 
mouth ; ignominy  causes  the  name  and  the  person  to 
be  held  in  contempt ; and  to  become  debased  in  the 
eyes  of  others : opprobrium  causes  the  person  to  be 
spoken  of  in  severe  terms  of  reproach,  and  to  be 
shunned  as  something  polluted.  'Phe  infamy  of  a 
traitorous  proceeding  is  increased  by  the  addition  of 
ingratitude ; the  ignominy  of  a publick  punishment  is 
increased  by  the  wickedness  of  the  offender  ; ojjpro 
brium  sometimes  falls  upon  the  innocent,  when  cir 
cumstances  seem  to  convict  them  of  guilt. 

Infamy  is  bestowed  by  the  publick  voice ; it  does  not 
belong  to  one  nation  or  one  age,  but  to  every  age : the 
infamy  of  a base  transaction,  as  the  massacre  of  the 
Danes  in  England,  or  of  the  Hugonots  in  France,  will 
be  handed  down  to  the  latest  posterity ; ‘ The  share  of 
infamy  that  is  likely  to  fall  to  the  lot  of  each  individual 
in  publick  acts  is  small  indeed.’ — Burke.  Ignominy  is 
brought  on  a person  by  the  act  of  the  magistrate:  the 
publick  sentence  of  the  law,  and  the  infliction  of  that 
sentence,  exposes  the  name  to  publick  scorn ; the  igno 
miny,  however,  seldom  extends  beyond  the  individuals 
who  are  immediately  concerned  in  it;  every  honest 
man,  however  humble  hisstation  and  narrow  his  sphere, 
would  fain  preserve  his  name  from  being  branded  with 
the  ignominy  of  either  himself,  or  any  of  his  family, 
suffering  death  on  the  gallows ; 

For  strength  from  truth  divided,  and  from  just, 
Illaudable  naught  merits  but  dispraise. 

And  ignominy. — Milton. 

Opprobrium  is  the  judgement  passed  by  the  publick ; 
it  is  more  silent  and  even  more  confined  than  the  infamy 
and  the  ignominy;  individuals  are  exposed  to  it  ac 
cording  to  the  nature  of  the  imputations  under  which 
they  lie:  every  good  man  wpuld  be  anxious  to  escape 
the  opprobrium  of  having  forfeited  his  integrity ; 

Nor  he  their  outward  only  with  the  skins 
Of  beasts,  but  inward  nakedness  much  more 
Opprobrious,  with  his  robe  of  righteousness 
Arraying,  cover’d  from  his  father’s  sight. 

Milto  n. 


TO  REVILE,  VILIFY. 

Revile,  from  the  Latin  vilis,  signifies  to  reflect  upon 
a person,  or  retort  upon  him  that  which  is  vile : to 
vilify,  signifies  to  make  a thing  vile,  that  is,  to  set  it 
forth  as  vile. 

To  revile  is  a personal  act,  it  is  addressed  directly  to 
the  obiect  of  offence,  and  is  addressed  for  the  purpose  of 
making  the  person  vile  in  his  own  eyes  : to  vilify  is  an 
indirect  attack  which  serves  to  make  the  object  appear 
vile  in  the  eyes  of  others.  Revile  is  said  only  of  per 
sons,  for  persons  only  are  reviled;  but  vilify  \s  said 
mostly  of  things,  for  things  are  often  vilified.  To  revile 
is  contrary  to  all  Christian  duty ; it  is  commonly  re- 
sorted to  by  the  most  worthless,  and  practised  upon  the 
most  worthy ; 

But  chief  he  gloried  with  licentious  style. 

To  lash  the  great,  and  monarchs  to  reurZe.— Pope. 
To  vilify  is  seldom  justifiable;  for  we  cannot  vilify 
without  using  improper  language ; it  is  seldom  resorted 
to  but  for  the  gratification  of  ill  nature:  ‘There  is  no- 
body so  weak  of  invention  that  cannot  make  some 
little  stories  to  vilify  his  enemy.’ — Addison. 

REPROACH,  CONTUMELY,  OBLOaUY. 

Reproach  has  the  same  signification  as  given  under 
To  Blame ; contumely,  from  contumeo,  that  is,  contr  a 
tMmeo,  signifies  to  swell  up  against;  obloquy, 
and  loquor,  signifies  speaking  against  or  to  the  dis 
paragement  of. 


ENGLISH  SINONYMES. 


The  idea  of  contempluous  or  angry  treatment  of 
others  is  common  to  all  these  terms;  but  rcproac/t  is 
the  general,  contumely  and  obloquy  are  the  particular 
terms  Reproach  is. either  deserved  or  undeserved; 
the  name  of  Puritan'is  applied  as  a term  of  reproach 
to  such  as  alfect  greater  purity  than  others ; the  name 
of  Christian  is  a name  of  reproach  in  Turkey  ; but  re- 
proach taken  absolutely  is  always  supposed  to  be  unde- 
served, and  to  be  itself  a vice ; 

Has  foul  reproach  a privilege  from  heav’n  ?— Pope. 
Contumely  is  always  undeserved ; it  is  the  insolent 
swelling  of  a worthless  person  against  merit  in  dis- 
tress ; our  Saviour  was  exposed  to  the  contumely  of 
tile  Jews;  ‘ The  royal  captives  followed  in  the  train, 
amid  the  horrid  yells,  and  frantick  dances,  and  in- 
famous contumelies,  of  the  furies  of  hell.’— Burke. 
Obloquy  is  always  supposed  to  be  deserved ; it  is  ap- 
plicable to  those  whose  conduct  has  rendered  them 
objects  of  general  censure,  and  whose  name  therefore 
has  almost  become  a reproach.  A man  who  uses  his 
power  only  to  oppress  those  who  are  connected  with 
him  will  naturally  and  deservedly  bring  upon  liimself 
much  obloquy ; ‘Reasonable  moderation  hath  freed  us 
from  being  subject  unto  that  kind  of  obloquy,  whereby 
as  the  church  of  Rome  dtlh,  under  the  colour  of  love 
towards  those  things  which  lie  harmless,  maintain  ex- 
tremely most  hurtful  corruptions ; so  we,  peradventure 
might  be  upbraided,  that  under  colour  of  liatred  to- 
wards those  things  that  are  corrupt,  we  are  on  the 
other  side  as  extreme,  even  against  most  harmless  ordi- 
tiances.’ — Hooker. 


REPROACHFUL,  ABUSIVE,  SCURRILOUS. 

Reproachful,  when  applied  to  the  person,  signifies 
full  of  reproaches ; when  to  the  thing,  deserving  of 
reproach:  abusive  is  only  applied  to  the  person,  signi- 
fying after  the  manner  of  abuse : scurrilous,  from 
scurra  a buttbon,  is  employed  as  an  epithet  either  for 
persons  or  things,  signifying  using  scurrility,  or  the 
language  of  a buffoon.  The  conduct  of  a person  is 
reproachful  in  as  much  as  it  provokes  or  is  entitled  to 
tlie  reproaches  of  others  ; the  language  of  a person  is 
reproachful  when  it  abounds  in  reproaches,  or  par- 
takes of  the  nature  of  a reproach  : a person  is  abusive 
who  indulges  himself  in  abuse  or  abusive  language : 
and  he  is  scurrilous  who  adopts  scurrility  oi  scur^'i- 
lous  language. 

When  applied  to  the  same  object,  whether  to  the 
person  or  to  the  thing,  they  rise  in  sense . the  reproach- 
ful is  less  than  the  abusive,  and  this  than  the  scur- 
rilous: the  reproachful  is  sometimes  warranted  by 
the  provocation;  but  the  abusive  and  scurrilous  are 
always  unwarrantable ; reproachful  language  may  be 
consistent  with  decency  and  propriety  of  speech,  but 
when  the  term  is  taken  absolutely,  it  is  generally  in  the 
bad  sense ; ‘ Honour  teaches  a man  not  to  revenge  a 
contum^ious  or  reproachful  word,  but  to  be  above 
it.’ — South.  Musive  and  scurrilous  language  are 
outrages  against  the  laws  of  good  breeding,  if  not  of 
morality ; 

Thus  envy  pleads  a nat’ral  claim 
To  persecute  the  Muse’s  fame. 

Our  poets  in  all  limes  abusive. 

From  Homer  down  to  Pope  inclusive. 

SWLFT. 

‘ Let  your  mirth  be  ever  void  of  a\\  scurrility  ttnA  biting 
words  to  any  man.’ — Sir  Henry  Sidney.  A parent 
imay  sometimes  find  it  necessary  to  address  an  unruly 
son  in  reproachful  terms  ; or  one  friend  may  adopt  a 
reproachful  tone  to  another ; none,  however,  but  the 
lowest  orders  of  men,  and  those  only  when  their  angry 
passions  are  awakened,  will  descend  to  abusive  or 
tcurrilous  language. 

TO  REPROBATE,  CONDEMN. 

To  reprobate,  which  is  a variation  of  reproach,  is 
much  stronger  than  to  condemn,  which  bears  the  same 
general  meaning  as  given  under  To  Blame;  we  always 
condemn  when  we  reprobate,  but  not  vice  versa:  to 
reprobate  is  to  condemn  in  strong  and  reproachful  lan- 
guage. We  reprobate  all  measures  which  tend  to  sow 
discord  in  society,  and  to  loosen  the  ties  by  which  men 
are  bound  to  each  other;  ‘Simulation  (according  to 
mv  Lord  Chesterfield)  is  by  no  means  to  be  reprobated 


as  a disguise  for  chagrin  or  an  engine  of  wit.’ — Mac 
kenzie.  We  condemn  all  disrespectful  language  to 
wards  superiours ; 

I see  the  right,  and  I approve  it  too ; 

Condemn  the  wrong,  and  yet  the  wrong  pursue. 

Tate. 

We  reprobate  only  the  thing  ; we  condemn  the  person 
also : any  act  of  disobedience  in  a child  cannot  be  too 
stxong\y  reprobated ; a person  must  expect  to  be  con- 
demned when  he  involves  himself  in  embarrassments 
through  his  own  imprudence. 

ABUSE,  INVECTIVE. 

Abuse,  which  from  the  Latin  abutor,  signifying  to 
injure  by  improperly  using,  is  here  taken  in  the  Hjeta- 
piiorical  application  for  ill-treatment  of  persons;  invec- 
tive, from  the  Latin  inveho,  signifies  to  bear  upon  or 
against.  Harsh  and  unseemly  censure  is  the  idea 
common  to  these  terms;  but  the  former  is  employed 
more  properly  against  the  person,  the  latter  against  the 
thing. 

Abuse  is  addressed  to  the  individual,  and  mostly  by 
word  of  mouth  : invective  is  communicated  mostly  by 
writing.  Abuse  is  dictated  by  anger,  which  throws  off 
all  constraint,  and  violates  all  decency:  invective  is 
dictated  by  party  spirit,  or  an  intemperate  warmth  of 
feeling  in  matters  of  opinion.  Abuse  is  always  re- 
sorted to  by  the  vulgar  in  their  private  quarrels : in- 
vective is  the  ebullition  of  zeal  and  ill-nature  in  publick 
concerns. 

The  more  rude  and  ignorant  the  man,  the  more 
liable  he  is  to  indulge  in  abuse ; ‘ At  an  entertainmenl 
given  by  Pisistratus  to  some  of  his  intimates,  Thra- 
sippus,  a man  of  violent  passion,  and  inflamed  with 
wine,  took  some  occasion,  not  recorded,  to  break  out 
into  the  most  violent  abuse  and  insult.’ — Cumber- 
land. The  more  restless  and  opiniated  the  par 
tisan,  whether  in  religion  or  politicks,  the  more  ready 
he  is  to  deal  in  invective ; ‘ This  is  a true  wa.y  of 
examining  a libel ; and  when  men  consider  that  no 
man  living  thinks  better  of  their  heroes  and  patrons  for 
the  panegyrick  given  them,  none  can  think  themselves 
lessened  by  their  invective.' — Steele.  We  must  ex- 
pect to  meet  with  abuse  from  the  vulgar  whom  we 
offend ; and  if  we  are  in  high  stations,  our  conduct  will 
draw  forth  invective  from  busy  bodies,  w'hom  splc-ea 
has  converted  into  oppositionists. 


DECLAIM,  INVEIGH. 

Declaim,  in  Latin  declamo.  that  is,  de  and  clamo, 
signifies  literally  to  cry  in  a set  form  of  words  ; inveigh 
is  taken  in  the  same  sense  as  given  in  the  preceding 
article. 

To  declaim  is  to  speak  either  for  or  against  a person  : 
declaiming  is  in  all  cases  a noisy  kind  of  oratory ; ‘ It 
is  usual  for  masters  to  make  their  boys  declaim  on  both 
sides  of  an  argument.’— Swift.  To  inveigh  signifies 
always  to  speak  against  the  object ; in  this  latter  appli- 
tion  publick  men  and  publick  measures  are  subjects  for 
the  dcclaimer ; private  individuals  afford  subjects  for 
inveighing ; the  former  is  under  the  influence  of  parti- 
cular opinions  or  prejudices;  the  latter  is  the  fruit  of 
personal  resentment  or  displeasure : patriots  (as  they 
are  called)  are  always  declaiming  against  the  conduct 
of  those  in  power,  or  the  state  of  the  nation  ; and  not 
unfrequently  tliey  profit  by  the  opportunity  of  indulging 
their  private  pique  by  inveighing  against  particular 
members  of  the  government  who  have  disappointed 
their  expectations  of  advancement.  A declaimer  is 
noisy ; he  is  a man  of  words ; he  makes  long  and  loud 
speeches ; ‘ Tully  (was)  a good  orator,  yet  no  good 
poet;  Sallust,  a good  historiographer,  but  no  good  de- 
claimer.' — Fotherby.  An  inveigher  is  virulent  and 
personal ; he  enters  into  private  details,  and  often 
indulges  his  malignant  feelings  under  an  affected  re- 
gard for  morality ; ‘ Ill-tempered  and  extravagant  in 
vectives  against  papists,  made  by  men,  whose  persons 
wanting  authority,  as  much  as  their  speeches  do  rea 
son,  do  nothing  else  but  set  an  edge  on  our  adversaries’ 
sword.’ — Jackson.  Although  both  these  words  may 
be  applied  to  moral  objects,,  yet  declamations  are  more 
directed  towards  the  thing,  and  invectives  against  the 
person ; ‘ The  grave  and  the  merry  have  equally 
thought  themselves  at  iiibenv  to  conclude,  either  witt 


10 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


acclamator^  comp.’aints  or  salirical  censures  of  female 
tolly.' — Johnson. 

Scarce  were  the  flocks  refresh’d  with  mortiing  dew, 
When  Damon  stretch’d  beneath  an  olive  shade, 

And  wildly  staring  upward  thus  inveigh'd 
Against  the  conscious  gods.  -Dryden. 


ro  BLAME,  REPROVE,  REPROACH,  UPBRAID, 
CENSURE,  CONDEMN. 

Blaine,  in  French  blamer,  probably  from  the  Greek 
0cB\dnnai,  perfect  of  the  verb  BXdnru)  to  hurt,  signi- 
fying to  deal  harshly  with ; reprove  comes  from  the 
Latin  reprobo,  which  signifies  the  contrary  of  probo, 
to  approve ; reproach,  in  French  reprocher,  com- 
pounded of  re  and  proche,  proximus  near,  signifies  to 
cast  back  upon  a person ; upbraid,  compounded  of  up 
or  upon,  and  braid  or  breed,  signifies  to  hatch  against 
one ; censure,  in  French  censure,  Latin  censura,  the 
censorship,  or  the  office  of  censor ; the  censor  being  a 
Roman  magistrate,  who  took  cognizance  of  the  morals 
and  manners  of  the  people,  and  punished  oflences 
against  either ; condemn,  in  French  condamner,  Latin 
condemno,  compounded  of  con  and  damno,  from 
damnum,  a loss  or  penalty,  signifies  to  sentence  to 
some  penalty. 

The  expression  of  one’s  disapprobation  of  a person, 
or  of  that  which  he  has  done,  is  the  common  idea  in 
the  signification  of  these  terms ; but  to  blame  expresses 
less  than  to  reprove.  We  simply  charge  w'ith  a fault 
in  blaming ; but  in  reproving,  severity  is  mixed  with 
the  charge.  Reproach  expresses  more  than  either;  it 
is  to  blame  acrimoniously.  We  need  not  hesitate  to 
blame  as  occasion  may  require ; but  it  is  proper  to  be 
cautious  how  we  deal  out  reproof  where  the  necessity 
of  the  case  does  not  fully  warrant  it ; and  it  is  highly 
culpable  to  reproach  without  the  most  substantial 
reason. 

To  blame  and  reprove  are  the  acts  of  a superiour  ; to 
reproach,  upbraid,  that  of  an  equal:  to  censure  and 
:ondemn  leave  the  relative  condition  of  the  parties 
undefined.  Masters  blame  or  reprove  their  servants; 
parents  their  children;  friends  and  acquaintances 
reproach  and  upbraid  each  other  ; persons  of  all  con- 
ditions may  censure  or  be  censured,  condemn  or  be  con- 
demned^ according  to  circumstances. 

Blame  and  reproof  are  dealt  out  on  every  ordinary 
occasion ; reproach  and  upbraid  respect  personal 
matters,  and  always  that  which  affects  the  moral 
character ; censure  and  condemnation  are  provoked  by 
faults  and  misconduct  of  different  descriptions.  Every 
fault,  however  trivial,  may  expose  a person  to  blame, 
particularly  if  he  perform  any  office  for  the  vulgar, 
who  are  never  contented; 

Chafe  not  thyself  about  the  rabble’s  censure : 

They  blame  or  praise,  but  as  one  leads  the  other. 

Prowde. 

Intentional  errours,  however  small,  seem  necessarily  to 
call  for  reproof,  and  yet  it  is  a mark  of  an  imperious 
temper  to  substitute  reproof  in  the  place  of  admoni- 
tion, when  the  latter  might  possibly  answer  the  pur- 
pose ; ‘ In  all  terms  of  reproof,  wlien  the  sentence  ap- 
pears to  arise  from  personal  hatred  or  passion,  it  is  not 
then  made  the  cause  of  mankind,  but  a misunder- 
standing between  two  persons.’ — Steele.  There  is 
nothing  which  provokes  a reprooxh  sooner  than  ingra- 
titude, although  the  offender  is  not  entitled  to  so  much 
notice  from  the  injured  person ; 

The  prince  replies;  ‘ Ah  cease,  divinely  fair. 

Nor  add  reproaches  to  the  wounds  I bear.’ — Pope. 

Mutual  upbraidings  commonly  follow  between  those 
who  have  mutually  contributed  to  their  misfortunes  ; 
Have  we  not  known  thee,  slave ! Of  all  the  host. 
The  man  who  acts  the  least  upbraids  the  most. 

Pope. 

The  defective  execution  of  a work  is  calculated  to 
draw  dow'n  censure  upon  its  author,  particularly  if  he 
betray  a want  of  modesty  ; 

riiough  ton  times  worse  themselves,  you’ll  frequent 
view 

I’hose  who  with  keenest  rage  will  censure  you. — Pitt. 
"he  mislakcs  o'’  a general,  or  a minister  of  state,  will 


provoke  condemnation,  particularly  if  liis  integrity  be 
called  in  question ; 

Thus  they  in  mutual  accusation  spent 

The  fruitless  hours,  but  neither  se\f-condem,ning . 

Milton. 

Blame,  reproof,  and  upbraiding,  are  always  ad 
dressed  directly  to  the  individual  in  person ; reprooxh, 
censure,  and  condemnation,  are  sometimes  conveyed 
through  an  indirect  channel,  or  not  addressed  at  all  to 
the  party  who  is  the  object  of  them.  When  a master 
blames  his  servant,  or  a parent  reproves  his  child,  or 
one  friend  upbraids  another,  he  directs  his  discourse  to 
him  to  express  his  disapprobation.  A man  will  always 
be  reproached  by  his  neighbours  for  the  vices  he  com 
mits,  however  he  may  fancy  himself  screened  from 
their  observation ; ‘ The  very  regret  of  being  surpassed 
in  any  valuable  quality,  by  a person  of  the  same  abili- 
ties with  ourselves,  will  reproach  our  own  laziness, 
and  even  shame  us  into  imitation.’ — Rogers.  Writers 
censure  each  other  in  their  publications ; 

Men  may  censure  thine  (weakness) 

The  gentler,  if  severely  thou  exact  not 

More  strength  from  me,  than  in  thyself  was  found. 

Milton 

The  conduct  of  individuals  is  sometimes  condemned  by 
the  publick  atlarge ; ‘ They  who  approvemy  conduct  in 
this  particular  are  much  more  numerous  than  those 
who  condemn  it.’— Spectator. 

Blame,  reproach,  upbraid,  and  condemn,  may  be  ap- 
plied to  ourselves;  reproof  and  censure  are  applied  to 
others : we  blame  ourselves  for  acts  of  imprudence ; 
our  consciences  reproach  us  for  our  weaknesses,  ard 
upbraid  or  condemn  us  for  our  sins. 


REPREHENSION,  REPROOF. 

Personal  blame  or  censure  is  implied  by  both  these 
terms,  but  the  former  is  much  milder  than  the  latter 
By  reprehension  the  personal  independence  is  not  sc 
sensibly  affected  as  in  the  case  of  reproof:  people  of 
all  ages  and  stations  whose  conduct  is  exposed  to  the 
investigation  of  others  are  liable  to  reprehension ; but 
children  only  or  such  as  are  in  a subordinate  capacity 
are  exposed  to  reproof.  The  reprehension  amounts 
to  little  more  than  passing  an  unfavourable  sentence 
upon  the'conduct  of  another ; ‘ When  a man  feels  the 
reprehension  of  a friend,  seconded  by  his  own  heart, 
he  is  easily  heated  into  resentment.’— Johnson.  Re- 
proof adds  to  ihe  reprehension  an  unfriendly  address 
to  the  offender ; ‘ There  is  an  oblique  way  of  reproof 
which  takes  off  from  the  sharpness  of  it.’ — Steele 
The  master  of  a school  may  be  exposed  to  the  repre 
hension  of  the  parents  for  any  supposed  impropriety: 
his  scholars  are  subject  to  his  frequent  reproof. 


TO  CHECK,  CHIDE,  REPRIMAND,  REPROVE, 
REBUKE. 

Check  derives  its  figurative  signification  from  the 
check-mate,  a movement  in  the  game  of  chess,  whereby 
one  stops  one’s  adversary  from  making  a further  move; 
whence  to  check  signifies  to  stop  the  course  of  a per 
son,  and  on  this  occasion  by  the  exercise  of  authority ; 
chide  is  in  Saxon  cidan,  probably  connected  y/iih  cyldan 
to  scold;  reprimand  is  compounded  of  the  privative 
syllable  repri  and  mand,  in  Latin  mando  to  commend, 
signifying  not  to  commend  ; reprove,  in  French  re- 
prouver,  Latin  reprobo,  is  compounded  of  the  privative 
syllable  re  and  probo,  signifying  to  find  the  contrary  of 
good,  that  is,  to  find  bad,  to  blame ; rebuke  is  com 
pounded  of  re  and  buke,  in  French  bouche  the  mouth, 
signifying  to  stop  the  mouth. 

The  idea  of  expressing  one’s  disapprobation  of  a 
person’s  conduct  is  common  to  all  these  terms. 

A person  is  checked  that  he  may  not  continue  to  do 
what  is  offensive ; he  is  chidden  for  what  he  has  done 
that  he  may  not  repeat  it;  impertinent  and  forward 
people  require  to  be  cheruhed,  that  they  may  not  become 
intolerable ; 

I hate  when  vice  can  bolt  her  arguments. 

And  virtue  has  no  tongue  to  check  her  pride. 

Milton. 

Thoughtless  people  are  chidden  when  they  give  hurtful 
proofs  of  their  carelessness;  ‘ What  had  he  to  do  t« 
chide  at  me'?’— Shakspeark. 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


Ill 


l-eople  are  checked  by  actions  and  looks,  as  well  as 
words  ; 

But  if  a clani’rous  vile  plebeian  rose, 

Him  withreproo/ he  check'd.,  or  tam’d  with  blows. 

Pope. 

They  are  chidden  by  words  only;  a timid  person  is 
easily  checked ; the  want  even  of  due  encouragement 
will  serve  to  damp  his  resolution;  the  young  are  per- 
petually falling  into  irregularities  which  require  to  be 
chidden ; 

His  house  v/as  known  to  all  the  vagrant  train, 

He  chid  their  wanderings,  but  reliev’d  their  pain. 

Goldsmith. 

To  chide  marks  a stronger  degree  of  displeasure  than 
reprimand,  and  reprimand  than  reprove  or  rebuke ; a 
persort  may  chide  or  reprimand  in  anger,  he  reproves 
and  rebukes  with  coolness ; great  offences  call  forth 
chidings ; omissions  or  mistakes  occasion  or  require  a 
reprimand;  ‘ This  sort  of  language  was  very  severely 
reprimanded  by  the  Censor,  who  told  the  criminal 
“ that  he  spoke  in  contempt  of  the  court.”  ’ — Addison 
A.ND  Steele.  Irregularities  of  conduct  give  rise  to 
reproof ; ‘ He  who  endeavours  only  the  happiness  of 
him  whom  he  reproves,  will  always  have  the  satisfac- 
tion of  either  obtaining  or  deserving  kindness.’ — John- 
son. Improprieties  of  behaviour  demand  rebuke ; 
‘ With  all  the  infirmities  of  his  disciples  he  calmly 
bore  ; and  his  rebukes  were  mild  when  their  provoca- 
tions were  great.’ — Blair. 

Chiding  and  reprimanding  are  employed  for  offences 
against  the  individual,  and  in  cases  where  the  greatest 
disparity  exists  in  the  station  of  the  parties;  a child 
is  chid  by  his  parent:  a servant  is  reprimanded  by  his 
master. 

Reproving  and  rebuking  have  less  to  do  with  the 
relation  or  station  of  the  parties,  than  with  the  nature 
of  the  offence  : wisdom,  age,  and  experience,  or  a spi- 
ritual mission,  give  authority  to  reproveor  rebuke  those 
whose  conduct  has  violated  any  law,  human  or  divine; 
the  prophet  Nathan  reproved  king  David  for  his 
heinous  oflences  against  his  Maker;  our  Saviour  re- 
formed Peter  for  his  presumptuous  mode  of  soeech. 


TO  ACCUSE,  CHARGE,  IMPEACH,  ARRAIGN. 

jSccuse,  in  Latin  accuso,  compounded  of  ac  or  ad 
and  ciiso  or  ca^isa  a cause  or  trial,  signifies  to  bring  to 
trial ; charge,  from  the  word  cargo  a burden,  signifies 
to  lay  a burden  ; impeach,  in  French  empecherio  hinder 
or  disturb,  compounded  of  em  or  in  and  pes  the  foot, 
signifies  to  set  one’s  foot  or  one’s  self  against  an- 
other; arraign,  compounded  of  ar  or  ad  and  raign 
or  range,  signifies  to  range,  or  set  at  the  bar  of  a 
tribunal. 

The  idea  of  asserting  the  guilt  of  another  is  common 
to  these  terms.  Accuse  in  the  proper  sense  is  applied 
particularly  to  crimes,  but  it  is  also  applied  to  every 
species  of  offence  ; charge  may  be  applied  to  crimes, 
but  is  used  more  commonly  for  breaches  of  moral  con- 
duct; we  accuse  a person  of  murder;  we  charge  him 
with  dishonesty. 

Accuse  is  properly  a formal  action  ; charge  is  an  in- 
formal action  ; criminals  are  accused,  and  their  accusa- 
tion is  proved  in  a court  of  judicature  to  be  true  or 
false;  ‘ The  Countess  of  Hertford,  demanding  an  au- 
dience of  the  Q,ueen,  laid  before  her  the  whole  series 
of  his  mother’s  cruelty,  and  exposed  the  improbability 
of  an  accusation,  by  which  he  was  charged  with  an 
intent  to  commit  a murder  that  could  produce  no  ad- 
vantage.’— Johnson  {IJfe  of  Savage).  Any  person 
may  be  charged,  and  the  charge  may  be  either  sub- 
stantiated or  refuted  in  the  judgement  of  a third  per- 
son ; ‘Nor  was  this  irregularity  the  only  charge  which 
Lord  Tyrconnel  brought  against  him.  Having  given 
him  a collection  of  valuable  books  stamped  with 
his  own  arms,  he  had  the  mortification  to  see  them 
in  a short  time  exposed  for  sale.’— Johnson  {Life  of 
Savage). 

Impeach  and  a'rraign  are  both  species  of  accusing  ; 
the  former  in  application  to  statesmen  and  state  con- 
cerns, the  latter  in  regard  to  the  general  conduct  or 
principles  , with  this  difference,  that  he  who  impeacJies 
only  asserts  the  guilt,  but  does  not  determine  it ; but 
those  who  arraign  also  take  upon  themselves  to  de- 
ride • statesmen  are  impeached  for  misdemeanours  in 


the  administration  of  government;  ‘ Aristogiton,  with 
revengeful  cunning,  impeached  several  courtiers  and 
intimates  of  the  tyrant.’ — Cumberland.  Kings  ar 
raign  governours  of  provinces  and  subordinate  princes, 
and  in  this  manner  kings  are  sometimes  arraigned  be- 
fore mock  tribunals ; our  Saviour  was  arraigned  before 
Pilate ; and  creatures  in  the  madness  of  presumption 
arraign  their  Creator;  ‘ O the  inexpressible  honour 
that  will  seize  upon  a poor  sinner,  when  he  slands  ar 
raigned  at  the  bar  of  Divine  justice.’ — South. 

TO  ACCUSE,  CENSURE. 

To  accuse  (u.  To  Accuse)  is  only  to  assert  the  guilt 
of  another ; to  censure  (u  To  Censure)  is  to  take  that 
guilt  for  granted.  We  accuse  only  to  make  known  the 
offence,  to  provoke  inquiry ; we  censure  in  order  to 
inflict  a punishment.  An  accusation  may  be  false  or 
true ; a censure  mild  or  severe.  It  is  extremely  wrong 
to  accuse  another  without  sufficient  grounds  ; ‘ If  the 
person  accused  maketh  his  innocence  plainly  to  appear 
upon  his  trial,  the  accuser  is  immediately  put  to  an 
ignominious  death.’ — Swift.  But  still  worse  to  cen- 
sure him  without  the  most  substantial  grounds;  ‘A 
statesman,  who  is  possesed  of  real  merit,  should  lock 
upon  his  political  censurers  with  the  same  neglect  that 
a good  writer  regards  his  criticks.’ — Addison. 

Every  one  is  at  liberty  to  accuse  another  of  offences 
which  he  knows  him  for  a certainty  to  have  committed ; 
but  none  can  censure  who  are  not  authorized  by  their 
age  or  station.  Accusing  is  for  the  most  part  employed 
for  publick  offences,  or  for  private  offences  of  much 
greater  magnitude  than  those  which  call  for  censure; 
‘ Mr.  Locke  accuses  those  of  great  negligence  who 
discourse  of  moral  things  w'ith  the  least  obscurity  in 
the  terms  they  make  use  of.’ — Budgell.  ‘If  any 
man  measure  his  words  by  his  heart,  and  speak  as  he 
thinks,  and  do  not  express  more  kindness  to  every 
man  than  men  usually  have  for  any  man,  he  c.ar 
hardly  escape  the  censure  of  the  want  of  breeding.’— 
Tillotson. 


TO  CENSURE,  ANIMADVERT,  CRITICISE. 

To  censure  {v.  To  Accuse)  expresses  less  than  tc 
animadvert  or  criticise ; one  may  always  censure  when 
one  animadverts  ox  criticises : animadvert,  in  Latin 
animadverto,  i.e.  animumverto  ad,  signifies  to  turn  the 
mind  towards  an  object,  and,  in  this  case,  with  the  view 
of  finding  fault  with  it;  to  criticise,  from  the  Giock 
Kpivo)  to  judge,  signifies  to  pass  a judgement  upon  an 
other. 

To  censure  and  animadvert  are  both  personal,  the 
one  direct,  the  other  indirect;  criticism  is  directed  to 
things,  and  not  to  persons  only. 

Censuring  consists  in  finding  some  fault  real  or  sup- 
posed ; it  refers  mostly  to  the  conduct  of  individuals. 
Animadvert  consists  in  suggesting  .some  errour  or  im- 
propriety; it  refers  mostly  to  matters  of  opinion  and 
dispute ; •criticism  consists  in  minutely  examining  the 
intrinsick  characteristicks,  and  appreciating  the  merits 
of  each  individually,  or  the  whole  collectively ; it  refers 
to  matters  of  science  and  learning. 

To  censure  requires  no  more  than  simple  assertion 
its  justice  or  propriety  often  rests  on  the  authority  of 
the  individual ; ‘ Many  an  author  has  been  dejected  at 
the  censure  of  one  whom  he  has  looked  upon  as  an 
idiot.’ — Addison.  Animadversions  require  to  be  accom- 
panied with  reasons;  those  who  animadvert  on  the 
proceedings  or  opinions  of  others  must  state  some 
grounds  for  their  objections ; ‘ I wish.  Sir,  you  would 
do  us  the  favour  to  animadvert  frequently  upon  the 
false  taste  the  town  is  in,  with  relation  to  the  plays  as 
well  as  operas.’ — Steele.  Criffcism  is  altogethet  argu 
mentativeand  illustrative;  it  takes  nothing  for  granted, 
it  analyzes  and  decomposes,  it  compares  and  combines, 
it  asserts  and  supports  the  assertions;  ‘It  is  ridiculous 
for  any  man  to  criticise  on  the  works  of  another,  who 
has  not  distinguished  himself  by  hit  own  perform- 
ances.’— Addison. 

The  office  of  the  censurer  is  the  easiest  and  least 
honourable  of  the  three ; it  may  be  assumed  by  igno- 
rance and  impertinence,  it  may  be  performed  for  the 
purpose  of  indulging  an  angry  or  imperious  temper. 
The  task  of  animadverting  is  delicate;  it  may  be  re- 
sorted to  for  the  indulgence  of  an  overweening  self- 
conceit.  The  office  of  a critick  ‘s  l^ntb  ard^oi^s  and 


12 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


Ijonourable  ; it  cannot  be  filled  by  anj  one  incompetent 
or  the  charge  without  exposing  his  arrogance  and  folly 
n merited  contempt. 


TO  CENSURE,  CARP,  CAVIL. 

Censure  has  the  same  general  meaning  as  given  in 
the  preceding  articles  {v.  To  Accuse) ; cary,  in  Latin 
carpo,  signifies  to  pluck;  cavil,  in  French  caviller, 
in  Latin  cavillor,  from  cavillum  a hollow  man,  and 
cavus  hollow,  signifies  to  be  unsound  or  unsubstantial 
in  speech. 

To  censure  respects  positive  errours ; to  carp  and 
cavil  have  regard  to  what  is  trivial  or  imaginary ; the 
former  is  employed  for  errours  in  persons  ; the  latter 
for  supposed  defects  in  things.  Censures  are  frequently 
necessary  from  those  who  have  the  authority  to  use 
them ; a good  father  will  censure  his  children  when 
their  conduct  is  censurable ; but  censure  may  likewise 
be  frequently  unjust  and  frivolous ; ‘ From  a conscious- 
ness of  his  own  integrity,  a man  assumes  force  enough 
to  despise  the  little  censures  of  ignorance  and  malice.’ — 
Budgell.  Carping  and  cavilling  are  resorted  to  only 
to  indulge  ill-nature  of  self-conceit ; whoever  ow'es 
another  a grudge  will  be  most  disposed  to  carp  at  all  he 
does  in  order  to  lessen  him  in  the  esteem  of  others: 
those  who  contend  more  for  victory  than  truth  will  be 
apt  to  cavil  when  they  are  at  a loss  for  fair  argument : 
party  politicians  carp  at  the  measures  of  administra- 
tion ; ‘It  is  always  thus  with  pedants;  they  will  ever 
be  carping,  if  a gentleman  or  man  of  honour  puts  pen 
to  paper.’ — Steele.  Infidels  cavil  at  the  evidences  of 
Christianity,  because  they  are  determined  to  disbe- 
ieve  ; ‘ Envy  and  cavil  are  the  natural  fruits  of  lazi- 
ness and  ignorance,  which  was  probably  the  reason  that 
in  the  heathen  mythology  Momus  is  said  to  be  the  son 
af  Nox  and  Somnus,  of  darkness  and  sleep.’ — Addison. 


ANIMADVERSION,  CRITICISM,  STRICTURE. 
Animadversion  {v.  To  Censure)  includes  censure  and 
reproof;  criticism  implies  scrutiny  and  judgement, 
whether  for  or  against ; and  stricture,  from  the  Latin 
strictura  and  stringo  to  touch  lightly  upon,  compre- 
hends a partial  investigation  mingled  with  censure. 
VVe  animadvert  on  a person’s  opinions  by  contradicting 
or  correcting  them;  we  criticise  di  person’s  works  by 
minutely  and  rationally  exposing  their  imperfections 
and  beauties ; we  pass  strictures  on  publick  measures 
by  descanting  on  thfem  cursorily,  and  censuring  them 
partially. 

Animadversions  are  too  personal  to  be  impartial ; 
consequently  they  are  seldom  just;  they  are  mostly 
resorted  to  by  those  who  want  to  build  up  one  system 
on  the  ruins  of  another ; but  the  term  is  sometimes 
employed  in  an  indifferent  sense ; ‘ These  things  fall 
undter'a  province  you  have  partly  pursued  already,  and 
therefore  demand  your  animadversion  for  the  regu- 
lating so  noble  an  entertainment  as  that  of  the  stage.’ — 
Steele.  Criticism  is  one  of  the  most  important  and 
honourable  departments  of  literature ; a critick  ought 
Justly  to  weigh  the  merits  and  demerits  of  authors,  but 
of  the  two  his  office  is  rather  to  blame  than  to  praise ; 
much  less  injury  will  accrue  to  the  cause  of  literature 
from  the  severity  than  from  the  laxity  of  criticism; 
Just  criticism  demands  not  only  that  every  beauty  or 
blemish  be  minutely  pointed  out  in  its  different  degree 
and  kind,  but  also  that  the  reason  and  foundation  of 
excellencies  and  faults  be  accurately  ascertained.’— 
Warton.  Strictures  are  mostly  the  vehicles  of  party 
spleen  ; like  most  ephemeral  productions,  they  are  too 
superficial  to  be  entitled  to  serious  notice ; but  this  term 
is  also  used  in  an  indifferent  sense  for  cursory  critical 
remarks ; ‘ To  the  end  of  most  plays  I have  added  short 
strictures,  containing  a general  censure  of  faults  or 
praise  of  excellence.’ — Johnson. 

complaint,  accusation. 

Both  these  terms  are  employed  in  regard  to  the  con- 
duct of  others,  but  the  complaint,  from  the  verb  to  com- 
plain, is  mostly  made  in  matters  that  personally  affect 
the  complainant ; the  accusation  (w.  to  Accuse')  is  made 
ctf  matters  In  general,  but  especially  those  of  a moral 
nature.  A complaint  is  made  for  the  sake  of  obtaining 
■•ndress ; an  accusation  is  made  for  the  sake  of  ascer- 


taining the  fiict  or  bringing  to  punishment.  A complatni 
may  be  frivolous;  an  accusation  false.  People  in 
subordinate  stations  should  be  careful  to  give  no  cause 
for  complaint ; ‘ On  this  occasion  (of  an  intet  view  with 
Addison),  Pope  made  his  complaint  with  frankness  and 
spirit,  as  a man  undeservedly  neglected  and  opposed.’— 
Johnson.  The  most  guarded  conduct  will  not  protect 
any  person  from  the  unjust  accusations  of  the  malevo- 
lent; ‘With  guilt  enter  distrust  and  discord,  mutua 
accusation  and  stubborn  self-defence.’ — Johnson. 


TO  FIND  FAULT  WITH,  BLAME, 
OBJECT  TO. 

All  these  terms  denote  not  simply  feeling,  but  also 
expressing  dissatisfaction  with  some  person  or  thing. 
To  find  fault  with  signifies  here  to  point  out  a fault, 
either  in  some  person  or  thing ; to  blame  is  said  rmly  of 
the  person  ; object  is  applied  to  the  thing  only : we  find 
fault  with  a person  for  his  behaviour ; we  find  fhult 
with  our  seat,  our  conveyance,  and  the  like  ; we  blame 
a person  for  his  temerity  or  his  improvidence ; we 
object  to  a measure  that  is  proposed.  We  fijid  fault 
with  or  blame  that  which  has  been  done ; w'e  object  to 
that  which  is  to  be  done. 

Finding  fault  is  a familiar  action  applied  to  matters 
of  personal  convenience  or  taste  ; blame  and  object  to, 
particularly  the  latter,  are  applied  to  serious  objects. 
Finding  fault  is  often  the  fruit  of  a discontented 
temper ; there  are  some  whom  nothing  will  please,  ana 
who  are  ever  ready  to  find  fault  with  whatever  comes 
in  their  way ; ‘ Tragi  comedy  you  have  yourself  found 
fault  with  very  justly.’ — Budgell.  Blame  is  a matter 
of  discretion ; we  blame  frequently  in  order  to  correct ; 
‘ It  is  a most  certain  rule  in  reason  and  moral  philosophy, 
that  where  there  is  no  choice,  there  can  be  no  blame.' 
— South.  Objecting  to  is  an  affair  either  of  caprice 
or  necessity  ; some  capriciously  object  to  that  which  is 
proposed  to  them  merely  from  a spirit  of  opposition  ; 
others  object  to  a thing  from  substantial  reasons  ; ‘ Men 
in  all  deliberations  find  ease  to  be  of  the  negative  side, 
to  object,  and  foretel  difficulties.’— Bacon. 


TO  OBJECT,  OPPOSE. 

To  object,  from  ob  and  jacio  to  cast,  is  to  cast  in  the 
way  ; to  oppose  is  to  place  in  the  way  ; there  is,  there- 
fore, very  little  original  difference,  except  that  casting  is 
a more  momentary  and  sudden  proceeding,  placing  is  a 
more  premeditated  action ; which  distinction,  at  the 
same  time,  corresponds  with  the  use  of  the  terms  in 
ordinary  life:  to  object  to  a thing  is  to  propose  or  start 
something  against  it;  but  to  oppose  it  is  to  set  one’s  self 
up  steadily  against  it:  one  objects  to  ordinary  matters 
that  require  no  reflection ; one  opposes  matters  that  call 
for  deliberation,  and  afford  serious  reasons  for  and 
against:  a parent  objects  to  his  child’s  learning  the 
classicks,  or  to  his  running  about  the  streets ; he  opposes 
his  marriage  when  he  thinks  the  connexion  or  the  cir- 
cumstances not  desirable : we  object  to  a thing  from 
our  own  particular  feelings ; we  oppose  a thing  because 
we  judge  it  improper ; capricious  or  selfish  people  will 
object  to  every  thing  that  comes  across  their  own  hu- 
mour ; ‘About  this  time,  an  Archbishop  of  York 
objected  to  clerks  (recommended  to  benefices  by  the 
Pope),  because  they  were  ignorant  of  English.’ — Tyr- 
wiHTT.  Those  who  oppose  think  it  necessary  to  assign 
at  least,  a reason  for  their  opposition.; 

’T  was  of  no  purpose  to  oppose. 

She ’d  hear  to  no  excuse  in  prose. — Swift. 


OBJECTION,  DIFFICULTY,  EXCEPTION. 

The  objection  {v.  Demur)  is  here  general;  it  compre- 
hends both  the  difficulty  and  the  exception,  which  are 
but  species  of  the  objection : the  objection  and  the  diffi 
culty  are  started ; the  exception  is  made : the  objection 
to  a thing  is  in  general  that  which  renders  it  less  desi 
rable;  but  the  difficulty  is  that  which  renders  it  less 
practicable ; there  is  an  objection  against  every  scheme 
which  incurs  a serious  risk ; ‘ I would  not  desire  what 
you  have  written  to  be  omitted,  unless  I had  the  merit 
of  removing  your  objection.' — Pope.  The  want  of 
means  to  begin,  or  resources  to  carry  on  a sclieme,  are 
serious  difficulties  ; ‘ In  the  examination  of  every  greal 
and  comprehensive  plan,  such  as  ‘hat  of  Christianitv 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


1:13 


'tffijuldes  may  occur.’— 13la.  ft.  In  application  to 
moral  or  intellectual  subjects,  tbe  objection  interferes 
»vith  one’s  decision  ; the  difficulty  causes  perplexity  in 
the  mind  ; ‘ They  mistake  difficulties  Cor  impossibili- 
ties ; a pernicious  mistake  certainly,  and  the  more  per- 
nicious, for  that  men  are  seldom  convinced  till'  their 
convictions  do  them  no  good.’— South.  ‘ There  is  ever 
between  all  estates  a secret  war.  I know  well  this 
speech  is  the  objection^  and  not  the  decision ; and  that 
it  is  after  refuted.’ — Bacon. 

The  objection  and  exception  both  respect  the  nature, 
the  moral  tendency,  or  moral  consequences  of  a thing; 
but  the  objection  may  be  frivolous  or  serious  ; the  ex- 
ception is  something  serious;  the  objection  is  positive ; 
ihQ  exception  is  relatively  considered,  that  is,  the  thing 
excevted  from  other  things,  as  not  good,  and  conse- 
quently objected  to.  Objections  are  made  sometimes  to 
proposals  for  the  mere  sake  of  getting  rid  of  an  engage- 
ment; those  who  do  not  wish  to  give  themselves  trou- 
ble find  an  easy  method  of  disengaging  themselves,  by 
making  obj,>ctions  to  every  proposition;  ‘Whoever 
makes  such  objections  against  an  hypothesis,  hath  a 
right  to  be  heard,  let  his  temper  and  genius  be  what  it^ 
will.’ — Burnet.  Lawyers  iwake. exceptions  to  charges 
which  are  sometimes  not  sufficiently  substantiated ; 

‘ When  they  deride  our  ceremonies  as  vain  and  frivo- 
lous, were  it  hard  to  apply  their  exceptions,  even  to  those 
civil  ceremonies,  which  at  the  coronation,  in  parlia- 
ment, and  all  courts  of  justice,  are  used.’ — Cranmkr. 
In  all  engagements  entered  into,  it  is  necessary  to  make 
exceptions  to  the  parties,  whenever  there  is  any  thing 
exceptionable  in  their  characters ; the  present  promis- 
vuous  diffusion  of  knowledge  among  the  poorer  orders 
I very  objectionable  on  many  grounds  ; the  course  of 
eading,  which  they  commonly  pursue,  is  without  ques- 
ion  highly  exceptionable. 


TO  CONTRADICT,  OPPOSE,  DENY 

To  contradict,  from  the  Latin  contra  and  dictum,  sig- 
nifies a speech  against  a speech ; to  oppose,  in  French 
vpposer,  Latin  oppesui,  perfect  of  oppono  from  op  or  ob 
und  pono,  signifies  to  throw  in  the  way  or  against  a 
Ihing  ; to  deny,  in  French  denier,  Latin  denego,  is  com- 
pounded of  de,  nc,  and  ago  or  dico,  signifying  to  say  no. 

To  contradict,  as  the  origin  of  the  word  sufficiently 
denotes,  is  to  set  up  assertion  against  assertion,  and  is 
therefore  a mode  of  opposition,  whether  used  in  a gene- 
ral or  a particular  application.  Logicians  call  those 
propositions  contradictory  which,  in  all  their  terms,  are 
most  completely  opposed  to  each  other  ; as  ‘ All  men 
are  liars ;’  ‘ No  men  are  liars.’  A contradiction  neces- 
sarily supposes  a verbal,  though  not  necessarily  a per- 
sonal, opposition ; a person  may  unintentionally  con- 
tradict himself,  as  is  frequently  the  case  with  liars ; 
and  two  persons  may  contradict  each  other  without 
knowing  what  either  has  asserted;  ‘The  Jews  hold 
that  in  case  two  rabbies  should  contradict  one  another, 
they  were  yet  bound  to  believe  the  contradictory  asser- 
tions of  both.’— South. 

But  although  contradicting  must  be  more  or  less 
verbal,  yet,  in  an  extended  application  of  the  term,  the 
contradiction  may  be  implied  in  the  action  rather  than 
in  direct  words,  as  when  a person  by  his  good  conduct 
contradicts  the  slanders  of  his  enemies ; ‘ There  are 
many  who  are  fond  of  contradicting  the  common  re- 
ports of  fame.’ — Addison.  In  this  application,  contra- 
dict and  oppose  are  clearly  distinguished  from  each 
other.  So  likewise  in  personal  disputes  contradiction 
implies  opposition  only  as  far  as  relates  to  the  words ; 
opposing,  on  the  other  hand,  comprehends  not  only  the 
spirit  of  the  action,  but  also  a great  diversity  in  the 
mode;  we  may  contradict  from  necessity,  or  in  self- 
defence  ; we  oppose  from  conviction,  or  a less  honour- 
able nature ; we  contradict  by  a direct  negative ; we 
oppose  by  means  of  argument  or  otherwise.  It  is  a 
Dreach  of  pr  liteness  ever  to  contradict  flatly ; it  is  a 
vi(,lation  of  the  moral  law  to  oppose  without  the  most 
3U  DBtantial  grounds ; 

That  tongue 

Inspir’d  with  contradiction  durst  oppose 
A third  part  of  the  gods. — Milton. 

To  contradict  and  to  deny  may  be  both  considered  as 
modes  of  verbal  opposition,  but  one  contradicts  an  as- 
sertion, and  denies  a fact ; the  contradiction  implies 
(lie  setting  up  one  person’s  authority  or  opinion  against 


that  of  another;  the  demaZ  implies  the  maintaining  a 
person’s  veracity  in  opposition  to  the  charges  or  insi - 
nuations  of  others.  Contradicting  is  commonly  em 
ployed  in  speculative  matters;  ‘If  a gentleman  is  a 
little  sincere  in  his  representations,  he  is  sure  to  have  a 
dozen  contradicters.' — Swift.  Denying  in  matters  of 
personal  interest;  ‘ One  of  the  company  began  to  rally 
him  (an  infidel)  upon  his  devotion  on  shipboard,  which 
the  other  denied  in  so  high  terms,  that  it  produced  the 
lie  on  both  sides,  and  ended  in  a duel.’ — Addison.  D e- 
nying  may,  however,  be  employed  as  well  as  conh’a- 
dicting  in  the  course  of  argument ; but  we  deny  the 
general  truth  of  the  position  by  contradicting  the  parti- 
cular assertionsof  the  individuals ; ‘ In  the  Socratic  wuy 
of  dispute,  you  agree  to  every  thing  your  opponent  a 1- 
vances;  in  the  Aristotelic,  you  are  still  denying  ard 
contradicting  some  part  or  other  of  what  he  says.’  -- 
Addison. 

When  contradict  respects  other  persons,  it  is  fre 
quently  a mode  of  opposition,  as  we  may  most  effectu- 
ally oppose  a person  by  contradicting  what  he  asserts 
but  contradiction  does  not  necessarily  imply  opposi 
tion;  the  former  is  simply  a mode  of  action,  the  latter 
comprehends  both  the  action  and  the  spirit,  with  which 
it  is  dictated  ; we  contradict  from  necessity  or  in  self- 
defence  ; we  oppose,  from  conviction  or  some  personal 
feeling  of  a less  honourable  nature.  When  we  hear  a 
friend  unjustly  charged  of  an  offence,  it  is  but  reasona- 
ble to  contradict  the  charge;  objectionable  measures 
may  call  for  opposition,  but  it  is  sometimes  prudent  to 
abstain  from  opposing  what  we  cannot  prevent. 

Contradict  is  likewise  used  in  denying  what  is  la^l 
to  one’s  charge ; but  we  may  deny  without  contradict 
ing,  in  answer  to  a question ; contradiction  respects 
indifferent  matters  ; denying  is  always  used  in  matters 
of  immediate  interest. 

Contradiction  is  employ ed  ior  correcting  others ; de 
nying  is  used  to  clear  one’s  self;  we  may  contradict 
falsely  when  we  have  not  sufficient  ground  for  contra- 
dicting ; and  we  may  deny  justly  when  we  rebut  an 
unfair  charge. 


TO  DENY,  DISOWN,  DISCLAIM,  DISAVOW 

Deny  (u.  To  deny)  approaches  nearest  to  the  sense 
of  disown  when  applied  to  persons ; disown,  that  is.  not 
to  own,  on  the  other  hand,  bears  a strong  analogy  to 
deny  when  applied  to  things. 

In  the  first  case  deny  is  said  with  regard  to  one’s 
knowledge  of  or  connexion  with  a person ; disowning 
on  the  other  hand  is  a term  of  larger  import,  including 
the  renunciation  of  alt  relationship  or  social  tie ; the 
former  is  said ’of  those  who  are  not  related  ; the  latter 
of  such  only  as  are  related.  Peter deniedour Saviour, 
‘ We  may  deny  God  in  all  those  acts  that  are  morally 
good  or  evil ; those  are  the  proper  scenes  in  which  we 
act  our  confessions  or  denials  of  him.’— South.  A 
parent  can  scarcely  be  justified  in  disowning  his  child 
let  his  vices  be  ever  so  enormous ; a child  can  never 
disown  its  parent  in  any  case  without  violating  the 
most  sacred  duty. 

In  the  second  case  deny  is  said  in  regard  to  things 
that  concern  othCTs  as  well  as  ourselves;  disown  only 
in  regard  to  what  is  done  by  one’s  self  or  that  in  which 
one  is  personally  concerned.  A'  person  denies  that 
there  is  any  truth  in  the  assertion  of  another ; ‘ The 
Earl  of  Strafford  positively  denied  the  words.’ — Cla 
RENDON.  He  disowns  all  participation  in  any  affair  ; 
Then  they  who  brother’s  better  claim  disown^ 
Expel  their  parents,  and  usurp  the  throne. 

Drydkn. 

We  may  deny  having  seen  a thing;  we  may  disown 
that  we  did  it  ourselves.  Our  veracity  is  often  the 
only  thing  implicated  in  a denial;  our  guilt,  innocence 
or  honour  are  implicated  in  what  we  disown.  A wi 
ness  denies  what  is  stated  as  a fact ; the  accused  part 
disowns  what  is  laid  to  his  charge. 

A denial  is  employed  only  for  outward  actions  o. 
events;  that  which  can  be  related  may  be  denied:  dis 
owning  extends  to  whatever  we  can  own  or  poasens 
we  may  disown  our  feelings,  our  name,  our  connex- 
ions, and  the  like. 

Christians  deny  the  charges  which  are  brough 
against  the  gospel  by  its  enemies;  ‘ If,  like  Zeno,  any 
one  shall  walk  about  and  yet  deny  there  is  any  motiois 
in  nature,  surely  that  man  wa«  constituted  for  iViiti 


114 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


cyra,  and  were  a fit  companion  for  those  who,  having  a 
conceit  they  are  dead,  cannot  be  convicted  unto  the 
society  of  the  living.’ — Brown.  The  apostles  would 
never  disown  the  character  which  they  held  as  mes- 
•^engeis  of  Clirist ; 

Sometimes  lest  man  should  quite  his  pow’r  disown, 

He  makes  that  power  to  trembling  nations  known. 

Jenyns. 

Disclaim  and  disown  are  both  personal  acts  respect- 
ing the  individual  who  is  the  agent;  to  disclaim  is  to 
ihrow  ofi  a claim,  as  to  disown  is  not  to  admit  as  one’s 
own  ; as  claim,  from  the  Latin  clamo,  signifies  to  de- 
clare with  a loud  tone  what  we  want  as  our  own ; so 
to  disclaim  is  with  an  equally  loud  or  positive  tone,  to 
give  up  a claim  : this  is  a more  positive  act  than  to  dis- 
own, which  may  be  performed  by  insinuation,  or  by  the 
mere  abstaining  to  own. 

He  wlio  feels  himself  disgraced  by  the  actions  that 
are  done  by  his  nation,  or  his  family,  will  be  ready  to 
disclaim  the  very  name  which  he  bears  in  common 
with  the  offending  party ; 

The  thing  call’d  life,  with  ease  I can  disclaim. 

And  think  it  over-sold  to  purchase  fame.— Dryoen. 
An  absurd  pride  sometimes  impels  men  to  drsorcn  their 
relationship  to  those  who  are  beneath  them  in  external 
rank  and  condition ; 

Here  Priam’s  son,  Delphobus.  he  found : 

He  scarcely  knew  him,  striving  to  disown 

His  blotted  form,  and  blushing  to  be  known. 

Dryden. 

An  honest  mind  will  disclaim  all  right  to  praise  which 
it  feels  not  to  belong  to  itself;  the  fear  of  ridicule  some- 
times makes  a man  disown  that  which  would  redound 
to  his  honour:  ‘Very  few  among  those  who  profess 
themselves  Christians,  disclaim  all  concern  for  their 
souls,  disown  the  authority,  or  renounce  the  expecta- 
tions of  the  gospel  * — Uogers. 

'Po  disavow  is  to  avow  that  a thing  is  not.  The  disa- 
vowal is  a general  declaration  ; the  denial  is  a particu- 
lar assertion;  the  former  is  made  voluntarily  and  un- 
asked for,  file  latter  is  always  in  direct  answer  to  a 
charge:  we  disavow  in  matters  of  general  interest 
where  truth  only  is  concerned  ; we  denij  in  matters  of 
personal  interest  where  the  character  or  feelings  are 
implicated. 

What  is  disavowed  is  generally  in  support  of  truth  ; 
what  is  denied  may  often  he  in  direct  violation  of  truth : 
an  honest  mind  will  always  disavow  whatever  has 
been  erroneously  attributed  to  it ; ‘ Dr.  Solander  disa- 
vows some  of  those  narrations  (in  Hawkesworth’s 
voyages),  or  at  least  declares  them  to  be  grossly  misre- 
presented.’—Beattie.  A timid  person  sometimes 
denies  what  he  knows  to  be  true  trom  a fear  of  the 
consequences;  ‘The  king  now  denied  his  knowledge 
of  the  conspiracy  against  Rizzio,  by  public  proclama- 
tions.’— Robertson.  IMany  persons  have  disavowed 
being  the  author  of  the  letters  which  are  known  under 
the  name  cf  Junius  ; the  real  authors  who  have  denied 
their  concern  in  it  (as  doubtless  they  have)  availed 
themselves  of  the  subterfuge,  that  since  it  was  the  affair 
of  several,  no  one  individually  could  call  himself  the 
author. 

TO  CONTROVERT,  DISPUTE. 

Controvert,  compounded  of  the  Latin  contra  and 
verto,  signifies  to  turn  against  another  in  discourse,  or 
direct  one’s  self  against  another. 

Dispute,  in  Latin  dispute,  from  dis  nnAputo,  signi- 
fies literally  to  think  differently,  or  to  call  in  question 
the  opinion  of  another,  which  is  the  sense  that  brings 
it  in  closest  alliance  with  controverting. 

To  controvert  has  regard  to  speculative  points ; to 
dispute  respects  matters  of  fact : there  is  more  of  ojipo- 
sition  in  controversy ; more  of  doubt  in  disputing : a 
sophist  coritroasrt.s ; a skeptick  disputes:  the  plainest 
and  sublimest  truths  of  the  Gospel  have  been  all  con- 
troverted in  their  turn  by  the  self-sufficient  inquirer ; 
‘ The  demolishing  of  Dunkirk  was  so  eagerly  insisted 
on,  and  so  warmly  controverted,  as  had  like  to  have 
produced  a challemje.’- Budgell.  The  authenticity 
of  the  Bible  itself'has  been  disputed  by  some  few 
mdividuals  ; the  existence  of  a God  by  still  fewer; 
Now  I am  sent,  and  am  not  to  dispute 
M\  piince’s  orders,  but  to  execute  — Drypen. 


Controversy  is  worse  than  an  unprofitable  lasii 
instead  of  eficiting  truth,  it  does  but  ^pose  the  failing? 
of  the  parties  engaged , ‘ How  comeih  it  to  pass  tha 
we  are  so  rent  with  mutual  contentiors,  and  that  the 
church  is  so  much  troubled  'I  If  men  had  been  willing 
to  learn,  all  these  controversies  might  have  died  the 
very  day  thty  were  first  brought  forth.’ — Hooker 
Disputing  is  not  so  personal,  and  consequently  not  so 
objectionable;  we  never  controvert  any  point  without 
seriously  and  decidedly  intending  to  oppose  the  notions! 
of  another ; we  may  sometimes  dispute  a point  Jor  the 
sake  of  friendly  argument,  or  the  desire  of  inforiuition : 
theologians  and  politicians  are  the  greatest  com-rver- 
sialists ; it  is  the  business  of  men  in  general  to  dis 
pute  whatever  ought  not  to  be  taken  for  granted. 
‘-The  earth  is  now  placed  so  conveniently  that  plants 
thrive  and  flourish  in  it,  and  animals  live;  this  i 
matter  of  fact  and  beyond  all  dispute.' — Bentley 
When  dispute  is  taken  in  the  sense  of  verhj’dy  main- 
taining a point  in  opposition  to  another,  ;t  ceases  tc 
have  that  alliance  to  the  word  controveit.  <i.nd  com«s 
nearest  to  the  sense  of  argue  (v.  Argue) 

INDUBITABLE,  UNaiTESTIONABLE,  INDIES- 
PUTABLE,  UNDENIABLE,  INCONTRO- 
[ VERTIBLE,  IRREFRAGABLE. 

Indubitable  signifies  admitting  of  no  doubt  (vide 
Doubt) ; unquestionable,  admitting  of  no  question 
(v.  Doubt) ; indisputable,  admitting  of  no  dispute 
(v.  To  controvert) ; undeniahle,  not  to  be  denied 
Iv.  To  deny,  disown) ; incontrovertible,  not  to  he 
controverted  (v.  To  controvert) ; irrefragable,  from 
frango  to  break,  signifies  not  to  be  broken,  destroyed, 
or  done  away.  These  terms  are  all  opposed  to  uiicer 
tainty;  but  they  do  not  imply  absolute  certainty,  foi 
they  all  express  the  strong  persua.sion  of  a person’s 
mind  rather  than  the  absolute  nature  of  the  thing; 
when  a fact  is  supported  by  such  evidence  as  admits 
of  no  kind  of  doubt,  it  is  tertned  indubitable ; ‘A  full 
or  a thin  house  will  indubitably  express  the«sense  of  a 
majority.’ — Hawkesvvokth.  When  the  truth  of  an 
assertion  rests  on  the  authority  of  a man  whose  cha- 
racter for  integrity  stands  unimpeached,  it  is  termed 
unquestionable  authority ; ‘ From  the  unquestionable 
documents  and  dictates  of  the  law  of  nature,  I shall 
evince  the  obligation  lying  upon  every  man  to  show 
gratitude.’— South.  When  a thing  is  believed  to  exist 
on  the  evidence  of  every  man’s  senses,  it  is  termed 
undeniable;  ‘ So  undeniable  is  the  truth  of  this  (viz.  the 
hardness  of  our  duty),  that  the  scene  of  virtue  is  laid 
in  our  natural  averseness  to  things  excellent.’- 
SouTH.  When  a sentiment  has  always  been  held  as 
either  true  or  false,  without  dispute,  it  is  termed  indis 
putable;  ‘Truth,  knowing  the  indisputable  c\dLim  she 
has  to  all  that  is  called  reason,  thinks  it  below  her  to 
ask  that  upon  courtesy  in  which  she  can  plead  a pro- 
perty.’— South.  When  arguments  have  never  been 
controverted,  they  are  termed  incontrovertible;  ‘Our 
distinction  must  rest  upon  a steady  adherence  to  the 
incontrovertible  rules  of  virtue.’— Blair.  And  when 
they  have  never  been  satisfactorily  answered,  they  are 
termed  irrefragable ; ‘There  is  none  who  walks  sc 
surely,  and  upon  such  irrefragable  grounds  of  pru 
dence,  as  he  who  is  religious.’ — South. 

TO  ARGUE,  DISPUTE,  DEBATE. 

To  argue  is  to  adduce  arguments  or  reasons  i* 
support  of  one’s  position  : to  dispute,\n  Latin  dispute 
compounded  of  dis  and  puto,  signifies  to  think  differ 
ently,  in  an  extended  sense,  to  assert  a different  opi 
nion;  to  debate,  in  French  deftatfre,  compounded  of 
the  intensive  syllable  de  and  battre,  to  beat  or  fight, 
signifies  to  contend  for  and  against. 

To  argue  is  to  defend  one’s  self ; dispute  to  oppose 
another ; to  debate  is  to  dispute  in  a formal  manner. 
To  argue  on  a subject  is  to  explain  the  reasons  or 
proofs  in  support  of  an  assertion ; to  argue  with  a 
person  is  to  defend  a position  against  him  : to  dispute 
a thing  is  to  advance  objections  against  a position  ; to 
dispute  with  a person  is  to  start  objections  against  his 
positions,  to  attempt  to  refute  them  . a debate  is  a dis- 
putation held  by  many.  To  argue  does  not  neces- 
sarily suppose  a conviction  on  the  part  of  the  arguev 
that  what  he  defends  is  true  ; nor  a real  difference  cf 
opinion  in  liis  opponent ; for  some  men  have  such  a 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMEb. 


ll£ 


riching  proi>eiisity  for  an  argument,  that  they  will 
attempt  to  prove  what  nobody  deiii’es ; and  in  some 
canes  the  term  argue  may  be  used  in  the  sense  ol'  ad- 
ducing reasons  more  for  the  purpose  of  producing 
mutual  confirmation  and  illustration  of  trulh  than  for 
the  detection  of  falsehood,  or  the  questioning  of  opi- 
nions ; 

Of  good  and  evil  much  they  argued  then.— Milton. 
To  dispute  always  supposes  an  opposition  to  some  per 
sen,  but  not  a sincere  opposition  to  the  thing;  for  we 
may  dispute  that  which  we  do  not  deny,  for  the  sake 
of  holding  a dispute  with  one  who  is  of  different  senti- 
ments: to  debate  presupposes  a multitude  of  clashing 
or  opposing  opinions.  Men  of  many  words  argue  for 
the  sake  of  talking:  men  of  ready  tongues  dispute  %r 
the  sake  of  victory:  men  in  Parliament  often  debate 
for  the  sake  of  opposing  the  ruling  party,  or  from  any 
other  motive  than  the  love  of  truth. 

Jirgumentation  is  a dangerous  propensity,  and  ren- 
ders a man  an  unpleasant  companion  in  society;  no 
one  should  set  such  a value  on  his  opinions  as  to  oo- 
trude  the  defence  of  them  on  those  who  are  uninter- 
ested in  the  question  ; ‘ Publick  arguing  oft  serves  not 
only  to  exasperate  the  minds,  but  to  whet  the  wits  of 
hereticks.’ — Dkcay  of  Piety.  Disputation,  as  a scho- 
lastick  exercise,  is  well  fitted  to  exert  the  reasoning 
powers  and  awaken  a spirit  of  inquiry ; 

Thus  Rodmond,  train’d  by  this  unhallow’d  crew'. 
The  sacred  social  passions  never  knew ; 

Unskill’d  to  argue,  in  dispute  yet  loud, 

Bold  without  caution,  without  honours  proud. 

Falconer. 

Debating  in  Parliament  is  by  some  converted  into  a 
trade ; he  who  talks  the  loudest,  and  makes  the  most 
vjhement  opposition,  expects  the  greatest  applause; 
The  murmur  ceas’d ; then  from  his  lofty  tiircne 
The  king  invok’d  the  gods,  and  thus  begun: 

I wish,  ye  Latins,  what  ye  now  debate 
Had  been  resolv’d  before  it  was  too  late. 

Dryden. 

TO  CONSULT,  DELIBERATE,  DEBATE. 

To  consult,  in  French  consuUer,  Latin  consulto,  is  a 
frequentative  of  consido,  signifying  to  counsel  toge- 
ther; to  deliberate,  in  French  deliberer,  Latin  delibero, 
compounded  of  de  and  libro,  or  libra  a balance,  signi- 
fies to  weigh  as  in  a balance. 

Consultations  always  require  two  persons  at  least ; 
deliberations  require  many,  or  only  a man’s  self : an 
individual  may  consult  with  one  or  many ; assemblies 
commonly  deliberate:  advice  and  information  are 
given  and  received  in  consultations ; ‘ Ulysses  (as 
Homer  tells  us)  made  a voyage  to  the  regions  of  the 
dead,  to  consult  Tiresias  how  he  should  return  to  his 
country.’ — Addison.  Doubts,  difficulties,  and  objec- 
tions, are  started  and  removed  in  deliberations; 
‘Moloch  declares  himself  abruptly  for  war,  and  ap- 
pears incensed  with  his  companions  for  losing  so  much 
time  as  even  to  deliberate  upon  it.’ — Addison.  We 
communicate  and  hear  when  we  consult;  we  pause 
and  hesitate  when  we  deliberate  : those  who  have  to 
co-operate  must  frequently  consult  together  ; those 
who  have  serious  measures  to  decide  upon  must  coolly 
deliberate. 

To  debate  {v.  To  argue)  and  to  consult  equally  mark 
theactsof  pausing  or  witliholding  the  decision,  whether 
applicable  to  one  or  many.  To  debate  supposes  always 
a contrariety  of  opinion  ; to  deliberate  supposes  simply 
the  weighing  or  estimating  the  value  of  the  opinion 
that  is  offered.  Where  many  persons  have  the  liberty 
of  offering  their  opinions,  it  is  natural  to  expect  that 
there  will  be  debating  ; 

To  seek  sage  Nestor  now  trie  chief  resolves  ; 
With  him  in  wholesome  counsels  to  debate 
What  yet  remains  to  safe  the  sinking  state. 

Pope. 

When  any  subject  offers  that  is  complicated  and  ques- 
tionable, it  calls  for  mature  deliberation  ; 

When  man’s  life  is  in  debate, 

•The  judge  can  ne’er  too  long  deliberate. 

Dryden. 

ItljJ  •anientable  when  passion  gets  such  an  ascendency 
In  the  mind  of  any  one,  as  to  make  him  debate  which 

a ♦ 


course  of  conduct  he  shall  pursue ; the  want  of  dth 
beration,  whether  in  private  or  publick  transactions,  is 
a more  fruitful  source  of  mischief  than  almost  any 
other. 


TO  OPPOSE,  RESIST,  WITHSTAND, 
THWART. 

Oppose  (v.  To  object,  oppose,)  is  the  general  term, 
signifying  simply  to  put  in  the  way;  resist,  signifies 
literally  to  stand  back,  away  from,  or  against ; with 
in  withstand  has  the  force  of  re  in  resist ; thwart,  from 
the  German  quer  cross,  signifies  to  come  across. 

The  action  of  setting  one  thing  up  against  another 
is  obviously  expressed  by  all  these  terms,  but  they 
differ  in  the  manner  and  the  circumstances.  To  op- 
pose simply  denotes  the  relative  position  of  two  objects, 
and  when  applied  to  persons  it  does  not  ne(;essarily 
imply  any  personal  characteristick : we  may  oppose 
reason  or  force  to  force  ; or  things  may  be  opposed  tc 
each  other  which  are  in  an  opposite  direction,  as  a 
house  to  a church.  Resist  is  always  an  act  of  more  or 
less  force  when  applied  to  persons ; it  is  mostly  a cul 
pable  action,  as  when  men  resist  lawful  authority ; 
resistance  is  in  fact  always  bad,  unless  in  case  of 
actual  self-defence.  Opposition  may  be  made  in  any 
form,  as  when  we  oppose  a person’s  admittance  into  a 
house  by  our  personal  efforts;  or  we  oppose  his  admis- 
sion into  a society  by  a declaration  of  our  opinions. 
Resistance  is  always  a direct  action,  as  when  we  resist 
an  invading  army  by  the  sword,  or  we  resist  the  evi- 
dence of  our  senses  by  denying  our  assent ; or,  in  re- 
lation to  things,  when  wood  or  any  hard  substance 
resists  the  violent  efibrts  of  steel  or  iron  to  make  an 
impression. 

fVithstand  and  thwart  are  modes  of  resistance  appli- 
cable only  to  conscious  agents.  To  withstand  is  nega- 
tive ; it  implies  not  to  yield  to  any  foreign  agency; 
thus,  a person  withstands  the  entreaties  of  another  to 
comply  with  a request.  To  thwart  is  positive;  it  is 
actively  to  cross  the  will  of  another : thus,  humour 
some  people  are  perpetually  thwarting  the  wishes  of 
those  with  whom  they  are  in  connexion.  Habitual 
opposition,  whether  in  act  or  in  spirit,  is  equall} 
senseless ; none  but  conceited  or  turbulent  people  are 
guilty  of  it ; 

So  hot  th’  assault,  so  high  the  tumult  rose, 

While  ours  defend,  and  while  the  Greeks  oppose. 

Dryden 

Oppositionists  to  government  are  dangerous  members 
of  society,  and  are  ever  preaching  up  resistance  to 
constituted  authorities ; 

To  do  all  our  sole  delight 
As  being  the  contrary  to  his  high  will 
Whom  we  resist. — Milton. 

‘ Particular  instances  of  second  sight  have  been  given 
with  such  evidence,  as  neither  Bacon  nor  Boyle  have 
been  able  to  resist.' — Johnson.  It  is  a happy  thing 
when  a young  man  can  withstand  the  allurements  of 
pleasure; 

For  twice  five  days  the  good  old  seer  withstood 

Til'  intended  treason,  and  was  dumb  to  blood. 

Dryden. 

It  is  a part  of  a Christian’s  duty  to  bear  with  patience 
the  untoward  events  of  life  that  thwart  his  purposes  ; 
‘ The  understanding  and  will  never  disagreed  (before 
the  fall) ; for  the  proposals  of  the  one  never  thwarted 
the  inclinations  of  the  other.’ — South. 


TO  CONFUTE,  REFUTE,  DISPROVE, 
OPPUGN. 

Confute  and  refute,  in  Latin  confuto  and  refuto,  are 
compounded  of  con  against,  re  privative,  andfuto,  ob 
solete  for  arguo,  signifying  to  argue  against  or  to  argue 
the  contrary;  disprove,  compounded  of  dis  priva.it'e 
and  prove,  signifies  to  prove  the  contrary  ; oppugn,  in 
Latin  oppugno,  signifies  to  fight  in  order  to  remove  or 
overthrow. 

To  confute  respects  what  is  argumentative ; refute 
what  is  personal ; disprove  whatever  is  represented  oi 
related ; oppugn  whatever  is  held  or  maintained. 

An  argument  is  confuted  by  proviig  its  fallacy;  a 
charge  is  refuted  by  proving  one’s  innocouce-  ai. 


116 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


assertion  is  disproved  by  proving  tliat  it  is  false ; a doc- 
trine is  oppugned  by  a course  of  reasoning. 

Paradoxes  may  be  easily  confuted ; calumnies  may 
be  easily  refuted;  the  marvellous  and  incredible 
stories  of  travellers  may  be  easily  disproved;  heresies 
anc  skeptical  notiops  ought  to  be  oppugned. 

The  pernicious  doctrines  of  skepticks,  though  often 
confuted,  are  as  often  advanced  with  the  same  degree 
of  assurance  by  the  free-thinking,  and  I might  say  the 
unthinking  few  who  imbibe  their  spirit ; 

The  learned  do,  by  turns,  the  learn’d  confute, 

Yet  all  depart  unalter’d  by  dispute. — Orrerv. 

It  is  the  employment  of  libellists  to  deal  out  their  mali- 
cious aspersions  against  the  objects  of  their  malignity 
in  a manner  so  loose  and  indirect  as  to  preclude  the 
possibility  of  refutation;  ‘Philip  of  Macedon  refuted 
by  the  force  of  gold  all  the  wisdom  of  Athens.’ — Ad- 
dison. It  would  be  a fruitless  and  unthankful  task  to 
attempt  to  disprove  all  the  statements  which  are  cir- 
culated in  a common  newspaper , 

Man’s  feeble  race  what  ills  await ! 

Labour  and  penury,  the  racks  of  pain, 

Disease,  and  sorrow’s  weeping  train. 

And  death,  sad  refuge  from  the  storm  of  fate, 

The  fond  complaint,  my  song  ! disprove. 

And  justify  the  laws  of  Jove. — Collins. 
it  is  the  duty  of  ministers  of  the  Gospel  to  oppugn  all 
doctrines  that  militate  against  the  established  faith  of 
Christians ; ‘ Ramus  was  one  of  the  first  oppugners  of 
the  old  philosophy,  who  disturbed  with  innovations 
the  quiet  of  the  schools.’ — Johnson 


TO  IMPUGN,  ATTACK 

I’o  impugn,  from  the  Latin  in  and  pugno,  signifying 
to  fight  against,  is  synonymous  with  attack  only  in  re- 
gard to  doctrines  or  opinions  ; in  which  case,  to  im- 
vugn  signifies  to  call  in  question,  or  bring  arguments 
against;  to  attac/fc  is  to  oppose  with  warmth.  Skep- 
ticks impugn  every  opinion,  however  self-evident  or 
well-grounded  they  may  be  : infidels  make  the  most 
indecent  attacks  upon  the  Bible,  and  all  that  is  held 
sacred  by  the  rest  of  the  world. 

He  who  impugns  may  sometimes  proceed  insidiously 
and  circuitously  to  undermine  the  faith  of  others:  he 
who  attacks  always  proceeds  with  more  or  less  vio- 
lence. To  impugn  is  not  necessarily  taken  in  a bad 
sense ; we  may  sometimes  impugn  absurd  doctrines  by 
a fair  train  of  reasoning;  to  attack  is  always  objec- 
tionable, either  in  the  mode  of  the  action,  or  its  object, 
or  in  both ; it  is  a mode  of  proceeding  oftener  em- 
ployed in  the  cause  of  falsehood  than  truth;  when 
there  are  no  arguments  wherewith  to  impugn  a doc- 
trine, it  is  easy  to  attack  it  with  ridicule  and  scurrility. 


TO  ATTACK,  ASSAIL,  ASSAULT, 
ENCOUNTER. 

Attack,  in  French  attaqaer,  changed  from  attacker. 
In  Latin  attactum,  participle  of  attingo,  signifies  to 
bring  into  close  contact ; assail,  assault,  in  French 
assailer,  Latin  assilio,  assaltum,  compounded  of  as 
or  ad  and  salio,  signifies  to  leap  upon  ; encounter,  in 
French  rencontre,  compounded  of  en  or  in  and  contrc, 
in  Latin  contra  against,  signifies  to  run  or  come 
against. 

Attack  is  the  generick,  the  rest  are  specifick  terms. 
To  attack  is  to  make  an  approach  in  order  to  do  some 
violence  to  the  person  ; to  assail  or  assault  is  to  make 
a sudden  and  vehement  attack;  to  encounter  is  to 
meet  the  attack  of  another.  One  attacks  by  simply 
offering  violence  without  necessarily  producing  an  ef- 
fect; one  assails  by  means  of  missile  weapons ; one 
assaults  by  direct  personal  violence;  one  encounters 
by  opposing  violence  to  violence 

Men  and  animals  attack  or  encounter;  men  only,  in 
the  literal  sense,  assail  or  assault.  Animals  attack 
each  other  with  the  weapons  nature  has  bestowed  upon 
them  ; ' King  Athelstan  attacked  another  body  of  the 
Danes  at  sea  near  Sandwich,  sunk  nine  of  their  ships, 
and  put  the  rest  to  flight.’ — Hume.  Those  who  pro- 
voke a multitude  may  expect  to  have  their  houses 
er  windows  assailed  with  stones,  and  their  persons 
*issaulted;  ' 


So  when  he  saw  his  flaU’ring  arts  to  fai! 

With  greedy  force  he  ’gan  the  fort  t’  assail. 

Spenser 

And  double  death  did  wretched  man  invade, 

By  steel  assaulted,  and  by  gold  betray’d.— Dryden 
It  is  ridiculous  to  attempt  to  encounter  those  who  are 
superiour  in  strength  and  prowess ; ‘ Putting  themsel  vcs 
in  order  of  battle,  they  encountered  their  enemies.’ — 
Knowles. 

They  are  all  used  figuratively.  Men  attack  with 
reproaches  or  censures  ; they  assail  with  abuse;  they 
are  assaulted  by  temptations ; they  encounter  opj^si- 
tion  and  difficulties.  A fever  attacks  ; horrid  shrieks 
assail  the  ear ; dangers  are  encountered.  The  reputa- 
tjpns  of  men  in  publick  life  are  often  wantonly  attack- 
ed ; ‘ The  women  might  possibly  have  carried  this 
Gothick  building  higher,  had  not  a famous  monk, 
Thomas  Conecte  by  name,  attacked  it  with  great  zeal 
and  resolution.’ — Addison.  Publick  men  are  assailed 
in  every  direction  by  the  murmurs  and  complaints  of 
the  discontented ; 

Not  truly  penitent,  but  chief  to  try 

Her  husband,  how  far  urg’d  his  patience  bears. 

His  virtue  or  weakness  which  way  to  a<<sail. 

Milton. 

They  often  encounter  the  obstacles  which  party  spirit 
throws  in  the  way,  without  reaping  any  solid  advan- 
tage to  themselves ; ‘ It  is  sufficient  that  you  are  able  to 
encounter  the  temptations  which  now  assault  you . 
when  God  sends  trials  he  may  send  strength.’— 
Taylor. 

ATTACK,  ASSAULT,  ENCOUNTER,  ONSEl’, 
CHARGE. 

An  attack  and  assault  [v.  To  attack)  may  be  made 
upon  an  unresisting  object ; encounter,  onset,  and 
charge,  require  at  least  two  opposing  parlies.  An 
attack  may  be  slight  or  indii;ect;  an  assault  must 
always  be  direct  and  mostly  vigorous.  An  attack  upon 
a town  need  not  be  attended  with  any  injury  to  the 
walls  or  inhabitants ; but  an  assault  is  commonly  con- 
ducted so  as  to  effect  its  capture.  Attacks  are  made 
by  robbers  upon  the  person  or  property  of  another ; 
assaults  upon  the  person  only  ; ‘ There  is  one  species 
of  diversion  which  has  not  been  generally  condemned, 
though  it  is  produced  by  an  attack  upon  those  who 
have  not  voluntarily  entered  the  lists  ; who  find  them- 
selves buffetted  in  the  dark,  and  have  neither  means 
of  defence  nor  possibility  of  advantage.’ — Hawkes 
WORTH.  ‘ We  do  not  find  the  meeknessof  a lamb  in  a 
creature  so  armed  for  battle  and  assault  as  the  lion.’- 
Addison. 

An  encounter  generally  respects  an  unformal  casual 
meeting  between  single  individuals  ; onset  and  charge 
a regular  a«ac A:  between  contending  armies  ; cnset  is 
employed  for  the  commencement  of  the  battfe ; charge 
for  an  attack  from  a particular  quarter.  Wher  knight- 
errantry  was  in  vogue,  encounters  were  perpetually 
taking  place  between  the  knights  and  tiieir  antagonists, 
who  often  existed  only  in  the  imagination  of  the  com- 
batants : encounters  were,  however,  sometimes  fierce 
and  bloody,  when  neither  party  would  yield  to  the 
other  while  he  had  the  power  of  resistance ; 

And  such  a frown 

Each  cast  at  th’  other,  as  when  two  black  clouds. 

With  heav’n’s  artillery  fraught,  come  rattling  on 

Hovering  a space,  till  winds  the  signal  blow. 

To  join  their  dark  encounter  in  mid  air. — Milton. 
The  French  are  said  to  make  impetuous  onsets,  but 
not  to  withstand  a continued  attack  with  the  same  per 
severance  and  steadiness  as  the  English ; 

Onsets  in  love  seem  best  like  those  in  war, 

Fierce,  resolute,  and  done  with  all  the  force.—TATE 
A furious  and  well-directed  charge  from  the  tavalrV 
will  sometimes  decide  the  fortune  of  the  day; 

O my  Antonio ! I’m  all  on  fire  ; 

My  soul  is  up  in  arms,  ready  to  charge. 

And  bear  amid  the  foe  with  conqu’ring  troops. 

Congreve 

» 

AGGRESSOR,  ASSAILANT. 

Aggressor,  from  the  Latin  aggressus,  participle  o, 
aggredior,  compounded  of  ag  or  ad,  and  gredior  to 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


-117 


step,  signifies  on  j stepping  up  to,  falling  upon,  or  attack- 
ing; assailajit,  from  assail,  in  French  assailer,  com- 
pounded of  as  or  ad,  and  salio  to  leap  upon,  signifies 
one  leaping  up,  or  attacking  any  one  vehemently. 

The  characteristick  idea  of  aggressor  is  that  of  one 
going  up  to  another  in  a hostile  manner,  and  by  a na- 
ural  e.vtension  of  the  sense  commencing  an  attack  : 
the  characteristick  idea  of  assailant  is  that  cf  one  com- 
mitting an  act  of  violence  on  the  person. 

An  aggressor  offers  to  do  some  injury  either  by 
word  or  deed;  an  assailant  actually  commits  some 
violence : the  former  commences  a dispute,  the  latter 
carries  it  on  with  a vehement  and  direct  attack.  An 
aggressor  is  blameable  for  giving  rise  to  quarrels; 
Where  one  is  the  aggressor,  and  in  pursuance  of  his 
first  attack  kills  the  other,  the  law  supposes  the  action, 
however  sudden,  to  be  malicious.’ — Johnson  {Life  of 
Savage).  An  assailant  is  culpable  for  the  mischief 
he  does ; 

What  ear  so  fortified  and  barr’d 
Against  the  tuneful  force  of  vocal  charms. 

But  would  with  transport  to  such  sweet  assailants 
Surrender  its  attention  ? — Mason. 

Were  there  no  aggressors  there  would  be  no  dis- 
putes ; were  there  no  assailants  those  disputes  would 
not  be  serious. 

An  aggressor  may  be  an  assailant,  or  an  assailant 
may  be  an  aggressor,  but  they  are  as  frequently  distinct. 


TO  DISPLEASE,  OFFEND,  VEX. 

Displease  naturally  marks  the  contrary  of  pleasing: 
offend,  from  the  Latin  offendo,  signifies  to  stumble  in 
the  way  of;  vex,  in  Latin  vexo,  is  a frequentative  of 
veho,  signifying  literally  to  toss  up  and  down. 

These  words  express  the  act  of  causing  a painful 
eentiment  in  the  m ud  by  some  impropriety,  real  or 
supposed,  on  on  .^wn  part.  Displease  is  not  always 
applied  to  that  I'.ren  personally  concerns  ourselves ; 
although  offend  an  rex  have  always  more  or  less  of 
what  is  personal  in  them : a superiour  may  be  dis- 
pleased with  one  who  is  under  his  charge  for  improper 
liehaviour  toward  persons  in  general ; 

Meantime  imperial  Neptune  heard  the  sound 
Of  raging  billows  breaking  on  the  ground  ; 
Displeas'd  and  fearing  for  his  wat’ry  reign, 

He  rear’d  his  awful  head  above  the  main. 

Dryden. 

He  will  be  offended  with  him  for  disrespectful  behaviour 
toward  himself,  or  neglect  of  his  interests  ; ‘ The  em- 
peror himself  came  running  to  the  place  in  his  armour, 
severely  reproving  them  of  cowardice  who  had  for- 
saken the  place,  and  grievously  offended  with  them  who 
had  kept  such  negligent  watch.’ — Knolles.  What 
displeases  has  less  regard  to  what  is  personal  than  what 
offends ; a supposed  intention  in  the  most  harmless  act 
may  cause  offence,  and  on  the  contrary  the  most 
offending  action  may  not  give  offence  where  the  inten- 
tion of  the  agent  is  supposed  to  be  good;  ‘Nathan’s 
fable  of  the  poor  man  and  his  lamb  had  so  good  an  effect 
as  to  convey  instruction  to  the  ear  of  a king  without 
off  ending  it.' — Addison.  i 

Displease  respects  mostly  the  inward  state  of  feeling  ; 
offend  and  vex  have  most  regard  to  the  outward  cause 
which  provokes  the  feeling:  a humoursome person  may 
be  displeased  without  any  apparent  cause  ; but  a cap- 
tious person  will  at  least  have  some  avowed  trifle  for 
which  he  is  offended.  Vex  expresses  more  than  offend  ; 
it  marks  in  fact  frequent  eflbrts  to  offend,  or  the  act  of 
offending  under  aggravated  circumstances:  we  often 
unintentionally  displease  or  offend ; but  he  who  vexes 
hasmostly  that  object  in  view  in  so  doing:  any  instance 
of  negl3Ct  displeases ; any  marked  instance  of  neglect 
nffends ; any  aggravated  instance  of  neglect  vexes  ; the 
feeling  of  displeasureis  more  perceptible  and  vivid  than 
'that  of  offence ; but  it  is  less  durable;  the  feeling  of  wexa- 
tion  is  as  transitory  as  that  of  displeasure,  but  stronger 
than  either.  Displeasure  and  vexation  betray  them- 
selves by  an  angry  word  or  look ; offence  discovers  itself 
in  the  whole  conduct:  our  displeasure  is  unjustifiable 
when  it  exceeds  the  measure  of  another’s  fault;  it  is  a 
mark  of  great  weakness  to  take  offence  at  trifles ; persons 
of  th3  greatest  irritability  are  exposed  to  the  most  fre- 
quent Dcxatzons  ; ‘Do  poor  Tom  some  charity,  whom 


the  foul  fiend  Dcxes.’— 9hakspeare.  These  terms  may 
all  be  applied  to  the  action  of  unconscious  agents  on  the 
mind;  ‘Foul  sights  do  rather  displease,  in  that  they 
excite  the  memory  of  foul  things,  than  in  the  immediate 
objects.  Therefore,  in  pictures,  those  foul  sights  do  not 
much  offend.' — Bacon.  ‘ Gross  sins  are  plainly  seen, 
and  easily  avoided  by  persons  that  [trofess  religion.  But 
the  indiscreet  and  dangerous  use  of  innocent  and  lawful 
things,  as  it  does  not  shock  and  offend  our  consciences, 
so  it  is  difficult  to  make  people  at  all  sensible  of  the 
danger  of  it.’ — Law. 

These  and  a thousand  mix’d  emotions  more, 

From  ever-changing  views  of  good  and  ill, 

Form’d  infinitely  various,  vex  the  mind 
With  endless  storm. — Thomson. 

As  epithets  they  admit  of  a similar  distinction ; it  ts 
very  displeasing  to  parents  not  to  meet  with  the  most 
respectful  attentions  from  children,  when  they  give 
them  counsel ; and  such  conduct  on  the  part  of  children 
is  highly  offensive  to  God  ; when  we  meet  with  an  of- 
fensive object,  we  do  most  wisely  to  turn  away  from 
it ; when  we  are  troubled  with  vexatious  affairs,  our 
best  and  only  remedy  is  patience. 


DISLIKE,  DISPLEASURE,  DISSATISFAU 
TION,  DISTASTE,  DISGUST. 

Dislike  signifies  the  opposite  to  liking,  or  being  alike 
to  one’s  self  or  one’s  taste ; displea.sure,  the  opposite  tc 
pleasure  ; dissatisfaction,  the  opposite  to  satisfaction ; 
distaste  and  disgust,  from  the  Latin  gustus  a taste, 
both  signify  the  opposite  to  an  agreeable  taste. 

Dislike  and  dissatisfaction  denote  the  feeling  or  sen 
timent  produced  either  by  persons  or  things  ; displea 
sure,  that  produced  by  persons  mostly ; distaste  and 
disgust,  that  produced  by  things  only. 

In  regard  to  persons,  dislike  is  the  sentiment  of  equals 
and  persons  unconnected ; displeasure  and  dissatis- 
faction, of  superiours,  or  such  as  stand  in  some  sort  of 
relation  to  us.  Strangers  may  feel  a dislike  upon  seeing 
each  other:  parents  or  masters  may  feel  displeasure  or 
dissatisfaction  : the  former  sentiment  is  occasioned  by 
their  supposed  faults  in  character;  the  latter  by  their 
supposed  defective  services.  One  dislikes  a person  for 
his  assumption,  loquacity,  or  any  thing  not  agreeable 
in  his  manners  ; ‘The  jealous  man  is  not  Indeed  angry 
if  you  dislike  another;  but  if  you  find  those  faults 
which  are  found  in  his  own  character,  you  discover  not 
only  your  dislike  of  another  but  of  himself.’ — Addison. 
One  is  displeased  with  a person  for  his  carelessness,  or 
any  thing  wrong  in  his  conduct ; ‘ The  threatenings  of 
conscience,  suggest  to  the  sinner  some  deep  and  dark 
malignity  contained  in  guilt,  which  has  drawn  upon 
his  head  such  high  displeasure  from  heaven.’ — Blair 
One  is  dissatisfied  with  a person  on  account  of  thesmal! 
quantity  of  work  which  he  has  done,  or  his  manner  of 
doing  it.  Displeasure  is  awakened  by  whatever  is 
done  amiss  : dissatisfaction  is  caused  by  what  happens 
amiss  or  contrary  to  our  expectation.  Accordingly  the 
word  dissatisfaction  is  not  confined  to  persons  of  a 
particular  rank,  but  to  the  nature  of  the  connexion 
which  subsists  between  them.  Whoever  does  not  re 
ceive  what  they  think  themselves  entitled  to  from  an 
other  arc  dissatisfied.  A servant  may  be  dissatisfied 
with  the  treatment  he  meets  with  from  his  master; 
and  may  be  said  therefore  to  express  dissatisfaction, 
though  not  displeasure ; ‘ I do  not  like  to  see  any  thing 
destroyed : any  void  in  society.  It  was  therefore  with 
no  disappointment  or  dissatisfaction  that  my  observa 
tion  did  not  present  to  me  any  incorrigiule  vice  in  the 
noblesse  of  France.’ — Burke. 

In  regard  to  things,  dislike  is  a casual  feeling  not 
arising  from  any  specifick  cause.  A dissatisfaction  is 
connected  with  our  desires  and  expectations ; we 
dislike  the  performance  of  an  actor  from  one  or  many 
causes,  or  from  no  apparent  cause ; but  we  are  dissatis 
fied  with  his  performance  if  it  fall  short  of  what  we 
were  led  to  expect.  In  orcler  to  lessen  the  numbet 
of  our  dislikes  we  ought  to  endeavour  not  to  dislike 
without  a cause  ; and  in  order  to  lessen  our  dissatis 
faction  we  ought  to  be  moderate  in  our  expectation. 

Dislike,  distaste,  and  disgust  rise  on  each  otlier  in 
their  signification.  The  distaste  is  more  than  the  dis 
like : and  the  disgust  more  than  the  distaste.  Th« 
dislike  is  a partial  feeling,  quickly  produced  and  quickly 


as 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


Bubsiding,  tha  distaste  is  a settled  feeling,  gradually 
produced,  and  permanent  in  its  duration  : disgust  is 
either  transitory  or  otherwise ; momentarily  or  gradually 
produced,  but  stronger  than  either  of  the  two  others. 

Caprice  has  a great  share  in  our  likes  and  dislikes  ; 
‘ Dryden’s  dislike  of  the  prie.sthood  is  imputed  by  Lang- 
baine,  and  I think  by  Brown,  to  a repulse  which  he 
suffered  when  he  solicited  ordination.’ — Johnson.  Dis- 
taste depends  upon  the  changes  to  which  the  constitu- 
tion physically  and  mentally  is  exposed  ; ‘ Because  true 
history,  through  frequent  satiety  and  similitude  of 
things,  works  a distaste  and  misprision  in  the  minds  of 
men,  ^esy  cheereth  and  refresheth  the  soul,  chanting 
things  rare  and  various.’ — Bacon.  Disgust  owes  its 
origin  to  the  nature  of  things  and  their  natural  operation 
on  the  minds  of  men ; ‘Vice,  for  vice  is  necessary  to  be 
shown,  should  always  excite  disgust.’ — Johnson  A 
child  likes  and  dislikes  his  playthings  without  any  ap- 
parent cause  for  the  change  of  sentiment : after  a long 
illness  a person  will  frequently  take  a distaste  to  the 
food  or  the  amusements  which  before  afforded  him 
much  pleasure : what  is  indecent  or  filthy  is  a natural 
object  of  disgust  to  every  person  whose  mind  is  not 
depraved.  It  is  good  to  suppress  unfounded  dislikes  ; 
it  is  difficult  to  overcome  a strong  distaste ; it  is  ad- 
visable to  divert  our  attention  from  objects  calculated 
to  create  disgust. 


DISLIKE,  DISINCLINATION. 

Dislike  is  opposed  to  liking;  disinclination  is  the 
reverse  of  inclination. 

Dislike  applies  to  what  one  has  or  does ; disinclina- 
tion only  to  what  one  does  : we  dislike  the  thing  we 
have,  or  dislike  to  do  a thing  ; but  we  are  disinclined 
only  to  do  a thing. 

They  express  a similar  feeling,  but  differing  in  de- 
gree. Disinclination  is  but  a small  degree  o{  dislike ; 
dislike  marks  something  contrary ; disinclination  does 
not  amount  to  more  than  the  absence  of  an  inclination. 
None  but  a disobliging  temper  lias  a dislike  to  comply 
with  reasonable  requests ; 

Murmurs  rise  with  mix’d  applause. 

Just  as  they  favour  or  dislike  the  cause. — Dryden. 

The  most  obliging  disposition  may  have  an  occasional 
disinclination  to  comply  with  a particular  request; 
‘To  be  grave  to  a man’s  mirth,  or  inattentive  to  liis 
discourse,  argues  a disinclination  to  be  entertained  by 
him.’ — Steele. 


DISPLEASURE,  ANGER,  DISAPPROBATION. 

Displeasure  signifies  the  feeling  of  not  being  pleased 
vith  either  persons  or  things ; anger  comes  from  the 
Latin  angor  vexation,  and  ango  to  vex,  which  is  com- 
pounded of  an  or  ad  against,  and  ago  to  act;  disappro- 
bation is  the  reverse  of  approbatian. 

Between  displeasure  and  auger  there  is  a difference 
both  in  the  degree,  the  cause,  and  the  consequence  of 
the  feeling:  displeasure  is  always  a softened  and 
gentle  feeling;  anger  is  always  a harsh  feeling,  and 
sometimes  rises  to  vehemence  and  madness.  Dis- 
pleasure is  always  produced  by  some  adequate  cause, 
real  or  supposed ; anger  may  be  provoked  by  every  or 
any  cause,  according  to  the  temper  of  the  individual ; 
‘ Man  is  the  merriest  species  of  the  creation  ; all  above 
or  below  him  are  serious;  he  sees  things  in  a different 
light  Uom  other  beings,  and  finds  his  mirth  arising 
from  objects  that  perhaps  cause  something  like  pity  or 
displeasure  in  a higher  nature.’ — Addison.  Displea- 
sure is  mostly  satisfied  with  a simple  verbal  expression ; 
but  anger.,  unless  kept  down  with  great  force,  always 
seeks  to  return  evil  for  evil ; ‘From  anger  in  its  full 
import,  protracted  into  malevolence  and  exerted  in  re- 
venge, arise  many  of  the  evils  to  which  the  life  of  man 
is  exposed.’ — Johnson.  Displeasure  and  disapproba- 
tion are  to  be  compared  in  as  much  as  they  respect  the 
conduct  of  those  who  are  under  the  direction  of  others : 
displeasure  is  an  act  of  the  will,  it  is  an  angry  senti- 
ment ; ‘ True  repentance  may  be  wrought  in  the  hearts 
of  such  as  fear  God,  and  yet  incur  his  displeasure,  the 
deserved  effect  whereof  is  eternal  death.’ — Hooker. 
Disapprobation  is  an  act  of  the  judgement,  it  is  an 
opposite  opinion ; ‘ The  Queen  Regent’s  brothers 
knew  her  secret  disapprobation  of  the  violent  mea 


sures  they  were  driving  ^ .1.’— Rcbertson  Any  mar* 
of  self-will  in  a child  is  calculated  to  excite  displea- 
sure ; a mistaken  choice  in  matrimony  may  produce 
disapprobation  in  the  parent. 

Displeasure  is  always  produ'’.ed  by  that  which  is 
already  come  to  pass ; disapprobation  may  be  felt  upon 
that  which  is  to  take  place  : a master  feels  displeasure 
at  the  carelessness  of  his  servant ; a parent  expresses 
his  disapprobation  of  his  son’s  proposal  to  leave  his 
situation ; it  is  sometimes  prudent  to  check  our  dis- 
pleasure ; and  mostly  prudent  to  express  our  dis- 
approbation : the  former  cannot  be  expressed  witliout 
inflicting  pain  ; the  latter  cannot  be  withheld  when  re 
quired  without  the  danger  of  misleading. 


ANGER,  RESENTMENT,  WRATH,  IRE, 
INDIGNATION. 

Jinger  has  the  same  original  meaning  as  in  the  pre 
ceding  article ; resentment,  in  French  ressentiment, 
from  ressentir,  is  compounded  of  re  and  sentir,  signi 
fying  to  feel  again,  over  and  over,  or  for  a continuance; 
wrath,  and  ire  are  derived  from  the  same  source, 
namely,  wrath,  in  Saxon  wrath,  and  ire,  in  Latin  ira 
anger,  Greek  Iptj  contention,  all  which  spring  from  the 
Hebrew  n*?n  heat  or  anger;  indignation,  m French 
indignation,  in  Latin  indignatio,  from  indignor,  to 
think  or  feel  unworthy,  marks  the  strong  feeling  which 
base  conduct  awakens  in  the  mind. 

An  impatient  agitation  against  any  one  who  acts 
contrary  to  our  inclinations  or  opinions  is  the  charac 
teristick  of  all  these  terms.  Resentment  is  less  vivid 
than  anger,  and  anger  than  wrath,  ire,  or  indignation. 
Anger  is  a sudden  sentiment  of  displeasure;  resent- 
ment is  a continued  anger;  wrath  is  a heightened 
sentiment  of  anger,  which  is  poetically  expressed  by 
the  word  ire. 

Anger  may  be  either  a selfish  or  a disinterested 
passion , it  may  be  provoked  by  injuries  done  to  our- 
selves, or  injustice  done  to  others  : in  this  latter  sense 
of  strong  displeasure  God  is  angry  with  sinners,  and 
good  men  may,  to  a certain  degree,  be  angry 'n\\\\  those 
under  their  control,  who  act  improperly;  ‘Moralists 
have  defined  anger  to  be  a desire  of  revenge  for  some 
injury  offered.’— Steele.  Resentment  is  a brooding 
sentiment,  altogether  arising  from  a sense  of  personal 
injury,  it  is  associated  with  a dislike  of  the  offender 
as  much  as  the  ofience,  and  is  diminished  only  by  the 
infliction  of  pain  in  return  ; in  its  rise,  progress,  and 
effects,  it  is  alike  opposed  to  the  Christian  spirit ; 
‘ The  temperately  revengeful  have  leisure  to  weigh  the 
merits  of  the  cause,  and  thereby  either  to  smother 
their  secret  resentments,  or  to  seek  adequate  re 
parations  for  the  damages  they  have  sustained.’ — 
Steele.  Wrath  and  ire  are  the  sentiment  of  a supe- 
riour  towards  an  inferiour,  and  when  provoked  by  per 
sonal  injuries  discovers  itself  by  haughtiness  and  a 
vindictive  temper; 

Achilles’  wrath,  to  Greece  the  direful  spring 
Of  woes  unnuniber’d,  heavenly  goddess  sing. 

Pope. 

As  a sentiment  of  displeasure,  wrath  is  unjustifiable 
between  man  and  man  ; but  the  wrath  of  God  may 
be  provoked  by  the  persevering  impenitence  of  sinners  : 
the  ire  of  a heathen  god,  according  to  the  gross  views 
of  Pagans,  was  but  the  wrath  of  nian  associated  with 
greater  power;  it  was  altogether  unconnected  with 
moral  displeasure ; the  same  term  is  however  applied 
also  to  the  heroes  and  princes  of  antiquity ; 

The  prophet  spoke  ; when  with  a gloomy  fi  own 

The  monarch  started  from  his  shining  throne  ; 

Black  choler  fill’d  his  breast  that  boil’d  with  ire, 

And  from  his  eye-balls  flash’d  the  living  fire.— Pope. 
Indignation  is  a sentiment  awakened  by  the  unworthy 
and  atrocious  conduct  of  others;  as  it  is  exempt  from 
personality,  it  is  not  irreconcilable  with  the  temper  of 
a Christian  ; ‘ It  is  surely  not  to  be  observed  without 
indignation,  that  men  may  be  found  of  minds  mean 
enough  to  be  satisfied  with  this  treatment;  wretches 
who  are  proud  to  obtain  the  privileges  of  madmen.’ — 
Johnson.  A warmth  of  constitution  sometimes  gives 
rise  to  sallies  of  anger;  I ait  depravity  of  heart  breeds 
resentment : unbending  pride  is  a great  source  of 
wrath;  but  indignation  flows  from  a high  sense  of 
honour  and  virtue. 


ENGLISH  SYxNONYMES. 


ANGER,  CHOLER,  RAGE,  FURY. 

Jinger  signifies  tlie  same  as  in  the  preceding  article ; 
tholer,  in  French  colire.,  Latin  cholera,  Greek  p^oAtpa, 
comes  from  bile,  because  the  overflowing  of  the 
bile  is  both  tiie  cause  and  consequence  of  choler ; rage, 
in  French  rage,  Latin  rabies  madness,  and  rabio  to 
rave  like  a madman,  comes  from  the  Hebrew  to 
tremble  or  shake  with  a violent  madness;  fury,  in 
French  farie,  Latin  furor,  comes  probably  from  fero 
to  carry  away,  because  one  is  carried  or  hurried  by  the 
emotions  of  fury. 

These  words  have  a progressive  force  in  their  signi- 
fication. Choler  expresses  something  more  sudden 
and  virulent  than  anger;  rage  is  a vehement  ebulli- 
tion of  anger ; and  fury  is  an  excess  of  rage.  Jinger 
may  be  so  stifled  as  not  to  discover  itself  by  any  out- 
ward symptoms;  choler  is  discoverable  by  the  pale- 
ness of  the  visage:  rage  breaks  forth  into  extravagant 
expressions  and  violent  distortions ; fury  takes  away 
the  use  of  the  understanding. 

.Mnger  is  an  infirmity  incident  to  human  nature  ; it 
ought,  however,  to  be  suppressed  on  alt  occasions  ; 
‘The  maxim  which  Periander  of  Corinth,  one  of  the 
seven  sages  of  Greece,  left  as  a memorial  of  his  know- 
ledge and  benevolence,  was  x^Aou  Kpdrei,  be  master  of 
thy  anger.' — Johnson.  Choler  is  a malady  too  physi- 
cal to  be  always  corrected  by  reflection ; 

Must  I give  way  to  your  rash  choler? 

Shall  I be  frighted  when  a madman  stares  7 

Shakspeark. 

Rage  and  fury  are  distempers  of  the  soul,  which 
nothing  but  religion  and  the  grace  of  God  can  cure  ; 
Oppose  not  rage,  while  rage  is  in  its  force. 

But  give  it  way  awhile  and  let  it  waste. 

Shakspeare. 

Of  this  kind  is  the  fury  to  which  many  men  give 
way  among  their  servants  and  dependants.’ — John- 
son. 


RESENTFUL,  REVENGEFUL,  VINDICTIVE. 

Resentful  signifies  filled  with  resentment;  revenge- 
ful, that  is,  filled  with  the  spirit  or  desire  of  revenge ; 
vindictive,  from  vindico  to  ave.nge  or  revenge,  signi- 
fies either  given  to  revenge,  or  after  the  manner  of 
revenge. 

Resentful  marks  solely  the  state  or  temper  of  the 
mind,  revengeful  also  extends  to  the  action  ; a person 
is  resentful  who  retains  resentment  in  his  mind  with- 
out discovering  it  in  any  thing  but  his  behaviour ; he 
is  revengeful  if  he  displays  his  feeling  in  any  act  of 
revenge  or  injury  toward  the  offender.  Resentful 
people  are  afiecied  with  trifles;  ‘ Pope  was  as  resent- 
ful of  an  imputation  of  the  roundness  of  his  back,  as 
Marshal  Luxembourg,  is  reported  to  have  been  on  the 
sarcasm  of  King  William.’ — Tyers.  A revengeful 
temper  is  oftentimes  not  satisfied  with  a small  portion 
of  revenge ; 

If  thy  revengeful  heart  cannot  forgive, 

Lo  ! here  I lend  thee  this  sharp-pointed  sword. 
Which  hide  in  this  true  breast.— Shakspearr. 
Revengeful  is  mostly  said  of  the  temper  or  the  person  ; 
but  vindictive  or  vindicative,  as  it  is  sometimes  written, 
is  said  either  of  the  person  who  is  prone  to  revenge  or 
of  the  thing  which  serves  the  purpose  of  revenge  or 
punishment;  ‘ Publick  revenges  are  for  the  most  part 
fortunate ; but  in  private  revenges  it  is  not  so.  Vindi- 
cative persons  live  the  life  of  witches,  who,  as  they 
are  mischievous,  so  end  they  unfortunate.’ — Bacon. 

‘ Suits  are  not  reparative,  but  vindictive,  when  they 
are  commenced  against  insolvent  persons.’ — Kettle- 
well. 


TO  AVENGE,  REVENGE,  VINDICATE. 

.Avenge,  revenge,  and  vindicate,  all  spring  from  the 
Fame  source,  namely,  the  Latin  vindico,  the  Greek 
fv6LKdC,ofjiai,  compounded  of  h in  and  diKy  justice,  sig- 
nifying to  pronounce  justice  or  put  justice  in  force. 

The  idea  common  to  these  terms  is  that  of  taking  up 
some  one’s  cause. 

To  avenge  is  to  punish  in  behalf  of  another;  to  re- 
venge is  to  punfsh  for  one’s  self;  to  vindicate  is  to  de- 
fend another 


JIS) 

The  wrongs  of  a person  are  avenged  oi  revenged, 
his  rights  are  vindicated- 

The  act  of  avenging,  though  attended  with  the  in 
fliction  of  pain,  is  oftentimes  an  act  of  humanity,  ami 
always  an  act  of  justice ; none  are  the  sufferers  but 
such  as  merit  it  for  their  oppression,  while  those  are 
benefited  who  are  dependent  for  support ; this  is  the 
act  of  God  himself,  who  always  avenges  the  oppressed 
who  look  up  to  him  for  support ; and  it  ought  to  be  the 
act  of  all  his  creatures,  who  are  invested  with  the 
power  of  punishing  oflenders  and  protecting  the  help 
less; 

The  day  shall  come,  that  great  avenging  day, 

When  Troy’s  proud  glories  in  the  dust  shall  lay. 

Pope. 

Revenge  is  the  basest  of  all  actions,  and  the  spirit  of 
revenge  the  most  diametrically  opposed  to  the  Christian 
principles  of  forgiving  injuries,  and  returning  good  for 
evil;  it  is  gratified  only  with  inflicting  pain  without 
any  prospect  of  advantage;  ‘By  a continued  series 
of  loose,  though  apparently  trivial  gratifications,  the 
heart  is  often  thoroughly  corrupted,  as  by  tiie  commis- 
sion of  any  one  of  those  enormous  crimes  which  spring 
from  great  ambition,  or  great  revenge.' — Blair.  Vin 
dication  is  an  act  of  generosity  and  humanity  ; it  is  the 
production  of  good  without  the  infliction  of  pain  : the 
claims  of  the  widow  and  orphan  call  for  vindication 
from  those  who  have  the  time,  talent,  or  ability,  to 
take  their  cause  into  their  own  hands:  England  can 
boast  of  many  noble  vindicators  of  the  rights  of 
humanity,  not  excepting  those  which  concern  the  brutr: 
creation  ; ‘ Injured  or  oppressed  by  the  world,  the  good 
man  looks  up  to  a Judge  who  will  vindicate  his  cause  ’ 
—Blair. 


ANGRY,  PASSIONATE,  HASTY,  IRASCIBLE 

Anger,  signifies  either  having  anger,  or  prone  to 
anger ; passionate,  prone  to  the  passion  of  anger ; 
hasty,  prone  to  excess  of  haste  from  intemperate  feel- 
ing; irascible,  able  or  ready  to  be  made  angry,  from 
the  Latin  ira  anger. 

Angry  denotes  a particular  state  or  emotion  of  tlm 
mind;  passionate  and  hasty  express  habits  of  the 
mind.  An  angry  man  is  in  a state  of  anger ; a pas 
sionate  or  hasty  man  is  habitually  prone  to  be  pas 
sionate  or  hasty.  The  angry  has  less  that  is  vehe 
ment  and  impetuous  in  it  than  the  passionate ; tlK' 
hasty  has  something  less  vehement,  but  more  sudden 
and  abrupt  in  it  than  either. 

The  angry  man  is  not  always  easily  provoked,  nor 
ready  to  retaliate  ; but  he  often  retains  his  anger  untl 
the  cause  is  removed;  ‘ It  is  told  by  Prior,  in  a pane 
gyrick  on  the  Duke  of  Dorset,  that  his  servants  used 
to  put  themselves  in  his  way  when  he  was  angry,  be 
cause  he  was  sure  to  recompense  them  for  any  indig 
nities  which  he  made  them  suffer.’ — Johnson.  The 
passionate  man  is  quickly  roused,  eager  to  repay  the 
offence,  and  speedily  appeased  by  the  infliction  of  pain 
of  which  he  afterward  probably  repents;  ‘There  is  in 
the  world  a certain  class  of  mortals  known,  and  con- 
tentedly known  by  the  name  of  passionate  men,  who 
imagine  themselves  entitled,  by  that  distinction,  to  be 
provoked  on  every  slight  occasion.’ — Johnson.  The 
hasty  man  is  very  soon  offended,  but  not  ready  to 
offend  in  return  ; his  angry  sentiment  spends  itself  in 
angry  words ; 

The  king,  who  saw  their  squadrons  yet  unmov’d. 

With  hasty  ardour  thus  the  chiefs  reprov’d. — Pope. 

These  three  terms  are  all  employed  to  denote  a tem 
porary  or  partial  feeling  ; irascible,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  solely  employed  to  denote  the  temper,  and  is  applied 
to  brutes  as  well  as  men  ; ‘ We  are  here  in  the  country 
surrounded  with  blessings  and  (jleasures,  without  anv 
occasion  of  exercising  o\ir  irascible  faculties.’ — Digry 
TO  Pope. 


DISPASSIONATE,  COOL. 

Dispassionate  is  taken  negatively,  it  inaiks  merely 
the  absence  of  passion  ; cool  {v.  Cool)  is  taken  posi 
tively,  it  marks  an  entire  freedom  from  passion. 

Those  who  are  prone  to  be  passionat  < must  learn  tc 
be  dispassionate : those  who  are  of  p r.ooi  tempeip 
ment  will  not  suffer  their  nasshns  to  hr  roused 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


fassionatesoMy  respects  angry  or  irritable  sentiments; 
cool  respects  any  perturbed  feeling:  when  we  meet 
with  an  angry  disputant  it  is  necessary  to  be  dispas- 
sionate in  order  to  avoid  quarrels ; ‘ As  to  violence 
the  lady  (Madame  D’Acier)  has  infinitely  the  better  of 
the  gentleman  (M.  de  la  Motte).  Nothing  can  be  more 
polite,  dispassionate,  or  sensible,  than  his  manner  of 
managing  the  dispute.’ — Pope.  In  the  moment  of 
danger  our  safety  often  depends  upon  our  coolness ; 
‘ I conceived  this  poem,  and  gave  loose  to  a degree  of 
resentment,  which  perhaps  I ought  not  to  have  in- 
dulged, but,  which  in  a cooler  hour  I cannot  altogether 
condemn.’ — Cowper. 


TO  DISAPPROVE,  DISLIKE. 

To  disapprove  is  not  to  approve,  or  to  think  not 
good  ; to  dislike  is  not  to  like,  or  to  find  unlike  or  un- 
suitable to  one’s  wishes. 

Disapprove  is  an  act  of  the  judgement ; dislike  \s 
an  act  of  the  will.  To  approve  or  disapprove  is  pecu- 
liarly the  part  of  a superiour,  or  one  who  determines 
the  conduct  of  others  ; to  dislike  is  altogether  a per- 
sonal act,  in  which  the  feelings  of  the  individual  are 
consulted.  It  is  a misuse  of  the  judgement  to  disap- 
prove where  we  need  only  dislike ; ‘The  poem  (Sam- 
son Agonistes)  has  a beginning  and  an  end,  which 
Aristotle  himself  could  not  have  disapproved,  but  it 
must  be  allowed  to  want  a middle.’ — Johnson.  It  is 
a perversion  of  the  judgement  to  disapprove,  because 
we  dislike;  ‘The man  of  peace  will  bear  with  many 
whose  opinions  or  practices  he  dislikes,  without  an 
open  and  violent  rupture.’ — Blair. 


DISGUST,  LOATHING,  NAUSEA. 

Disgust  has  the  same  signification  as  given  under 
the  head  of  Dislike,  Displeasure,  ; loathing  sig- 
nifies the  propensity  to  loathe  an  object;  nausea,  in 
Latin  nausea,  from  the  Greek  i/aCs  a ship,  properly  de- 
notes sea  sickness. 

Disgust  is  less  than  loathing,  and  that  than  nausea. 
When  applied  to  sensible  objects  we  are  disgusted 
with  dirt ; we  loathe  the  smell  of  food  if  we  have  a 
sickly  appetite  ; we  nauseate  medicine  ; and  when 
applied  metaphorically,  v.'e  are  disgusted  with  affecta- 
tion ; ‘ An  enumeraiion  of  e.\amples  to  prove  a posi- 
tion which  nobody  denied,  as  it  was  from  the  begin- 
ning superfluous,  must  quickly  grow  disgusting.' — 
Johnson.  We  loathe  the  endearments  of  those  who 
are  ofiensive ; 

Thus  winter  falls, 

A heavy  gloom  oppressive  o’er  the  world, 

Through  nature’s  shedding  influence  malign. 

The  soul  of  man  dies  in  hun,  loathing  life. 

Thomson. 

We  nauseate  all  the  enjoyments  of  life,  after  having 
made  an  intemperate  use  of  them,  and  discovered  their 
inanity ; 

Th’  irresoluble  oil. 

So  gentle  late  and  blandishing,  in  floods 
Of  rancid  bile  o’erflows  : what  tumults  hence, 
What  horrors  rise,  were  nauseousdo  relate. 

Armstrong. 


OFFENCE,  TRESPASS,  TRANSGRESSION, 
MISDEMEANOUR,  MISDEED,  AFFRONT. 

Offence  is  here  the  general  term,  signifying  merely 
the  act  that  offends,  or  runs  counter  to  something  else. 

Offence  is  properly  indefinite  ; it  merely  implies  an 
object  without  the  least  signification  of  the  nature  of 
the  object;  trespass  and  transgression  have  a positive 
reference  to  an  object  trespassed  upon  or  transgress- 
ed ; trespass  is  contracted  from  trans  and  pass  that  is 
a passing  beyond  ; and  transgress  from  trans  and 
gressus  a going  beyond.  The  offence  therefore  which 
constitutes  a trespass  arises  out  of  the  laws  of  pro- 
perty ; a passing  over  or  treading  upon  the  property  of 
another  is  a trespass : the  offence  which  constitutes  a 
transgression  flows  out  of  the  laws  of  society  in  gene- 
ral which  fix  the  boundaries  of  right  and  wrong  ; who- 
ever therefore  goes  beyond  or  breaks  through  these 
Doiinds  i.«  auillv  of  a transgression.  The  trespass  is 


a species  of  offence  whien  peculiarly  applies  to  tn« 
land  or  premises  of  individuals ; transgression  is  8 
species  of  moral  as  well  as  political  evil.  Hunters  are 
apt  to  commit  trespasses  in  the  eagerne.=sof  their  pur- 
suit ; the  passions  of  men  are  perpetually  mislead 
ing  them,  and  causing  them  to  commit  various  trans 
gressions  ; the  term  trespass  is  sometimes  employed 
improperly  as  respects  time  and  other  objects ; tranS' 
gression  is  always  used  in  one  uniform  sense  as  re- 
spects rule  and  law ; we  trespass  upon  the  time  oe 
patience  of  another ; 

Forgive  the  barbarous  trespass  of  my  tongue. 

Otwas 

We  transgress  the  moral  or  civil  law ; 

To  whom  with  stern  regard  thus  Gabriel  spake  : 

Why  hast  thou,  Satan,  broke  the  bounus  prescrib’d 

To  thy  transgressions  7 — Milton. 

The  offence  is  either  publick  or  private ; the  misda 
meanour  is  properly  a private  offence,  although  impro 
perly  applied  for  an  offence  against  publick  law;  the 
misdemeanour  signifies  the  wrong  demeanour  or  an 
offence  in  one’s  demeanour  against  propriety  ; ‘ Smaller 
faults  in  violation  of  a publick  law  are  comprised  under 
the  name  of  misdemeanour.' — Blackstone.  The  mis- 
deed is  always  private,  it  signifies  a wrong  deed,  or  a 
deed  which  offends  against  one’s  duty.  Riotous  and 
disorderly  behaviour  in  company  are  serious  misde- 
meanours ; every  act  of  drunkenness,  lying,  fraud, 
or  immorality  of  every  kind,  are  misdeeds  ; 

Fierce  famine  is  your  lot,  for  this  misdeed. 

Reduc’d  to  grind  the  plates  on  which  you  feed. 

Dryden 

The  offence  is  that  which  affects  persons  or  princi 
pies,  communities  or  individuals,  and  is  committed 
either  directly  or  indirectly  against  the  person  ; ‘ Slight 
provocations  and  frivolous  offences  are  the  most  fre- 
quent causes  of  disquiet.’ — Blair.  An  affront  is  alto- 
gether personal  and  directly  brought  to  bear  against 
the  front  of  the  particular  person ; ‘ God  may  some 
time  or  other  think  it  the  concern  of  his  justice  and 
providence  too  to  revenge  the  affronts  put  upon  the 
laws  of  man.’ — South.  It  is  an  offence  against  an- 
other to  speak  disrespectfully  of  him  in  his  absence  ; 
it  is  an  affa-ont  to  push  past  him  with  violence  and 
rudeness. 

Offences  are  against  either  God  or  man  ; the  tres- 
pass is  always  an  offence  against  man ; the  transgres- 
sion is  against  the  will  of  God  or  the  laws  of  men  ; 
the  misdemeanour  is  more  particularly  against  the 
established  order  of  society ; the  misdeed  is  an  offence 
against  the  Divine  Law ; the  affront  is  an  ^cnct 
against  good  manners. 


OFFENDER,  DELINOUENT. 

The  offender  is  he  who  offends  in  any  thing,  either 
by  commission  or  omission ; ‘ When  any  offender  is 
presented  into  any  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts  he  is 
cited  to  appear  there.’ — Beveridge.  The  delinquent, 
from  ddinquo  to  fail,  signifies  properly  he  who  fails  by 
omission,  but  the  term  delinquency  is  extended  to  a 
failure  by  the  violation  of  a law;  ‘The  killing  of  a 
deeror  boar,  or  even  a hare,  was  punished  with  the 
loss  of  the  delinquent's  eyes.’ — Hume.  Those  who  go 
into  a wrong  place  are  offenders;  those  who  stay 
away  when  they  ought  to  go  are  delinquents : there 
are  many  offenders  against  the  Sabbath  who  commit 
violent  and  open  breaches  of  decorum  ; there  are  still 
more  delinquents  who  never  attend  a publick  place  of 
worship. 

OFFENDING,  OFFENSIVE. 

Offending  signifies  either  actually  offending  or  cai 
culated  to  offend;  offensive  signifies  calculated  to 
offend  at  all  times ; a person  may  be  offending  in  hia 
manners  to  a particular  individual,  or  use  an  offending 
expression  on  a particular  occasion  without  any  impa 
tation  on  his  character  ; 

And  tho’  th’  offending  part  felt  mortal  pain, 

Th’  immortal  part  its  knowledge  did  retain. 

Deniiak. 

If  a person’s  maniiers  are  offensive,  it  reflects  both 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


-12: 


nis  tempnr  and  education ; ‘ Gentleness  corrects  what- 
ever is  offensive  in  our  manners.’ — Blair. 

UNOFFENDING,  INOFFENSIVE,  HARMLESS. 

Unoffending  denotes  the  act  of  not  offending  ; in- 
offensive the  property  of  not  being  disposed  or  apt  to 
oft'end ; harmless,  the  property  of  being  void  of  harm. 
Unoffending  expresses  therefore  only  a partial  state  ; 
inoffensive  and  harmless  mark  the  disposition  and  cha- 
racter. A child  is  unoffending  as  long  as  he  does  no- 
thing to  offend  others  ; but  he  may  be  offensive  if  he 
discover  an  unamiable  temper,  or  has  unpleasant  man- 
ners ; ‘ The  unoffending  royal  little  ones  (of  France) 
were  not  only  condemned  to  languish  in  solitude  an(i 
darkness,  but  their  bodies  left  to  perish  with  disease.’ — 
Seward.  A creature  is  inoffensive  that  has  nothing 
in  itself  that  can  offend ; 

For  drink,  the  grape 

She  crushes,  inoffensive  must. — Milton. 

That  is  harmless  which  has  neither  the  will  noi  the 
power  to  harm;  ‘When  the  disciple  is  questioned 
about  the  studies  of  his  master,  he  makes  report  of 
some  minute  and  frivolous  researches  which  are  intro- 
duced only  for  the  purpose  of  raising  a harmless  laugh.’ 
— Cumberland.  Domeslick  animals  are  frequently 
very  inoffensive;  it  is  a great  recommendation  of  a 
ouack  medicine  to  say  that  it  is  harmless- 

INDIGNITY,  INSULT. 

The  indignity,  from  the  Latin  dignus  worthy,  signi- 
fying unworthy  treatment,  respects  the  feeling  and 
condition  of  the  person  offended : the  insult  {v.  .Af- 
front) respects  the  temper  of  the  offending  party.  We 
measure  the  indignity  in  our  own  mind ; it  depends 
upon  the  consciousness  we  have  of  our  own  worth : 
we  measure  the  insult  by  the  disposition  which  is  dis- 
covered in  another  to  degrade  us.  Persons  in  high 
stations  are  peculiarly  exposed  to  indignities  : persons 
in  every  station  may  be  exposed  to  insults.  The  royal 
family  of  France  suffered  every  indignity  which  vul- 
gar rage  could  devise ; ‘ The  two  caziques  made  Mon- 
tezumas’  officers  prisoners,  and  treated  them  with 
great  indignity.' — Robertson.  Whenever  people 
harbour  animosities  towards  each  other,  they  are  apt 
to  discover  them  by  offering  insults  when  they  hav  ethe 
opportunity;  ‘Narvaez  having  learned  that  Cortez 
was  now  advanced  with  a small  body  of  men,  consi- 
dered this  as  an  insult  which  merited  immediate  chas- 
tisement.’— Robertson.  Indignities  may  however 
be  offered  to  persons  of  all  ranks;  but  in  this  case  it 
always  consists  of  more  violence  than  a simple  insult ; 
it  would  be  an  indignity  to  a person  of  any  rank  to  be 
compelled  to  do  any  office  which  belongs  only  to  a 
beast  of  burden. 

Tt  would  be  an  indignity  to  a female  of  any  station 
to  be  compelled  to  ex|)ose  her  person  ; on  the  other 
hand,  an  insult  does  not  extend  beyond  an  abusive 
expression,  a triumphant  contemptuous  look,  or  any 
breach  of  courtesy. 


AFFRONT,  INSULT,  OUTRAGE. 

.Affront,  in  French  affronte,  from  the  Latin  ad  and 
frons,  the  forehead,  signifies  flying  in  the  face  of  a 
person ; insult,  in  French  insulte,  comes  from  the 
Latin  insulto  to  dance  or  leap  upon.  The  former  of 
these  actions  marks  defiance,  the  latter  scorn  and  tri- 
umph ; outrage  is  compounded  of  out  or  utter  and 
rage  or  violence,  signifying  an  act  of  extreme  violence. 

An  affront  is  a mark  of  reproach  shown  in  the  pre- 
sence of  others  ; it  piques  and  mortifies;  an  insult  is 
an  attack  made  with  insolence;  it  irritates  and  pro- 
vokes : an  outrage  combines  all  that  is  offensive ; it 
wounds  and  injures.  An  intentional  breach  of  polite 
ness,  or  a want  of  respect  where  it  is  due,  is  an 
affront ; ‘ The  person  thus  conducted,  who  was  Han- 
nibal, seemed  much  disturbed,  and  could  not  forbear 
complaining  to  the  board  of  the  affronts  he  had  met 
with  among  the  Roman  historians.’ — Addison.  An 
express  mark  of  disrespect,  particularly  if  coupled  with 
any  external  indication  of  hostility,  is  an  insult;  ‘ It 
maj  very  reasonably  be  expected  that  the  old  draw 
upon  themselves  the  greate.st  part  of  those  insults 
which  they  ss  much  lament  and  that  age  is  rarely 


despised  but  when  it  is  contemptible.’— Johnson 
When  the  insult  breaks  forth  into  personal  violence  it 
is  an  outrage ; ‘ This  is  the  round  of  a passionate 
man’s  life ; he  contracts  debts  when  he  is  furious, 
which  his  virtue,  if  he  has  virtue,  obliges  him  to  dis- 
charge at  the  return  of  reason.  He  spends  his  time  in 
outrage  and  reparation.’ — Johnson. 

Captious  jieople  construe  every  innocent  freedom 
into  an  affront.  Wlien  people  are  in  a state  of  ani- 
mosity, they  seek  opportunities  of  offering  each  other 
insults.  Intoxication  or  violent  passion  impel  men  to 
the  commission  of  outrages. 

TO  AGGRAVATE,  IRRITATE,  PROVOKE, 
EXASPERATE,  TANTALIZE. 

.Aggravate,  in  Latin  aggravotus,  participle  of  ag 
gravo,  compounded  of  the  intensive  syllable  ag  or  ad 
and  gravo  to  make  heavy,  signifies  to  make  very  lieavy ; 
irritate,  in  Latin  irritatus,  participle  of  irrito,  which 
is  a frequentative  from  rra,  signifies  to  excite  anger; 
provoke,  in  French  provoquer,  Latin  provout,  com- 
pounded of  pro  forth,  and  voco  to  call,  signifies  to 
challenge  or  defy ; exasperate,  Latin  exasperutus, 
participle  of  exaspero,  is  compounded  of  the  intensive 
syllable  ex  and  asper  rough,  signifying  to  make  things 
exceedingly  rough,  tantalize,  in  French  tantaliser, 
Greek  ravraM^o),  comes  from  Tantalus,  a king  of 
Phrygia,  who,  having  offended  the  gods,  was  destined 
by  way  of  punishment  to  stand  up  to  his  chin  in  water 
with  a tree  of  fair  fruit  hanging  over  his  head,  both 
of  which,  as  he  attempted  to  allay  his  hunger  and 
thirst,  fled  from  his  touch;  whence  to  tantalize  signi- 
fies to  vex  by  e.xciting  false  expectations. 

All  these  words,  except  the  first,  refer  to  the  feelings 
of  the  mind,  and  in  familiar  discourse  that  also  bears 
the  same  signification  ; but  otherwise  respects  the  out 
ward  circumstances. 

The  crime  of  robbery  is  aggravated  by  any  circuni 
stances  of  cruelty  ; whatever  comes  across  the  feelings 
irritates;  whatever  awakens  anger  pr-ono/re.s ; what 
ever  heightens  this  anger  extraordinarily  exasperates ; 
whatever  raises  hopes  in  order  to  frustrate  them  tanta 
lizes. 

An  appearance  of  unconcern  for  the  offence  and  its 
consequences  aggravates  the  guilt  of  the  offender; 

‘ As  if  nature  had  not  sown  evils  enough  in  life,  wo 
are  continually  adding  grief  to  grief,  and  aggravating 
the  common  calamity  by  our  cruel  treatment  ol  one 
another.’ — Addison.  A grating  harsh  sound  irritates 
if  long  continued  and  often  repeated ; so  also  reproaches 
and  unkind  treatment  irritate  the  mind ; ‘ He  irritated 
many  of  his  friends  in  London  so  much  by  his  letters, 
that  they  withdrew  their  contributions.’ — Johnson 
{TAfe  of  Savage).  Angry  words  provoke,  particularly 
when  spoken  with  an  air  of  defiance;  ‘ The  animad- 
versions of  criticks  are  commonly  such  as  may  easily 
provoke  the  sedatest  writer  to  some  quickness  of 
resentment.’ — Johnson.  When  provocations  become 
multiplied  and  varied  they  exasperate;  ‘Opposition 
retards,  censure  exasperates,  or  neglect  depresses.’ — 
Johnson.  The  weather  by  its  frequent  changes  tan- 
talizes those  who  depend  upon  it  for  amusement; 

‘ Can  we  think  that  religion  was  designed  only  for  a 
contradiction  to  nature;  and  with  the  greate.st  and 
most  irrational  tyranny  in  the  world  to  tantalize  ?’ — 
South. 

Wicked  people  aggravate  their  transgressions  by 
violence : susceptible  and  nervous  people  are  most 
easily  irritated;  proud  people  are  (\u\ck\y  provoked  ; 
hot  and  fiery  people  are  soonest  exasperated:  those 
who  wish  for  much,  and  wish  for  it  eagerly,  are 
oftenest  tantalized 


TO  TEASE,  VEX,  TAUNT,  TANTALIZE, 
TORMENT. 

Tease  is  most  probably  a frequentative  of  tear  ; vex 
has  the  same  sigrjfication  as  given  under  the  head  of 
displease:  taunt  is  probably  contracted  from  tantalize, 
the  original  meaning  of  which  is  explained  in  the  pre- 
ceding article ; torment,  from  the  Latin  tormentum 
and  torqueo  to  twist,  signifies  to  give  pain  by  twisting, 
or  griping.  The  idea  of  acting  upon  others  so  as  to 
produce  a painful  sentiment  is  common  to  all  the.?e 
terms ; they  differ  in  the  mode  of  the  action,  and 
the  degree  of  the  efftr-t 


122 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


A.l  these  actions  rise  in  imiiortance ; to  tease  con- 
sists in  that  which  is  most  trifling  ; to  torment  in  that 
which  is  most  serious.  VVe  are  teased  by  a fly  that 
buzzes  in  our  ears;  we  are  vexed  hy  the  carelessness 
and  stupidity  of  our  servants;  we  are  taunted  by  the 
sarcasms  of  others ; we  are  tantalized  by  tlie  fair 
prospects  which  only  present  themselves  to  disappear 
again ; we  are  tormented  by  the  importunities  of 
troublesome  beggars.  It  is  the  repetition  of  unpleasant 
•rifles  which  teases;  ‘Louisa  began  to  take  a little 
mischievous  pleasure  in  teasing.' — Cumberland.  It 
li  the  crossness  and  perversity  of  things  which  vex  ; 

Still  may  the  dog  the  vvand’ring  troops  constrain 

Of  airy  ghosts,  and  vex  the  guilty  train. — Dryden. 
in  this  sense  things  may  be  said  figuratively  to  be 
vexed  ; 

And  sharpen’d  shares  shall  vex  the  fruitful  ground, 

Dryden. 

It  is  contemptuous  and  provoking  behaviour  which 
taunts , 

Sharp  was  his  voice,  which  in  the  shrillest  tone, 

Thus  with  injurious  taunts  attack  the  throne. 

. Pope. 

It  is  the  disappointment  of  awakened  expectations 
which  tantalizes;  ‘When  the  maid  (in  Sparta)  was 
once  sped,  she  was  not  suftered  to  tantalize  the  male 
part  of  the  commonwealth.’ — Addison.  It  is  the  repe- 
tition of  grievous  troubles  which  torments;  ‘Truth 
exerting  itself  in  the  searching  precepts  of  self-denial 
and  mortification  is  tormenting  to  vicious  minds.’ — 
South.  We  may  be  teased  and  tormented  by  that 
wJiich  produces  bodily  or  mental  pain;  we  are  vexed., 
taunted.,  and  tantalized  only  in  the  mind.  Irritable 
and  nervous  people  are  most  easily  teased;  captious 
and  fretful  people  are  most  easily  vexed  or  taunted; 
sanguine  and  eager  people  are  most  easily  tantalized: 
in  all  these  cases  the  imagination  or  the  bodily  state 
of  the  individual  serves  to  increase  the  pain  : but  per- 
sons are  tormented  by  such  things  as  inflict  positive 
•■ain. 


VEXATION,  MORTIFICATION,  CHAGRIN. 

Vexation,  signifies  either  llieactof  vexing,  or  the  feel- 
ing of  being  vexed;  mortification,  the  act  of  mortify- 
ing, or  tiie  feeiing  of  being  mortified ; chagrin,  in 
French  chagrin,  from  a/orir,  and  the  Latin  acer  sharp, 
signifies  a sharp  feeling. 

Vexation  springs  from  a variety  of  causes,  acting 
unpleasantly  on  the  inclinations  or  passions  of  men  ; 
mortification  is  a strong  degree  of  vexation,  which 
arises  from  particular  circumstances  acting  on  parti- 
cular passions ; the  loss  of  a day’s  pleasure  is  a vexa- 
tion to  one  who  is  eager  for  pleasure;  the  loss  of  a 
prize,  or  the  circumstance  of  coming  into  disgrace 
where  we  expected  honour,  is  a mortification  to  an 
ambitious  person.  Vexation  arises  principally  from 
our  wishes  and  views  being  crossed  ; mortification, 
from  our  pride  and  self-importance  being  hurt;  chagrin, 
from  a mixture  of  the  two  ; disappointments  are  always 
attended  with  more  or  less  of  vexation,  according  to 
the  circumstances  which  give  pain  and  trouble;  ‘Po- 
verty is  an  evil  complicated  with  so  many  circum- 
stances of  uneasiness  and  vexation,  that  every  man  is 
studious  to  avoid  it.’ — Johnson.  An  exposure  of  our 
poverty  may  be  more  or  less  of  a mortification,  accord- 
ing to  the  value  which  we  set  on  wealth  and  gran- 
deur ; ‘ I am  mortified  by  those  compliments  which 
were  designed  to  encourage  me.’ — Pope.  A refusal  of 
a request  will  produce  more  or  less  of  chagrin  as  it  is 
accompanied  with  circumstances  more  or  less  mortify- 
ing to  our  pride  ; ‘ It  was  your  purpose  to  balance  my 
chagrin  at  the  inconsiderable  effect  of  that  essay,  by 
representing  that  it  obtained  some  notice.’ — Hill. 

CRIME,  MISDEMEANOUR. 

Crime  (v.  Crime)  is  to  misdemeanour  {v.  Offence), 
as  the  genus  to  the  species:  a misdemeanour  is  in  the 
technical  sense  a minor  crime.  Housebreaking  is 
under  all  circumstances  a crime ; but  shoplifting  or 
pilfering  amounts  only  to  a misdemeanour. 

Corporeal  punishments  are  most  commonly  annc.xed 
lo  crimes ; pecuniary  punishments  frequently  to  mrs- 
demeanours.  In  the  vulgar  use  of  tht'se  terms,  mis- 


demeanour is  moreover  distinguished  fiona  crime,  by 
not  always  signifying  a violation  of  publick  law,  but 
only  of  private  morals;  in  which  sense  the  term  crime 
implies  what  is  done  against  the  stale ; 

No  crime  of  thine  our  present  sufferings  draws. 

Not  thou,  but  Heav’n’s  disposing  will  the  cause 

Pope. 

The  misdemeanour  is  that  which  offends  individuals 
or  small  communities ; ‘ I mention  this  for  the  sake  of 
several  rural  squires,  whose  reading  does  not  rise  so 
high  as  to  “the  present  state  of  England,”  and  whe; 
are  often  apt  to  usurp  that  precedency  which  by  the 
laws  of  their  country  is  not  due  to  them.  Their  want 
of  learning,  which  has  planted  them  in  this  station 
may  in  some  measure  excuse  their  misdemeanour.' — 
Addison. 

CRIME,  VICE,  SIN. 

Crime,  in  Latin  crimen,  Greek  Kpifza,  signifies  <t 
judgement,  sentence,  or  punishment ; also  the  cause  ol 
the  sentence  or  punishment,  in  which  latter  sense  it  is 
here  taken  : vice,  in  Latin  vitium,  from  vito  to  avoid, 
signifies  that  which  ought  to  be  avoided : sin,  in  Saxon 
synne,  Swedish  synd,  German  sunde,  old  German 
sunta,  sunto,  &:c.  Latin  sontes,  Greek  alvTrjg,  from  aivai 
to  hurt,  signifies  the  thing  that  hurts : sin  being  of  all 
things  the  most  hurtful. 

A crime  is  a social  offence ; a vice  is  a personal 
offence:  every  action  which  does  injury  to  others, 
either  individually  or  collectively,  is  a crime;  that 
which  does  injury  to  ourselves  is  a vice. 

A crime  consists  in  the  violation  of  human  laws ; 
‘ The  most  ignorant  heathen  knows  and  feels  that, 
when  he  has  committed  an  unjust  and  cruel  action,  he 
has  committed  a criw/e  and  deserves  punishment.’ — 
Blair.  Vice  consists  in  the  violation  of  the  moral 
law;  ‘If  a man  makes  his  uices  publick,  though  they 
be  such  as  seem  principally  to  affecH  himself  (as  drunk- 
enness or  the  like),  they  then  become,  by  the  bad  ex- 
ample they  set,  of  pernicious  effects  to  society.’ — 
Blackstone.  Sin  consists  in  the  violation  of  the  Di- 
vine law;  ‘Every  single  gross  act  of  sm  is  much  the 
same  thing  to  the  conscience  that  a great  blow  or  fall 
is  to  the  head  ; it  stuns  and  bereaves  it  of  all  use  of 
its  censes  for  a time.’ — South.  Sin,  therefore,  com 
prebends  both  crime  and  vice  ; but  there  are  many  sins 
which  are  not  crimes  nor  vices  : crimes  are  tried  before 
a human  court,  and  punished  agreeably  to  the  sentence 
of  the  judge:  m'ces  and  sh)^  are  brought  before  the 
tribunal  of  the  conscience  ; the  former  are  punished  in 
this  world,  the  latter  will  be  punished  in  the  world  to 
come,  by  tire  sentence  of  the  Almighty : treason  is  one 
of  the  most  atrocious  crimes:  drunkenness  one  of  the 
most  dreadful  vices;  religious  hypocrisy  one  of  the  most 
heinous  sins. 

Crimes  cannot  be  atoned  for  by  repentance;  society 
demands  retiaration  for  the  injury  committed:  vices 
continue  to  punish  the  offender  as  long  as  they  arc  che- 
rished: sins  are  pardoned  through  the  atonement  and 
mediation  of  our  blessed  Redeemer,  on  the  simple  con 
dition  of  sincere  repentance.  Crimes  and  vices  disturb 
the  peace  and  good  order  of  society,  they  affect  men’s 
earthly  hap[)iness  only  ; sin  destroys  the  soul,  both  foi 
this  world  and  the  world  to  come:  crimes  sometimes 
go  unpunished  ; but  sin  carries  its  own  punishment 
with  it ; murderers  who  esca[)e  the  punishment  due  to 
their  crimes  commonly  sufler  the  torments  which  at- 
tend the  commission  of  such  flagrant  sms.  Crimes  are 
particular  acts;  vices  are  habitual  acts  of  commission; 
sins  are  acts  of  commission  or  omission,  habitual  or 
particular:  personal  security,  respect  for  the  laws,  and 
regard  forone’s  moral  character,  operate  to  prevent  the 
commission  of  crimes  or  vices ; the  fear  of  God  detera 
from  the  commission  of  sin. 

A crime  always  involves  a violation  of  a law ; a vice, 
whether  in  conduct  or  disposition,  always  diminisbw* 
moral  e.xcellence  and  involves  guilt;  a sin  always  sup- 
poses some  perversity  of  will  in  an  accountable  agent 
Children  may  commit  crimes,  but  we  may  trust  that 
in  the  divine  mercy  they  will  not  all  be  imputed  to  them 
as  sins.  Of  vices,  however,  as  they  are  habitual,  we 
have  no  right  to  suppose  that  any  exception  will  be 
made  in  the  account  of  our  sins. 

Crimes  vary  with  times  and  countries ; vices  may  be 
more  or  less  pernicious;  but  sin  is  as  unchangeable  in 
its  nature  as  the  Bei<Tg  whom  it  ofiends.  Smuggling 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  .i23 


4na  forgery  5,je  crimes  in  England,  which  in  other 
countries  are  citlier  not  known  or  not  regarded ; the 
vice  of  gliit.ony  is  not  so  dreadful  as  that  of  drunken- 
ness ; every  sin  as  an  offence  against  an  infinitely  good 
and  wise  Being,  must  always  bear  the  same  stamp  of 
guilt  and  enormity. 

By  the  affectation  of  some  writers  in  modern  times, 
the  word  crime  has  been  used  in  the  singular  to  denote, 
in  the  abstract  sense,  a course  of  criminal  conduct,  but 
the  innovation  is  not  warranted  by  tlie  necessity  of  the 
case,  the  word  being  used  in  the  plural  number,  in  that 
sense,  as  to  be  encouraged  in  tJie  commission  of  crimes., 
not  of  crime. 

CRIMINAL,  GUILTY. 

Criminal,  from  crime,  signifies  belonging  or  relating 
lo  a crime;  guiltij,  from  signifies  having  ; 

guilt  comes  from  the  German  gelten  to  pay,  and  gelt  a 
fine,  debt,  oi  from  guile  and  according  to  Horne 

Tooke;  '■  Guilt  \s  ge.-\\\g\eA  guiled,  guil'd,  guilt;  the 
past  participle  of  ge-wiglian  and  to  find  guilt  in  any  one, 
is  to  find  that  he  has  been  guiled,  or  as  we  now  say, 
beguiled,  as  wicked  means  witched  or  bewitched.’— 
(Diversions  of  Parley.) 

Criminal  respects  the  character  of  the  offence ; ‘ True 
modesty  avoids  everything  that  is  criminal;  false 
modesty  every  thing  that  is  unfashionable.’ — Addison. 
Guilty  respects  the  fact  of  committing  the  offence,  or 
more  properly  the  person  committing  it ; 

Guilt  hears  appall’d  with  deeply  troubled  thought ; 

And  yet  not  always  on  the  guilty  head 

Descends  the  fated  flash.— Thomson. 

The  criminality  of  a person  is  estimated  by  all  the  cir- 
cumstances of  his  conduct  which  present  themselves  to 
observation;  his  guilt  requires  to  be  proved  by  evi- 
dence. Tire  criminality  is  not  a matter  of  question, 
but  of  judgement ; the  guilt  is  often  doubtful,  if  not  po- 
sitively concealed.  'Phe  higher  the  rank  of  a person, 
the  greater  his  criminality  if  he  does  not  observe  an 
upright  and  irreproachable  conduct;  ‘If  this  perseve- 
rance in  wrong  often  appertains  to  individuals,  it  much 
more  frequently  belongs  to  publick  bodies ; in  them  the 
disgrace  of  errour,  or  even  the  criminality  of  conduct, 
belongs  to  so  many,  that  no  one  is  ashamed  of  the  part 
which  belongs  to  himself.’ — Watson.  Where  a num- 
ber of  individuals  are  concerned  in  any  unlawful  pro- 
ceeding, the  difficulty  of  attaching  the  guilt  to  the  real 
oiTender  is  greatly  increased  ; ‘ When  these  two  are 
taken  away,  the  possibility  of  guilt,  and  the  possibility 
of  innocence,  what  restraint  can  the  belief  of  the  creed 
lay  upon  any  man  V — Hammond. 

Criminality  attaches  to  the  aider,  abettor,  or  encou- 
rage! ; but  guilt,  in  the  strict  sense  only,  to  the  perpe- 
trator of  what  is  bad.  A person  may  therefore  some- 
times be  criminal  without  being  guilty.  He  who  con- 
ceals the  offences  of  another  may,  under  certain  cir- 
cumstances, be  more  criminal  than  the  guilty  person 
himself.  On  the  other  hand,  we  may  be  guilty  with- 
out being  criminal : the  latter  designates  something 
positively  bad,  but  the  former  is  qualified  by  the  object 
of  the  guilt.  Those  only  are  denominated  criminal 
who  offend  seriously,  either  against  publick  law  or  pri- 
vate morals;  but  a person  may  be  said  to  be  guilty, 
either  of  the  greatest  or  the  smallest  offences.  He  who 
contradicts  another  abruptly  in  conversation  is  guilty 
of  a breach  of  politeness,  but  he  is  not  criminal. 

Criminal  is  moreover  applied  as  an  epithet  to  the 
things  done  , guilty  is  mostly  applied  to  the  person  doing. 
We  commonly  speak  of  actions,  proceedings,  intentions, 
and  views,  as  criminal;  but  of  the  person,  the  mind, 
or  the  conscience,  as  guilty.  It  is  very  criminal  to  sow 
dissension  among  men ; although  there  are  too  many 
who  from  a busy  temper  are  guilty  of  this  oflence. 


CRIMINAL,  CULPRIT,  MALEFACTOR,  FELON, 
CONVICT. 

All  these  terms  are  employed  for  a ptiblick  offender ; 
but  the  first  conveys  no  more  than  this  general  idea  ; 
while  the  others  comprehend  some  accessory  idea  in 
their  signification  : criminal  (v.  Criminal,  Guilty)  is  a 
general  term,  and  the  rest  are  properly  species  of  cri- 
minals: culprit,  from  the  Latin  culpa,  and  pre/icnsus 
taken  in  a fault,  signifies  the  criminal  who  is  directly 
charged  with  his  offence:  malefactor,  compounded  of 
•iie  Latin  terms  male  and  factor,  signifies  an  evil-doer, 


that  is,  one  who  does  evil,  ir  distinction  from  him  who 
does  good:/cZoji,  from /cZon?/,  in  Latin /eZom'a  a capital 
crime,  comes  from  the  Greek  (pyXotcis  imposture 
because  fraud  and  villany  are  the  [trominent  features 
of  every  capital  offence:  convict,  in  Latin,  convictus, 
participle  of  convince  to  convince  or  prove,  signifies  one 
proved  or  found  guilty. 

When  we  wish  to  speak  in  general  of  those  who  by 
offences  against  the  laws  or  regulations  of  society  have 
exposed  themselves  to  punishment,  we  denominate 
them  criminals ; ‘If  I attack  the  vicious,  I shall  only 
set  upon  them  in  a body,  and  will  not  be  provoked  by 
the  worst  usage  I can  receive  from  others,  to  make  an 
example  of  any  particular  criminal.' — Addison.  When 
we  consider  persons  as  already  brought  before  a tribu 
nal,  we  call  them  culprits  ; 

The  jury  then  withdrew  a moment. 

As  if  on  weighty  points  to  comment. 

And  right  or  wrong  resolved  to  save  her, 

They  gave  a verdict  in  her  favour. 

The  cidprit  by  escape  grown  bold. 

Pilfers  alike  from  young  and  old. — Moore 
When  we  consider  men  in  regard  to  the  moral  turp< 
tude  of  their  character,  as  the  promoters  of  evil  rather 
than  of  good,  we  entitle  them  7nalef  actors  ; 

For  this  the  malefactor  goat  was  laid 

On  Bacchus’  altar,  and  his  forfeit  paid. — Dryden. 
When  we  consider  men  as  offending  by  the  grosser  vio- 
lations of  the  law,  they  are  termed  felons  ; ‘ He  (Earl 
Ferrers)  expressed  some  displeasure  at  being  executed 
as  a common  felon,  exposed  to  the  eyes  of  such  a mul- 
titude.’— Smollet.  When  weconsidermen  as  already 
under  the  sentence  of  the  law,  we  denominate  them 
convicts  ; 

Attendance  none  shall  need,  nor  train,  where  none 
Are  to  behold  the  judgement,  but  the  judged  ; 

Those  two : the  third  best  absent  is  condemn’d 
Convict  by  flight,  and  rebel  to  all  law. 

Conviction  to  the  serpent  none  belongs. — Milton 
The  punishments  inflicted  on  criminals  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  their  crimes,  and  the  spirit  of  the 
laws  by  which  they  are  judged : a guilty  conscience 
will  give  a man  the  air  of  a culprit  in  the  presence  ol 
those  who  have  not  authority  to  be  either  his  accusers 
or  judges : it  gratified  the  malice  of  the  Jews  to  cause 
our  blessed  Saviour  to  be  crucified  between  two  male- 
factors: it  is  an  important  regulation  in  the  internal 
economy  of  a prison,  to  \\a\e  felons  kept  distinct  from 
each  other,  particularly  if  their  crimes  are  of  an  atro- 
cious nature : it  has  not  unfrequently  happened,  that 
when  the  sentence  of  the  law  has  placed  convicts  in 
the  lowest  state  of  degradation,  their  characters  have 
undergone  so  entire  a reformation,  as  to  enable  them  tc 
attain  a higher  pitch  of  elevation  than  they  had  ever 
enjoyed  before. 

CULPABLE,  FAULTY. 

Culpable,  in  Latin  culpahilis,  from  culpa  a fault  or 
blame,  signifies  worthy  of  blame,  fit  to  be  blamed , 
faulty,  imm  fault,  having /aaZfs. 

We  are  culpable  from  the  commission  of  one  fault  ; 
we  axe  faulty  ^rom  the  number  of  faults:  culpable  is 
a relative  term;  faulty  is  absolute;  we  are  culpable 
with  regard  to  a superiour  whose  intentions  we  have  not 
fulfilled;  we  are  faulty  whenever  we  commit  any 
faults.  A master  pronounces  liis  servant  culpable  for 
not  having  attended  to  his  commands  ; ‘ In  the  com- 
mon business  of  life,  we  find  the  memory  of  one  like 
that  of  another,  and  honestly  impute  omissions  not  to 
involuntary  forgetfulness,  but  culpable  inattention.’ — 
Johnson.  An  indifferent  person  pronounces  another 
as  faulty  whose  faults  have  come  under  Ids  notice; 

‘ In  the  consideration  of  human  life  the  satirist  never 
falls  upon  persons  who  are  not  glaringly  faulty.' — 
Steele.  It  is  possible  therefore  to  be  faulty  without 
being  culpable,  but  not  vice  versa. 

GUILTLESS,  INNOCENT,  HARMLESS. 
Guiltless,  without  guilt,  is  more  than  innocent : in- 
nocence, from  noceo  to  hurt,  extends  no  farther  than  the 
quality  of  not  hurting  by  any  direct  act ; guiltless  com- 
prehends the  qualify  of  not  intending  to  hurt:  it  ia 
possible,  therefore,  to  be  innocent  without  being 
less,  though  not  vice ' versa  • 1 e who  wishes  Ibr  the 


12-4 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


ileatli  ot  another  is  not  guiltless,  though  he  may  be 
innocent  of  the  crime  of  murder.  Guiltless  seems  to 
regard  a man’s  general  condition  ; innocent  his  parti- 
cular condition:  no  man  is  guiltless  in  the  sight  of 
God,  for  no  man  is  exempt  from  the  guilt  of  sin ; but  he 
may  be  innocent  in  the  sight  of  men,  or  innocent  of  all 
such  intentiona  offences  as  render  him  obnoxious  to 
his  fellow-creatures.  Guiltlessness  was  that  happy 
state  of  perfection  which  men  lost  at  the  fall ; 

Ah ! why  should  all  mankind 
For  one  man’s  fault  thus  guiltless  be  condemn’d, 

If  guiltless  ? But  from  me  what  can  proceed 
But  all  corrupt  1 — Milton. 

Innocence  is  that  relative  or  comparative  state  of  per- 
fection which  is  attainable  here  on  earth : the  highest 
state  of  innocence  is  an  ignorance  of  evil ; ‘ When  Adam 
sees  the  several  changes  of  nature  about  him,  he  ap- 
pears in  a disorder  of  mind  suitable  to  one  who  had 
forfeited  both  his  innocence  and  his  happiness.’ — Ad- 
dison. 

Guiltless  is  in  the  proper  sense  applicable  only  to 
the  condition  of  man ; and  when  applied  to  things,  it 
still  has  a reference  to  the  person ; 

But  from  the  mountain’s  grassy  side 
A guiltless  feast  I bring ; 

A scrip  with  fruits  and  herbs  supplied. 

And  water  from  the  spring.— Goldsmith. 

Innocent  is  equally  applicable  to  persons  or  things  ; a 
person  is  innocent  who  has  not  committed  any  injury, 
or  has  not  any  direct  purpose  to  commit  an  injury;  or 
a conversation  is  innocent  which  is  free  from  what 
is  hurtful.  Innocent  and  harmless  both  recommend 
themselves  as  qualities  negatively  good;  they  desig- 
nate an  exemption  either  in  the  person  or  thing  from 
injury,  and  differ  only  in  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  in- 
jury : innocence  respects  moral  injury,  and  harmless 
physical  injury:  a person  is  innocent  who  is  free  from 
moral  impurity  and  wicked  purposes;  he  is  harmless 
if  he  have  not  the  power  or  disposition  to  commit  any 
violence;  a diversion  is  innocent  which  has  nothing  in 
it  likely  to  corrupt  the  morals  ; ‘ A man  should  endea- 
vour to  make  the  sphere  of  his  innocent  pleasures  as 
wide  as  possible,  that  he  may  retire  into  them  with 
safety.’ — Addison.  A game  is  harmless  which  is  not 
likely  to  inflict  any  wound,  or  endanger  the  health  ; 

Full  on  his  breast  the  Trojan  arrow  fell, 
Bniharmless  bounded  from  the  plated  steel. 

Addison. 


IMPERFECTION,  DEFECT,  FAULT,  VICE. 

Imperfection  denotes  either  the  abstract  quality  of 
imperfect,  or  the  thing  which  constitutes  it  imperfect; 
defect  signifies  tl>at  which  is  deficient  or  falls  short, 
from  the  Latin  deficio  to  fall  short ; fault,  from  fail, 
signifies  that  which  fails ; vice,  signifies  the  same  as 
explaimed  under  the  head  of  Crime. 

These  terr-S  are  applied  either  to  persons  or  things. 
An  imperfection  in  a person  arises  from  his  want  of 
perfection,  and  the  infirmity  of  his  nature;  there  is  no 
one  without  some  point  of  imperfection  which  is  ob- 
vious to  others,  if  not  to  himself : he  may  strive  to 
diminish  it,  although  he  cannot  expect  to  get  altogether 
rid  of  it : a defect  is  a deviation  from  the  general  con- 
stitution of  man ; it  is  what  may  be  natural  to  the  man 
as  an  individual,  but  not  natural  to  man  as  a species ; 
In  this  manner  we  may  speak  of  a defect  in  the  speech, 
or  a defect  in  temper.  The  fault  and  vice  rise  in  de- 
gree and  character  above  either  of  the  former  terms ; 
they  both  reflect  disgrace  more  or  less  on  the  person 
possessing  them  ; but  the  fault  always  characterizes 
the  agent,  and  is  said  in  relation  to  an  individual ; the 
vice  characterizes  the  action,  and  may  be  considered 
abstractedly  : hence  we  speak  of  a mviti's  faults  as  the 
things  we  may  condemn  in  him  ; but  we  may  spetik  of 
the  vices  of  drunkenness,  lying,  and  the  like,  without 
any  immediate  reference  to  any  one  who  practises 
these  rices.  When  they  are  both  employed  for  an  in- 
dividual, their  distinction  is  obvious : the  fault  may 
lessen  tlie  amiability  or  excellence  of  the  character; 
the  vice  is  a stain ; a single  act  destroys  its  purity,  an 
habitu  il  practice  is  a pollution. 


In  regard  to  things  the  distincticn  depends  upon  the 
preceding  explanation  in  a great  measure,  for  we  can 
scarcely  use  these  words  without  thinking  on  man  as 
a moral  agent,  who  was  made  the  most  perfect  of  all 
creatures,  and  became  the  most  imperfect ; and  from 
our  imperfection  has  arisen,  also,  a general  hnperfec- 
tion  throughout  all  the  works  of  creation.  The  word 
imperfection  is  there! jre  the  most  unqualified  term  of 
all : there  may  be  imperfection  in  regard  to  our  Maker; 
or  there  may  be  imperfection  in  regard  to  what  we 
conceive  of  perfection:  and  in  this  case  the  term 
simply  and  generally  implies  whatever  falls  short  in 
any  degree  or  manner  of  perfection;  ‘ It  is  a pleasant 
story  that  we,  forsooth,  who  are  the  only  imperfect  crea- 
tures in  the  universe,  are  the  only  beings  that  will  not 
allow  of  imperfection.' — Steele.  Defect  is  a positive 
degree  of  imperfection  : it  is  contrary  both  to  our  ideas 
of  perfection  or  our  particular  intention : thus,  there 
may  be  a defect  in  the  materials  of  which  a thing  is 
made ; or  a defect  in  the  mode  of  making  it : the  term 
defect,  however,  whether  said  of  persons  or  things, 
characterizes  rather  the  object  than  the  agent ; ‘ This 
low  race  of  men  take  a particular  pleasure  in  finding 
an  eminent  character  levelled  to  their  condition  by  a 
report  of  its  defects,  and  keep  themselves  in  counte- 
nance, though  they  are  excelled  in  a thousand  virtues, 
if  they  believe  that  they  have  in  common  with  a great 
person  any  one /awZt.’— Addison.  Fault,  on  the  other 
hand,  when  said  of  things,  always  refers  to  the  agent: 
thus  we  may  say  there  is  a defect  in  the  glass,  or  a de- 
fect in  the  spring ; but  there  is  a fault  in  the  workman 
ship,  or  a fault  in  the  putting  together,  and  the  like 
Vice,  with  regard  to  things,  is  properly  a serious  ot 
radical  defect;  the  former  lies  in  the  constitution  of 
the  whole,  the  latter  may  lie  in  the  parts  ; the  former 
lies  in  essentials,  the  latter  lies  in  the  accidents;  there 
may  be  a defect  in  the  shape  or  make  of  a horse ; bu 
the  vice  is  said  in  regard  to  his  soiuidness  or  unsc  inc- 
ness,  his  docility  or  indocility ; ‘ I did  myself  the  honour 
this  day  to  make  a visit  to  a lady  of  quality,  who  is 
one  of  those  who  are  ever  railing  at  the  vices  of  the 
age.’— Steele. 


IMPERFECTION,  WEAKNESS,  FRAILTY, 
FAILING,  FOIBLE. 

Imperfection  (v.  Imperfection)  has  already  been  con 
sidered  as  that  which  in  the  most  extended  sense 
abridges  the  moral  perfection  of  man  ; the  rest  are  but 
modes  of  imperfection,  varying  in  degree  and  circum- 
stances ; ‘ You  live  in  a reign  of  human  infirmity, 
w’here  every  one  has  imperfections.' — Blair.  fVeak 
ness  is  a positive  and  strong  degree  of  imperfection, 
which  is  opposed  to  strength ; it  is  what  we  do  not  so 
necessarily  look  for,  and  therefore  distinguishes  the  in- 
dividual who  is  liable  to  it;  ‘The  folly  of  allrwing 
ourselves  to  delay  what  we  know  cannot  finally  be 
escaped,  is  one  of  the  general  weaknesses  which,  to  a 
greater  or  less  degree,  prevail  in  every  mind.’ — John- 
son. Frailty  is  another  strong  mode  of  imperfection 
which  characterizes  the  fragility  of  man,  but  not  of  all 
men;  it  differs  from  weakness  in  respect  to  the  object. 
A weakness  lies  more  in  the  judgement  or  in  the  senti 
ment ; /raiZfy  lies  more  in  the  moral  features  of  an 
action ; ‘ There  are  circumstances  which  every  man 
must  know  will  prove  the  occasions  of  calling  forth 
his  latent  frailties.' — Blair.  It  is  a weakness  in  a 
man  to  yield  to  the  persuasions  of  any  one  against  his 
better  judgement;  it  is  a frailty  to  yield  to  intemper 
ance  or  illicit  indulgences.  Failings  and  foibles  ar¥ 
the  smallest  degrees  ol  imperfection  to  which  the 
human  character  is  liable:  we  have  all  our  failings  io 
temper,  and  our  foibles  in  our  habits  and  our  prepos 
sessions ; and  he,  as  Horace  observes,  is  the  best  who 
has  the  fewest ; ‘ Never  allow  small  failings  to  dwell 
on  your  attention  so  much  as  to  deface  the  whole  of  an 
amiable  character.’ — Blair.  ‘ Witty  men  have  some- 
times sense  enough  to  know  their  own  foibles,  and 
therefore  they  craftily  shun  the  attacks  of  an  argu- 
ment.’— Watts.  For  our  imperfections  we  must  seek 
superiour  aid  : we  must  be  most  on  our  guard  against 
those  weaknesses  to  which  the  softness  or  susceptibility 
of  our  minds  may  most  expose  us,  and  against  thoso 
frailties  into  which  the  violence  of  our  evil  paswons 
may  bring  us : toward  the  failings  and  foibles  of 
others  we  may  be  indulgent,  but  should  be  ambitious 
to  correct  them  in  ourselv 


ENGLISH  SYNON^MES. 


. 12a 


•JO  FAIL;  FALL  SHORT,  BE  DEFICIENT. 

Fail,  in  Ttench  faillir,  German,  &.c.fehlen,  like  the 
word  fall,  cornu's  from  the  Latin  fallo  to  deceive,  and 
the  Hebrew  *73  to  fall  or  decay. 

To  fail  marks  the  result  of  actions  or  efforts;  a per- 
son fails  in  his  undertaking : fall  short  designates 
either  the  result  of  actions,  or  the  state  of  things ; a 
person/afZs  short  in  his  calculation,  or  in  his  account  ; 
the  issue  falls  short  of  the  expectation  : to  be  deficient 
marks  only  the  state  or  quality  of  objects ; a person  is 
deficient  in  good  manners.  People  frequently /at'/  in 
their  best  endeavours  for  want  of  knowing  how  to 
apply  their  abilities ; ‘ I would  not  willingly  laugh  but 
to  instruct ; or,  if  I sometimes  fail  in  this  point,  when 
my  nurth  ceases  to  be  instructive,  it  shall  never  cease 
to  be  innocent.’ — Addison.  When  our  expectations 
are  immoderate,  it  is  not  surprising  if  our  success /aWs 
short  of  our  hopes  and  wishes;  ‘ There  is  not  in  my 
opinion  any  thing  more  mysterious  in  nature  than  this 
instinct  in  animals,  which  thus  rises  above  reason, 
and  falls  infinitely  short  of  it.’ — Addison.  There  is 
nothing  in  which  people  discover  themselves  to  be 
more  deficient  than  in  keeping  ordinary  engagements ; 
While  all  creation  speaks  the  pow’r  divine, 

Is  it  dejicient  in  the  main  design  1 — Jenyns. 

To  fail  and  be  deficient  are  both  applicable  to  the 
characters  of  men ; but  the  former  is  mostly  employed 
for  the  moral  conduct,  the  latter  for  the  outward  beha- 
viour: hence  a man  is  said  lo  fail  in  his  duty,  in  the 
discharge  of  his  obligations,  in  the  performance  of  a 
promise,  and  the  like  ; but  to  be  deficient  in  politeness, 
in  attention  to  his  friends,  in  his  address,  in  his  manner 
of  entering  a room  and  tlie  like. 


FAILURE,  FAILING. 

The  failure  (w.  To  fail)  bespeaks  the  action,  or  the 
result  of  the  action ; the  failing  is  the  habit,  or  the 
habitual  failure  : the  failure  is  said  of  one’s  under- 
takings, or  in  any  point  generally  in  which  one  fails ; 
‘ Though  some  violations  of  the  petition  of  rights  may 
perhaps  be  imputed  to  him  (Charles  I.),  these  are  more 
to  be  ascribed  to  the  necessity  of  his  situation,  than  to 
any  failure  in  the  integrity  of  his  principles.’ — Hume. 
The  failing  is  said  of  one’s  moral  character  ; ‘ There 
IS  scarcely  any  failing  of  mind  or  body,  which  instead 
of  producing  shame  and  discontent,  its  natural  effects, 
has  not  one  time  or  other  gladdened  vanity  with  the 
hope  of  praise.’ — Johnson.  The  failure  is  opposed  to 
the  success;  the  failing  lo  the  perfection.  The  mer- 
chant must  be  prepared  tor  failures  in  his  speculations ; 
the  statesman  foi  failures  in  his  projects,  the  result  of 
which  depends  upon  contingencies  that  are  above 
human  control.  With  our  failings,  however,  it  is 
somewhat  different ; we  must  never  rest  satisfied  that 
we  are  without  them,  nor  contented  with  the  mere 
consciousness  that  we  have  them. 


FAILURE,  MISCARRIAGE,  ABORTION 

Failure  (v.  To  fail)  has  always  a reference  to  the 
agent  and  his  design  ; miscarriage,  that  is,  the  carrying 
or  going  wrong,  is  applicable  to  all  sublunary  concerns, 
without  reference  to  any  particular  agent;  abortion, 
from  the  Latin  aborior,  to  deviate  from  the  rise,  or  to 
pass  away  before  it  be  come  to  maturity,  is  in  the  pro- 
per sense  applied  to  the  process  of  animal  nature,  and 
in  the  figurative  sense,  to  the  thoughts  and  designs 
which  are  conceived  in  the  mind. 

Failure  is  more  definite  in  its  signification,  and 
limited  in  its  application ; we  speak  of  the  failures  of 
individuals,  but  of  the  miscarriages  of  nations  or 
things  : the  failure  reflects  on  the  person  so  as  to  excite 
towards  him  some  sentiment,  either  of  compassion, 
displeasure,  or  the  like;  ‘He  that  attempts  to  show, 
however  modestly,  the  failures  of  a celebrated  writer, 
shall  surely  irritate  his  admirers.’ — Johnson.  The 
miscarriage  is  considered  mostly  in  relation  to  the 
course  of  human  events;  ‘The  miscarriages  of  the 
great  designs  of  princes  are  recorded  in  the  histories  of 
the  world.’ — Johnson.  The  failure  of  Xerxes’  expe- 
dition reflected  disgrace  upon  himself;  but  the  mis- 
carriage of  military  enterprises  in  general  are  attri- 
butable to  the  elements,  or  some  such  untoward  cir- 
cumstance. The  abortion,  in  its  proper  sense,  is  a 


species  of  miscarriage,  and  in  application  a species  of 
failure,  as  it  applies  only  to  the  designs  of  conscious 
agents ; but  it  does  not  carry  the  mind  back  to  the 
agent,  for  we  speak  of  the  abortion  of  a scheme  with 
as  little  reference  to  the  schemer,  as  when  we  speak  of 
the  miscarriage  of  an  expedition  ; ‘ All  abortion  is 
from  infirmity  and  defect.’ — South. 


INSOLVENCY,  FAILURE,  BANKRUPTCY. 

All  these  terms  are  properly  used  in  the  mercantile 
world,  but  arc  not  excluded  also  in  a figurative  sense 
from  general  application.  Insolvency,  from  in  priva- 
tive, and  solvo  to  pay,  signifying  not  lo  pay,  denotes  a 
state,  namely,  the  state  of  not  being  able  to  pay  what 
one  owes;  failure,  from  to  fail,  signifies  the  act  of  fail  ■ 
ing  in  one’s  business,  or  a cessation  of  business  for 
want  of  means  to  carry  it  on  ; bankruptcy,  from  the 
two  words  banca  rupta,  or  a broken  bank,  denotes  the 
effect  of  a failure,  namely,  the  breaking  up  of  the 
capital  and  credit  by  which  a concern  is  upheld.  The 
word  bankruptcy  owes  its  origin  to  the  Italians,  by 
whom  it  is  called  bancorotto,  because  originally  the 
money-changers  of  Italy  had  benches  at  which  they 
conducted  their  business,  and  when  any  one  of  them 
failed  his  bench  was  broken.  These  terms  are  seldom 
confined  to  one  person,  or  description  of  persons.  As 
an  incapacity  to  pay  debts  is  very  frequent  among 
others  besides  men  of  business,  insolvency  is  said  of 
any  such  persons  ; a gentleman  may  die  in  a state  of 
insolvency  who  does  not  leave  effects  sufficient  to  covei 
all  demands ; 

Even  the  dear  delight 

Of  sculpture,  paint,  intaglios,  books  and  coins. 

Thy  breast,  sagacious  prudence!  shall  connect 

With  filth  and  beggary,  nor  disdain  to  link 

With  black  insolvency. — Shenstone. 

Although/aiZiireis  here  specifically  taken  for  afailurt 
in  business, yet  there  may  bea  failure  in  one  particular 
undertaking  without  any  direct  insolvency : a failure 
may  likewise  only  imply  a temporary /ai/iire  in  pay- 
ment, or  it  may  imply  an  entire/aifwreof  the  concern  ; 
‘ The  greater  the  whole  quantity  of  trade,  the  greater 
of  cour.se  must  be  the  positive  number  of  failures, 
while  the  aggregate  success  is  still  in  the  same  proper 
tion.’ — Burke.  As  a bankruptcy  is  a legal  transac- 
tion, which  entirely  dissolves  the  firm  under  which 
any  business  is  conducted,  it  necessarily  implies  a 
failure  in  the  full  extent  of  the  term  ; yet  it  does  not 
necessarily  imply  an  insolvency ; fof  some  men  may, 
in  consequence  of  a temporary  failure,  be  led  to  com- 
mit an  act  of  bankruptcy,  who  are  afterward  enabled 
to  give  a full  dividend  to  all  their  creditors;  ‘By  an 
act  of  insolvency  all  persons  who  are  in  loo  low  a way 
of  dealing  to  be  bankrupts,  or  notin  a mercantile  state 
of  life,  are  discharged  from  all  suits  and  imprisonments, 
by  delivering  up  all  their  estates  and  effects.’ — Black- 
stone.  But  from  the  entire  state  of  destitution  which 
a bankruptcy  involves  in  it,  the  term  is  generally  taken 
for  the  most  hopeless  state  of  want ; ‘Perkin  gathered 
together  a power  neither  in  number  nor  in  hardiness 
contemptible ; but  in  their  fortunes  to  be  feared,  being 
bankrupts,  and  many  of  them  felons.’ — Bacon.  It  is 
also  used  figuratively;  ‘Sir,  if  you  spend  word  for 
word  with  me  I shall  make  your  wit  bankrupt.— 

PEARE. 


ERROUR,  FAULT. 

Errour,  from  erro  to  wander  or  go  astray,  respects 
the  act;  /auit,  from /ai7,  respects  the  agent:  the  errour 
may  lay  in  the  judgement,  or  in  the  conduct ; but  the 
fault  lies  in  the  will  or  intention  : the  errours  of  youth 
must  be  treated  with  indulgence:  but  their must 
on  all  accounts  be  corrected ; errour  js  said  of  that 
which  is  individual  and  partial; 

Bold  is  the  task  when  subjects,  grown  too  wise. 

Instruct  a monarch  where  his  errour  lies. — Pope. 
Fault  is  said  of  that  which  is  habitual ; ‘ Other  faults 
are  not  under  the  wife’s  jurisdiction,  and  should  if 
possible  escape  her  observation,  but  jealousy  calls  upon 
her  particularly  for  its  cure.’— Addison.  It  is  an  errour 
to  use  intemperate  language  ai  any  time;  it  is  a fault 
in  the  temper  of  some  persons  who  cannot  restiaic 
their  anger. 


l26 


ENGLISH  SrNONYMLS. 


ERROUR,  MISTAKE,  BLUNDER. 

Errour,  as  in  the  preceding  article,  marks  the  act  of 
wandering,  or  the  state  of  being  gone  astray ; a mistake 
is  a taking  amiss  or  wrong  ; blunder  is  not  improbably 
changed  from  blind,  and  signifies  any  thing  done  blindly. 

Errour  in  its  universal  sense  is  the  general  term, 
sim’^  every  deviation  from  what  is  right  in  rational 
agents  is  termed  errour,  which  is  strictly  opposed  to 
truth  : errour  is  the  lot  of  humanity  ; into  whatever 
we  attempt  to  do  or  think  erroux  will  be  sure  to  creep: 
the  term  therefore  is  of  unlimited  use  ; the  very  men- 
tion of  it  reminds  us  of  our  condition : we  have  errours 
of  judgement;  errours  of  calculation;  errours  of  the 
head;  and  errours  of  the  heart;  ‘Idolatry  may  be 
looked  upon  as  an  errour  arising  from  mistaken  devo- 
tion.’— Addison.  The  other  terms  designate  modes  of 
errour,  which  mostly  refer  to  the  common  concerns  of 
life : mistake  is  an  errour  of  choice  ; blunder  an  errour 
of  action  ; children  and  careless  people  are  most  apt  to 
vaako  mistakes ; ‘It  happened  that  the  king  himself 
passed  through  the  gallery  during  this  debate,  and 
smiling  at  the  mistake  of  the  dervise,  asked  him  how 
he  could  possibly  be  so  dull  as  not  to  distinguish  a 
palace  from  a caravansary.’ — Addison.  Ignorant,  con- 
ceited and  stupid  people  commonly  commit  blunders  : 
‘Pope  allows  that  Dennis  had  detected  one  of  those 
blunders  which  are  called  bulls.’ — Johnson.  A mis- 
take must  be  rectified ; in  commercial  transactions  it 
may  be  of  serious  consequence;  a blunder  must  be  set 
right ; but  blunderers  are  not  always  to  be  set  right ; 
and  blunders  are  frequently  so  ridiculous  as  only  to  ex- 
cite laughter. 

TO  DEVIATE,  WANDER,  SWERVE,  STRAV. 

Deviate,  from  the  Latin  devius,  and  de  via,  signifies 
literally  to  turn  out  of  the  way ; wander,  in  German 
wandem,  or  wandeln,  a frequentative  of  wenden  to 
turn,  signifies  to  turn  frequently  ; swerve,  j)robably 
from  the  German  scliweifen  to  ramble,  schweben  to 
soar,  &c.  signifies  to  take  an  unsteady,  wide,  and  indi- 
rect course ; stray  is  probably  a change  from  erro  to 
wander. 

Deviate  always  supposes  a direct  path  ; wander  in- 
cludes no  such  idea.  The  act  of  deviating  is  commonly 
faulty,  that  of  wandering  is  indifierent:  they  may  fre- 
quently exchange  significations;  the  former  being  jus- 
tifiable by  necessity ; and  the  latter  arising  from  an  un- 
steadiness of  mind.  Deviate  is  mostly  used  in  the 
moral  acceptation ; wander  may  be  used  in  either 
sense.  A person  deviates  from  any  plan  or  rule  laid 
down ; lie  wanders  from  the  subject  in  wliich  he  is 
engaged.  As  no  rule  can  be  laid  down  which  will  not 
admit  of  an  exception,  it  is  impossible  but  the  wisest 
will  find  it  necessary  in  their  moral  conduct  to  deviate 
occasionally;  yet  every  wanton  deviation  from  an  es- 
tablished practice  evinces  a culpable  temper  on  the 
part  of  the  deviator;  ‘While  we  remain  in  this  life 
we  are  subject  to  innumerable  temptations,  which, 
if  listened  to,  will  make  us  deviate  from  reason  and 
goodness.’ — Spectator.  Those  who  wander  into  the 
regions  of  metaphysicks  are  in  great  danger  of  losing 
themselves ; it  is  with  them  as  with  most  wanderers, 
tliat  they  Spend  their  time  at  best  but  idly  ; 

Our  aim  is  happiness ; ’t  is  yours,  ’t  is  mine  ; 

He  said  ; ’t  is  the  pursuit  of  all  that  live. 

Yet  few  attain  it,  if ’t  was  e’er  attain’d ; 

But  they  the  widest  wander  from  the  mark, 

Who  thro’  the  flow’ry  paths  of  sauntering  joy 
Seek  this  coy  goddess. — Armstrong. 

To  swerve  is  to  deviate  from  that  which  one  holds 
right;  to  stray  is  to  wander  in  the  same  bad  sense: 
men  swerve  from  their  duty  to  consult  their  interest ; 
Nor  number,  nor  example,  with  him  wrought. 

To  swerve  from  truth. — Milton. 

The  young  stray  from  the  path  of  rectitude  to  seek 
that  of  pleasure ; 

Why  have  I stray'd  from  pleasure  and  repose. 

To  seek  a good  each  governmeol  bestows  I 

Goldsmith. 

TO  DIGRESS,  DEVIATE. 

Both  in  the  orininal  and  the  accepted  sense,  these 
weirds  express  going  out  of  the  ordinary  course : but 


digress  is  used  only  in  particular,  and  deviate  in  genera: 
cases.  We  digress  only  in  a narrative  whether  writ 
ten  or  spoken ; we  deviate  in  actions  as  well  as  in 
words,  in  our  conduct  as  well  as  in  writings. 

Digress  is  mostly  taken  in  a good  or  indifierent 
sense ; ‘ The  digressions  in  the  Tale  of  a Tub,  relating 
to  Wotton  and  Bentley,  must  be  confessed  to  discover 
want  of  knowledge  or  want  of  integrity.’— Johnson 
Deviate  in  an  indifferent  or  bad  sense;  ‘A  resolution 
was  taken  (by  the  authors  of  the  Spectator)  of  courting 
general  approbation  by  general  topicks  ; to  this  practice 
they  adhered  with  few  deviations' — Johnson.  Al- 
though frequent  digressions  are  faulty,  yet  occasionally 
it  is  necessary  to  digress  for  the  purposes  of  explana- 
tion : every  deviation  is  bad,  which  is  not  sanctioned 
by  the  necessity  of  circumstances. 


TO  WANDER,  TO  STROLL,  RAMBLE,  ROVE, 
ROAM,  RANGE. 

Wander  signifies  the  same  as  in  the  article  Deviate 
stroll  is  probably  an  intensive  of  to  roll,  that  is,  to  go 
in  a planless  manner,  ramble  from  the  Latin  re  and 
ambulo,  is  to  walk  backward  and  forward ; and  rove  is 
probably  a contraction  of  ramble;  roam  is  connected 
with  our  word  room,  space,  signifying  to  go  in  a wide 
space,  and  the  Hebrew  O n?  to  be  violently  moved 
backward  and  forward;  range,  from  the  noun  range, 
a rank,  row,  or  extended  space,  signifies  to  go  over  a 
great  space,  but  within  certain  limits.  The  idea  of 
going  in  an  irregular  and  free  manner  is  common  to  al 
these  terms. 

To  wander  is  to  go  out  of  the  path  that  has  been 
already  marked  out; 

But  far  about  they  wander  from  the  grave 
Of  him,  whom  his  ungentle  fortune  urg’d 
Against  his  own  sad  breast  to  lift  the  hand 
Of  impious  violence. — Thomson. 

Sometimes  wandering  may  be  an  involuntary  action 
a person  may  wander  to  a great  distance,  or  for  an  in 
definite  length  of  time  ; in  this  manner  a person  wan- 
ders who  has  lost  himself  in  a wood  ; or  it  may  be  a 
planless  course; 

I will  go  lose  myself. 

And  wander  up  and  down  to  view  the  city. 

Shakspeare 

To  stroll  is  to  go  in  a fixed  path,  but  strolling  is  a vo 
luntary  action,  limited  at  our  discretion  ; thus,  when  3 
person  takes  a walk,  he  sometimes  strolls  from  one 
path  into  another,  as  he  pleases ; ‘ I found  by  the  voice 
of  my  friend  who  walked  by  me,  that  we  had  insensibly 
strolled  into  the  grove  sacred  to  the  widow.’— Addi- 
son. To  ramble  is  to  wander  without  any  object,  and 
consequently  with  more  than  ordinary  irregularity:  in 
this  manner  he  who  set«  out  to  take  a walk,  without 
knowing  or  thinking  where  he  shall  go,  rambles  as 
chance  directs;  ‘ I thus  rambled  from  pocket  to  pocket 
until  file  beginning  of  the  civil  wars. — Addison.  To 
rove  is  to  wander  in  the  same  planless  manner,  but  to 
a wider  extent ; a fugitive  who  does  not  know  his  road, 
roves  about  the  country  in  quest  of  some  retreat ; 

Where  is  that  knowledge  now,  that  regal  thought 

With  just  advice  and  timely  counsel  fraught  1 

Where  now,  O judge  of  Israel,  does  it  rove  ? 

Prior 

To  roam  is  to  wander  from  the  impulse  of  a disordered 
mind  ; in  this  manner  a lunatick  who  has  broken  loose 
may  roam  about  the  country ; so  likewise  a person 
who  travels  about,  because  he  cannot  rest  in  quiet  at 
home,  may  also  be  said  to  roam  in  quest  of  peace ; 

She  looks  abroad,  and  prunes  herself  for  tiight, 

Like  an  unwilling  inmate  longs  lo  roam 
From  this  dull  earth,  and  seek  her  native  home. 

Jenyns. 

To  range  is  the  contrary  of  to  roam  ; as  the  latter  indl 
cates  a disordered  state  of  mind,  the  former  indicates 
composure  and  fixedness;  we  range  within  certain 
limits,  as  the  hunter  ranges  the  forest,  the  shepherd 
ranges  the  mountains ; 

The  stag  too  singled  from  the  herd,  where  long 
He  rang'd  the  branching  monarch  of  the  shades 
Before  the  tempest  drives  — Thomson 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


.121 


BLEMISH,  DEFECT,  FAULT. 

Blemish  is  probably  changed  from  the  word  blame, 
signifying  that  which  causes  blame;  defect  and  fault 
have  the  same  signification  as  given  under  the  head  of 
imperfection. 

Blemish  respects  accidents  or  incidental  properties 
of  an  object : defect  consists  in  the  want  of  some  spe- 
cifick  propriety  in  an  object;  fault  conveys  the  idea 
not  only  of  something  wrong,  but  also  of  its  relation  to 
the  author.  There  is  a blemish  in  fine  china ; a defect 
in  the  springs  of  a clock ; and  a fault  in  the  con- 
trivance. An  accident  may  cause  a blemish  in  a fine 
painting ; ‘ There  is  another  particular  which  may  be 
reckoned  among  the  blemishes,  or  rather,  the  false 
beauties,  of  our  English  tragedy : I mean  those  parti- 
cular speeches  which  are  commonly  known  by  the 
name  of  rants.’ — Addison.  The  course  of  nature  may 
occasion  a defect  in  a person’s  speech ; ‘It  has  been 
often  remarked,  though  not  without  wonder,  that  a 
man  is  more  jealous  of  his  natural  than  of  his  moral 
qualities;  perhaps  it  will  no  longer  appear  strange,  if 
it  be  considered  that  natural  defects  are  of  necessity, 
and  moral  of  choice.’ — Hawkesworth.  The  care- 
lessness of  the  workman  is  evinced  by  the/awZts  in  the 
workmanship;  ‘ The  resentment  which  the  discovery 
of  a fault  or  folly  produces  must  bear  a certain  pro- 
portion to  our  pride.’ — Johnson.  A blemish  may  be 
easier  remedied  than  a defect  is  corrected,  or  a /aaZt 
repaired. 

BLEMISH,  STAIN,  SPOT,  SPECK,  FLAW. 

Blemish  comes  immediately  from  the  French  bUmir 
to  grow  pale,  but  probably  in  an  indirect  manner  from 
blame ; stain,  in  French  teindre,  old  French  desteindre, 
comes  from  the  Latin  tingo  to  die  ; spot  is  not  impro- 
bably connected  with  the  word  spit,  Latin  sputum, 
and  the  Hebrew  n3D,  to  adhere  as  something  e.vtra- 
neous  ; speck,  in  Saxon  speccc,  probably  comes  from 
the  same  Hebrew  root ; faw,  in  Saxon  fioh,  Jliece, 
German  fleck,  low  German  flak  or  plakke,  a spot  or  a 
fragment,  a [)iece,  most  probably  from  the  Latin  plaga, 
Greek  a strip  of  land,  or  a stripe,  a wound  in  the 

body. 

In  the  proper  sense  blemish  is  the  generick  term,  the 
rest  are  specifick : a stain,  a spot,  speck,  and  flaw,  are 
blemishes,  but  there  are  likewise  many  blemishes  which 
are  neither  stains,  spots,  specks,  nor  flaws. 

Whatever  takes  otf  from  the  seemliness  of  appear- 
ance is  a blemish.  In  works  of  art,  the  slightest  dim- 
ness of  colour,  or  want  of  proportion,  is  a blemish. 
A stain  and  spot  sufficiently  characterize  themselves, 
as  that  which  is  superfluous  and  out  of  its  place.  A 
speck  is  a small  spot ; and  a flaw,  which  is  confined  to 
hard  substances,  mostly  consists  of  a faulty  inden- 
ture on  the  outer  surface.  A blemish  tarnishes ; a 
stain  spoils;  a spot,  speck,  or  flaw,  disfigures.  A 
blemish  is  rectified,  a stain  wiped  out,  a spot  or  speck 
removed. 

These  terms  are  also  employed  figuratively.  Even 
an  imputation  of  what  is  improper  in  our  moral  con- 
duct is  a blemish  in  our  reputation;  ‘It  is  impossible 
for  authors  to  discover  beauties  in  one  another's  works : 
they  have  eyes  only  for  spots  and  blemishes.' — Addi- 
son. The  failings  of  a good  man  are  so  many  spots 
in  the  bright  hemisphere  of  his  virtue ; there  are  some 
vices  which  affix  a stain  on  the  character  of  nations, 
as  well  as  of  the  individuals  who  are  guilty  of  them  ; 

By  length  of  time, 

The  scurf  is  worn  away  of  each  committed  crime; 

No  speck  is  left  of  their  habitual  stains. 

But  the  puie  a;ther  of  the  soul  remains. — Dryden. 

A blemish  or  a spot  may  be  removed  by  a course  of 
good  conduct,  but  a stain  is  mostly  indelible;  it  is  as 
great  a privilege  to  have  an  unblemished  reputation,  or 
a spotless  character,  as  it  is  a misfortune  to  have  the 
stain  of  bad  actions  affixed  to  our  name : ‘ There  are 
many  who  applaud  themselves  for  the  singularity  of 
their  judgement,  which  has  searched  deeper  than 
others,  and  found  a flaw  in  what  the  generality  of  man- 
kind have  admired.’ — Addison. 


DEFECTIVE,  DEFICIENT, 
/le/ccfiud'expresses  the  quality  or  property  of  having 
a defect  (r  Blemish) ; deficient  is  employed  with  re- 


gard to  the  thing  itself  that  is  wanting.  A book  may 
be  defective,  in  consequence  of  some  leaves  being 
deficient.  A deficiency  is  therefore  often  what  consti- 
tutes a defect.  Many  things,  however,  may  be  defective 
without  having  any  deficiency,  and  vice  versa.  Wliat 
ever  is  misshapen,  and  fails,  either  in  beauty  or  utility 
is  defective;  that  which  is  wanted  to  make  a thing 
complete  is  deficient.  It  is  a defect  in  the  eye  when  it 
is  so  constructed  that  things  are  not  seen  at  their  prope  r 
distances  ; ‘ Providence,  for  the  most  part,  sets  us  upon 
a level  , if  it  renders  us  perfect  in  one  accomplish 
ment,  it  generally  leaves  us  defective  in  another  • 
Addison.  There  is  a deficiency  in  a tradesman’s  ac- 
counts, when  one  side  falls  short  of  the  other  ; ‘ II 
there  be  a deficiency  in  the  speaker,  there  will  not  be 
sufficient  attention  and  regard  paid  to  the  thing  spoken.’ 
— Swift. 

Things  only  are  said  to  be  defective;  but  persons 
may  be  termed  deficient  either  in  attention,  in  good 
breeding,  in  civility,  or  whatever  else  the  occasion 
may  require.  That  which  is  defective  is  most  likely 
to  be  permanent ; but  a deficiency  may  be  only  occa- 
sional, and  easily  rectified. 

BAD,  WICKED,  EVIL. 

Bad,  in  Saxon  bad,  baed,  in  German  biis,  is  probably 
connected  with  the  Latin  pejus  worse,  and  the  Hebrew 
py  to  be  ashamed  ; wicked  is  probably  changed 
from  witched  or  bewitched,  that  is,  possessed  with  an 
evil  spirit;  respects  moral  and  physical  qualities 
in  general;  wicked  only  moral  qualities;  euiZ,  in  Ger- 
man iiebel,  from  the  Hebrew  Van  pain,  signifies  that 
which  is  the  prime  cause  of  pain  ; evil  therefore,  in  its 
full  extent,  comprehends  both  badness  and  wicked 
ness. 

Whatever  offends  the  taste  and  sentiments  of  a 
rational  being  is  bad:  food  is  bad  when  it  disagrees 
with  the  constitution  ; the  air  is  bad  which  has  any 
thing  in  it  disagreeable  to  the  senses  or  hurtful  lo  the 
body;  books  are  bad  which  only  inflame  the  imagina- 
tion or  the  passions  ; ‘ Whatever  we  may  pretend,  as 
to  our  belief,  it  is  the  strain  of  our  actions  that  must 
show  whether  our  principles  have  been  good  or  bad.' 
— Blair.  Whatever  is  wicked  offends  the  moral 
principles  of  a rational  agent:  any  violation  of  ti.te 
law  is  wicked,  as  law  is  the  support  of  human  society ; 
an  act  of  injustice  or  cruelty  is  wicked,  as  it  opposes 
the  will  of  God  and  the  feelings  of  humanity ; 

For  when  th’  impenitent  and  wicked  die, 

Loaded  with  crimes  and  infamy ; 

If  any  sense  at  that  sad  time  remains. 

They  feel  amazing  terrour,  mighty  pains. 

POMFRET, 

Evil  is  either  moral  or  natural,  and  may  be  applied  tc 
every  object  that  is  contrary  to  good ; but  the  term  is 
employed  only  for  that  which  is  in  the  highest  degree 
bad  or  wicked  ; 

And  what  your  bounded  view,  which  only  saw 

A little  part,  deem’d  evil,  is  no  more  ; 

The  storms  of  wintry  time  will  quickly  pass. 

And  one  unbounded  spring  encircle  all. — Thomson. 

When  used  in  relation  to  persons,  both  refer  to  the 
morals,  but  is  more  general  than  wicked;  a bad 
man  is  one  who  is  generally  wanting  in  the  perform 
ance  of  his  duty ; a wicked  man  is  one  who  is  charge 
able  with  actual  violations  of  the  law,  human  or 
Divine ; such  a one  has  an  evil  mind.  A bad  cha 
racter  is  the  consequence  of  immoral  conduct;  but  no 
man  has  the  character  of  being  wicked  who  has  not 
been  guilty  of  some  known  and  flagrant  vices;  the 
inclinations  of  the  best  are  evil  at  certain  times 


BADLY,  ILL. 

Badly,  in  the  manner  of  bad  [v.  Bad);  ill,  in 
Swedish  ill,  Icelandick  ilur,  Danish  ill.  See.  is  sup 
posed  by  Adelung,  and  with  some  degree  of  justice, 
not  to  be  a contraction  of  evil,  but  to  spring  from  the 
Greek  ovXds  destructive,  and  oXXaw  to  destroy. 

These  terms  are  both  employed  to  modify  the  actions 
or  qualities  of  things,  but  badly  is  always  annexed  tc 
the  action,  and  ill  to  the  quality:  as  to  do  any  thin< 
badly,  the  thing  is  badly  done;  an  tZZ-judged  scheme 
an  iZZ-contrived  measure  an  ZZZ-disposed  person 


128 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


DEPRAViTY,  DEPRAVATION,  CORRUPTION. 

Depravity,  iVom  the  Latin  pravitas  and  pravus,  in 
tJreek  paifiog,  and  tlie  Hebrew  to  be  disordered, 
or  put  out  of  its  established  order,  signifying  the 
quality  of  not  being  straight ; depravation,  in  Latin 
•tepravatio,  signifies  the  act  of  making  depraved; 
corruption,  in  Latin  corruptio,  corrurnpo,  fiom  rumpo 
to  break,  marks  the  disunion  and  decomposition  of  the 
parts. 

* All  these  terms  are  applied  to  objects  which  are 
contrary  to  the  order  of  Providence,  but  the  term  de- 
pravity characteri»^>s  the  thing  as  it  is  ; the  terms  de- 
pravation and  corruption  designate  the  making  or 
causing  it  to  be  so : depravity  therefore  excludes  the 
idea  of  any  cause ; depravation  always  refers  us  to 
the  cause  or  external  agency : hence  we  may  speak  of 
depravity  as  natural,  but  we  speak  of  depravation 
and  corruption  as  the  result  of  circumstances:  there 
is  a depravity  in  man,  which  nothing  but  the  grace  of 
God  can  correct ; ‘ Nothing  can  show  greater  depravity 
of  understanding  than  to  delight  in  the  show  when  the 
reality  is  wanting.’ — Johnson.  The  introduction  of 
rbscenity  on  the  stage  tends  greatly  to  the  depravation 
)f  morals;  bad  company  tends  to  the  corruption  of  a 
foung  man’s  morals  ; ‘ The  corruption  of  our  taste  is 
jotof  equal  consequence  with  the  depravation  of  our 
i/irtue.’ — Warton. 

Depravity  or  depravation  implies  crookedness,  or  a 
distortion  from  the  regular  course ; cor-rw/dfon  implies 
a dissolution  as  it  were  in  the  component  parts  of 
bodies. 

Cicero  says  that  depravity  is  applicable  only  to  the 
mind  and  iieart ; but  we  say  a depraved  taste,  and 
depraved  humours  in  regard  to  the  body.  A depraved 
taste  loathes  common  food,  and  longs  for  that  which 
is  unnatural  and  hurtful.  Corruption  \s  the  natural 
process  by  which  material  substances  are  disorgan- 
ized. 

In  the  figurative  application  of  these  terms  they 
preserve  the  same  signification.  Depravity  is  cha- 
racterized by  being  directly  opposed  to  order,  and  an 
established  system  of  things;  corruption  marks  the 
vitiation  or  spoiling  of  things,  and  the  ferment  that 
leads  to  destruction.  Depravity  turns  things  out  of 
their  ordinary  course ; corraptfow  destroys  their  essen- 
tial qualities.  Depravity  is  a vicious  state  of  things. 
In  which  all  is  deranged  and  perverted;  corruption  is 
a vicious  state  of  things,  in  which  all  is  sullied  and 
polluted.  That  which  is  depraved  loses  its  proper  man- 
ner of  acting  and  existing;  ‘The  depravation  oi  \m- 
man  will  was  followed  by  a disorder  of  the  harmony 
of  nature.’ — Johnson.  That  which  is  corrupted  loses 
its  virtue  and  essence ; ‘ We  can  discover  that  where 
there  is  universal  innocence,  there  will  probably  be 
universal  happiness  ; for  why  should  afflictions  be  per- 
mitted to  infest  beings  who  are  not  in  danger  of  cor- 
ruption from  blessings  V — Johnson. 

The  force  of  irregular  propensities  and  distempered 
imaginations  produces  a depravity  of  manners ; the 
force  of  example  and  the  dissemination  of  bad  princi- 
ples produce  corruption.  A judgement  not  sound  or 
right  is  depraved ; a judgement  debased  by  that  which 
is  vicious  is  corrupted.  What  is  depraved  requires  to 
be  reformed:  what  is  corr7<pted  requires  to  be  purified. 
Depravity  has  most  regard  to  apparent  and  excessive 
disorders;  corruption  to  internal  and  dissolute  vices. 
“ Manner.s,”  says  Cicero,  “are  corrupted  and  depraved 
by  the  love  of  riches.”  Port  Royal  says  that  God  has 
given  up  infidels  to  the  wandering  of  a corrupted 
and  depraved  mind.  These  words  are  by  no  means  a 
pleonasm  or  repetition,  because  they  represent  two 
distinct  images  ; one  indicates  the  state  of  a thing  very 
much  changed  in  its  substance  : the  other  the  state  of 
a thing  very  much  opposed  to  regularity.  “ Good 
God!  (says  Masillon  the  preacher),  what  a dreadful 
account  will  the  rich  and  powerful  have  one  day  to 
give;  since,  besides  their  own  sins,  they  will  have  to 
account  before  Thee  for  publick  disorder,  depravity  of 
morals,  and  the  corruption  of  the  age!’  Publick  dis- 
orders bring  on  naturally  depravity  of  morals ; and  sins 
of  vicious  practices  naturally  give  birth  to  corruption. 
Depravity  is  more  or  less  open ; it  revolts  the  sober 
upright  understanding ; corruption  is  more  or  less  dis- 

* Vide  Roubaud:  “Depravation,  corruption.”— 
rrussler:  “Depravity,  corruption.” 


guised  in  its  operations,  but  fatal  in  its  effects  tne 
former  sweeps  away  every  thing  before  i like  a tor 
rent ; the  latter  infuses  itself  into  the  moral  franae  like 
a slow  poison. 

That  is  a depraved  state  of  morals  in  which  tlh’ 
gross  vices  are  openly  practised  in  defiance  of  all  de 
corum ; ‘ The  greatest  difficulty  that  occurs  in  ana 
lyzing  his  (Swift’s)  character,  is  to  discover  by  what 
depravity  of  intellect  he  took  delight  in  revolving  ideas 
from  which  almost  every  other  mind  shrinks  with  dis- 
gust.’— Johnson.  That  is  a corrupt  state  of  society 
in  which  vice  has  secretly  insinuated  itself  into  all  the 
principles  and  habits  of  men,  and  concealed  its  defor 
mity  under  the  fair  semblance  of  virtue  and  honour , 

Peace  is  the  happy  natural  state  of  man ; 

War  his  corruption,  his  disgrace. — Thomson. 

The  manners  of  savages  are  most  likely  to  be  de- 
praved; those  of  civilized  nations  to  be  corrupt,  when 
luxury  and  refinement  are  risen  to  an  excessive  pitch. 
Cannibal  nations  present  us  with  the  picture  of  human 
depravity;  the  Roman  nation,  during  the  time  of  the 
emperors,  affords  us  an  example  of  almost  universal 
corruption. 

From  the  above  observations,  it  is  clear  that  depra- 
vity is  best  applied  to  those  objects  to  which  common 
usage  has  annexed  the  epithets  of  right,  regular,  fine, 
&c. ; and  corruption  to  those  which  may  be  charac- 
terized by  the  epithets  of  sound,  pure,  innocent,  or 
good.  Hence  we  say  depravity  of  mind  and  corrup- 
tion oi  heart  ■,  depravity  of  principle  and  corruption 
of  sentiment  or  feeling  : a depraved  character  ; a cor- 
rwpt  example;  a carrapt  influence;  ‘No  depravity  oi 
the  mind  has  been  more  frequently  or  justly  censured 
than  ingratitude.’ — Johnson.  ‘ I have  remarked  in  a 
former  paper,  that  credulity  is  the  common  tailing  of 
inexperienced  virtue,  and  that  he  who  is  spontaneously 
suspicious  may  be  justly  charged  witli"  radical  corrup 
lion.' — Johnson. 

In  reference  to  the  arts  or  belles  lettres  we  say  either 
depravity  or  corruption  of  taste,  because  taste  has  its 
rules,  is  liable  to  be  disordered,  is  or  is  not  conformable 
to  natural  order,  is  regular  or  irregular ; and  on  the 
other  hand  it  may  be  so  intermingled  with  sentiments 
and  feelings  foreign  to  its  own  native  purity  as  to  give 
it  justly  the  title  of  corrupt. 

'J'he  last  thing  worthy  of  notice  respecting  the  two 
words  depravity  and  corruption,  is  that  the  former  is 
used  for  man  in  his  moral  capacity  ; but  the  latter  for 
man  in  a pol  tical  capacity  : hence  we  speak  of  human 
depravity,  but  the  corruption  of  government;  ‘The 
depravity  of  mankind  is  so  easily  discoverable,  that 
nothing  but  the  desert  or  the  cell  can  exclude  it  from 
notice.’ — Johnson.  ‘ Every  government,  say  the  poli 
ticians,  is  perpetually  degenerating  toward  corrup 
tion.' — Johnson. 


WICKED,  UNJUST,  INIGUITOUS, 
NEFARIOUS 

Wicked  {v.  Bad.)  is  here  tiie  generick  term  ; iniqui- 
tous, from  iniquus  unjust,  signifies  that  species  of 
wickedness  which  consists  in  violating  the  law  of  right 
between  man  and  man  ; nefarious,  from  the  Latin 
nefas  wicked  or  abominable,  is  that  species  of  wicked- 
ness which  consists  in  violating  the  most  sacred  obli- 
gations. The  term  wicked,  being  indefinite,  is  com- 
monly applied  in  a milder  sense  than  iniquitous  ; and 
iniquitous  than  nefarious  : it  is  wicked  to  deprive 
another  of  his  property  unlawfully,  under  any  circuH 
stances ; 

In  the  corrupted  currents  of  this  world. 

Offence’s  gilded  hand  may  shove  by  justice ; 

And  oft ’t  is  seen,  the  wicked  prize  itself 
Buys  out  the  law. — Shakspeare. 

It  is  iniquitous  if  it  be  done  by  fraud  and  circum- 
vention ; and  nefarious  if  it  involves  any  breach  of 
trust,  or  is  in  direct  violation  of  any  known  law : any 
undue  influence  over  another,  in  the  making  of  his 
will,  to  the  detriment  of  the  rightful  heir,  is  iniquitous  ; 
‘ Lucullus  found  that  the  province  of  Pontus  had 
fallen  under  great  disorders  and  oppressions  from  the 
iniquity  of  usurers  and  publicans.  — Prideaux.  Any 
underhand  dealing  of  a servant  to  defrautWhis  master 
I is  nefarious,  or  any  conspiracy  to  defraud  nr  injure 
* nhers  is  called  nefarious  ; That  unhallowed  villany 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  129 


neiariously  attempted  upon  the  person  of  our  agent.’ — 
Milton. 


TO  CONTAMINATE,  DEFILE,  POLLUTE, 
TAINT,  CORRUPT. 

Contaminate^  in  Latin  contaminatus , participle  of 
eontamino,  comes  from  the  Hebrew  HDD  I®  pollute  ; 
defile,  compounded  of  de  and  file  or  vile,  signifies  to 
make  vile ; pollute,  in  Latin  poUutus,  participle  of 
polluo,  compounded  of  per  and  iuo  or  lavo  to  wash  or 
dye,  signifies  to  infuse  thoroughly ; taint,  in  French 
teint,  participle  of  teindre,  in  Latin  lingo,  signifies  to 
dye  or  stain  ; corrupt,  signifies  the  same  as  in  the  pre- 
ceding article. 

Contaminate  is  not  so  strong  an  expression  as  defile 
or  pollute ; but  it  is  stronger  than  taint ; these  terms 
are  used  in  the  sense  of  injuring  purity;  corrupt  has 
the  idea  of  destroying  it.  Whatever  is  impure  con- 
taminates, what  is  gross  and  vile  in  the  natural  sense 
defiles  and  in  the  moral  sense  pollutes ; what  is  con- 
tagious or  infectious  corrM;>fs;  and  what  is  corrupted 
may  taint  other  things.  Improper  conversation  or 
reading  contaminates  the  mind  of  youth;  ‘The  drop 
of  water  after  its  progress  through  all  the  channels  of 
the  street  is  not  more  contaminated  with  filth  and  dirt, 
than  a simple  story  after  it  has  passed  through  the 
mouths  of  a few  modern  tale  bearers.’ — Hawkes- 
woRTii.  Lewdness  and  obscenity  defile  the  body  and 
pollute  the  mind ; 

When  from  the  mountain  tops  witn  hideous  cry 
And  clatt’ring  wings  the  hungry  harpies  fly. 

They  snatch  the  meat,  defiling  all  they  find. 

And  patting  leave  a loathsome  stench  behind. 

Dryden. 

Her  virgin  statye  with  their  bloody  hands 
Polluted,  and  profan’d  her  holy  bands. — Dryden. 
Loose  company  corrupts  the  morals;  ‘ All  men  agree 
that  licentious  poems  do,  of  all  writings,  soonest  cor- 
rypt  the  heart.’ — Steele.  The  coming  in  contact 
ivith  a corrupted  body  is  sufficient  to  give  a taint  ; 
Your  teeming  ewes  shall  no  stiange  meadows  try. 
Nor  fear  a rot  from  tainted  company.— Dryden. 

If  young  people  be  admitted  to  a promiscuous  inter- 
course with  society,  they  must  unavoidably  witness 
objects  that  are  calculated  to  contaminate  their  thoughts 
if  not  their  inclinations.  They  are  tlirown  in  the  way 
Df  seeing  the  lips  of  females  defiled  with  .the  grossest 
Indecencies,  and  hearing  or  seeing  things'  which  can- 
not be  heard  or  seen  without  polluting  the  soul : it 
cannot  be  surprising  if  after  this  their  principles  are 
■'bund  to  be  corrwptctZ  before  they  have  reached  the  age 
3f  maturity. 


CONTACT,  TOUCH. 

Contact,  Latin  Contactus,  participle  of  contingo, 
compounded  of  con  dmdtango  to  touch  together,  is  dis- 
tinguished from  the  simple  word  touch,  not  so  much  in 
sense  as  in  grammatical  construction  ; the  former  ex- 
pressing a state,  and  referring  to  two  bodies  actually  in 
that  state ; the  latter  on  the  other  hand  implying  the 
abstract  act  of  touching:  we  speak  of  things  coming 
or  being  in  contact,  but  not  of  the  contact  instead  of 
the  touch  of  a thing : the  poison  which  comes  from  the 
poison-tree  is  so  powerful  in  its  nature,  that  it  is  not 
necessary  to  come  in  contact  with  it  in  order  to  feel  its 
baneful  influence;  ‘We  are  attracted  towards  each 
other  by  general  sympathy,  but  kept  back  from  contact 
in  private  interest.’ — Johnson.  Some  insects  are 
armed  with  stings  so  inconceivably  sharp,  that  the 
smallest  touch  possible  is  sufficient  to  produce  a punc- 
ture into  the  flesh ; ‘ O death  ! where  is  now  thy  sting '? 
O grave ! where  is  thy  victory  1 Where  are  the  ter- 
rours  with  which  thou  hast  so  long  affrighted  the 
nations  1 At  the  touch  of  the  Divine  rod,  thy  visionary 
oorrours  are  fled.’ — Blair. 


CONTAGION,  INFECTION. 

Both  these  terms  imply  the  power  of  communicating 
Bomething  bad,  but  contagion,  from  the  Latin  verb 
tontingo  to  come  in  contact,  proceeds  from  a simple 
touch ; and  infection,  fiom  the  Latin  verb  inficio  or 

9 


in  vend  f ado  to  put  in,  proceeds  by  receiviikg  something 
inwardly,  or  having  it  infused. 

Some  things  act  more  properly  by  contagion,  others 
by  infection : the  more  powerful  diseases,  as  the  plague 
or  yellow  fever,  are  communicated  by  contagion ; they 
are  therefore  denominated  contagious ; the  less  viru 
lent  disorders,  as  fevers,  consumptions,  and  the  like 
are  termed  infectious,  as  they  are  communicated  by 
the  less  rapid  process  of  infection  : the  air  is  contagious 
or  infectious  according  to  the  same  rule  of  distinction 
when  heavily  overcharged  with  noxious  yapours  ann 
deadly  disease,  it  is  justly  entitled  contagious,  but  in 
ordinary  cases  infectious.  In  the  figurative  sense,  vict 
is  for  the  same  obvious  reason  termed  contagious  ; ‘ If 
I send  my  son  abroad,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  keep 
him  from  the  reigning  contagion  of  rudeness.’ — Locke 
Bad  principles  are  denominated  infectious  ; 

But  we  who  only  do  infuse. 

The  rage  in  them  like  bout6-feus, 

’T  is  our  example  that  instils 
In  them  the  infection  of  our  ills. — Butler 
Some  young  people,  who  are  fortunate  enough  to  shun 
the  contagion  of  bad  society,  a're,  perhaps,  caught  by  the 
infection  of  bad  principles,  acting  as  a slow  poison  on 
the  moral  constitution. 


CONTAGIOUS,  EPIDEMICAL,  PESTI- 
LENTIAL. 

Contagious  sigmdeshdiVinn contagion  (v.  Contagion j 
epidemical,  in  Latin  epidemicus,  Greek  iniSiipios,  that  is 
irci  and  Srjpos  among  the  people,  signifies  universally 
spread;  pestilential,  from  the  Latin pestis  the  plague 
signifies  having  the  plague,  or  a similar  disorder. 

The  contagious  applies  to  that  which  is  capable  of 
being  caught,  and  ought  not,  therefore,  to  be  touched 
the  epidemical  to  that  which  is  already  caught  orcircu 
lated,  and  requires,  therefore,  to  be  stopped ; xhepesti 
lential  to  that  which  may  breed  an  evil,  and  is,  there 
fore,  to  be  removed ; diseases  are  contagious  or  epi 
demical;  the  air  or  breath  is  pestilential. 

They  may  all  be  applied  morally  or  figuratively  in 
the  same  sense. 

We  endeavour  to  shun  a contagious  disorder,  that  ii 
may  not  come  near  us ; we  endeavour  to  purify  a pesti 
lential  air,  that  it  may  not  be  inhaled  to  our  injury;  we 
endeavour  to  provide  against  epidemical  disorders,  that 
they  may  not  spread  any  farther. 

Vicious  example  is  contagious ; 

No  foreign  food  the  teeming  ewes  shall  fear. 

No  touch  contagious  spread  its  influence  here. 

Warton 

Certain  follies  or  vices  of  fashion  are  epidemical  in 
almost  every  age;  ‘Among  all  the  diseases  of  the  mind 
there  is  not  one  more  epidemical  or  more  pernicious  than 
the  love  of  flattery.’— Steele.  The  breath  of  infideliu 
is  pestilential ; 

Capricious,  wanton,  bold,  and  brutal  lust 
Is  meanly  selfish ; when  resisted,  cruel ; 

And  like  the  blast  of  pestilential  winds. 

Taints  the  sweet  bloom  of  nature’s  fairest  forms. 

Milton 


BLAMELESS,  IRREPROACHABLE,  UNBLE- 
MISHED, UNSPOTTED,  OR  SPOTLESS. 

Blameless  signifies  literally  void  of  blame  (v.  To 
blame) ; irreproachable,  that  is,  not  able  to  be  re- 
proached {v.To  blame) ; unblemished,  that  is,  without 
blemish  ip.  Blemish);  unspotted,  that  is,  without  spot 
{v.  Blemish). 

Blameless  is  less  than  irreproachable ; whal  is 
blameless  is  simply  free  from  blame,  but  that  which  is 
irreproachable  cannot  be  blamed,  or  have  any  reproach 
attached  to  it.  It  is  good  to  say  of  a man  that  he  lead* 
ablameless  life,  but  it  is  a high  encomium  td  say,  that 
he  leads  an  irreproachable  life : the  former  is  but  the 
negative  praise  of  one  who  is  known  only  for  his  harm- 
lessness ; the  latter  is  but  positive  commendation  of 
a man  who  is  well  known  for  his  integrity  in  the  dif 
ferent  relations  of  society ; 

The  sire  of  Gods,  and  all  th’  etliereal  train. 

On  the  warm  limits  of  the  farthest  main. 

Now  mix  with  mortals,  nor  disdain  to  grace 
The  feasts  of  .Ethiopia’s  blameless  race. — Pope 


130 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMEs 


Take  particular  care  tlial  your  amusements  be  of  an 
•^reproachable  kind.’ — Blair. 

Unblemished  and  unspotted  are  applicable  to  many 
objects,  besides  that  of  personal  conduct;  and  when 
applied  to  this,  their  original  meaning  sufficiently  points 
nut  their  use  in  distinction  from  the  two  former  We 
may  say  of  a man  that  he  has  an  irreproachable  or  an 
unblemished  reputation, and  unspottedor  spotless  purity 
of  life; 

But  now  those  white  unblcmish'd  manners,  whence 
The  fabling  poets  took  their  golden  age. 

Are  found  no  more  amid  these  iron  times. 

Thomson. 

But  the  good  man,  whose  soul  is  pure. 

Unspotted,  regular,  and  free 

From  all  the  ugly  stains  of  lust  and  villany,  * 

Of  mercy  and  of  pardon  sure, 

Looks  through  the  darkness  of  the  gloomy  night. 
And  sees  the  dawning  of  a glorious  day. 

POMFRET. 

Hail,  rev’rend  priest ! To  Phoebus’  awful  dome 
A suppliant  I from  great  Atrides  come. 

Unransom’d  here,  receive  the  spotless  fair. 

Accept  the  hecatomb  the  Greeks  prepare. — Pope. 

TO  PRAISE,  COMMEND,  APPLAUD,  EXTOL. 

Praise  comes  from  the  German  preisen  to  value,  and 
our  own  word  price,  signifying  to  give  a value  to  a 
thing  ; commend,  in  Latin  commendo,  compounded  of 
com.  and  mando,  signifies  to  commit  to  the  good  opinion 
of  others;  applaud  {v.  Applause) ; extol,  in  Latin  ex- 
tollo,  signifies  to  lift  up  very  high. 

All  these  terms  denote  the  act  of  expressing  appro- 
bation. The  praise  is  the  most  general  and  indefinite  ; 
it  may  rise  to  a high  degree,  but  it  generally  implies  a 
lower  degree  : we  praise  a person  generally  ; we  com- 
mend him  particularly  : we  praise  him  for  his  diligence, 
sobriety,  and  the  like ; we  commend  him  for  his  per- 
formances, or  for  any  particular  instance  of  prudence 
or  good  conduct.  To  applaud  is  an  ardent  mode  of 
praising ; we  applaud  a person  for  his  nobleness  of 
spirit:  to  citoZ  is  a reverential  mode  of  praising;  we 
extol  a man  for  his  heroick  exploits.  Praise  is  confined 
to  no  station,  though  with  most  propriety  bestowed  by 
superiours  or  equals:  commendation  is  the  part  of  a 
superiour;  a parent  commends  his  child  for  an  act  of 
charity : applause  is  the  act  of  many  as  well  as  of  one ; 
theatrical  performances  are  the  frequent  subjects  of 
publick  applauses ; extol  is  the  act  of  inferiours,  who 
declare  thus  decidedly  their  sense  of  a person’s  supe- 
riority. 

In  the  scale  of  signification  commend  stands  the 
lowest,  and  extol  the  highest;  we  praise  in  stronger 
terms  than  we  commend : to  applaud  is  Vo  praise  in  loud 
terms;  to  extol  is  Vo  praise  in  strong  terms; 

The  servile  rout  their  careful  Ctesar  praise, 

Him  they  extol ; they  worship  him  alone. 

Dryden. 

He  who  expects  praise  will  not  be  contented  with 
simple  commendation : praise,  when  sincere,  and  be- 
stowed by  one  whom  we  esteem,  is  truly  gratifying: 
but  it  is  a dangerous  gift  for  the  receiver ; happy  that 
■nan  who  has  no  occasion  to  repent  the  acceptance 

jf  i; 

How  happy  them  we  find. 

Who  know  by  merit  to  engage  mankind. 

Prais'd  by  each  each  tongue,  by  ev’ry  heart  belov’d, 
For  virtues  practis’d,  and  for  arts  improv’d. — Jenyns. 
Commendation  is  always  sincere,  and  may  be  very 
beneficial  by  giving  encouragement;  ‘When  school- 
boys write  verse,  it  may  indeed  suggest  an  expectation 
of  something  better  hereafter,  but  deserves  not  to  be 
commended  for  any  real  merit  of  their  own.’ — Cowper. 
Applause  is  noisy ; it  is  the  sentiment  of  the  multitude, 
who  are  continually  changing ; 

While  from  both  benches,  with  redoubled  sounds, 
Th’  applause  of  lords  and  commoners  abounds. 

Dryden. 

APPLAUSE,  ACCLAMATION,  PLAUDIT. 
/fpplause,  from  the  Latin  appZawdo,  signifies  literally 
to  clap  the  li'iinds  or  stamp  the  feet  to  a thing  ; accla 


mation,  from  acclamo,  signifies  a crying  out  tc  a thing 
These  two  words  answer  to  the  plauaus  and  acclamatie 
of  the  Romatis,  which  were  distinguished  from  each 
other  in  the  same  manner ; but  the  plausus  wao  ar 
artful  way  of  moving  the  hands  so  as  to  produce  ar 
harmonious  sound  by  way  of  applause,  pariicular’y  in 
the  theatre; 

Datus  in  theatro, 

Cum  tibi  plausus. — Horace. 

In  medio  plausa, ^ZaitsMs  tunc  arte  carebal. — Ovid 

Stantiaque  xnplausum  tota  theatra  juvent. 

Propertius 

The  word  plausus  was  somelin.es  used  in  the  sense  ol 
applause  expressed  by  words ; tae  acclamatio  was  an 
expression  by  the  voice  only,  but  it  was  either  a mark 
of  approbation  or  disapprobation  ; favourable  acclama 
tions  were  denominated  laudatioves  et  bona  vota,  ihc 
unfavourable  were  exsecrationes  et  convicia,  all  which 
were  expressed  by  a certain  prescribed  modulation  of 
the  voice.  Plaudit,  or,  as  it  was  originally  written, 
plaudite,  is  the  imperative  of  the  verb  plaudo,  and  was 
addressed  by  the  actors  to  the  spectators  at  the  close  of 
the  performance  by  way  of  soliciting  their  applause ; 

Si  plausoris  eges  aultea  manentis,  et  usque 
Sessuri,  donee  cantor,  vos  plaudite,  dicat. 

Horace 

Hence  the  term  pZawdri  denotes  a single  act  o[ applause, 
but  is  now  mostly  employed  figuratively ; 

True  wisdom  must  our  actions  so  direct 

Not  only  the  last  plaudit  to  expect. — Denham. 

These  terms  express  a publick  demonstration  ; the 
former  by  means  of  a noise  with  the  hands  or  feel ; the 
latter  by  means  of  shouts  and  cries : the  former  being 
employed  as  a testimony  of  approbation ; the  latter  as 
a sanction,  or  an  indication  of  respect.  An  actor  looks 
for  applause ; a speaker  looks  for  acclamation. 

What  a man  does  calls  forth  applause,  but  the  person 
himself  is  mostly  received  with  acclamations.  At  the 
hustings  popular  speeches  meet  with  applause,  and 
favourite  members  are  greeted  with  loud  acclamations ; 
Amid  the  loud  applauses  of  the  shore 
Gyas  outstripp’d  the  rest  and  sprung  before. 

Dryden. 

‘ When  this  illustrious  person  (the  duke  of  Marlbo 
rough)  touched  on  the  shore,  he  was  received  by  the 
acclamations  of  the  people.’ — Steele. 

ENCOMIUM,  EULOGY,  PANEGYRICK. 

Encomium,  in  Greek  tyKoopiov,  signified  a set  form 
of  verses,  used  for  the  purposes  of  praise ; eulogy,  in 
Greek  tvXoyia,  from  cJ  and  Xdyog,  signifies  well  spoken, 
or  a good  word  for  any  one ; panegyrick,  in  Greek 
navrjY'vpixdi,  from  nds  the  whole,  and  dyvpis  an  as- 
sembly, signifies  that  which  is  spoken  before  an  assem 
bly,  a solemn  oration. 

The  idea  of  praise  is  common  to  all  these  terms : but 
the  first  seems  more  properly  applied  to  the  thing,  or 
the  unconscious  object ; the  second  to  the  person  in 
general,  or  to  the  characters  and  actions  of  men  in 
general ; the  third  to  the  person  of  some  particular  indi 
vidual:  thus  we  bestow  encomiums  upon  any  work  of 
art,  or  production  of  genius,  without  reference  to  the 
performer;  we  bestow  eulogies  on  the  exploits  of  a 
hero,  who  is  of  another  age  or  country ; but  we  write 
panegyricks  either  in  a direct  address,  or  in  direct 
reference  to  the  person  who  is  panegyrized:  the  enco- 
mium is  produced  by  merit,  real  or  supposed ; the  eulogy 
may  spring  from  admiration  of  the  person  eulogized; 
the  panegyrick  may  be  mere  flattery,  resulting  from 
servile  dependence  : great  encomiums  have  been  paid 
by  all  persons  to  the  constitution  of  England ; ‘ Our 
lawyers  are,  with  justice,  copious  in  iheir  encomiums 
on  the  common  law.’ — Blackstone.  Our  naval  and 
military  heroes  have  received  the  eulogies  of  many 
besides  their  own  countrymen  ; ‘ Sallust  would  say  of 
Cato,  “That  he  had  rather  be  than  appear  good:” 
but  indeed  this  eulogium  rose  no  higher  than  to  an  inof 
fensiveness.’ — Steele.  Authors  of  no  mean  reputa- 
tion have  condescended  to  deal  out  their  panegyrick) 
pretty  freely  in  dedications  to  their  patrons ; 

On  me,  when  dunces  are  satirick, 

I take  it  for  & pajiegyrick.SwivT. 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES-  irr 


LAUDABLE  PRAISEWORTHY  COM 
MENDABLE. 

Laudable^  from  the  Latin  laudo  to  praise,  is  in  sense 
iterally  praiseworthy^  that  is,  worthy  of  praise^  or  to 
ae  praised  (w.  To  praise) ; commendable  signifies  enti- 
tled to  commendation. 

Laudable  is  used  in  a general  application  ; praise- 
wortny  and  commendable  are  applied  to  individuals : 
things  are  laudable  in  themselves ; they  are  praise- 
worthy or  commendable  in  this  or  that  person. 

That  which  is  laudable  is  entitled  to  encouragement 
and  general  approbation ; an  honest  endeavour  to  be 
useful  to  one’s  family  or  one’s  self  is  at  all  times  lau- 
dable^ and  will  ensure  the  support  of  all  good  people. 
What  is  praiseworthy  obtains  the  respect  of  all  men ; 
as  all  have  temptations  to  do  that  which  is  wrong,  the 
performance  of  one’s  duty  is  in  all  cases  praiseworthy  ; 
but  particularly  so  in  those  cases  where  it  opposes  one’s 
interests  and  interferes  with  one’s  pleasures.  What  is 
commendable  is  not  equally  important  with  the  two 
former ; it  entitles  a person  only  to  a temporary  or  par- 
tial e.\pression  of  good  will  and  approbation  : the  per- 
formance of  those  minor  and  particular  duties  which 
belong  to  children  and  subordinate  persons  is  in  the 
proper  sense  commendable. 

It  is  a laudable  ambition  to  wish  to  e.'tcel  in  that 
which  is  good ; ‘ Nothing  is  more  laudable  than  an 
inquiry  after  truth.’ — Addison.  It  is  very  praise- 
worthy in  a child  to  assist  its  parent  as  occasion  may 
require;  ‘Ridicule  is  generally  made  use  of  to  laugh 
men  out  of  virtue  and  good  sense  by  attacking  every 
thing  praiseworthy  in  human  life.’ — Addison.  Si- 
lence is  commendable  in  a young  person  when  he  is 
reproved  ; ‘ Edmund  Waller  was  born  to  a very  fair 
estate  by  the  parsimony  or  frugality  of  a wise  father 
and  mother,  and  he  thought  it  so  commendable  an  ad- 
vantage that  he  resolved  to  improve  it  with  his  utmost 
care  ’ — Clarendon. 


TO  CONTEND,  STRIVE,  VIE. 

Contend^  in  Latin  contendo,  compounded  of  con  or 
contra  and  tendo  to  bend  one’s  steps,  signifies  to  eAeri 
one’s  self  against  any  thing ; strive^  in  Dutch  streren, 
low  German  strevan, InghGerman  streben,  is  probably 
a frequentative  of  the  Latin  strepo  to  make  a bustle; 
vie  is  probably  changed  from  view,  signifying  to  look 
at  with  the  desire  of  excelling. 

Contending  requires  two  parties  ; strive  either  one 
or  two.  There  is  no  contending  where  there  is  not 
an  opposition  ; but  a person  may  strive  by  himself. 

Contend  and  strive  differ  in  the  object  as  well  as 
mode ; we  contend  for  a prize  ; we  strive  for  the  mas- 
tery ; we  contend  verbally;  but  we  never  strive  with- 
out an  actual  effort,  and  labour  more  or  less  severe. 
We  may  contend  with  a person  at  a distance ; but 
striving  requires  the  opponent,  when  there  is  one,  to 
oe  present.  Opponents  in  matters  of  opinion  contend 
for  what  they  fancy  to  be  the  truth  ; sometimes  they 
contend  for  trifles ; 

Mad  as  the  seas  and  the  winds,  when  both  contend 

Which  is  the  master. — Shakspkare. 

Combatants  striveio  overcome  their  adversaries,  either 
by  dint  of  superiour  skill  or  strength.  In  contention 
the  prominent  idea  is  the  mutual  efforts  of  two  or  more 
persons  for  the  same  object ; but  in  striving  the  pro- 
minent idea  is  the  efforts  of  one  to  attain  an  object; 
hence  the  terms  may  sometimes  be  employed  in  one 
and  the  same  connexion,  and  yet  expressing  these  col- 
lateral ideas ; 

Mad  as  the  winds 

When  for  the  empire  of  the  main  they  strive. 

Dennis. 

Contend  is  frequently  used  in  a figurative  sense,  in 
application  to  things;  strive  very  seldom.  We  con- 
tend with  difficulties ; and  in  the  spiritual  application, 
we  may  be  said  to  strive  with  the  spirit. 

Vie  has  more  of  striving  than  contending  in  it ; we 
strive  to  excel  when  we  vie,  but  we  do  not  strive  with 
anyone;  there  is  no  personal  collision  or  opposition  : 
those  we  vie  with  may  be  as  ignorant  of  our  persons 
as  oiir  intentions.  The  term  vie  is  therefore  frequently 
applied  to  unconscious  objects ; 


Shall  a form 

Of  elemental  dross,  of  mould'ring  clay, 

Vie  with  these  charms  imperial  ? 

Mason  (on  Truth) 

Vying  is  an  act  of  no  moment,  but  contending  and 
striving  are  always  serious  actions : neighbours  often 
vie  with  each  other  in  the  finery  and  grandeur  of  their 
house,  dress,  and  equipage. 


COMPETITION,  EMULATION,  RIVALRY 

Competition,  from  the  Latin  competo,  compoundec 
of  com  or  con  and  peto,  signifies  to  sue  or  seek  together, 
to  seek  for  the  same  object;  emulation,  in  Latin  emu- 
latio,  from  mmulor,  and  the  Greek  atiiXka  a contest, 
signifies  the  spirit  of  contending ; rivalry,  from  the 
Latin  rivus  the  bank  of  a stream,  signifies  the  undi 
vided  or  common  enjoyment  of  any  stream  which  is 
the  natural  source  of  discord. 

Competition  expresses  the  relation  of  a competitor, 
or  the  act  of  seeking  the  same  object;  emulation  ex- 
presses a disposition  of  the  mind  toward  partici  hr 
objects;  rivalry  expresses  both  the  relation  and  the 
disposition  of  a rival.  Emulation  is  to  comp  :tition  as 
the  motive  to  the  action  ; emulation  produces  competi- 
tors, hut  it  may  exist  without  it ; ‘Of  the  ancients 
enough  remains  to  excite  our  emulation  and  direct  our 
endeavours.’ — Johnson. 

Competition  and  emulation  have  the  same  marks  to 
distinguish  them  from  rivalry.  Competition  and  emu 
lation  have  honour  for  their  basis;  rivalry  is  but  a 
desire  for  selfish  gratification.  A competitor  strives  to 
surpass  by  honest  means ; he  cannot  succeed  so  well 
by  any  other ; ‘ It  cannot  be  doubted  but  there  is  as 
great  a desire  of  glory  in  a ring  of  wrestlers  or  cudgel 
players  as  in  any  other  more  refined  competition  for 
superiority.’ — Hughes.  A rival  is  not  bound  by  any 
principle ; he  seeks  to  supplant  by  whatever  means 
seem  to  promise  success ; ‘ Those,  that  have  been 
raised  by  the  interest  of  some  great  minister,  trample 
upon  the  steps  by  which  they  rise,  to  rival  him  in  his 
greatness,  and  at  length  step  into  his  place.’ — South. 
Anwiifair  competitor  and  a generous  '-ival  are  equally 
unusual  and  inconsistent.  Competition  animates  to 
exertion  ; rivalry  provokes  hatred  :*  competition  seeks 
to  merit  success ; rivalry  is  contented  with  obtaining 
it ; ‘To  be  no  man’s  rival  in  love,  or  competitor  in 
business,  is  a character  which,  if  it  does  not  recom- 
mend you  as  it  ought  to  benevolence  among  those 
whom  you  live  with,  yet  has  it  certainly  this  effect, 
that  you  do  not  stand  so  much  in  need  of  their  appro- 
bation as  if  you  aimed  at  more.’ — Steele.  Competi- 
tors may  sometimes  become  rivals  in  spirit,  although 
rivals  will  never  become  competitors. 

It  is  further  to  be  remarked,  that  competition  sup 
poses  some  actual  effort  for  the  attainment  of  a specifick 
object  set  in  view  riuaZry  may  consist  of  a continued 
wishing  for  and  aiming  at  the  same  general  end  with- 
out necessarily  comprehending  the  idea  of  close  action. 
Competitors  are  in  the  same  line  with  each  other, 
rivals  may  work  toward  the  same  point  at  a great  dis- 
tance from  each  other.  Literary  prizes  are  the  objects 
of  competition  among  scholars ; ‘ The  prize  of  beauty 
was  disputed  till  you  were  seen,  butnowall  pretenders 
have  withdrawn  their  claims ; there  is  no  competition 
but  for  the  second  place.’ — Drydkn.  The  affections 
of  a female  are  the  object  of  rivals ; 

Oh,  love  1 thou  sternly  dost  thy  power  maintain. 

And  wilt  not  bear  a rival  in  thy  reign. 

Tyrants  and  thou  all  fellowship  disdain.—- Dryden 
William  the  Conqueror  and  Harold  were  competitors 
for  the  crown  of  England;  Aeneas  and  Turnus  were 
rivals  for  the  hand  of  Lavinia.  In  the  games  which 
were  celebrated  by  .^neas  in  honour  of  his  father 
Anchises,  the  naval  competitors  were  the  most  edgei 
in  the  contest.  Juno,  Minerva,  and  Venus,  were  rival 
goddesses  in  their  pretensions  to  beauty. 


TO  CONTEND,  CONTEST,  DISPUTE. 

To  contend  signifies  generally  to  strive  one  agains! 
another  ; to  contest,  from  the  Latin  contestor,  to  call 
one  witness  againt  another  ; and  dispute,  from  dispute 

* Vide  Abbe  Roiibaud  ; “ Emulaiion,  rivalit^  ’ 


132 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES, 


to  think  differently,  or  maintain  a different  opinion,  | 
are  different  modes  of  contending.  We  may  contend 
for  or  dispute  a prize,  but  the  latter  is  a higher  form  of 
expression,  adapted  to  the  style  of  poetry ; 

Permit  me  not  to  languish  out  my  days. 

But  make  the  best  exchange  of  life  for  praise. 

This  arm,  this  lance,  can  well  dispute  the  prize 
Dryden. 

We  cannot  contest  or  dispute  without  contending, 
although  we  may  contend  without  contesting  or  dis- 
puting. To  contend  is  confined  to  the  idea  of  setting 
one’s  self  up  against  another ; to  contest  and  dispute 
must  include  some  object  contested  or  disputed.  Con- 
tend is  applied  to  all  matters,  either  of  personal  interest 
or  speculative  opinion  ; contest  always  to  the  former  ; 
dispute  mostly  to  the  latter.  We  contend  with  a per- 
son, and  contest  about  a thing; 

’Tis  madness  to  contend  with  strength  Divine 

Dryden. 

During  the  present  long  and  eventful  contest  between 
England  and  France,  the  English  have  contended  wifti 
their  enemies  as  successfully  by  land  as  by  sea.  Tri- 
fling matters  may  give  rise  to  contending;  serious 
points  only  are  contested.  Contentions  are  always 
conducted  personally,  and, in  general  verbally;  con- 
tests are  carried  on  in  different  manners  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  object.  The  parties  themselves 
mostly  decide  contentions ; but  contested  matters 
mostly  depend  upon  others  to  decide. 

For  want  of  an  accommodating  temper,  men  are 
frequently  contending  with  each  other  about  little 
points  of  convenience,  advantage,  or  privilege,  which 
they  ought  by  mutual  consent  to  share,  or  voluntarily 
to  resign ; 

Death  and  nature  do  contend  about  them 

Whether  they  live  or  die. — Shakspeare. 

When  seats  in  parliament  or  other  posts  of  honour  are 
to  be  obtained  by  suffrages,  rival  candidates  contest 
their  claims  to  pubhek  approbation;  ‘As  the  same 
causes  had  nearly  the  same  effects  in  the  different 
countries  of  Europe,  the  several  crowns  either  lost  or 
acquired  authority,  according  to  their  different  success 
in  the  confesf.’— Hume. 

When  we  assert  the  right,  and  support  this  assertion 
tv'ith  reasons  we  contend  {or  ii , 

’T  is  thus  the  spring  of  youth,  the  morn  of  life. 
Rears  in  our  minds  the  rival  seeds  of  strife ; 

Then  passion  riots,  reason  then  contends, 

And  on  the  conquest  every  bliss  depends. 

Shenstone. 

But  we  do  not  contest  until  we  take  serious  measures 
to  obtain  what  we  contend  for ; 

The  poor  worm 
Shall  prove  her  contest  vain.  Life’s  little  day 
Shall  pass,  and  she  is  gone.  While  I appear 
Flush’d  with  the  bloom  of  youth  through  heav’n’s 
eternal  year. — Mason  {on  Truth). 

Contend  is  to  dispute  as  a part  to  the  whole : two  parties 
dispute  conjointly ; they  contend  individually.  Each 
contends  for  his  own  opinion,  which  constitutes  the 
dispute.  Theological  disputants  often  contend  with 
more  warmth  than  discretion  for  their  favourite  hy- 
pothesis ; ‘ The  question  which  our  author  would  con- 
tend for,  if  he  did  not  forget  it,  is  what  persons  have  a 
right  to  be  obeyed.’ — Locke.  With  regard  to  claims, 
it  is  possible  to  dispute  the  claim  of  another  without 
contending  for  it  for  ourselves ; ‘ Until  any  point  is  de- 
termined to  be  a law,  it  remains  disputable  by  any 
subject.’ — SwjxT. 


CONTENTION,  STRIFE. 

Thoiign  derived  from  the  preceding  verbs  (r.  To 
contend,  strive),  have  a distinct  meaning  in  which  they 
are  analogous.  The  common  idea  to  them  is  that  of 
opposing  one’s  self  to  another  with  an  angry  humour. 

Contention  is  mostly  occasioned  by  the  desire  of 
seelring  one's  own.  Strife  springs  from  a quarrelsome 
temper.  Greedy  and  envious  people  deal  in  contention, 
the  former  because  they  are  fearful  lest  they  should  not 
get  encugh;  the  latter  because  they  as r fearful  lest 
others  should  get  too  much  ; 


With  these  four  more  of  lesser  ftuiM* 

And  humble  lanK,  attendant  came ; 

Hypocrisy  with  smiling  grace. 

And  Impudence,  with  brazen  face. 

Contention  bold,  with  iron  lungs, 

And  Slander,  with  her  hundr^  tongue;. 

Me  ORE 

Where  bad  tempers  that  are  under  no  control  come 
in  frequent  collision,  perpetual  strife  will  be  the  con 
sequence  ; ‘ A solid  and  substantial  greatness  of  3oa< 
looKs  down  with  a generous  neglect  on  the  censures  ar.d 
applauses  of  the  multitude,  and  places  a nian  beyond 
the  little  noise  and  strife  of  tongues.’ — Addison. 


TO  DIFFER,  VARY,  DISAGREE,  DISSENl 

Differ,  in  Latin  differo  or  dis  and  fero,  signifies  tt 
make  into  two ; vary,  in  Latin  vario  to  make  various, 
from  varus  a spot  or  speckle,  because  that  destroys  the 
uniformity  in  the  appearance  of  things ; to  disagree  is 
literally  not  to  agree;  and  dissent,  in  Latin  dissentio  ot 
dis  and  sentio,  is  to  think  or  feel  apart  or  differently. 

Differ,  vary,  and  disagree,  are  applicable  either  to 
persons  or  things ; dissent  to  persons  only.  First  as  to 
persons ; to  differ  is  the  most  general  and  indefinite 
term,  the  rest  are  but  modes  of  difference : we  may  differ 
from  any  cause,  or  in  any  degree ; we  vary  only  in 
small  matters  ; thus  persons  may  differ  or  vary  in  their 
statements.  There  must  be  two  at  least  to  differ ; and 
there  may  be  an  indefinite  number:  one  may  vary,  oi 
an  indefinite  number  may  vary;  two  or  a specifick 
number  disagree  : thus  two  or  more  may  differ  in  an 
account  which  they  give ; one  person  may  vary  at  dif 
fereut  times  in  the  account  which  he  gives ; and  two 
pari  Icular  individuals  disagree ; we  may  differ  in  mat 
ters  of  fact  or  speculation  ; we  vary  only  in  matters  of 
fact ; we  disagree  mostly  in  matters  of  speculation. 
Historians  may  di^erin  the  representation  of  an  affair 
and  authors  may  differ  in  their  views  of  a particular 
subject ; narrators  vary  in  certain  circumstances ; two 
particular  philosophers  disagree  in  accounting  for  a 
phenomenon. 

To  disagree  is  the  act  of  one  man  with  another : to 
dissent  is  the  act  of  one  or  more  in  relation  to  a com 
munity  ; thus  two  writers  on  the  same  subject  may 
disagree  in  their  conclusions,  because  they  set  out  from 
different  premises ; men  dissent  from  the  established 
religion  of  their  country  according  to  their  education 
and  character. 

When  applied  to  the  ordinary  transactions  of  life, 
differences  may  exist  merely  in  opinion,  or  with  a mix- 
ture of  more  or  less  acrimonious  and  discordant  feeling; 
variances  arise  from  a collision  of  interests;  disagree- 
ments from  asperity  of  humour ; dissensions  from  a 
clashing  of  opinions;  differences  may  exist  between 
nations,  and  may  be  settled  by  cool  discussions  ; ‘ The 
ministers  of  the  different  potentates  conferred  and  con- 
ferred ; but  the  peace  advanced  so  slowly,  that  speedier 
methods  were  found  necessary,  and  Bolingbroke  was 
sent  to  Paris  to  adjust  differences  with  less  formality.’ — 
Johnson.  When  variances  arise  between  neighbours, 
their  passions  often  interfere  to  prevent  accommo- 
dations; 

How  many  bleed 
By  shameful  variance  betwixt  man  and  man. 

Thomson. 

Y/hen  members  of  a family  consult  interest  or  humour 
rather  than  affections,  there  will  be  necessarily  disa- 
greements ; ‘ On  his  arrival  at  Geneva,  Goldsmith  was 
recommended  as  a travelling  tutor  to  a young  gentlemaw 
who  had  been  unexpectedly  left  a sum  of  money  bv  e 
near  relation.  This  connexion  lasted  but  a short  time 
j they  disagreed  in  the  south  of  France  and  parted.’— 
Johnson.  When  many  members  of  a community  havt 
an  equal  liberty  to  express  their  opinions,  there  wil' 
necessarily  be  dissensions  ; 

When  Carthage  shall  contend  tne  world  with  Rome 

Then  is  your  time  for  faction  and  debate. 

For  partial  favour  and  permitted  hate; 

Let  now  your  immature  dissension  cease. 

IlRYDEN. 

In  regard  to  things,  difer  is  said  of  two  things  with 
respect  to  each  other  ; vary  of  one  thing  in  respect  to 
itself:  thus  two  tempers  differ  from  each  other,  and  a 
, person’s  temper  varies  from  time  to  time.  Things  difer 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


- 135 


in  their  essences,  they  var%  in  their  accidents : thus  the 
genera  and  species  of  tilings  differ  from  each  other,  and 
theindividualsof  each  species  vary ; ‘ We  do  not  know 
in  what  reason  and  instinct  consist,  and  therefore 
cannot  tell  with  exactness  in  what  they  di/fer.’— John- 
son. ‘Trade  and  commerce  might  doubtless  be  still 
varied  a thousand  ways,  out  of  which  would  arise  such 
branches  as  have  not  been  touched.’ — Johnson.  Differ 
is  said  of  every  thing  promiscuously,  but  disagree  is 
only  said  of  such  things  as  might  agree;  thus  two  trees 
differ  from  each  other  by  the  course  of  things,  but  two 
numbers  disagree  which  are  intended  to  agree  ; ‘ The 
several  parts  of  the  same  animal  differ  in  their  quali- 
liia’ — Arbuthnot. 

That  mind  and  body  often  sympathize 
Is  plain;  such  is  this  union  nature  ties  ; 

But  then  as  often  too  they  disagree^ 

Which  proves  the  soul’s  superiour  progeny. 

Jenyns. 


DIFFERENCE,  DISPUTE,  AI.TERCATION, 
QUARREL. 

The  difference  is  that  on  which  one  differs,  or  the 
state  of  differing  (u.  To  differ) ; the  dispute  that  on 
which  one  disputes,  or  the  act  of  disputing  ; altercation^ 
in  Latin  altercalio  and  alterco,  from  alteriim  and  cor 
another  mind,  signifies  expressing  another  opinion; 
quarrel,  in  French  querelle,  from  tlie  Latin  queror  to 
complain,  signifies  having  a complaint  against  another. 

All  these  terms  are  here  taken  in  the  general  sense 
of  a difference  on  some  personal  question  ; the  term  dif- 
ference is  here  as  general  and  indefinite  as  in  the  former 
case  [v.  To  differ,  vary) : a difference,  as  distinguished 
from  the  others,  is  generally  of  a less  serious  and  per- 
sonal kind  ; a dispute  consists  not  only  of  angry  words, 
but  much  ill  blood  and  unkind  offices ; an  altercation 
is  a wordy  dispute,  in  which  difference  of  opinion  is 
drawn  out  into  a multitude  of  words  on  all  sides; 
quarrel  is  the  most  serious  of  all  differences,  which  leads 
lo  every  species  of  violence : the  difference  may  some- 
times arise  from  a misunderstanding,  which  may  be 
easily  rectified ; differences  seldom  grow  to  disputes 
but  by  the  fault  of  both  parties;  altercations  arise 
mostly  from  pertinacious  adherence  to,  and  obstinate 
defence  of,  one’s  opinions  ; quarrels  mostly  spring  from 
injuries  real  or  supposed  • differences  subsist  between 
men  in  an  individual  or  publick  capacity : they  may  be 
carried  on  in  a direct  or  indirect  manner  ; ‘Ought  less 
differences  altogether  to  divide  and  estrange  those  from 
one  another,  whom  such  ancient  and  sacred  bands 
unite  ■?’ — Blair.  Disputes  and  altercations  are  mostly 
conducted  in  a direct  manner  between  individuals;  ‘ I 
haveoften  been  pleased  to  hear  disputes  on  the  Exchange 
adjusted  between  an  inhabitant  of  Japan  and  an  aider- 
man  of  London.’ — Addison.  ‘ In  the  house  of  Peers 
the  bill  passes  through  the  same  forms  as  in  the  other 
house,  and  if  rejected  no  more  notice  is  taken,  but  it 
passes  sub  silensio  to  prevent  unbecoming  altercation.' 
--Blackstonk.  Quarrels  may  arise  between  nations 
or  individuals,  and  be  carried  on  by  acts  of  offence 
directly  or  indirectly ; 

Unvex’d  with  quarrels,  undisturb’d  with  noise. 

The  country  king  his  peaceful  realm  enjoys. 

Dryden. 


DISSENSION,  CONTENTION,  DISCORD, 
STRIFE. 

Dissension,  contention,  and  strife,  mark  the  act  or 
state  of  dissenting,  of  contending  and  striving;  discord 
derives  its  signification  from  the  harshness  produced  in 
musick  by  the  clashing  of  two  strings  which  do  not  suit 
with  each  other;  whence,  in  the  moral  sense,  the 
chords  of  the  mind  which  come  into  an  unsuitable  col- 
lision, produce  a discord. 

A collision  of  opinions  produces  dissension ; a colli- 
sion of  interests  produces  contention ; a collision  of 
humours  produces  discord  {v.  Contention).  A love  of 
line’s  own  opinion,  combined  with  a disregard  for  the 
opinions  of  others,  gives  rise  to  dissension ; selfishness 
is  the  main  cause  of  contention  ; and  an  ungoverned 
temper  thatof  discord. 

Dissension  is  peculiar  to  bodies  or  communities  of 
men  ; contention  and  discordto  individuals.  A Chris- 
tian temner  oi  conformity  to  the  general  will  of  those 


with  whom  one  is  in  connexion  would  do  away  dis- 
sension; ‘ At  the  time  the  poem  we  are  now  treating 
of  was  written,  the  dissensions  of  the  barons,  who  were 
then  so  many  petty  princes,  ran  very  high.’ — Addison. 
A limitation  of  one’s  desire  to  that  which  is  attainable 
by  legitimate  means  would  put  a stop  to  contention ; 
‘ Because  it  is  apprehended  there  may  be  great  conten- 
tion about  precedence,  the  proposer  humbly  desires  the 
assistance  of  the  learned.’ — Swift.  A correction  of 
one’s  impatient  and  irritable  humour  would  check  the 
progre.ss  of  discord ; 

But  shall  celestial  discord  never  cease  1 
’T  is  better  ended  in  a lasting  peace. — Dryden. 
Dissension  tends  not  only  to  alienate  the  minds  of  men 
from  each  other,  but  to  dissolve  the  bonds  of  society ; 
Now  join  your  hands,  and  with  your  hands  your  hearts. 
That  no  dissension  hinder  government. 

Shakspkare 

Contention  is  accompanied  by  anger,  ill-will,  envy,  and 
many  evil  passions  ; ‘ The  ancients  made  contention  the 
principle  that  reigned  in  the  chaos  at  first,  and  then 
love  ; the  one  to  express  the  divisions,  and  the  other  the 
union  of  all  parties  in  the  middle  and  common  bond.’ — 
Burnet.  Discord  interrupts  the  progress  of  the  kind 
affections,  and  bars  all  tender  intercourse  ; 

See  what  a scourge  is  laid  upon  your  hate 

That  heav’n  finds  means  to  kill  your  joys  with  love  '. 

And  I.  for  winking  at  your  discords  too. 

Have  lost  a brace  of  kinsmen. — Shakspeare. 

Where  there  is  strife,  there  must  be  discord;  but  there 
may  be  discord  without  strife  : discord  consists  most 
in  the  feeling  ; strife  consists  most  in  the  outward  ac 
tion.  Discord  evinces  itself  in  various  ways ; by  looks^ 
words,  or  actions ; 

Good  Heav’n!  what  dire  effects  f*-om  civil  discord 
flow. — Dryden. 

Strife  displays  itself  in  words  or  ac'S  of  violence  • 

Let  men  their  days  in  senseless  st-i-ife  employ. 

We  in  eternal  peace  and  constant  joy. — Pope. 
Discord  is  fatal  to  the  happiness  of  families  ; strife  U 
the  greatest  enemy  to  peace  between  neighbours : dis- 
cord arose  between  the  goddesses  on  the  apple  being 
thrown  into  the  assembly;  Homer  commences  his 
poem  with  the  strife  thal  took  place  between  Aga 
memnon  and  Achilles. 

Discord  may  arise  from  mere  difference  of  opinion ; 
strife  is  in  general  occasioned  by  some  matter  of  per- 
sonal interest : discord  in  the  councils  of  a nation  is 
the  almost  certain  forerunner  of  its  ruin  ; the  common 
principles  of  politeness  forbid  strife  an?oug  persons  of 
good  breeding. 

■<:  

QUARREL,  BROIL,  FEUD  AFFRAY  OR 
FRAY. 

Quarrel  {v.  Difference)  is  the  gonsral  and  ordinary 
term;  broil,  feud,  and  affray,  are  particular  terms; 
broil,  from  brawl,  is  a noisy  quarrel ; fend,  from  the 
German  fehde,  and  the  English  fight,  is  an  active 
quarrel;  affray  or  fray,  from  the  Latin  frico  to  rub, 
signifying  the  collision  of  the  passions,  is  a tumultuous 
quarrel. 

The  idea  of  a variance  between  two  parties  is  com- 
mon to  these  terms ; but  the  former  respects  the  com 
plaints  and  charges  which  are  reciprocally  made ; 
broil  respects  the  confusion  and  entanglement  which 
arises  from  a contention  and  collision  of  interests; 
feud  respects  the  hostilities  which  arise  out  of  the 
variance.  There  are  quarrels  where  there  are  no 
broils,  and  there  are  both  where  there  are  no  feuds ; 
but  there  are  no  broils  and  feuds  without  quarrels  : 
the  quarrel  is  not  always  openly  conducted  between 
the  paVties ; it  may  sometimes  be  secret,  and  sometiniet 
manifest  itself  only  in  a coolness  of  behaviour  the 
broil  is  a noisy  kind  of  quarrel,\\.  always  breaks  out 
in  loud,  and  mostly  reproachful  language : feud  is  a 
deadly  kind  of  quarrel  which  is  heightened  by  mutual 
aggravations  and  insults.  Quarrels  are  very  lamenta- 
ble when  they  take  place  between  members  of  the  same 
family;  ‘The  dirk  or  broad  dagger,  I am  afraid,  was 
of  more  use  in  private  quarrels  than  in  battles.*— 
Johnson.  Broils  are  very  frequent  among  profligate 
and  restless  people  who  live  together ; 


134 


ENGLISH  SYNONJ^MES. 


Ev’n  haughty  Juno,  who  with  endless  broils, 

Earth,  seas,  and  heav’n,  and  Jove  himself  turmoils. 
At  length  aton’d,  her  friendly  pow’r  shall  join 
To  cherish  and  advance  the  Trojan  line. — Drydkn. 
Feuds  were  very  general  in  former  times  between  dif- 
ferent families  of  the  nobility ; ‘ The  poet  describes 
(in  the  poem  of  Chevy-Chase)  a battle  occasioned  by 
the  mutual  feuds  which  reigned  in  the  families  of  an 
English  and  Scotch  nobleman.’— Addison. 

A quarrel  is  indefinite,  both  as  to  the  cause  and  the 
manner  in  which  it  is  conducted  ; an  affray  is  a sudden 
violent  kind  of  quarrel : a quarrel  may  subsist  be- 
tween two  persons  from  a private  difference ; an  affray 
always  takes  place  between  many  upon  some  publick 
occasion:  a quarrel  may  be  carried  on  merely  by 
words ; an  affray  is  commonly  conducted  by  acts  of 
violence:  many  angry  words  pass  in  a quarrel  be- 
tween two  hasty  people  ; ‘ The  quarrel  between  my 
friends  did  not  run  so  high  as  I find  your  accounts 
have  made  it.’ — Stkele.  Many  are  wounded,  if  not 
killed  in  affrays,  when  opposite  parties  meet ; ‘ The 
nrovoslof  Edinburgh,  his  son,  and  several  citizens  of 
iistinction,  were  killed  in  the  fray.' — Robertson. 

TO  JANGLE,  JAR,  WRANGLE. 

A verbal  contention  is  expressed  by  all  these  terms, 
but  with  various  modifications  ; jangle  seems  to  be  an 
onomatopoeia,  for  it  conveys  by  its  own  discordant 
sound  an  idea  of  the  discordance  which  accompanies 
this  kind  of  war  of  words;  jar  and  war  are  in  all  pro- 
bability but  variations  of  each  other,  as  also  jangle 
and  wrangle.  There  is  in  jangling  more  of  cross 
questions  and  perverse  replies  than  direct  differences 
of  opinion ; ‘ Where  the  judicatories  of  the  church 
were  near  an  equality  of  the  men  on  both  sides,  there 
were  perpetual  janglings  on  both  sides.’ — Burnet. 
Those  jan^Ze  who  are  out  of  humour  with  each  other ; 
there  is  more  of  discordant  feeling  and  opposition  of 
opinion  in  jarring  ; those  who  have  no  good  will  to 
each  other  will  be  sure  to  jar  when  they  come  in  colli- 
sion ; and  those  who  indulge  themselves  in  jarring 
will  soon  convert  affection  into  ill  will ; ‘ There  is  no 
•ar  or  contest  between  the  different  gifts  of  the  spirit.’ 
—South.  Married  people  may  destroy  the  good  hu- 
mour of  the  company  by  jangling,  but  they  destroy 
their  domestick  peace  and  felicity  by  jarring.  To 
wrangle  is  technically,  what  to  jangle  is  morally : 
those  who  dispute  by  a veibal  opposition  only  are  said 
to  wrangle  ; and  the  disputers  who  engage  in  this  scho- 
lastick  exercise  are  termed  wranglers  ; most  disputa- 
tions amount  to  little  more  than  wrangles ; 

Peace,  factious  monster ! born  to  vex  the  state. 

With  wrangling  talents  form’d  for  foul  debate. 

Pope. 


TO  COMBAT,  OPPOSE. 

Combat,  from  the  French  combattre  to  fight  together, 
is  used  figuratively  in  the  same  sense  with  regard  to 
matters  of  opinion ; oppose,  in  French  opposer,  Latin 
opposui  perfect  of  oppono,  compounded  of  ob  and  pono 
to  place  one’s  self  in  the  way,  signifies  to  set  one’s  self 
up  against  another. 

Combat  is  properly  a species  of  opposing ; one  al- 
ways opposes  in  combatting,  though  not  vice  versA. 
To  combat  is  used  in  regard  to  speculative  matters ; 
oppose  in  regard  to  private  and  personal  concerns  as 
well  as  matters  of  opinion.  A person’s  positions  are 
combatted,  his  interests  or  his  measures  are  opposed. 
The  Christian  combats  the  erroneous  doctrines  of  the 
infidel  with  no  other  weapon  tham  that  of  argument ; 
When  fierce  temptation,  seconded  within 
By  traitor  appetite,  and  armed  with  darts 
Tempered  in  hell,  invades  the  throbbing  breast. 

To  combat  may  be  glorious,  and  success 
Perhaps  may  crown  us,  but  to  fly  is  safe.— Cowper. 
The  sophist  opposes  Christianity  with  ridicule  and 
misrepresentation ; 

Though  various  foes  against  the  truth  combine, 
Pride  above  all  opposes  her  design. — Cowper. 

The  most  laudable  use  to  which  knowledge  can  be 
converted  is  to  combat  errour  wherever  it  presents  it- 
self; but  there  are  too  many,  particularly  in  the  present 
day  who  employ  the  littU*  pittance  of  knowledge 


which  they  have  collected,  to  no  better  purpose  than  ic 
oppose  every  thing  that  is  good,  and  excite  the  same 
spirit  of  opposition  in  others. 


COMBATANT,  CHAMPION. 

Combatant,  from  to  combat,  marks  any  one  tlial 
engages  in  a comiat;  champion,  in  French  champion, 
Saxon  cempe,  German  kaempe,  signifies  originally  a 
soldier  or  fighter,  from  the  Latin  campus  a field  of 
battle. 

A combatant  fights  for  himself  and  for  victory  ; a 
champion  figlits  either  for  another,  or  in  another’s 
cause.  The  word  combatant  has  always  relation  to 
some  actual  engagement ; champion  may  be  employed 
for  one  ready  to  be  engaged,  or  in  the  habits  of  being 
engaged.  The  combatants  in  the  Olympic  games  used 
to  contend  for  a prize  ; the  Roman  gladiators  were 
combatants  who  fought  for  their  lives:  when  knight 
errantry  was  in  fashion  there  were  champions  of  all 
descriptions,  champions  in  behalf  of  distressed  females, 
champions  in  behalf  of  the  injured  and  oppressed,  or 
champions  in  behalf  of  aggrieved  princes. 

The  mere  act  of  fighting  constitutes  a combatant ; 
the  act  of  standing  up  in  another’s  defence  at  a per- 
sonal risk,  constitutes  the  champion.  Animals  hav'’ 
their  combats,  and  consequently  are  combatants ; bin 
they  are  seldom  champions.  In  the  present  day  there 
are  fewer  combatants  than  champions  among  men. 
We  have  champions  for  liberty,  who  are  the  least 
honourable  and  the  most  questionable  members  of  the 
community;  they  mostly  contend  for  a shadow,  and 
court  persecution,  in  order  to  serve  their  own  purposes 
of  ambition.  Champions  in  the  cause  of  Christianity 
are  not  less  ennobled  by  the  object  for  which  they 
contend,  than  by  the  disinterestedness  of  their  motives 
in  contending  ; they  must  expect  in  an  infidel  age,  like 
the  present,  to  be  exposed  to  the  derision  and  contempt 
of  their  self-sufficient  opponents  ; ‘ Conscious  that  I do 
not  possess  the  strength,  I shall  not  assume  the  impor- 
tance, of  a champion,  and  as  I am  not  of  dignity 
enough  to  be  angry,  I shall  keep  my  temper  and  my 
distance  too,  skirmishing  like  those  insignificant  gentry, 
who  play  the  part  of  teasers  in  the  Spanish  bull-fights 
while  bolder  combatants  engage  him  at  the  point  of 
his  horns.’ — Cumberland. 


ENEMY,  FOE,  ADVERSARY,  OPPONENT, 
ANTAGONIST. 

Enemy,  in  Latin  inimicus,  compounded  of  in  priva 
live,  and  amicus  a friend,  signifies  one  that  is  un- 
friendly; foe,  in  Saxon /aA,  most  probably  from  the  old 
Teutonic^an  to  hate,  signifies  one  that  bears  a hatred ; 
adversary,  in  Latin  adversarius,  from  adversus  against, 
signifies  one  that  takes  part  against  another ; adversa- 
rius in  Latin  was  particularly  applied  to  one  who  con- 
tested a point  in  law  with  another ; opponent,  in  Latin 
opponens,  participle  of  oppono  or  obpono  to  place  in  the 
way,  signifies  one  pitted  against  another ; antagonist, 
in  Greek  avraydivi^og,  compounded  of  ivri  against, 
and  dywvl^opai  to  contend,  signifies  one  struggling 
against  another. 

An  enemy  is  not  so  formidable  as  a/oe  ; the  former 
may  be  reconciled,  but  the  latter  always  retains  a 
deadly  hatred.  An  enemy  may  be  so  in  spirit,  in 
action,  or  in  relation  ; a foe  is  always  so  in  spirit,  if 
not  in  action  likewise:  a man  may  be  an  enemy  to 
himself,  though  not  a foe.  Those  who  are  national  or 
political  enemies  are  often  private  friends,  but  nfoe  is 
never  any  thing  but  a.  foe.  A single  act  may  create  an 
enemy,  but  continued  warfare  creates  a/ae. 

Enemies  are  either  publick  or  private,  collective  or 
personal;  in  the  latter  sense  the  word  enemy  is  most 
analogous  in  signification  to  that  of  adversary,  oppo- 
nent, antagonist.  * Enemies  seek  to  injure  each  other 
commonly  from  a sentiment  of  hatred ; the  heart  is 
always  more  or  less  implicated  ‘Plutarch  says  very 
finely,  that  a man  should  not  illow  himself  to  hath 
even  his  enemies' — Addison  .Adversaries  set  up 
their  claims,  and  frequently  urge,  iheir  pretensions  with 
angry  strife;  but  interest  or  contrariety  of  opinion 
more  than  sentiment  stimulates  to  action ; ‘ Those  dis- 
putants (the  persecutors)  convince  their  adversaries 

• Vide  Abbe  Girard:  “Ennemi  adve'saire,  antago 
niste.” 


ENGLISH  SYNONYAIES. 


' lUi  a sorites  commonly  called  a pile  of  fagots  ’ — 
ftDDisoN.  Opponents  set  up  different  parties,  and 
l-e5»  leach  other  sometimes  with  acrimony  ; but  their 
differences  do  not  necessarily  include  any  thing  i>er- 
sonal ; ‘ The  name  of  Boyle  is  indeed  revered,  but  his 
works  are  neglected ; we  are  contented  to  know  that 
he  conquered  his  opponents^  without  inquiring  whet 
cavils  were  produced  against  him.’ — Johnson.  Anta- 
gonists are  a species  of  opponents  who  are  in  actual 
engagement:  emulation  and  direct  exertion,  but  not 
anger,  is  concerned  in  making  the  antagonist ; ‘ Sir 
Francis  Bacon  observes  that  a well  written  book,  com- 
pared with  its  rivals  and  antagonists,  is  like  Moses’s 
serpent  that  immediately  swallowed  up  those  of  the 
Egyptians.’ — Addison.  Enemies  make  war,  aim  at 
destruction,  and  commit  acts  of  personal  violence: 
adversaries  are  contented  with  appropriating  to  them- 
selves some  object  of  desire,  or  depriving  their  rival  of 
it ; cupidity  being  the  moving  principle,  and  gain  the 
object:  opponents  oppose  each  other  systematically 
and  perpetually  ; eacli  aims  at  being  thought  right  in 
their  disputes : tastes  and  opinions  are  commonly  the 
subjects  of  debate,  self-love  oftener  than  a love  of 
truth  is  the  moving  principle  : antagonists  engage  in 
a trial  of  strength ; victory  is  the  end  ; the  love  of  dis- 
tinction or  superiority  the  moving  principle  ; the  con- 
test may  lie  either  in  mental  or  physical  exertion  ; may 
aim  at  superiority  in  a verbal  dispute  or  in  a manual 
combat.  There  are  nations  whose  subjects  are  born 
enemies  to  those  of  a neighbouring  nation : nothing 
evinces  the  radical  corruption  of  any  country  more 
than  when  the  poor  man  dares  not  show  himself  as  an 
adversary  to  his  rich  neighbour  without  fearing  to  lose 
more  than  he  might  gain:  the  ambition  of  some  men 
does  not  rise  higher  than  that  of  being  the  opponent  of 
ministers:  Scahger  and  Petavius  among  the  French 
were  great  antagonists  in  their  day,  as  were  Boyle 
and  Bentley  among  the  English ; the  Horatii  and  Cu- 
riatii  were  equally  famous  antagonists  in  their  way. 

Enemy  and  foe  are  likewise  employed  in  a figurative 
sense  for  moral  objects  : our  passions  are  our  enemies, 
when  indulged  ; envy  is  a foe  to  happiness. 


ENMITY,  ANIMOSITY,  HOSTILITY. 

Enmity  lies  in  the  heart;  it  is  deep  and  malignant: 
animosity,  from  animus,  a spirit,  lies  in  the  passions; 
it  is  fierce  and  vindictive : hostility,  from  hostis  a po- 
litical enemy,  lies  in  the  action;  it  is  mischievous  and 
destructive. 

Enmity  is  something  permanent;  animosity  is  par- 
tial and  transitory  : in  the  feudal  ages,  wljen  the  dark- 
ness and  ignorance  of  the  times  prevented  the  mild  in- 
fluence of  Christianity,  enmities  between  particular 
families  were  handed  down  as  an  inheritance  from 
father  to  son;  in  free  states,  party  spirit  engenders 
greater  animosities  than  private  disputes. 

Enmity  is  altogether  personal : hostility  mostly  re- 
spects publick  measures,  animosity  respects  either  one  or 
many  individuals.  Enmity  often  lies  concealed  in  the 
heart ; animosity  mostly  betrays  itself  by  some  open 
'ict  of  hostility.  He  who  cherishes  enmity  towards 
'.nother  is  his  own  greatest  enemy  , ‘ In  some  instances, 
indeed,  the  enmity  of  others  cannlit  be  avoided  without 
1 participation  in  their  guilt;  but  then  it  is  the  enmity 
of  those  with  whom  neither  wisdom  nor  virtue  can 
desire  to  associate.’ — Johnson.  He  who  is  guided  by 
a spirit  of  animosity  is  unfit  to  have  any  command  over 
others  ; ‘ I will  never  let  my  heart  reproach  me  with 
having  done  any  thing  towards  increasing  those  ani- 
mosities that  extinguish  religion,  deface  government, 
and  make  a nation  miserable.’ — Addison.  He  who 
proceeds  to  wanton  hostility  often  provokes  an  enemy 
where  he  might  have  a friend  ; ‘ Erasmus  himself  had, 
it  seems,  the  misfortune  to  fall  info  the  hands  of  a party 
of  Trojans  who  laid  on  him  wil  h so  many  blows  and 
buftets,  that  he  never  forgot  their  hostilities  to  his  dying 
day.’ — Addison. 


ADVERSE,  CONTRARY,  OPPOSITE. 

Adverse,  in  French  adverse,  Latin  adversus,  parti- 
ciple of  adverto,  compounded  of  ad  and  verto,  signifies 
turning  towards  or  against;  contrary,  in  French  con- 
iraire,  Latin  contraHus,  comes  from  contra  against ; 
opeosite  in  Latin  oppositus,  participle  of  onjjono,  is  | 


I compounded  of  od  and  po7io,  signifyirg  placed  in  th« 
I way. 

Adverse  respects  the  feelings  and  interests  of  ppt 
sons;  contrary  regards  their  plans  and  purposes;  op- 
posite relates  to  the  situation  of  persons  and  natui  e of 
things ; 

And  as  iEgseon,  when  with  heav’n  he  strove. 

Stood  opposite  in  arms  to  mighty  Jove. — Dryden. 
Fortune  is  adverse ; an  event  turns  out  contrai-y  to  what 
was  expected ; sentiments  are  opposite  to  each  other. 
An  adverse  wind  comes  across  our  wishes  and  pur 
suits  ; ‘ The  periodical  winds  which  were  then  set  in 
were  distinctly  adverse  to  the  course  which  Pizarro 
proposed  to  steer.’ — Robertson.  A contrary  wind  lies 
in  an  opposite  direction ; contrary  winds  are  mostly 
adverse  to  some  one  wlio  is  crossing  the  ocean ; adverse 
winds  need  not  always  be  directly  contrary. 

Circumstances  are  sometimes  so  adverse  as  to  baffle 
the  best  concerted  plans.  Facts  often  prove  directly 
contrary  to  the  representations  given  of  them  ; ‘ As  1 
should  be  loth  to  offer  none  but  instances  of  the  abuse 
of  prosperity,  I am  hap|)y  in  recollecting  one  very  sin 
gular  example  of  the  contrary  sort.’ — Cumberland. 
People  with  opposite  characters  cannot  be  expected  to 
act  together  with  pleasure  to  either  party.  Adverse 
events  interrupt  the  peace  of  mind  ; contrary  accounts 
invalidate  the  testimony  of  a narration  ; opposite  prin 
ciples  interrupt  the  liarmony  of  society. 

COMPARISON,  CONTRAST. 

Comparison,  from  compare,  and  the  Latin  compuiu 
or  com  and  par  equal,  signifies  the  putting  together  of 
things  that  are  equal ; contrast,  in  French  contraster, 
Latin  contrasto  or  contra  and  sto  to  stand,  or  sisto  to 
place  against,  signifies  tli#  placing  of  one  thing  opposite 
to  another. 

Likeness  in  the  quality  and  difference  in  the  degree 
are  requisite  for  a comparison  ; likeness  in  the  degree 
and  opposition  in  the  quality  are  requisite  for  a con- 
trast : things  of  the  same  colour  are  compared ; tliose 
of  an  opposite  colour  are  contrasted : a comparison  is 
made  between  two  shades  of  red:  a contrast  between 
black  and  white. 

Comparison  is  of  a practical  utility,  it  serves  to  as 
certain  the  true  relation  of  objects  ; contrast  is  of  utility 
among  poets,  it  serves  to  heighten  the  effect  of  opposite 
qualities : things  are  large  or  small  by  comparison ; 
things  are  magnified  or  diminished  by  contrast : the 
value  of  a coin  is  best  learned  hy  coinparing  it  will! 
another  of  the  same  metal;  ‘They  who  are  apt  to 
remind  us  of  their  ancestors  only  put  us  upon  making 
comparisons  to  their  own  disadvantage.’ — Spectator. 

The  generosity  of  one  person  is  most  strongly  felt 
when  contrasted  with  the  meanness  of  another  ; 

In  lovely  contrast  to  this  glorious  view. 

Calmly  magnificent  then  will  we  turn 
To  where  the  silver  Tliames  first  rural  grows. 

Thomson 


ADVERSE,  INIMICAL,  HOSTILE,  REPUGNANT 
Adverse  signifies  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  ani 
cle  ; inimical,  from  the  Latin  inimievs  an  enemy,  sig- 
nifies belonging  to  an  enemy ; which  is  also  the  mean- 
ing of  hostile,  from  hostis  an  enemy ; repugnant,  in 
Latin  repugnavs,  from  repugno,  or  re  and  pugno  to 
fight  against,  signifies  warring  with. 

Adverse  may  be  applied  to  either  persons  or  things  ; 
inimical  and  hostile  to  persons  or  things  personal ; re- 
pugnant to  things  only:  a person  is  adverse  or  a thing 
is  adverse  to  an  object;  a person,  or  what  is  personal, 
is  either  inimical  or  hostile  to  an  object;  one  thing  ig 
repugnant  to  another.  We  are  adverse  to  a proposi- 
tion; or  circumstances  are  adverse  to  our  advance- 
ment. Partizans  are  z7i?7?7?c«Mo  the  proceedings  of  go- 
vernment, andhostile  to  the  possessors  of  power.  Sla 
very  is  repugnant  to  the  mild  temper  of  Christianity 
Adverse  expresses  simple  dissent  or  opposition  ; mi 
mical  either  an  acrimonious  spirit  or  a tendency  to  in- 
jure; hostile  a determined  resistance  ; repugnant  a di- 
rect relation  of  variance.  Those  who  are  adverse  to 
any  undertaking  will  not  be  likely  to  use  the  endea- 
vours which  are  essential  to  ensure  its  success  ; ‘ Only 
two  soldiers  were  killed  on  the  side  of  Cortes,  and  Ivvr 
officers  with  fifteen  privates  of  the  adverse  faction  ’- 


ENGLISH  SYNON^MLS 


Ibb 

lloBfi.P  fsoN.  Those  who  dissent  from  the  establish- 
ment, are  inimical  to  its  forms,  its  discipline,  or  its  doc- 
•jine;  ‘God  liath  shown  himself  to  be  favourable  to 
virtue,  and  inimical  to  vice  and  guilt.’ — Blair.  Many 
are  so  hostile  to  the  religious  establishment  of  their 
country  as  to  aim  at  its  subversion ; 

Then  with  a purple  veil  involve  your  eyes. 

Lest  hostile  faces  blast  the  sacrifice.— Drvden. 
The  restraints  which  it  imposes  on  the  wandering  and 
licentious  imagination  is  repugnant  to  the  temper  of 
thr'iir  minds;  ‘The  exorbitant  jurisdiction  of  the 
(Scotch)  ecclesiastical  courts  were  founded  on  maxims 
repugnant  to  justice.’ — Robertson. 

Sickness  is  adverse  to  the  improvement  of  youth. 
The  dissensions  in  the  Christian  world  are  inimical  to 
the  interests  of  religion,  and  tend  to  produce  many 
hostile  measures.  Democracy  is  inimical  to  good  order, 
tlie  fomenter  of  hostile  parties,  and  repugnant  to  every 
sound  principle  of  civil  society. 


ADVERSE,  AVERSE. 

Adverse  [v.  Adverse),  signifying  turned  against  or 
over  against,  denotes  simply  opposition  of  situation ; 
averse,  from  a and  versus,  signifying  turned  from  or 
away  from,  denotes  an  active  removal  or  se|)aration 
from.  Adverse  is  therefore  as  applicable  to  inanimate 
as  to  animate  objects,  averse  only  to  animate  objects. 
When  applied  to  conscious  agents  adverse  refers  to 
matters  of  opinion  and  sentiment,  averse  to  those  af- 
fecting our  feelings.  We  are  adverse  to  that  which 
we  think  wrong  ; ‘ Before  you  were  a tyrant  I wms 
your  friend,  and  am  now  no  otherwise  your  enemy 
than  every  Athenian  must  be  who  is  adverse  to  your 
usurpation.’ — Cumberland.  We  are  averse  to  that 
which  opposes  our  inclinations,  our  habits,  or  our  in- 
terests; ‘Men  relinquish  ancient  habits  slowly,  and 
with  reluctance.  They  are  averse  to  new  experiments, 
and.venture  upon  them  wiih  timidity.’ — Robertson. 
Sectarians  profess  to  be  adverse  to  the  doctrines  and 
discipline  of  the  establishment,  but  the  greater  jiart  of 
them  are  still  more  averse  to  the  wholesome  restraints 
which  it  imposes  on  the  imagination. 

AVERSE,  UNWILLING,  BACKWARD,  LOATH, 
RELUCTANT. 

./9fre7-se  signifies  the  same  as  in  the  jircceding  article; 
unwilling  literally  signifies  not  willing;  backward, 
having  the  will  in  a backwcurd  direction  ; loath  or  loth, 
'rom  to  loath,  denotes  the  quality  of  loathing;  rcliic- 
ant,  from  the  Latin  re  and  lucto  to  struggle,  signifies 
■itruggling  with  the  will  against  a thing. 

Averse  is  positive,  it  marks  an  actual  sentiment  of 
dislike ; unwilling  is  negative,  it  marks  the  absence  of 
'he  will ; backward  is  a sentiment  between  the  two,  it 
marks  the  leaning  of  a will  against  a thing  ; loath  and 
reluctant  mark  strong  feelings  of  aversion.  Aversion 
is  an  habitual  sentiment;  unwillingness  and  backward- 
ness are  mostly  occasional ; loath  and  reluctant  always 
occasional. 

Aversion  must  be  conquered ; unwillingness  must 
be  removed;  backwardness  must  be  counteracted,  or 
urged  forward;  loathing  and  reluctance  must  be  over- 
powered. One  who  is  averse  to  study  will  never  have 
recourse  to  books ; but  a child  may  be  unwilling  or 
backward  to  attend  to  his  lessons  from  partial  motives, 
which  the  authority  of  the  parent  or  master  may  cor- 
rect; he  who  is  loath  to  receive  instruction  will  always 
remain  ignorant ; he  who  is  reluctant  in  doing  his  duty 
will  always  do  it  as  a task. 

A miser  is  averse  to  nothing  so  much  a.s  to  parting 
with  his  money ; 

Of  all  the  race  of  animals,  alone. 

The  bees  have  common  cities  of  their  own  ; 

But  (what ’s  more  strange)  their  modest  appetites, 
iverse  from  Venus,  fly  the  nuptial  rites. — Dryden. 
The  miser  is  even  unwilling  io  provide  hiniself  with 
necessaries,  but  he  is  not  backward  in  disposing  of  his 
money  when  he  has  the  prospect  of  getting  more  ; 

I part  with  thee. 

As  wretches  that  are  doubtful  of  hereafter 

Part  with  their  lives,  unwilling,  loath,  and  fearful. 

And  trembling  at  futurity. — Rowe. 

A men.  even  the  most  depraved,  are  subject  more 


or  less  to  compunctions  of  conscience;  but  baciiicar.t 
at  the  same  time  to  resign  the  gains  of  diohuit  sly,  o« 
the  pleasures  of  vice.’— Blair.  Friends  are  loath  tc 
part  who  have  had  many  years’  enjoyment  in  eacl: 
other’s  society ; 

E’en  thus  two  friends  condemn’d 

Embrace,  and  kiss,  and  take  ten  thousand  leaves, 

Loather  a hundred  times  to  part  than.  die. 

Shaespkare 

One  is  reluctant  in  giving  unpleasant  advice  • 

From  better  habitations  spurn’d, 

Reluctant  dost  thou  rove, 

Or  grieve  for  friendship  unreturn’d, 

Or  unregarded  love  I — Goldsmith. 

Lazy  people  are  averse  to  labour:  those  who  are  no 
paid  are  unwilling  to  work  ; and  those  wno  are  paid 
less  than  others  are  backward  in  giving  their  services  ■ 
every  one  is  loath  to  give  up  a favourite  pursuit,  anc 
when  compelled  to  it  by  circumstances  they  do  it  with 
I reluctance. 


AVERSION,  ANTIPATHY,  DISLIKE, 
HATRED,  REPUGNANCE. 

Aversion  denotes  the  quality  of  being  averse  (vu^e 
Averse) ; antipathy,  in  French  antipathic,  Latin  anti- 
pathia,  Greek  dvrixaSria,  compounded  of  avri  again-;t, 
and  nadeia  feeling,  signifies  a feeling  against ; dislike 
compounded  of  the  privative  dis  and  like,  signifies  noi 
to  like  or  be  aottached  to ; hatred,  in  German  hass,  is 
supposed  by  Adelung  to  be  connected  with  heiss  hot, 
signifying  heat  of  temper ; repugnance,in  Fxenchrepug 
nance,  Latin  repugnantia  and  repugno,  compounded  ot 
re  and  pugno,  signifies  the  resistance  of  the  feelings  tc 
an  object. 

Aversion  is  in  its  most  genera!  sense  the  generick 
term  to  these  and  many  other  similar  expressions,  in 
which  case  it  is  opposed  to  attachment:  the  former 
denoting  an  alienation  of  the  mind  from  an  object;  the 
latter  a knitting  cr  binding  of  the  mind  to  objects  : it 
has,  however,  more  commonly  a partial  acceptation, 
in  which  it  is  justly  comparable  with  the  above  Vvords. 
Aversion  awd  antipathy  apply  more  properly  to  things  : 
dislike  and  hatred  to  persons  ; repugnance  to  actions, 
that  is,  such  actions  as  one  is  called  upon  to  perform. 

Aversion  and  antipathy  seem  to  be  less  dependent 
on  the  will,  and  to  have  their  origin  in  the  temperament 
or  natural  taste,  particularly  the  latter,  which  springs 
from  causes  that  are  not  always  visible  ; and  lies  in  the 
physical  organization.  Antipathy  is  in  fact  a natural 
aversion  opposed  to  sympathy  : dislike  and  hatred  are 
on  the  contrary  voluntary,  and  seem  to  have  their  root 
in  the  angry  passions  of  the  heart;  the  former  is  less 
deep-rooted  than  the  latter,  and  is  commonly  awakened 
by  slighter  causes;  repugnance  is  not  an  habitual  and 
lasting  sentiment,  like  the  rest;  it  is  a transitory  but 
strong  dislike  to  what  one  is  obliged  to  do. 

An  unfitness  in  the  temper  to  harmonize  with  an 
object  produces  aversion ; a contrariety  in  tne  nature 
of  particular  persons  and  things  occasions  antipathies, 
although  some  pretend  that  there  are  no  such  myste- 
rious incongruities  in  nature,  and  that  all  antipathies 
are  but  aversions  early  engendered  by  the  influence  of 
fear  and  the  workings  of  imagination;  but  under  this 
supposition  we  are  still  at  a loss  to  account  for  those 
singular  effects  of  fear  and  imagination  in  some  persons 
which  do  notdiscovertteemselves  in  others:  adifference 
in  the  character,  habits,  and  manners,  produces  dislike : 
injuries,  quarrels,  or  more  commonly  the  influence  of 
malignant  passions,  occasion  hatred:  a contrariety  to 
one’s  moral  sense,  or  one’&  humours,  awakens  repug 
nance. 

People  of  a quiet  temper  have  an  aversion  to  dis- 
puting or  argumentation ; those  of  a gloomy  temper 
have  an  aversion  to  society ; ‘ 1 cannot  forbear  men 
tioning  a tribe  of  egotists,  for  whom  I have  always  had 
a mort  al  aversion ; I mtan  the  authors  of  memoirs  w he 
are  never  mentioned  in  any  works  out  their  own.’— 
Addison.  Antipathies  mostly  discover  themselves  in 
early  life,  and  as  soon  as  the  object  comes  within  the 
view  of  the  person  affected ; ‘ There  is  one  sfiecies  of 
terrour  which  those  who  are  unwilling  to  suffer  lb? 
reproach  of  cowardice  have  wisely  dignified  with  the 
name  of  antipathy.  A man  has  indeed  no  dread  of 
harm  from  an  insect  or  a worm,  but  his  anffpofAi/turn. 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES, 


IfT 


nm  psfe  wlieiiever  tliey  approach  him.’ — Johnson. 
Men  of  (lifterent  sentiments  in  religion  or  politicks,  if 
not  of  amiable  temper,  are  apt  to  contract  dislikes  to 
each  other  by  frequent  irritation  in  discourse ; ‘ Every 
man  whom  bushiess  or  curiosity  has  thrown  at  large 
into  the  world,  will  recollect  many  instances  of  fondness 
and  dislike^  which  have  forced  themselves  upon  him 
without  the  intervention  of  his  judgement.’ — Johnson. 
When  men  of  malignant  tempers  cotne  in  collision, 
nothing  but  a deadly  hatred  can  ensue  from  their 
repeated  and  complicated  aggressions  towards  each 
other ; ‘ One  punishment  that  attends  the  lying  and 
neceitful  person  is  the  hatred  of  all  those  whom  he 
either  has,  or  would  have  deceived.  I do  not  say  that 
a Christian  can  lawfully  hate  any  one,  and  yet  I affirm 
that  some  may  very  worthily  deserve  to  be  hated' — 
South.  Any  one  who  is  under  the  influence  of  a mis- 
placed pride  is  apt  to  feel  a repugnance  to  acknowledge 
himself  in  an  errour  ; ‘In  this  dilemma  Aristophanes 
conquered  his  repugnance^  and  determined  upon  pre- 
senting himself  on  the  stage  for  the  first  time  in  his 
life.’ — Cumberland. 

diversions  produce  an  anxious  desire  for  the  removal 
of  the  obleci  disliked : antipathies  produce  the  most 
violent  physical  rev^tlsion  of  the  frame,  and  vehement 
recoiling  from  the  object;  persons  have  not  unfre- 
quently  been  known  to  faint  away  at  the  sight  of  insects 
for  whom  this  antipathy  has  been  conceived:  dislikes 
too  often  betray  themselves  by  distant  and  uncourteous 
behaviour:  hatred  assumes  every  form  which  is  black 
and  horrid  : repugnance  does  not  make  its  appearance 
until  called  forth  by  the  necessity  of  the  occasion. 

Aversions  will  never  be  so  strong  in  a well-regulated 
mind,  that  they  cannot  be  overcome  when  their  cause 
is  removed,  or  they  are  found  to  be  ill-grounded ; some- 
times they  lie  in  a vicious  temperament  formed  by 
nature  or  habit,  in  which  case  they  will  not  easily  be 
destroyed : a slothful  man  will  find  a difficulty  in  over- 
coming his  aversion  to  labour,  or  an  idle  man  his  aver- 
sion to  steady  application.  Antipathies  may  be  indulged 
Dr  resisted  : people  of  irritable  temperaments,  particu- 
larly females,  are  liable  to  them  in  a most  violent  de- 
gree ; butthosewho  are  fully  persuaded  of  their  fallacy, 
may  dp  niuch  by  the  force  of  conviction  to  diminish 
heir  violence.  Dislikes  are  often  groundless,  or  have 
heir  origin  in  trifles,  owing  to  the  influence  of  caprice 
»r  humour:  people  of  sense  will  be  ashamed  of  them, 
ind  the  true  Christian  will  stifle  them  in  their  birth, 
est  they  grow  into  the  formidable  passion  of  hatred^ 
vhich  strFkes  at  the  root  of  all  peace ; being  a mental 
poison  that  infuses  its  venom  into  all  the  sinuosities  of 
the  heart,  and  pollutes  the  sources  of  human  affection. 
Repugnance  ought  always  to  be  resisted  whenever  it 
prevents  us  from  doing  what  either  reason,  honour,  or 
duty  require. 

Aversions  are  applicable  to  animals  as  well  as  men  : 
dogs  have  a particular  aversion  to  beggars,  most  pro- 
bably from  their  suspicious  appearance ; in  certain  cases 
likewise  we  may  speak  of  theiranf7patAres,asin  the  in- 
stance of  the  dog  and  the  cat ; according  to  the  schoolmen 
there  existed  a'«o  antipathies  between  certain  plants 
and  vegetables:  but  these  are  not  borne  out  by  facts 
sufficiently  strong  to  warrant  a belief  of  their  existence. 
Dislike  and  hatred  ave  sometimes  applied  to  things,  but 
in  a sense  less  exceptionable  than  in  the  former  case: 
dislike  does  not  express  so  much  as  aversion,  and  aver- 
sion not  so  much  as  hatred : we  ought  to  have  a hatred 
for  vice  and  sin,  an  aversion  to  gossipping  and  idle 
talking,  and  a dislike  to  the  frivolities  of  fashionable  life. 

TO  HATE,  DETEST. 

Rate  has  the  same  signification  as  in  the  preceding 
article ; detest,  from  detestor  or  dc  and  testor,  signifies 
to  call  to  witness  against.  The  difference  between 
these  two  words  consi.sts  more  in  sense  than  application. 
To  hate  is  a personal  feeling  directed  toward  the  object 
independently  of  its  qualities  ; to  detest  is  a feeling 
independent  of  the  person,  and  altogether  dependent 
upon  the  nature  of  the  thing.  What  one  hates,  one 
iates  commonly  on  one’s  own  account ; what  one  de- 
tests, one  detests  on  account  of  the  object:  hence  it  is 
that  one  hates,  but  not  detests,  the  person  who  has  done 
an  injury  to  one's  self ; and  that  one  detests,  rather  than 
hates,  the  person  who  has  done  injuries  to  others.  Jo- 
seph’s brethren  hated  him  because  he  was  more  beloved 
than  they; 


Spleen  to  mankind  his  envious  heart  possest, 

And  much  he  hated  all,  but  mosi.  the  best. — Poi'e 

We  detest  a traitor  to  his  country  because  of  the  encr 
mity  of  liis  oflence ; 

Who  dares  think  one  thing,  and  another  tell, 

My  heart  detests  him  as  the  gales  of  hell. — Pope. 

In  this  connexion,  to  hate  is  always  a bad  passion  . 
to  detest  always  laudable,  but  when  both  are  applied 
to  inanimate  objects,  to  hate  is  bad  or  good  according 
to  circumstances;  to  detest  always  retains  its  good 
meaning.  When  men  hate  thii  gs  because  they  inter- 
fere with  their  indulgences,  as  the  wicked  hate  the 
light,  it  is  a bad  personal  feeling,  as  in  the  former  case 
but  when  good  men  are  said  to  hate  that  which  is  bad 
it  is  a laudable  feeling  justified  by  the  nature  of  the  ob- 
ject. As  this  feeling  is,  however,  so  closely  allied  tc 
detestation,  it  is  necessary  farther  to  observe  that  hate 
whether  rightly  or  wrongly  applied,  seeks  the  injury  oi 
destruction  of  the  object ; but  detest  is  confined  simply 
to  the  shunning  of  the  object,  or  thinking  of  it  with 
very  great  pain.  God  hates  sin,  and  on  that  account 
punishes  sinners  ; conscientious  men  detest  all  fraud, 
and  therefore  cautiously  avoid  being  concerned  in  it 


HATEFUL,  ODIOUS. 

Hateful,  signifies  literally  full  of  that  which  is  apt  to 
excite  hatred  ; odious,  from  the  Latin  odi  to  hate,  has 
the  same  sense  originally. 

These  epithets  are  employed  in  regard  to  such  objects 
as  produce  strong  aversion  in  the  mind  ; but  when  em- 
ployed as  they  commonly  are  upon  familiar  subjects, 
they  indicate  an  unbecoming  vehemence  in  the  speaker. 
The  hateful  is  that  which  we  ourselves  hate  ; but  the 
odious  is  that  which  makes  us  hateful  to  others. 
Hatef  ul  is  properly  applied  to  whatever  violates  general 
principles  of  morality  : lying  and  swearing  are  hateful 
vices : odious  applied  to  such  things  as  affect  the  interests 
of  others,  and  bring  odium  upon  the  individual ; a tax 
that  bears  particularly  hard  and  unequally  is  termei. 
odious;  or  a measure  of  government  that  is  thought 
oppressive  is  denominated  odious.  There  is  something 
particularly  hateful  in  the  meanness  of  cringing  syco- 
phants ; 

Let  me  be  deemed  the  hateful  cause  of  all. 

And  suffer,  rather  than  my  people  fall. — Pope, 
Nothing  brought  more  odium  on  King  James  than  his 
attempts  to  introduce  popery ; ‘ Projectors  and  inventors 
of  new  taxes  being  hateful  to  the  people,  seldom  fail  of 
bringing  odium  on  their  master.’ — D-xvf.nant. 


HATRED,  ENMITY,  ILL  WILL,  RANCOUR. 

These  terms  agree  in  this  particular,  that  those  who 
are  under  the  influence  of  such  feelings  derive  a plea- 
sure from  the  misfortune  of  others;  but  haU-ed,  {v. 
Aversion)  expresses  more  than  enmity,  {v.  Enemy,)  and 
this  is  more  than  ill  will,  which  signifies  merely  willing 
ill  or  evil  to  another.  Hatred  is  not  contented  with 
merely  wishing  ill  to  others,  but  derives  its  whole  liap- 
piness  from  their  misery  or  destruction ; enmity  on  the 
contrary  is  limited  in  its  operations  to  particular  cir- 
cumstances: hatred,  on  the  other  hand,  is  frequently 
confined  to  the  feeling  of  the  individual  ; but  enmity 
consists  as  much  in  the  action  as  the  feeling.  He  whe 
is  possessed  with  hatred  is  happy  tvhen  the  object  of 
his  passion  is  miserable,  and  is  miserable  when  he  is 
happy;  but  the  hater  \s  not  always  instrumental  in 
causing  his  misery  or  destroying  his  happiness : he  vyho 
is  inflamed  with  enmity,  is  more  active  in  disturbing 
the  peace  of  his  enemy  ; butoftener  displays  his  temper 
in  trifling  than  in  important  matters.  Ill  will,  as  the 
word  denotes,  lies  only  in  the  mind,  and  is  so  indefinite 
in  its  signification,  that  it  admits  of  every  conceivable 
degree.  When  the  will  is  evilly  directed  towards 
another,  in  ever  so  small  a degree,  it  constitutes  ill  will. 
Rancour,  in  Latin  rancor,  from  ranceo  to  grow  stale, 
signifying  staleness,  mustiness,  is  a species  of  bitter, 
deep-rooted  enmity,  that  has  lain  so  long  in  the  mind 
as  to  become  thoroughly  corrupt. 

Hatred  is  opposed  to  love  ; the  object  in  both  caset 
occupies  the  thoughts : the  former  torments  the  po» 
sessor . the  latter  delights  him; 


(38 


LMGLISH  SYNOJViMES. 


Phoenician  Dido  rules  the  growing  state, 

Who  fled  from  Tyre  to  shun  her  brother’s  hate. 

Drydkn. 

Enmity  is  opposed  to  friendship;  the  object  in  both 
cases  interests  the  passions ; the  former  the  bad,  and 
the  latter  the  good  passions  or  the  atleclions : the  iios- 
^essor  is  in  both  cases  busy  either  in  injuring  or  for- 
warding the  cause  of  him  who  is  his  enemy  or  friend  ; 

That  space  the  evil  one  abstracted  stood 
From  his  own  evil,  and  for  the  time  remain’d 
Stupidly  good,  of  enmity  disarm’d. — Milton. 

il  will  is  opposed  to  good  will ; it  is  either  a general 
or  a particular  feeling ; it  embraces  many  or  few,  a 
single  individual  or  the  whole  human  race  : he  is  least 
unhappy  who  bears  least  ill  will  to  others  ; he  is  most 
happy  who  bears  true  goodwill  to  all;  he  is  neither 
happy  or  unhappy  who  is  not  possessed  of  the  one  or 
the  other ; ‘ For  your  servants  neither  use  them  so 
familiarly  as  to  lose  your  reverence  at  their  hands,  nor 
so  disdainfully  as  to  purchase  yourself  their  ill  will'— 
Wentworth. 

Tliere  is  a farther  distinction  between  these  terms  ; 
that  hatred  and  ill  will  are  oftener  the  fruit  of  a de- 
praved mind,  than  the  consequence  of  any  external 
provocation  ; enmity  and  rancour.,  on  the  contrary,  are 
mostly  produced  by  particular  circumstances  of  offence 
or  commission ; the  best  of  men  are  sometimes  the 
objects  of  hatred  on  account  of  their  very  virtues, 
which  have  been  unwittingly  to  themselves  the  causes 
of  producing  this  evil  passion  ; good  advice,  however 
kindly  given,  may  probably  occasion  ill  will  in  the 
mind  of  him  who  is  not  disposed  to  receive  it  kindly; 
an  angry  word  or  a party  contest  is  frequently  the 
causes  of  enmity  between  irritable  people,  and  of  ran- 
cour between  resentful  and  imperious  people ; 

Oh  lasting  rancour!  oh  insatiate  hate. 

To  Phrygia’s  monarch,  and  the  Phrygian  state. 

Pope. 


TO  ABHOR,  DETEST,  ABOMINATE,  LOATH. 

These  terms  equally  denotea  sentiment  of  aversion ; 
ihhor,  in  Latin  aiAorreo,  compounded  of  ab  from  and 
fcorreo  to  stiffen  with  horrour,signifiestostart  from,  with 
a strong  emotion  of  horrour;  detest  {v.  To  hate,  detest); 
xhominate,  in  Latin  riAominatMS,  participle  of  aborninor, 
compounded  of  ab  from  or  against,  and  ominor  to  wish 
ill  luck,  signifies  to  hold  in  religious  abhorrence,  to 
detest  in  the  highest  possible  degree ; loath,  in  Saxon 
lathcn,  may  possibly  be  a variation  of  load,  in  the 
sense  of  overload,  because  it  expresses  the  nausea 
which  commonly  attends  an  overloaded  stomach.  In 
the  moral  acceptation,  it  is  u strong  figure  of  speech  to 
mark  the  abhorrence  and  disgust  which  the  sight  of 
offensive  objects  produces. 

What  we  abhor  is  repugnant  to  our  moral  feelings  ; 
what  we  detest  contradicts  our  moral  principle ; what 
we  abominate  does  equal  vi(  lence  to  our  religious  and 
moral  sentiments  ; what  w€  loath  acts  upon  us  physi- 
cally and  mentally. 

Inhumanity  and  cruelty  are  objects  of  abhorrence ; 
crimes  and  injustice  of  detestation ; impiety  and 
profaneness  of  abomination  ; enormous  offenders  of 
loathing. 

The  tender  mind  will  abhor  what  is  base  and  atro- 
cious ; 

The  lie  that  flatters  I abhor  the  most.— Cowpkr. 
The  rigid  moralist  will  detest  every  violent  infringe- 
ment on  the  rights  of  his  fellow  creatures ; 

This  thirst  of  kindred  blood  my  sons  detest. 

Dryden. 

The  conscientious  man  will  abominate  every  breach 
of  the  Divine  law;  ‘The  passion  that  is  excited  in  the 
fable  of  the  Sick  Kite  is  terrour ; the  object  of  which  is 
the  despair  of  him  who  perceives  himself  to  be  dying, 
and  has  reason  to  fear  that  his  very  prayer  is  an  abomi- 
nation.'— Hawkesworth.  The  agonized  mind  loaths 
the  sightof  every  object  which  recalls  to  its  recollection 
the  subject  of  its  distress ; 

No  costly  lords  the  sunipt  tons  banquet  deal. 

To  make  him  loath  his  vegetable  meal. 

Goldsmith 


Revolving  in  his  mind  the  stern  commana, 

He  longs  to  fly,  and  loaths  the  charming  land 

Dryden 

The  chaste  Lucretia  abhorred  the  pollution  to  whirl 
she  had  been  expose''  and  would  have  loathed  tlw 
sight  of  the  atrocious  perpetrator : Brutus  detested  tin 
oppression  and  tffe  oppressor. 


ABOMINABLE,*  DETESTABLE,  EXECRABLB 

The  primitive  idea  of  these  teims,  agreeable  to  thei) 
derivation,  is  that  of  badness  in  the  highest  degree, 
conveying  by  themselves  the  strongest  signification 
and  excluding  the  necessity  for  every  other  modifying 
epithet. 

The  abominable  thing  excites  aversion ; the  detesta- 
ble thing,  hatred  and  revulsion ; the  execrable  thing 
indignation  and  horrour. 

These  sentiments  are  expressed  against  what  is 
abominable  by  strong  ejaculations,  against  what  is  de 
testable  by  animadversion  and  reprobation,  and  against 
what  is  execrable  by  imprecations  and  anathrmas. 

In  the  ordinary  acceptation  of  these  terms,  they 
serve  to  mark  a degree  of  excess  in  a very  bad  thing  ; 
abominable  expressing  less  than  detestable,  and  that 
less  than  execrable.  This  gradation  is  sufficiently  illus- 
trated in  tiie  following  example.  Dionysius,  the  tyrant, 
having  been  informed  that  a very  aged  woman  prayed 
to  the  gods  every  day  for  his  preservation,  and  won- 
dering that  any  of  his  subjects  should  be  so  interested 
for  his  safety,  inquired  of  this  woman  respecting  the 
motives  of  her  conduct,  to  which  she  replied,  “ In  my 
infancy  I lived  under  an  abominable  prince,  whosi 
death  I desired ; but  when  he  perished,  he  was  sue 
ceeded  by  a detestable  tyrant  worse  than  himself.  I 
offered  up  my  vows  for  his  death  also,  which  were  in 
like  manner  answered;  but  we  have  since  had  a 
worse  tyrant  than  he.  This  execrable  monster  is 
yourself,  whose  life  I have  prayed  for,  lest,  if  it  be 
possible,  you  should  be  succeeded  by  one  even  more 
wicked.” 

The  exaggeration  conveyed  by  these  expressions  has 
given  rise  to  their  abuse  in  vulgar  discourse,  where 
they  are  often  employed  indifferently  to  serve  the  hu 
mour  of  the  speaker;  ‘This  aiowiraaAIe  endeavour  to 
suppress  or  lessen  every  thing  that  is  praiseworthy  is 
as  frequent  among  the  men  as  among  the  women.’ — 
Steele.  ‘ Nothing  can  atone  for  the  want  of  mo- 
desty, without  which  beauty  is  ungraceful,  and  wi* 
detestable.' — Steele. 

All  vote  to  leave  that  execrable  shore, 

Po  lluted  with  the  blood  of  Polydore. — Dryden 

TO  BRAVE,  DEFY,  DARE,  CHALLENGE. 

Brave,  from  the  epithet  brave  (v.  Brave),  signifies  to 
act  the  brave;  defy,  in  Frencli  defier,  is  probably 
changed  from  defaire  to  undo,  signifying  to  make 
nothing  or  set  at  nought ; dare,  in  Saxon  dcarran, 
dyrran,  Franconian,  &c.  odurren,  thorren,  Greek 
Odppeiv,  signifies  to  be  bold,  or  have  the  confidence  to 
do  a thing;  challenge  is  probably  changed  from  the 
Greek  Ka\m  to  call. 

We  brave  things ; we  dare  and  challenge  persons , 
we  defy  persons  or  their  actions;  the  sailor  braves  the 
tempestuous  ocean,  and  very  often  braves  deaih  itscJl 
in  its  mostterrifick  form;  he  dares  the  enemy  whom  he 
meets  to  the  engagement;  he  defies  all  his  boastings 
and  vain  threats. 

Brave  is  sometimes  used  in  a bad  sense;  defy  and 
dare  commonly  so.  There  is  much  idle  contempt  an< 
affected  indifference  in  braving;  much  insolent  re- 
sistance to  authority  in  defying ; much  provocation 
and  affront  in  daring ; a bad  man  braves  the  scorn 
and  reproach  of  all  the  world;  he  defies  the  threats  of 
his  superiours  to  punish  him ; he  dares  them  to  »xert 
their  power  over  him. 

Brave  and  defy  are  dispositions  of  mind  which  dis 
play  themselves  in  the  conduct;  dare  and  challenge 
are  modes  of  action ; we  brave  a storm  by  meeting  its 
violence,  and  bearing  it  down  with  superiour  force : we 
defy  the  malice  of  our  enemies  by  pursuing  that  line  o. 
conduct  which  is  most  calculated  to  increase  its  bitter 

♦ Vide  Abbe  Roubaud’s  Synonymee  ; “Abominable 
detestable,  execrable.” 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  py 


ness.  To  ftra.;*,  conveys  the  Idea  of  a direct  and  per- 
sonal application  of  force  to  force;  defying  is  carried 
on  by  a more  indirect  and  circuitous  mode  of  proce- 
dure: men  brave  the  dangers  which  threaten  them 
with  evil,  and  in  a figurative  application  things  are 
said  to  brave  resistance ; ‘ Joining  in  proper  union  the 
amiable  and  the  estimable  qualities,  in  OJie  part  of' our 
character  we  shall  resemble  the  flower  that  smiles  in 
spring;  in  another  the  firml}'-rooted  tree,  that  Graves 
the  winter  storm.’— Blair.  Men  defy  the  angry  will 
which  opposes  them ; 

The  soul,  secur’d  in  her  existence,  smiles 

At  the  drawn  dagger,  and  defies  its  point. — Addison. 

To  dare  and  challenge  are  both  direct  and  personal ; 
but  the  former  consists  either  of  actions,  words,  or  looks ; 
the  latter  of  words  only.  We  dare  a number  of  per- 
sons indefinitely ; we  challenge  an  individual,  and  very 
frequently  by  name. 

Daring  arises  from  our  contempt  of  others;  chal- 
lenging arises  from  a high  opinion  of  ourselves : the 
former  is  mostly  accompanied  with  unbecoming  ex- 
pressions of  disrespect  as  well  as  aggravation;  the 
latter  is  mostly  divested  of  all  angry  personality.  Me- 
tius  the  Tuscan  dared  Titus  Manlius  Torquatus,  the 
son  of  the  Roman  consul,  to  engage  with  him  in  con- 
tradiction to  his  father’s  commands.  Paris  was  per- 
suaded to  challenge  Menelaus  in  order  to  terminate  the 
Grecian  war. 

We  dare  only  to  acts  of  violence  ; we  challenge  to 
any  kind  of  contest  in  which  the  skill  or  power  of  the 
parties  are  to  be  tried.  It  is  folly  to  dare  one  of  supe- 
riour  strength  if  we  are  not  prepared  to  meet  with  fdie 
•ust  reward  of  our  impertinence ; 

Troy  sunk  in  flames  I saw  (nor  could  prevent), 

And  Ilium  from  its  old  foundations  rent — 

Rent  like  a mountain  ash,  which  dar'd  the  winds, 

And  stood  the  sturdy  strokes  of  lab’ring  hinds. 

Drydkn. 

Whoever  has  a confidence  in  the  justice  of  his  cause, 
needs  not  fear  to  challenge  his  opponent  to  a trial  of 
their  respective  merits ; ‘ The  Platos  and  Ciceros 
among  the  ancients  ; the  Bacons,  Boyles,  and  Lockes, 
among  our  own  countrymen,  are  all  instances  of  what 
1 have  been  saying,  namely,  that  tlie  greatest  persons  in 
all  ages  have  conformed  to  the  established  religion  of 
their  country  ; not  to  mention  any  of  the  divines,  how- 
ever celebrated,  since  our  adversaries  challenge  all 
those  as  men  who  have  too  much  interest  in  this  case 
to  be  impartial  evidences.’ — Budgell. 


BRAVERY,  COURAGE,  VALOUR,  GAL- 
LANTRY. 

Bravery  denotes  the  abstract  quality  of  brave, 
which  through  the  medium  of  the  northern  languages 
comes  from  the  Greek  l3pa(3eiov  the  reward  of  victory  ; 
courage,  in  French  courage,  from  coeur,  in  Latin  cor 
the  heart,  which  is  the  seat  of  courage;  valour,  in 
French  valeur,  Latin  valor,  from  valeo  to  be  strong, 
signifies  by  distinction  strength  of  mind;  gallantry, 
from  the  Greek  dyaWiv  to  adorn  or  make  distinguished 
for  splendid  qualities. 

Bravery  lies  in  the  blood  ; courage  lies  in  the  mind  : 
the  latter  depends  on  the  reason ; the  former  on  the 
physic^  temperament : the  first  is  a species  of  instinct : 
the  second  is  a virtue:  a man  is  brave  in  proportion  as 
he  is  without  thought ; he  has  courage  in  proportion 
as  he  reasons  or  reflects. 

Bravery  seems  to  be  something  involuntary,  a me- 
jhanical  movemertt  that  does  not  depend  on  one’s  self ; 
courage  requires  conviction,  and  gathers  strength  by 
delay  ; it  is  a noble  and  lofty  sentiment : the  force  of 
example,  the  charms  of  musick,  the  fury  and  tumult  of 
battle,  the  desperation  of  the  conflict,  will  make 
cowards  brave  ; the  courageous  man  wants  no  other 
incenti\  es  than  what  his  own  mind  suggests. 

Bravery  is  of  utility  only  in  the  hour  of  attack  or 
contest ; courage  is  of  service  at  all  times  and  under 
all  circumstances:  bravery  is  of  avail  in  overcoming 
the  obstacle  of  the  moment;  cowrage  seeks  to  avert  the 
distant  evil  that  may  possibly  arrive.  Bravery  is  a 
thing  of  the  moment  that  is  or  is  not,  as  circumstances 
may  favour ; it  varies  with  the  time  and  season  ; courage 
exists  at  all  times  and  on  all  occasions.  The  brave 


man  who  fearlessly  rushes  to  the  mouth  r"  me  cannon 
may  tremble  at  his  own  shadow  as  hi.  passes  thr'vjgh  a 
churchyard  or  turn  pale  at  the  sight  of  blof  i ; th'. 
courageous  man  smiles  at  imaginary  dangers,  anil  pre 
pares  to  meet  those  tliat  are  real. 

It  is  as  possible  for  a man  to  have  courage  without 
bravery,  as  to  have  bravery  without  courage ; Cicero 
betrayed  his  want  of  bravery  when  he  sought  to  shelter 
himself  against  the  attacks  of  Cataline ; he  displayed 
\\\s courage  when  he  laid  open  the  treasonable  purpose."^ 
of  this  conspirator  to  the  whole  senate,  and  charged 
him  to  his  face  with  the  crimes  of  which  he  knew  him 
to  be  guilty. 

Valour  is  a higher  quality  than  either  bravery  or 
courage,  and  seems  to  partake  of  the  grand  character- 
isticks  of  both  ; it  combines  the  fire  of  bravery  with  the 
determination  and  firmness  of  courage  : bravery  is 
most  fitted  for  the  soldier  and  all  who  receive  orders  ; 
courage  is  most  adapted  for  the  general  and  all  who 
give  commands ; valour  for  the  leader  and  framer  of 
enterprises,  and  all  who  carry  great  projects  into  exe 
cution : bravery  requires  to  be  guided ; courage  is 
equally  fitted  to  command  or  obey ; valour  directs  and 
executes.  Bravery  has  most  relation  to  danger; 
courage  and  valour  include  in  them  a particular  re 
ference  to  action:  the  itraue  man  exposes  himself;  the 
courageous  man  advances  to  the  scene  of  action  which 
is  before  him ; the  valiant  man  seeks  for  occasions 
to  act. 

Courage  may  be  exercised  in  ordinary  cases ; valour 
displays  itself  most  effectually  in  the  achievement  of 
heroic  exploits.  A consciousness  of  duty,  a love  of 
one’s  country,  a zeal  for  the  cause  in  which  one  is  en- 
gaged, an  over-ruling  sense  of  religion,  the  dictates  of 
a pure  conscience,  always  inspire  courage:  an  ardent 
thirst  for  glory,  and  an  insatiable  ambition,  render  men 
valiant. 

The  brave  man,  when  he  is  wounded,  is  proud  of 
being  so,  and  boasts  of  his  wounds ; the  courageous 
man  collects  the  strength  which  his  wounds  have  left 
him,  to  pursue  the  object  which  he  has  in  view  ; the 
valiant  man  thinks  less  of  the  life  he  is  about  to  lose, 
than  of  the  glory  which  has  escaped  him.  The  brave 
man,  in  the  hour  of  victory,  exults  and  triumphs : he 
discovers  his  joy  in  boisterous  war  shouts.  The  com 
rageous  man  forgets  his  success  in  order  to  profit  by  its 
advantages.  The  valiant  man  Is  stimulated  by  success 
to  seek  after  new  trophies.  Bravery  sinks  after  a 
defeat:  courage  may  be  damped  for  a moment,  but  is 
never  destroyed;  it  is  ever  ready  to  seize  the  first  op- 
portunity which  offers  to  regain  the  lost  advantage : 
valour,  when  defeated  on  any  occasion,  seeks  another 
in  which  more  glory  is  to  be  acquired. 

The  three  hundred  Spartans  who  defended  the 
Straits  of  Thermopylte  were  brave  ; 

This  brave  man,  with  long  resistance. 

Held  the  combat  doubtful. — Rowk. 

Socrates  drinking  the  hemlock,  Regulus  returning  to 
Carthage,  Titus  tearing  himself  from  the  arms  of  the 
weeping  Berenice,  Alfred  the  Great  going  into  the 
camp  of  the  Danes,  were  courageous  ; 

“Oh  ! When  I see  him  arming  for  his  honour. 

His  country,  and  his  gods,  that  martial  fire 
That  mounts  his  courage,  kindles  even  me. 

Dryden. 

Hercules  destroying  monsters,  Perseus  delivering  An 
dromeda,  Achilles  running  to  the  ramparts  of  Troy, 
and  the  knights  of  more  modern  dale  who  have  gone 
in  quest  of  extraordinary  adventures,  are  all  entitled  tc 
the  peculiar  appellation  of  valiant ; 

True  valour,  friends,  on  virtue  founded  strong. 

Meets  all  events  alike.— Mallett. 

Oallantry  is  extraordinary  bravery,  or  bravery  on 
extraordinary  occasions.  7’he  brave  man  goes  will- 
ingly where  he  is  commanded ; the  gallant  man  leads 
on  with  vigour  to  the  attack.  Bravery  is  common  to 
vast  numbers  and  whole  nations;  gallantry  is  peculiar 
to  individuals  or  particular  bodies:  the  brave  mar 
bravely  defends  the  post  assigned  him  ; the  gallant 
man  volunteers  his  services  in  cases  of  peculiar  dan- 
ger; a man  may  feel  ashamed  in  not  being  considered 
brave ; he  feels  a pride  in  being  looked  upon  as  gallant 
To  call  a liero  brave  adds  little  or  nothing  to  his  cha 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


UO 

racter;  ‘The  bravi  unfortunate  are  our  best  ac- 
quaintance.’— Francis.  But  to  entitle  him  gallant 
adds  a lustre  to  the  glory  he  has  acquired ; 

Death  is  the  worst ; a fate  which  all  must  try, 

And  fc  r our  country ’t  is  a bliss  to  die. 

The  gallant  man,  though  slain  in  fight  he  be, 

Yet  leaves  his  nation  safe,  his  children  free. 

Tope. 

We  canrct:  speak  of  a British  tar  without  thinking 
of  braverf,  :f  his  exploits  without  thinking  of  gal- 
lantry 

COURAGE,  FORTITUDE,  RESOLUTION. 

Courage  signifies  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  arti- 
cle; fortitude,  in  French  fortitude,  Latin  fortitude,  is 
the  abstract  noun  from  fortis  strong ; resolution,  from 
the  verb  resolve,  marks  the  habit  of  resolving. 

Courage  respects  action,  fortitude  respects  passion ; 
a man  has  courage  to  meet  danger,  and  fortitude  lo 
endure  pain. 

Courage  is  that  power  of  the  mind  which  bears  up 
against  the  evil  that  is  in  prospect ; fortitude  is  that 
power  which  endures  the  pain  that  is  felt : the  man  of 
courage  goes  with  the  same  coolness  to  the  mouth  of 
the  cannon,  as  the  man  of  fortitude  undergoes  the  am- 
putation of  a limb. 

Horatius  Codes  displayed  his  courage  in  defending  a 
bridge  against  the  whole  army  of  the  Etruscans: 
Caius  Mucius  displayed  no  less  fortitude  when  he 
thrust  his  hand  into  the  fire  in  the  presence  of  King 
Porsenna,  and  awed  him  as  much  by  his  language  as 
his  action. 

Courage  seems  to  be  more  of  a manly  virtue  ; forti- 
tude is  more  distinguishable  as  a feminine  virtue  : the 
former  is  at  least  most  adapted  to  the  male  sex,  who 
are  called  upon  to  act,  and  the  latter  to  females,  who 
are  obliged  to  endure : a man  without  courage  would 
be  as  ill  prepared  to  discharge  his  duty  in  his  inter- 
course with  the  world,  as  a woman  without  fortitude 
would  be  to  support  herself  under  the  complicated 
trials  of  body  and  mind  with  which  she  is  liable  to  be 
assailed. 

We  can  make  no  pretensions  to  courage  unless  we 
set  astde  every  personal  consideration  in  the  conduct 
we  should  pursue ; ‘ What  can  be  more  honourable 
than  to  have  courage  enough  to  execute  the  commands 
of  remion  and  conscience  T— Collier.  We  cannot 
boast  fortitude  where  the  sense  of  pain  provokes  a 
murmur  or  any  token  of  impatience ; since  life  is  a 
chequered  scene,  in  which  the  prospect  of  one  evil  is 
most  commonly  succeeded  by  the  actual  existence  of 
another,  it  is  a happy  endowment  to  be  able  to  ascend 
the  scutfold  with  fortitude,  or  to  mount  the  breach 
with  courage  as  occasion  may  require  ; 

With  wonted  fortitude  she  bore  the  smart. 

And  not  a groan  confess’d  her  burning  heart. — Gay. 

Resolution  is  a minor  species  of  courage;  it  is 
coMT-a^j  in  the  minor  concerns  of  life;  coara^e  compre- 
hends under  it  a spirit  to  advance  ; resolution  simply 
marks  the  will  not  to  recede:  we  require  courage  to 
near  down  all  the  obstacles  which  oppose  themselves 
to  us  ; we  require  resolution  not  to  yield  to  the  first 
difficulties  that  offer ; courage  is  an  elevated  feature  in 
the  human  character  which  adorns  the  possessor; 
resolution  is  that  common  quality  of  the  mind  which 
is  in  perpetual  request ; the  want  of  which  degrades  a 
man  i n the  eyes  of  his  fello w-creatu  res.  Courage  com- 
prehends the  absence  of  all  fear,  the  disregard  of  all 
personal  convenience,  the  spirit  to  begin  and  the  deter- 
mination to  pursue  what  has  been  begun  ; resolution 
consists  of  no  more  than  the  last  quality  of  courage, 
which  respects  the  persistnnee  in  a conduct;  ‘The 
unusual  extension  of  my  muscles  on  this  occasion 
made  my  face  ache  to  such  a degree,  that  nothing  but 
an  invincible  resolution  and  perseverance  could  have 
prevented  me  from  falling  back  to  my  monosyllables.’— 
Annisr  n.  Courage  is  displayed  on  the  most  trying 
occasions;  resolution  is  never  put  to  any  severe  test; 
courage  always  supposes  some  danger  to  be  encoun- 
tered; resolution  may  be  exerted  in  merely  encounter- 
ing opposition  and  difficulty ; we  have  need  of  courage 
in  opposing  a formidable  enemy ; we  have  need  of 
resolution  in  the  management  of  a stubborn  wil:. 


AUDACITY,  EFFRONTERY,  HARDmOOI)  OH 
HARDINESS,  BOLDNESS. 

Audacity,  from  audacious,  in  French  audacieuc 
Latin  audax  and  audeo  to  dare,  signifies  literally  the 
quality  of  daring ; effrontery,  c'^mpounded  of  ef,  en,  or 
in,  and  frons  a face,  signifies  the  standing  face  to  face 
hardihood  or  hardiness,  from  hardy  or  hard,  signifies  a 
capacity  to  endure  or  stand  the  brunt  of  difficulties 
opposition,  or  shame;  boldness,  from  bold,  in  Saxo» 
hold,  is  in  all  probability  changed  from  bald,  that  is 
uncovered,  open-fronted,  without  disguise,  which  are 
the  characteristicks  of  boldness. 

The  idea  of  disregarding  what  others  regard  is  com 
mon  to  all  these  terms.  Audacity  expresses  more  than 
effrontery : the  first  has  something  of  vehemence  or 
defiance  in  it ; the  latter  that  of  cool  unconcern ; 
hardihood  expresses  less  than  boldness  ; the  first  has 
more  of  determination,  and  the  second  more  of  spirit 
and  enterprise  Audacity  and  effrontery  are  always 
taken  in  a bad  sense:  hardihood  in  an  indifferent,  if 
not  a bad  sense  ; boldness  in  a good,  bad,  or  indifferent 
sense. 

• Audacity  marks  haughtiness  and  temerity ; ‘ As 
knowledge  without  justice  ought  to  be  called  cunning 
rather  than  wisdom,  so  a mind  prepared  to  meet  danger, 
if  excited  by  its  own  eagerness  and  not  the  publick 
good,  deserves  the  name  of  audacity  rather  than  of 
fortitude.’ — Steele.  Effrontery  is  the  want  of  all 
modesty,  a total  shamelessness ; ‘ I could  never  forbear 
to  wish  that  while  vice  is  every  day  multiplying 
seducements,  and  stalking  forth  with  more  hardened 
effrontery,  virtue  would  not  withdraw  the  inffuence  of 
her  presence.’ — Johnson.  Hardihood  indicates  a firm 
resolution  to  meet  consequences;  ‘I  do  not  find  any 
one  so  hardy  at  present  as  to  deny  that  there  are  very 
great  advantages  in  the  enjoyment  of  a plentiful  for- 
tune.’— Budgell.  Boldness  denotes  a spirit  to  com 
mence  action,  or  in  a less  favourable  sense  to  be  heed- 
less and  free  in  one’s  s()eech ; ‘ A bold  tongue  and  a 
feeble  arm  are  the  qualifications  of  Diances  in  Virgil.’ 
— Addison.  An  audacious  man  speaks  with  a lof‘« 
tone,  without  respect  and  without  refiection ; h. 
haughty  demeanour  makes  him  forget  what  is  due  to 
his  superiours.  Effrontery  discovers  itself  by  an  inso- 
lent air ; a total  unconcern  for  the  opinions  of  those 
present,  and  a disregard  of  all  the  forms  of  civil  so- 
ciety. A hardy  man  speaks  with  a resolute  tone, 
which  seems  to  brave  the  titmost  evil  that  can  result 
from  what  he  says.  A bold  man  speaks  without  re- 
serve, undaunted  by  the  quality,  rank,  or  haughtiness 
of  those  whom  he  addresses  ; 

Bold  in  the  council  board. 

But  cautious  in  the  field,  he  shunn’d  the  sword 

Dryden 

It  requires  audacity  to  assert  false  claims,  or  vindi- 
cate a lawless  conduct  in  the  presence  of  accusers  and 
judges;  it  requires  effrontery  to  ask  a favour  of  the 
man  whom  otie  has  basely  injured,  or  to  assume  a 
placid  unconcerned  air  in  the  presence  of  those  by 
whom  one  has  been  convicted  of  flagrant  atrocities  ; 
it  requires  hardihood  to  assert  as  a positive  fact  what 
is  dubious  or  suspected  to  be  false;  it  requires  boldness 
to  maintain  the  truth  in  spite  of  every  danger  with 
which  one  is  threatened,  or  to  assert  one’s  claims  in 
the  presence  of  one’s  superiours.  / 

Audacity  makes  a man  to  be  hated  ; but  it  is  not 
always  such  a base  metal  in  the  estimation  of  the 
world  as  it  ought  to  be;  it  frequently  passes  current 
for  boldness  when  it  is  practised  with  success.  Effron- 
tery makes  a man  despised  ; it  is  of  tpo  mean  and  vul- 
gar a stamp  to  meet  with  general  sanction:  it  is  odious 
to  all  but  those  by  whom  it  is  practised,  as  it  seems  to 
run  counter  to  every  principle  and  feeling  of  common 
honesty.  Hardihood  is  a die  on  which  a man  stakes 
his  character  for  veracity;  it  serves  the  purpose  of 
disputants,  and  frequently  brings  a man  through  diffi- 
culties which,  with  more  deliberation  and  caution, 
might  have  proved  his  ruin.  Boldness  makes  a man 
universally  respected  though  not  always  beloved : a 
bold  man  is  a particular  favourite  with  the  fair  sex 
with  whom  timidity  passes  for  folly,  and  boldness  of 
course  for  great  talent  or  a fine  spirit. 

Audacity  is  the  characteristick  of  rebels ; effrontery 

* Vide  Girard : “ Hardiesse,  audace,  effrontcric  '* 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


that  o.  villains  ; hardihood  is  viceable  to  gentlemen 
of  the  bar ; boldness  is  indispensable  in  every  great 
unlertaking. 

DARING,  BOLD. 

Daring  signifies  having  the  spirit  to  dare;  bold 
has  the  same  signification  as  given  under  the  head  of 
audacity. 

These  terms  may  be  both  taken  in  a bad  sense ; but 
daring  much  ofiener  than  bold.  In  either  case  daring 
expresses  much  more  than  bold;  he  who  is  daring 
provokes  resistance,  and  courts  danger ; but  the  bold 
man  is  contented  to  overcome  the  resistance  that  is 
otfered  to  him.  A man  may  be  bold  in  the  use  of 
words  only  ; he  must  be  daring  in  actions : a man  is 
bold  in  the  defence  of  truth : ‘ Boldness  is  the  power 
to  speak  or  to  do  what  we  intend  without  fear  or  dis- 
order.’—Locke.  A man  is  daring  in  military  enter- 
prise ; 

Too  daring  prince  ! ah  ! whither  dost  thou  run, 

Ah ! too  forgetful  of  thy  wife  and  son.— Pope. 


STRENUOUS,  BOLD. 

Strenuous,  in  Latin  strenuus,  from  the  Greek 
^prjpris  undaunted,  untamed,  from  ^prjviao)  to  be  with- 
out all  rein  or  control;  bold,  v.  Audacity. 

Strenuous  expresses  much  more  than  bold ; boldness 
is  a prominent  idea,  but  it  is  only  one  idea  which 
enters  into  the  signification  of  strenuousness  ; it  com- 
bines likewise  fearlessness,  activity,  and  ardour.  An 
advocate  in  a cause  may  be  strenuous,  or  merely  bold  ; 
in  tho  former  case  he  emits  nothing  that  can  be  either 
said  or  done  in  favour  of  the  cause,  he  is  always  on 
the  alert,  he  heeds  no  difficulties  or  danger;  but  in  the 
latter  case  he  only  displays  his  spirit  in  the  undisguised 
declaration  of  his  sentiments.  Strenuous  supixnters 
of  any  opinion  are  always  strongly  convinced  of  the 
truth  of  that  which  they  support,  and  warmly  im- 
pressed with  a sense  of  its  importance;  ‘While  the 
good  weather  continued,  I strolled  about  the  country, 
and  made  many  strenuous  attempts  to  run  away  from 
this  odious  giddiness.’ — Beattie.  But  the  bold  sup- 
porter of  an  opinion  may  be  impelled  rather  with  the 
desire  of  showing  his  boldness  than  maintaining  his 
point ; 

Fortune  befriends  the  ioZd.— Drydkn. 


ARMS,  WEAPONS. 

^rms,  from  the  Latin  arma,  is  now  properly  used 
for  instruments  of  offence,  and  never  otherwise  except 
by  a poetick  license  of  arms  for  armour  ; but  weapons, 
from  the  German  waffen,  may  be  used  either  for  an 
instrument  of  offence  or  defence.  We  say  fire  arms, 
but  not  fire  weapons  ; and  weapons  offensive  or  defen- 
sive, not  arms  offensive  or  defensive.  Arms  likewise, 
agreeably  to  its  origin,  is  employed  for  whatever  is  in- 
etntionally  made  as  an  instrument  of  offence ; weapon, 
according  to  its  extended  and  indefinite  application,  is 
employed  for  whatever  may  be  accidentally  used  for 
this  purpose:  guns  and  swords  are  always  arms; 

Louder,  and  yet  more  loud,  I hear  th’  alarms 

Of  human  cries  distinct  and  clashing  arms. 

Dryden. 

Stones,  and  brickbats,  and  pitchforks,  may  be  occa- 
sionally weapons  ; 

The  cry  of  Talbot  serves  me  for  a sword  ; 

For  I have  loaded  me  with  many  spoils, 

TJsing  no  other  weapon  than  his  name. 

Shakspeare. 


ARMY,  HOST. 

An  army  is  an  organized  body  of  armed  men,  a 
Jiosf,  from  kostis  an  enemy,  is  properly  a body  of 
hostile  men. 

An  army  is  a limited  body ; a hostmay  be  unlimited, 
and  is  therefore  generally  considered  a very  large 
body. 

The  word  army  applies  only  to  that  which  has  been 
formed  by  the  rules  of  ait  for  purposes  of  war; 


No  more  applause  would  on  ambition  wait 
And  laying  waste  the  world  be  counted  great 
But  one  goodnatured  act  more  praises  gain. 

Than  armies  overthrown  and  thousands  slain 

JkNI  N!* 

Host  has  been  extended  in  its  application  not  only  to 
bodies,  whether  of  men  or  angels,  that  were  assembled 
for  purposes  of  offence,  but  also  in  the  figurative  sense 
to  whatever  rises  up  to  assail; 

He  it  was  whose  guile, 

Stirr’d  up  with  envy  and  revenge,  deceiv’d 
The  mother  of  mankind,  what  time  his  pride 
Had  cast  him  out  of  heav’n  with  all  his  host 
Of  rebel  angels. — Milton. 

Yot  true  it  is,  survey  we  life  around, 

Whole  hosts  of  ills  on  every  side  are  found. 

Jknyns 


BATTLE,  COMBAT,  ENGAGEMENT. 

Battle,  in  French  bataille,  comes  from  the  Latin 
batuo,  Hebrew  to  twist,  signifying  a beating; 

combat,  from  the  French  combattre,  i.  e.  com  or  cum 
together,  and  battre  to  beat  or  fight,  signifies  literally 
a battle  one  with  the  other;  engagement  sigmiiQs  th<» 
act  of  being  engaged  or  occupied  in  a contest. 

* Battle  is  a general  action  requiring  some  prepara 
tiori:  combat  is  only  particular,  and  sometimes  unex- 
pected. Thus  the  action  which  took  place  between 
the  Carthaginians  and  the  Romans,  or  Ciesar  and 
Pornpey,  were  battles;  but  the  action  in  which  the 
Horatii  and  the  Curiatii,  decided  the  fate  of  Rome, 
as  also  many  of  the  actions  in  which  Hercules  was 
engaged,  were  combats.  The  battle  of  Almanza  was 
a decisive  action  between  Philip  of  France  and  Charles 
of  Austria,  in  their  contest  for  the  throne  of  Spain 
in  the  combat  between  Menelaus  and  Paris,  Ilomei 
very  artfully  describes  the  seasonable  interference  of 
Venus  to  save  her  favourite  from  destruction;  ‘The 
most  curious  reason  of  all  (for  the  wager  of  battle)  is 
given  in  the  Mirror,  that  it  is  allowable  upon  warran 
of  the  combat  between  David  for  the  people  ot  Lrae 
of  the  one  party,  and  Goliath  lor  the  Philistines  of  the 
other  party.’ — Blackstone. 

The  word  combat  has  more  relation  to  the  act  of 
fighting  than  that  of  6a«Ze,  which  is  used  with  more 
propriety  simply  to  denominate  the  action.  In  the  battle 
between  the  Romans  and  Pyrrhus,  King  of  Epirus, 
the  combat  was  obstinate  and  bloody ; the  Romans 
seven  times  repulsed  the  enemy,  and  were  as  often  re- 
pulsed in  their  turn.  In  this  latter  sense  engagement 
and  combat  are  analogous,  but  the  former  has  a specifick 
relation  to  the  agents  and  parties  engaged,  which  is 
not  implied  in  the  latter  term.  We  speak  of  a person 
being  present  in  an  engagement ; wounded  in  an  en- 
gagement ; or  having  fought  desperately  in  an  engage 
ment : on  the  other  hand ; to  engage  in  a combat ; to 
challenge  to  single  combat : combats  are  sometimes 
begun  by  the  accidental  meeting  of  avowed  oppo- 
nents ; in  such  engagements  nothing  is  thought  of  but 
the  gratification  of  revenge. 

Battles  are  fought  between  armies  only ; they  are 
gained  or  lost : combats  are  entered  into  between  in- 
dividuals, whether  of  the  brute  ot  human  species,  in 
which  they  seek  to  destroy  or  excel : engagements  are 
confined  to  no  particular  member,  only  to  such  as  are 
engaged : a general  engagement  is  said  of  an  army 
when  the  whole  body  is  engaged ; partial  engagements 
respect  only  such  as  are  fought  by  small  parties  or 
companies  of  an  army.  History  is  mostly  occupied 
with  the  details  of  battles } 

A battle  bloody  fought. 

Where  darkness  and  surprise  made  conquest  cheap. 

Dryoen. 

In  the  history  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  we  have  like- 
wise an  account  of  the  combats  between  men  and  wild 
beasts,  which  formed  their  principal  amusement ; 

This  brave  man  with  long  resistance. 

Held  the  tombat  doubtful. — Rowe. 

It  is  reported  of  the  German  women,  that  whenever 
their  husbands  went  to  battle  they  used  to  go  into  the 
thickest  of  the  combat  to  carry  tjicm  provisions  or  dress 

* Girard  “ Bataille,  combat  ” 


142 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


rfieir  wounds , and  that  sometimes  they  would  take 
part  in  the  engagement;  ‘The  Emperor  of  Morocco 
commanded  his  principal  officers,  that  if  he  died  during 
the  engagement,  they  should  conceal  his  death  from 
the  army.’ — Addison.  The  word  combat  is  likewise 
sometimes  taken  in  a moral  application ; ‘ The  rela- 
tion of  events  becomes  a moral  lecture,  when  the 
combat  of  honour  is  rewarded  with  virtue.’ — Hawkes- 
rVORTH. 


CONFLICT,  COMBAT,  CONTEST. 

Conflict,  in  Latin  conjlictus,  participle  of  confligo 
compounded  of  con  and  fligo,  in  Greek  .^olic 

for  to  flip  or  strike,  signifies  to  strike  against 

each  other.  This  term  is  allied  to  combat  and  conflict 
in  the  sense  of  striving  for  the  superiority ; but  they 
ditter  both  in  the  manner  and  spirit  of  the  action. 

A conflict  has  more  of  violence  in  it  than  a combat, 
and  a combat  than  a contest. 

A conflict  and  combat,  in  the  proper  sense,  are  always 
attended  with  a personal  attack ; contest  consists  mostly 
of  a striving  for  some  common  object. 

A conflict  is  mostly  sanguinary  and  desperate,  it 
arises  from  the  undisciplined  operations  of  the  bad  pas- 
sions, animosity,  and  brutal  rage;  it  seldom  ends  in 
any  thing  but  destruction  : a combat  is  often  a matter 
of  art  and  a trial  of  skill;  it  may  be  obstinate  and  last- 
ing, though  not  arising  from  any  personal  resentment, 
and  mostly  terminates  with  the  triumph  of  one  party 
and  the  defeat  of  the  other;  a contest  is  interested  and 
personal ; it  may  often  give  rise  to  angry  and  even  ma- 
lignant sentiments,  but  is  not  necessarily  associated 
with  any  bad  passion  ; it  ends  in  the  advancement  of 
one  to  the  injury  of  the  other. 

The  lion,  the  tiger,  and  other  beasts  of  the  forest,  have 
dreadful  conflicts  whenever  they  meet ; which  seldom 
terminate  but  in  the  death  of  one  if  not  both  of  the 
antagonists:  it  would  be  well  if  the  use  of  the  word 
were  confined  to  the  irrational  part  of  the  creation  ; but 
there  liave  been  wars  and  party- broils  among  men, 
which  have  occasioned  conflicts  the  most  horrible  and 
{ destructive  that  can  be  conceived; 

It  is  my  father’s  face. 

Whom  in  this  conflict,  I unawares  have  kill’d. 

Shakspeare. 

That  combats  have  been  mere  trials  of  skill  is  evinced 
Dy  the  combats  in  the  ancient  games  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  as  also  in  the  justs  and  tournaments  of  later 
late  ; but  in  all  applications  of  the  term,  it  implies  a 
^et  engagement  between  two  or  more  particular  indi- 
viduals ; 

Elsewhere  he  saw,  where  Troilus  defied 

Achilles,  an  unequal  combat  tried. — Dryden. 
Contests  are  as  various  as  the  pursuits  and  wishes  of 
.Tien : whatever  is  an  object  of  desire  for  two  parties 
becomes  the  ground  of  a contest ; ambition,  interest, 
and  party-zeal  are  always  busy  in  furnishing  men  with 
objects  for  a contest ; on  the  same  ground,  the  attain- 
ment of  victory  in  a battle,  or  of  any  subordinate 
point  during  an  engagement,  become  tlie  object  of  con- 
test; ‘ When  the  ships  grappled  together,  and  the  con- 
test became  more  steady  and  furious,  the  example  of 
the  King  and  so  many  gallant  nobles,  who  accompa- 
nied him,  animated  to  such  a degree  the  seamen  and 
soldiers,  that  they  maintained  every  where  a superi- 
ority ’ — IIUiMK. 

In  a figurative  sense  these  terms  are  applied  to  the 
movements  of  the  mind,  the  elements  or  whatever 
seems  to  oppose  itself  to  another  thing,  in  which  sense 
they  preserve  the  same  analogy  : violent  passions  have 
their  conflicts:  ordinary  desires  their  combats;  mo- 
tives their  contests  ; it  is  the  poet’s  part  to  describe  the 
conflicts  between  pride  and  passion,  rage  and  despair, 
in  the  breast  of  the  disappointed  lover  ; ‘ Happy  is  the 
man  who  in  the  conflict  oi  desire  between  God  and  the 
world,  can  oppose  not  only  argument  to  argument  but 
pleasure  to  pleasure.’ — Blair.  Reason  wilj  seldom 
lome  off  victorious  in  its  combat  with  ambition,  ava- 
•ice,  a love  of  pleasure,  or  any  pretffiminant  desire, 
inless  aided  by  religion  ; ‘ The  noble  co/nfta^that,  ’twixt 
oy  and  sorrow,  was  fought  in  Paulina!  She  had  one 
eye  declined  for  the  loss  of  her  husband,  another  ele- 
/ated  that  the  oracle  was  fulfilled.’— Shakspeare. 
Where  there  is  a contest  between  the  desire  of  fe’low- 


ing one’s  will  ana  a sense  of  propriety,  the  voice  of  a 
prudent  friend  may  be  heard  and  heeded ; ‘ Soon  after- 
ward the  death  of  the  king  furnished  a general  subject 
for  poetical  contest.' — Johnson. 


TO  CONFRONT,  FACE. 

Confront,  from  the  Latin  frons  a forehead,  implies 
to  set  face  to  face;  and  face,  from  the  noun /ace,  signi- 
fies to  set  the  face  towards  any  object.  The  former  of 
these  terms  is  always  employed  for  two  or  more  persons 
with  regard  to  each  other ; the  latter  for  a single  indi- 
vidual with  regard  to  objects  in  general. 

Witnesses  are  can/ronted ; a person  faces  danger,  or 
faces  an  enemy  . when  people  give  contrary  evidence 
it  is  sometimes  necessary,  in  extra-judicial  matters,  to 
confront  them,  in  order  to  arrive  at  the  truth  ; 

Whereto  serves  mercy. 

But  to  confront  the  visage  of  offence  1 

« Shakspeare. 

The  best  test  which  a man  can  give  of  his  courage,  is 
to  evince  his  readiness  for/acm^his  enemy  whenever 
the  occasion  requires ; 

The  rev’rend  charioteer  directs  the  course. 

And  strains  his  aged  arm  to  lash  the  horse ; 

Hector  they  /ace ; unknowing  how  to  fear, 

Fierce  he  drove  on.— Pope. 


TO  BEAT,  STRIKE,  HIT. 

Beat,  in  French  battre,  Latin  battuo,  comes  from  the 
Hebrew  Aa&at  to  beat ; Stn'Ac,  in  Saxon  strican,  Da- 
nish Strieker,  &c.  from  the  Latin  strictum,  participle 
of  stringo  to  brush  or  sweep  along,  signifies  literally  to 
pass  one  thing  along  the  surface  of  another;  hit,  in 
Latin  ictus,  participle  of  ico,  comes  from  the  Hebrew 
necat  to  strike. 

To  beat  is  to  redouble  blows;  to  strike  is  to  give  one 
single  blow  ; but  the  bare  touching  in  consequence  of 
an  effort  constitutes  hitting.  We  never  beat  but  with 
design,  nor  hit  without  an  aim,  but  we  may  strike  by 
accident.  It  is  the  part  of  the  strong  to  beat ; of  the 
most  vehement  to  stri&e;  of  the  most  sure  sighted  to 
hit. 

Notwithstanding  the  declamations  of  philosophers  ae 
they  are  pleased  to  style  themselves,  the  practice  of 
beating  cannot  altogether  be  discarded  from  the  mili- 
tary or  scholastick  discipline.  The  master  who  strikes 
his  pupil  hastily  is  oftener  impelled  by  the  force  of  pas- 
sion than  of  conviction.  Hitting  is  the  object  and  de- 
light of  the  marksman;  it  is  the  utmost  exertion  of  his 
skill  to  hit  the  exact  point  at  which  he  aims.  In  an  ex- 
tended application  of  these  terms,  beating  is,  for  the 
most  part,  an  act  of  p.assion,  either  from  anger  or  sor- 
row; 

Young  Sylvia  beats  her  breast,  and  cries  aloud 

For  succour  from  the  clownish  neighbourhood, 

Dryden 

Striking  is  an  act  of  decision,  as  to  strike  a blow ; 

Send  thy  arrows  forth 

Strike,  strike  these  tyrants  and  avenge  my  tears. 

Cumberland. 

Hitting  is  an  act  of  design,  as  to  hit  a marK ; ‘ No  man 
is  thought  to  become  vicious  by  sacrificing  the  life  of 
an  animal  to  the  pleasure  of  hitting  a mark.  It  is  how- 
ever certain  that  by  this  act  more  happiness  is  destroyed 
than  produced.’— Hawkesworth. 

Blow  probably  derives  the  meaning  in  which  it  is 
here  taken  from  the  action  of  the  wind,  which  it  re- 
sembles when  it  is  violent;  stroke,  from  the  word 
strike,  denotes  the  act  of  striking. 

Blow  is  used  abstractedly  to  denote  the  effect  of  vio- 
lence ; stroke  is  employed  relatively  to  the  person  pro- 
ducing that  effect  A blow  may  be  received  by  the 
carelessness  of  the  receiver,  or  by  a pure  accident; 
‘ The  advance  of  the  human  mind  towards  any  object 
of  laudable  pursuit  may  be  compared  to  the  progress 
of  a body  driven  by  a blow.' — Johnson.  Strokes  are 
dealt  out  according  to  the  design  of  the  giver  ; ‘ Pene 
trated  to  the  heart  with  the  recollection  of  his  beha 
viour,  and  the  unmerited  pardon  he  had  met  with, 
Thrasyppus  was  proceeding  to  execute  vengeance  on 
himself,  by  rushing  on  his  sword,  when  Pisistratua 
again  interposed,  and  seizing  his  hand,  stopped  fh« 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


stroke.' — Cumberland.  Children  are  always  in  the 
way  of  getting  blows  in  the  course  of  their  play  ; and 
of  receiving  strokes  by  way  of  chastisement. 

A blow  may  be  given  with  the  hand,  or  with  any  flat 
substance ; a stroke  is  rather  a long  drawn  blow  given 
with  a long  instrument,  like  a stick.  Blows  may  be 
given  with  the  flat  part  of  a sword,  and  strokes  with  a 
stick. 

Blow  is  seldom  used  but  in  the  puoper  sense;  stroke 
sometimes  figuratively,  as  a strode  of  death,  ora  stroke 
*f  fortune:  ‘This  declaration  was  a stroke  which 
Evander  had  neither  skill  to  elude,  nor  force  to  resist.’ 
-Hawkksworth. 


TO  BEAT,  DEFEAT,  OVERPOWER,  ROUT, 
OVERTHROW. 

Beat  is  here  figuratively  employed  in  the  sense  of  the 
ormer  section ; defeat,  from  the  French  defaire,  im- 
plies to  undo ; overpower,  to  have  the  power  over  any 
one  ; rout,  from  the  French  mettre  en  deroute  is  to  turn 
from  one’s  route,  and  overthrow  to  throw  over  or  up- 
side down. 

Beat  respects  personal  contests  between  individuals 
or  parties  ; defeat,  rout,  overpower,  and  overthrow,  are 
employed  mostly  for  contests  between  numbers.  A 
general  is  beaten  in  important  engagements  : he  is  de- 
feated and  may  be  routed  in  partial  attacks;  he  is  over- 
powered by  numbers,  and  overthrown  in  set  engage- 
ments. The  English  pride  themselves  on  beating  their 
enemies  by  land  as  well  as  by  sea,  whenever  they  come 
to  fair  engagements,  but  the  English  are  sometimes  de- 
feated when  they  make  too  desperate  attempts,  and 
sometimes  they  are  in  danger  of  being  overpowered : 
they  have  scarcely  ever  been  routed  or  overthrown. 

To  beat  is  an  indefinite  term  expressive  of  no  parti- 
cular degree:  the  being  beaten  maybe  attended  with 
greater  or  less  damage.  To  be  defeated  is  a specifick 
disadvantage,  it  is  a failure  in  a particular  object  of 
more  or  less  importance.  To  be  overpowercdis  a posi- 
tive loss;  it  is  a loss  of  the  power  of  acliiig  which  may 
36  of  longer  or  shorter  duration  : to  ha  routed  is  a tem- 
jorary  disadvantage  ; a rout  alters  the  route  or  course 
*f  proceeding,  but  does  not  disable:  to  be  overthrown  is 
he  greatest  of  all  mischiefs,  and  is  applicable  only  to 
great  armies  and  great  concerns,  an  overthrow  com- 
monly decides  the  contest; 

Beat  is  a term  which  reflects  more  or  less  dishonour 
OE  the  general  or  the  army  or  on  both  ; 

Turnus,  I know  you  think  me  not  your  friend, 

^Tor  will  I much  with  your  belief  contend ; 

I beg  your  greatness  not  to  give  the  law 
In  other  realms,  but  beaten  to  withdraw. 

Dryden. 

Defeat  is  an  indifferent  term ; the  best  generals  may 
sometimes  be  defeated  by  circumstances  which  are 
above  human  control ; ‘ Satan  frequently  confesses  the 
omnipotence  of  the  Supreme  Being,  that  being  the  per- 
fection he  was  forced  to  allow  him,  and  the  only  con- 
sideration which  could  support  his  pride  under  the 
shame  of  his  defeat.' — Addison.  Overpowering  is 
coupled  with  no  particular  honour  to  the  winner,  nor 
disgrace  to  the  loser ; superiour  power  is  oftener  the 
result  of  good  fortune  than  of  skill.  The  bravest  and 
finest  troops  may  be  overpowered  in  cases  which  exceed 
human  power ; ‘ The  veterans  whodefended  the  walls, 
were  soon  overpowered  by  numbers.’ — Robertson. 
A rout  is  alw’ays  disgraceful,  particularly  to  the  army  ; 
it  always  atistss  from  want  cf  firmness  ; ‘ The  rout  (at 
the  battle  of  Pavia)  now  became  universal,  and  resist- 
ance ceased  in  almost  every  part  but  where  the  king 
was  in  person.’ — Robertson.  An  overthrow  is  fatal 
rather  than  dishonourable ; it  excites  pity  rathei  than 
contempt ; ‘ Milton’s  subject  is  rebellion  against  the  Su- 
preme Being;  raised  by  the  highest  order  of  created 
oeings,  the  over tWow  of  their  host  is  the  punishment 
■)f  their  crime.’ — Johnson. 


TO  DEFEi^T,  FOIL,  DISAPPCINT, 
FRUSTRATE. 

To  defeat  has  the  same  meaning  as  given  under  the 
Article  To  beat;  foil  may  probably  come  from  fail, 
and  tne  Latin  faho  to  deceive,  signifying  to  make  to 
fail ; frustrate,  in  Latin  frustratus,  from  frustra  in 
vain,  signifies  to  make  vaii  • disappoint,  from  the  pri- 


vative dis  and  the  verb  appoint,  signifies  litci<illy  t . do 
away  what  has  been  appointed. 

Defeat  and  foil  are  both  applied  to  matters  of  enter 
prise;  but  that  may  he  defeated  which  is  only  planned 
and  that  is  foiled  which  is  in  the  act  of  being  executed 
What  is  rejected  is  defeated:  what  is  aimed  at  or  pur- 
posed is  frustrated  : what  is  calculated  on  is  disap- 
pointed. The  best  concerted  schemes  may  sometimes 
be  easily  defeated : where  art  is  employed  against  sim- 
plicity the  latter  may  be  easily  foiled  : when  we  aim 
at  what  is  above  our  reach,  we  must  be  frustrated  in 
our  endeavours  : when  our  expectations  are  extrava- 
gant, it  seems  to  follow  of  course,  that  they  will  be 
disappointed. 

Design  or  accident  may  tend  to  defeat,  design  only  to 
foil,  accident  only  to  frustrate  or  disappoint.  The  su- 
periour force  of  the  enemy,  or  a combination  of  unto- 
ward events  whicii  are  above  the  control  of  the  com- 
mander, w'ill  serve  to  defeat  the  best  concerted  plans  of 
the  best  generals ; ‘ The  very  purposes  of  wantonness 
are  defeated  by  a carriage  wnich  has  so  much  boldness.’ 
— Steele.  Men  of  upright  minds  can  seldom  foil  the 
deep  laid  schemes  of  Knaves;  ‘ The  devil  haunts  those 
most  where  he  hath  greatest  hopes  of  success ; and  is 
too  eager  and  intent  upon  mischief  to  employ  his  time 
and  temptations  where  he  hath  been  so  often  foiled.'— 
Tillotson.  When  we  sed  that  the  perversity  of  men 
is  liable  to  frustrate  the  kind  intentions  of  others  in 
tlKir  behalf,  it  is  wiser  to  leave  them  to  their  folly; 

Let  all  the  Tuscans,  all  th’  Arcadians  join. 

Nor  these  nor  those  shaW  frustrate  my  design. 

Dryden 

The  cross  accidents  of  human  life  are  a fruitful  source 
of  disappointments  to  those  v;ho  suffer  themse  ves  tr 
be  affected  by  them  ; ‘ It  seems  rational  to  hope  that 
minds  qualified  for  great  attainments  should  first  en 
deavour  their  own  benefit.  But  this  expectation,  how 
ever  plausible,  has  been  very  frequently  disappointed 
—Johnson. 


TO  BAFFLE,  DEFEAT,  DISCONCERT, 
CONFOUND. 

Baffle,  in  French  baffler,  from  bvffle  an  ox,  signifie* 
to  lead  by  the  nose  as  an  ox,  that  is,  to  amuse  or  disap 
point;  defeat,  in  French  difait,  participle  of  defaire,vt 
compounded  of  the  privative  de  and  faire  to  do,  signi 
fyirig  to  undo ; disconcert  is  compounded  of  the  priva 
tive  dis  and  concert,  signifying  to  throw  out  of  concert 
or  harmony,  to  put  into  disorder;  confound,  in  French 
confondre,  is  compounded  of  con  and  fondre  to  melt  or 
mix  together  in  general  disorder. 

When  applied  to  the  derangement  of  the  mind  or  ra- 
tional faculties,  baffle  and  defeat  respect  the  powers  of 
argument,  disconcert  and  confound  the  thoughts  and 
feelings:  baffle  expresses  less  than  defeat;  disconcert 
less  than  confound;  a person  is  baffled  in  argument 
who  is  for  the  time  discomposed  and  silenced  by  the  su- 
periour address  of  his  opponent : he  is  defeated  in  argu- 
ment if  his  opponent  has  altogether  the  advantage  of 
him  in  strength  of  reasoning  and  just,2ess  of  sentiment: 
a person  is  disconcertedwho  loses  his  presence  of  mind 
for  a moment,  or  has  his  feelings  any  way  discom 
po.sed ; he  is  confounded  when  the  powers  of  thought 
and  consciousness  become  torpid  or  vanish. 

A superiour  command  of  language  or  a particular 
degree  of  effrontery  will  frequently  enable  one  person 
to  baffle  another  who  is  advocating  the  cause  of  truth  ; 
‘ When  the  mind  has  brought  itself  to  close  thinking,  ii 
may  go  on  roundly.  Every  abstruse  problem,  every 
intricate  question  will  not  baffle,  discourage,  or  break 
it.  —Locke.  Ignorance  of  the  subject,  or  a want  of 
ability,  may  occasion  a man  to  be  defeated  by  his  ad 
versary,  even  when  he  is  supporting  a good  cause ; 
‘ He  that  could  withstand  conscience  is  frighted  at  in- 
famy, and  shame  prevails  when  reason  is  defeated.' — 
Johnson.  Assurance  is  requisite  to  prevent  any  one 
from  being  disconcerted  who  is  suddenly  detected  in  any 
disgraceful  proceeding  ; ‘ She  looked  in  the  glass  while 
she  was  speaking  to  me,  and  without  any  confusion 
adjusted  her  tucker:  she  seemed  rather  pleased  than 
disconcerted  at  being  regarded  with  earnestness.’— 
Hawke s worth.  Hardened  effrontery  sometimes  keeps 
the  daring  villain  from  being  confounded  by  any  events, 
however  awful;  ‘I  could  not  help  inquiring  of  the 
clerks  they  knew  this  lady,  and  was  great! v 


144 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


founded  when  they  told  me  with  an  air  of  secrecy  that 
she  was  my  cousin’s  mistress.’ — Hawkesworth. 

When  applied  to  the  derangement  of  plans,  baffle 
expresses  less  than  defeat;  defeat  less  than  confound ; 
and  diseoncert  less  than  all.  Obstinacy,  perseverance, 
skill,  or  art,  force  or  violence  de/eats ; awkward 

circumstances  disconcert ; the  visitation  of  God  co7.~ 
founds.  When  wicked  men  strive  to  obtain  their  ends, 
it  is  a happy  thing  when  their  adversaries  have  suffi- 
cient skill  and  address  to  baffle  all  their  arts,  and  suffi- 
! lent  power  to  defeat  all  their  projects ; 

Now  shepherds  ! To  your  helpless  charge  be  kind. 
Baffle  the  raging  year,  and  fill  their  pens 
With  food  at  will.— Thomson. 

He  finds  himself  naturally  to  dread  a superiour  Being, 
that  can  defeat  all  his  designs  and  disa[)point  all  his 
hopes.’ — Tillotson.  Sometimes  when  our  best  endea- 
vours fail  in  our  own  behalf,  the  devices  of  men  are 
confounded  by  the  interposition  of  heaven; 

So  spake  the  Son  of  God ; and  Satan  stood 
A while  as  mute,  confounded  what  to  say. 

Milton. 

It  frit  quently  happens  even  in  the  common  transactions 
of  life  that  the  best  schemes  are  disconcerted  by  the  tri- 
vial casualties  of  wind  and.weather  ; ‘The  King  (Wil- 
liam) informed  of  these  dangerous  discontents  hastened 
over  to  England  ; and  by  his  presence,  and  the  vigorous 
measures  which  he  pursued,  disconcerted  all  the 
schemes  of  the  conspirators.’ — Hume.  The  obstinacy 
of  a disorder  may  baffle  the  skill  of  the  physician ; the 
imprudence  of  the  patient  may  defeat  the  object  of  his 
prescriptions;  the  unexpected  arrival  of  a superiour 
may  disconcert  the  unauthorized  plan  of  those  who  are 
subordinate : the  miraculous  destruction  of  his  army 
confounded  the  project  of  the  King  of  Assyria. 


TO  CONaUEU,  VANaUTSH,  SUBDUE, 
OVERCOME,  SURMOUNT. 

Kjonquer,  in  French  conquerir,  Latin  conquiro,  com- 
jounded  of  con  and  queero,  signifies  to  seek  or  try  to 
;ain  an  object;  vanquish.^  in  French  vaincre,  Latin 
71/tco,  Greek  {per  metathesin)  viKdo),  comes  from  the 
Hebrew  Hi* 3 destroy ; subdue,  from  the  Latin 

signifies  to  give  or  put  under;  overcome,  com- 
pounded of  over  and  come,  signifies  to  come  over  or  get 
Hie  mastery  over  one  : surmount,  in  French  surmonter, 
compounded  of  sur  over  and  monter  to  mount,  signifies 
.o  rise  above  any  one. 

Persons  or  things  are  conquered  or  subdued : per.sons 
only  are  vanquished.  An  enemy  or  a country  is  con- 
quered; a foe  is  vanquished ; people  are  suftdwed. 

We  conquer  an  enemy  or  a country  by  whatever 
means  we  gain  the  mastery  over  him  or  it.  The  idea 
of  something  gained  is  most  predominant ; ‘ He  (Ethel- 
wolf)  began  his  reign  with  making  a partition  of  his 
dominions,  and  delivering  over  to  his  eldest  son  Athel- 
stan,  the  new  conquered  provinces  of  Essex,  Kent,  and 
Sussex.’— Hume.  We  vanquish  him,  when  by  force 
we  make  him  yield  ; ‘ A few  troops  of  the  vanquished, 
had  still  the  courage  to  turn  upon  their  pursuers.’— 
Hume.  We  subdue  him  by  whatever  means  we  check 
in  him  the  spirit  of  resistance;  ‘The  Danes,  surprised 
to  see  an  army  of  English,  whom  they  considered  as 
totally  SMfiditerf,  and  still  more  astonished  to  hear  that 
Alfred  was  at  their  head,  made  but  a faint  resistance.’— 
Hume.  A Christian  tries  to  conquer  his  enemies  by 
kindness  and  generosity ; a warriour  tries  to  vanquish 
them  in  the  field;  a prudent  monarch  tries  to  subdue 
his  rebellious  subjects  by  a due  mixture  of  clemency 
and  rigour.  . . , , , 

One  be  vanquished  in  a single  battle;  one  is 
subdued  only  by  the  most  violent  and  persevering  mea- 
sures. William  the  First  conquered  England  by  van- 
quishing his  rival  Harold ; after  which  he  completely 
subdued  the  English.  . 

Alexander  having  vanquished  all  the  enemies  that 
opposed  him,  and  subdued  all  the  nations  with  whom 
he  warred,  fancied  that  he  had  conquered  the  whole 
world,  and  is  said  to  have  wept  at  the  idea  that  there 
were  no  more  worlds  to  conquer. 

In  an  extended  and  moral  application  these  terms  are 
nearly  allied  to  overcome  and  surmount.  That  is  con- 
quered and  subdued  which  is  in  the  mind ; that  is  over- 
came ind  surmounted  which  is  either  internal  or 


e.xternal.  We  conquer  and  overcome  what  makes  .tc 
great  resistance  ; we  subdue  and  surmount  w hat  is  v o 
lent  and  strong  in  its  opposition ; dislikes.  attachmentB, 
and  feelings  in  general,  either  for  or  against,  are  con- 
quered; unruly  and  tumultuous  passions  are  to  be 
subdued ; a man  conquers  himself ; 

Real  glory 

Springs  from  the  silent  conquest  of  ourselves 

Thomson. 

He  subdues  his  spirit  or  his  passions ; ‘ Socrates  anO 
Marcus  Aurelius  are  instances  of  men,  who,  by  the 
strength  of  philosophy  having  subdued  their  passions, 
are  celebrated  for  good  husbands.’ — Spectator. 

One  conquers  by  ordinary  means  and  efforts;  one 
subdues  by  extraordinary  means.  Antipathies  when 
cherished  in  early  life  are  not  easily  conquered  in  riper 
years ; nothing  but  a prevailing  sense  of  religion,  and  a 
perpetual  fear  of  God,  can  ever  subdue  the  rebellious 
wills  and  propensities. 

It  requires  for  the  most  part  determination  and  force 
to  overcome;  patience  and  perseverance  to  surmomit. 
Prejudices  and  prepossessions  are  overcome;  obstacles 
and  difficulties  are  surmounted;  ‘Actuated  by  some 
high  passion,  a man  conceives  great  designs,  and  sur- 
mounts all  difficulties  in  tins  execution.’ — Blair.  It  too 
frequently  happens  that  tliose  who  are  eager  to  over- 
come their  prejudices,  in  order  to  dispose  themselves  for 
the  reception  of  new  opinions,  fall  into  greater  errours 
than  those  they  have  abandoned.  Nothing  truly  great 
has  ever  been  effected  wJiere  great  difficulties  have  not 
been  encountered  : it  is  the  characteristick  of  genius  to 
stir  mount  every  difficulty ; Alexander  conceived  that  he 
could  overcome  nature  herself,  and  Hannibal  succeeded 
in  this  very  point:  there  were  scarcely  any  obstacles 
which  she  opposed  to  him  that  he  did  not  surmount  by 
prowess  and  perseverance. 

Whoever  aims  at  Christian  perfection  must  striv. 
with  God’s  assistance  to  conquer  avarice,  pride,  and 
every  inordinate  propensity;  to  swidae  wrath,  anger, 
lust,  and  every  carnal  appetite  ; to  overcome  tempta 
tions,  and  to  surmount  trials  and  impediments  which 
obstruct  his  course. 

To  conquer  and  overcome  may  sometimes  be  indif 
ferently  applied  to  the  same  objects  ; but  the  forme! 
has  always  a reference  to  the  thing  gained,  the  lattei 
to  the  resistance  which  is  opposed,  hence  we  talk  of 
conquering  a prejudice  as  far  as  we  bring  it  under  the 
power  of  the  understanding  ; wo  overcome  it  as  far  as 
we  successfully  oppose  its  influence:  this  illustration 
will  serve  to  show  the  propriety  of  using  these  words 
distinctly  in  other  cases  where  they  cannot  be  used  in 
differently ; 

Equal  success  hath  set  these  champions  Iiigli, 

And  both  resolv’d  to  conquer  or  to  die.— Waller. 

The  patient  mind  by  yielding  overcomes. — Philips. 

To  vanquish  in  the  moral  application  bears  the 
same  meaning  as  in  the  proper  application,  signifying 
to  overcome  in  a struggle  or  combat;  thus  a person 
may  be  said  to  be  vanquished  by  any  ruling  passion 
which  gets  the  better  of  his  conscience  ; ‘ There  are 
two  parts  in  our  nature.  The  inferiour  part  is  gene 
rally  much  stronger,  and  lias  always  the  start  of  rea 
son ; which,  if  it  were  not  aided  by  religion,  would 
almost  universally  be  vanquished.' — Berkeley. 

TO  OVERBEAR,  BEAR  DOWN,  OVERPOWER. 

OVERWHELM,  SUBDUE. 

To  overbear  is  to  bear  one’s  self  over  another,  thai 
is,  to  make  another  bear  one’s  weight ; 

Crowding  on  the  last  the  first  impel ; 

Till  overborne  with  weight  the  Cyprians  fell. 

Dryden. 

To  bear  doion  is  literally  to  bring  down  by  bearing 
upon ; ‘ The  residue  were  so  disordered  as  they  could 
not  conveniently  fight  or  fly,  and  not  only  justled  and 
bore  down  one  another,  but  in  their  confused  tumbling 
back,  brake  a part  of  the  avant-guard.’— Hayward. 
To  overpower  is  to  get  the  power  over  an  object : 

‘ After  the  death  of  Crassus,  Pompey  found  himself 
outwitted  by  Caesar ; he  broke  with  him,  overpowered 
him  in  the  senate,  and  caused  many  unjust  decrees  to 
pass  against  him.’— Dryden.  To  overwhelm,  from 
whelm  or  tcAecZ,  signifies  to  turn  one  quite  round*/ 
well  as  over. 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


45 


What  age  is  this,  where  lioiiest  men, 

Plac’d  at  the  helm, 

A sea  of  some  foul  mouth  or  pen 
Shall  overwhelm.— Joaso^. 

To  subdue  {v.  To  conquer)  is  literally  to  bring  or  put 
underneath ; 

Nothing  could  haVe  subdued  nature 

To  such  a lowness,  but  his  unkind  daughters. 

Shakspeare. 

A man  overbears  by  carrying  himself  higher  than 
others,  and  putting  to  silence  those  who  might  claim 
an  equality  with  him ; an  overbearing  demeanour  is 
most  cons^ticuous  in  narrow  circles  where  an  iirlivi- 
dual,  from  certain  casual  advantages,  affects  a superi- 
ority over  the  members  of  the  same  ccKiimunity.  To 
bear  down  is  an  act  of  greater  violence : one  bears 
down  opposition  ; it  is  properly  the  opposing  force  to 
force,  until  one  side  yields  : there  may  be  occasions  in 
which  bearing  down  is  fully  justifiable  and  laudable. 
Mr.  Pitt  was  often  compelled  to  bear  down  a factious 
party  which  llneatened  to  overturn  the  government. 
Overpower.,  as  the  term  implies,  belongs  to  the  e.xercise 
of  power  which  may  be  either  physical  or  moral : one 
may  be  overpowered  by  another,  who  in  a struggle  gets 
him  into  his  power  ; or  one  may  be  overpowered  in  an 
argument,  when  the  argument  of  one’s  antagonist  is 
such  as  to  bring  one  to  silence.  One  is  overborne  or 
borne  down  by  the  exertion  of  individuals;  one  is 
overpowered  by  the  active  efforts  of  individuals,  or  by 
the  force  of  circumstances;  one  h overwhelmed  by 
circumstances  or  things  only  ; one  overborne  by  Ui- 
other  of  superiour  influence ; one  is  firnedownh}  'le 
force  of  his  attack;  one  is  overpow.,  ed  by  numbe.s, 
by  entreaties,  by  looks,  and  the  li-"  ; one  is  over- 
whelmed by  the  torrent  of  words,  or  ti...  impetuosity  of 
the  attack.  In  the  moral  or  extended  application  over- 
bear and  bear  down  both  imply  force  or  violence,  but 
the  latter  even  more  than  the  former.  One  passion 
may  be  said  to  overbear  another,  or  to  overbear  reason ; 
‘ The  duty  of  fear,  like  that  of  other  passions,  is  not  to 
overbear  reason,  but  to  assist  it.’ — Johnson.  What- 
ever hears  down  carries  all  before  it ; 

Contention  like  a horse 

F'ull  of  high  feedimr,  madly  hath  broken  loose. 

And  bears  down  all  before  him. — Shakspeare. 

Overpower  and  overwhelm  denote  a partial  superi- 
ority ; subdue  denotes  that  which  is  permanent  and 
positive  ; we  may  overpower  or  overwhelm  for  a time, 
or  to  a certain  degree ; but  to  subdue  is  to  get  an  entire 
and  lasting  superiority.  Overpower  and  overwhelm 
are  said  of  what  passes  between  persons  nearly  on  a 
level ; but  subdue  is  said  of  those  who  are,  or  may  be, 
reduced  to  a low  state  of  inferiority : individuals  or 
armies  are  overpowered  or  overwhelmed ; individuals 
or  nations  are  subdued:  we  may  be  overpowered  \n 
one  engagement,  and  overpower  our  opponent  in  an- 
other ; we  may  be  overwhelmed  by  the  suddenness  and 
impetuosity  of  the  attack,  yet  we  may  recover  our- 
selves so  as  to  renew  the  attack ; but  when  we  are 
subdued  all  power  of  resistance  is  gone. 

To  overpower.,  overwhelm,  and  subdue,  are  applied 
either  to^the  moral  feelings  or  to  the  external  relations 
of  things;  but  the  two  former  are  the  effects  of  exter- 
nal circumstances  ; the  latter  follows  from  the  exercise 
of  the  reasoning  powers:  the  tender  feelings  are  over- 
powered, or  the  senses  may  bo  overpowered;  ‘All 
colours  that  are  more  luminous  (than  green)  over- 
power and  dissipate  the  animal  spirits  which  are  em- 
ployed in  sight  ’ — Addison.  The  mind  is  overwhelmed 
with  shame,  horrour,  and  other  painful  feelings ; ‘ How 
trifling  an  apprehension  is  the  shame  of  being  laughed 
at  by  fools,  when  compared  with  that  everlasting 
shame  and  astonishment  which  shall  overwhelm  the 
sinner  when  he  shall  appear  before  the  tribunal  of 
Christ.’ — Rogers. 

Such  implements  of  mischief  as  shall  dash 
To  pieces,  and  overwhelm  whatever  stands 
Adverse. — Milton. 

The  unruly  passions  are  subdued  by  the  force  of  reli- 
gious contemplation,  or  the  fortitude  is  subdued  by 
pain; 

For  what  avails 

Valour  or  strength,  though  matchless,  quell’d  with 
pain, 

VVhich  all  subdues  ? — Milton. 


A person  may  be  so  overpowered,  on  seeing  a dying 
friend,  as  to  be  unable  to  speak ; he  may  be  so  over 
whelmed  with  grief,  iqion  the  death  of  a near  and  dear 
relative,  as  to  be  unable  to  attend  to  his  ordinary  avo 
cations ; the  angry  passions  have  been  so  completely 
subdued  by  the  influence  of  religion  on  the  heait,  that 
instances  have  been  known  of  the  most  irascible 
tempers  being  converted  into  the  most  mild  and  for 
bearing. 

T SUBJECT,  SUBJUGATE,  SUBDUE 
Subuue,  V.  To  conquer. 

To  subject,  signifying  to  make  subject,  is  here  th« 
generick  term : to  subjugate,  from  jugum  a yoke  sig- 
nifying to  bring  under  a yoke  : and  subdue,  signifying 
as  in  the  preceding  article  to  bring  under,  are  specifick 
terms.  We  may  subject  either  individuals  or  nations ; 
but  we  subjugate  only  nations.  We  sjibject  ourselves 
to  reproof,  to  inconvenience,  or  to  the  influence  of  our 
passions ; 

Think  not,  young  w'arriours,  your  diminish’d  name 
Shall  lose  of  lustre,  by  subjecting  rage 
To  the  cool  dictates  of  exjierieiiced  age.— Dryden 
Where  there  is  no  awe,  there  will  be  no  subjection. 

South. 

One  nation  subjugates  another ; subjugate  and  subdue 
are  both  employed  with  regard  to  nations  that  are  cixn- 
pelled  to  submit  to  the  conqueror : but  subjugate  ex 
presses  even  more  than  subdue,  for  it  implies  to  bring 
into  a state  of  permanent  submission ; whereas  to 
subdue  may  be  only  a nominal  and  temporary  subjec 
tion.  Cffisar  subjugated  the  Gauls,  for  he  made  them 
subjects  to  the  Roman  empire  ; 

O fav’rite  virgin,  that  hast  warm’d  the  breast 
Whose  sov’reign  dictates  subjugate  the  east. 

Prior 

Alexander  subdued  the  Indian  nations,  who  revolU,il 
after  his  departure ; 

Thy  son  (nor  is  th’  appointed  season  far,) 

In  Italy  shall  wage  successful  war. 

Till,  after  every  foe  subdu'd,  the  sun 

Thrice  through  the  signs  his  annual  race  shall  run 

Dryden 


INVINCIBLE,  UNCONaUERAFLE,  INSUPER 
ABLE,  INSURMOUNTABLE. 

Invincible  signifies  not  to  be  vanquished  {v.  To  con 
quer)  : unconquerable,  not  to  be  conquered  : insuper 
able,  not  to  be  overcome:  insurmountable,  i\ot  to  be 
surmounted.  Persons  or  things  are  in  the  strict  sense 
invincible  which  can  withstand  all  force , but  as  ir 
this  sense  nothing  created  can  be  termed  invincible 
the  term  is  employed  to  express  strongly  whatever  can 
withstand  human  force  in  general : on  this  ground  the 
Spaniards  termed  their  Armada  invincible ; ‘ The 
Americans  believed  at  first,  that  while  cherished  by 
the  parental  beams  of  the  sun,  the  Spaniards  were 
invincible.' — Robertson.  The  qualities  of  the  mind 
are  termed  unconquerable  when  they  are  not  to  be 
gained  over  or  brought  under  the  control  of  one’s  own 
reason,  or  the  judgement  of  another : hence  obstinacy 
is  with  propriety  denominated  unconquerable  which 
will  yield  to  no  foreign  influence;  ‘The  mind  of  an 
ungrateful  person  is  unconquerable  by  that  which  con 
quers  all  things  else,  even  by  love  itself.’ — South.  The 
particular  disposition  of  the  mind  or  turn  of  thinking 
is  termed  insuperable,  inasmuch  as  it  baffles  our  reso 
lution  or  wishes  to  have  it  altered  : an  aversion  is  in 
super  able  which  no  reasoning  or  endeavour  on  our 
own  part  can  overcome ; ‘ To  this  literary  word  (meta- 
physicks)  I have  an  insuperable  aversion.’ — Beattie. 
Things  are  denominated  insurmountable,  inasmuch  as 
they  baffle  one’s  skill  or  efforts  to  get  over  them,  or  put 
them  out  of  one’s  way:  an  obstacle  is  insurmountable 
which  in  the  nature  of  things  is  irremoveable  ; ‘ It  is  a 
melancholy  reflection,  that  while  one  is  plagued  with 
acquaintance  at  the  corner  of  every  street,  real  friends 
should  be  separated  from  each  other  by  insurmountable 
bars.’ — Gibbon.  Some  people  have  an  insuperable 
antipathy  to  certain  animals;  some  persons  are  of  so 
modest  and  timid  a character,  that  the  necessity  of 
addressing  strangers  is  with  them  an  insuperable  ob 
jection  to  using  any  endeavours  for  their  own  advance 


10 


146 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


ment ; the  difficulties  vhich  Columbus  had  to  encoun- 
ter in  his  discovery  » f the  New  World,  would  have 
appeared  insurmountt  ble  to  any  mind  less  determined 
and  persevering. 

SUBJECT,  SUBORDINATE,  INFERIOUR, 
SUBSERVIENT. 

Subject,  in  Latin  subject  us,  participle  of  subjicio  or 
sub  and  lacio  to  throw  under,  signifies  thrown  and 
cast  under;  subordinate,  compounded  of  sub  and  order, 
signifies  to  be  in  an  order  that  is  under  others;  inferiour, 
in  Latin  inferior,  comparative  of  inferus  low,  which 
probably  comes  from  infero  to  cast  into,  because  we 
are  cast  into  places  that  are  low  ; subservient,  com- 
pounded of  sub  and  servio,  signifies  serving  under 
Bomething  else. 

These  terms  may  either  express  the  relation  of  per- 
sons to  persons,  or  of  things  to  persons  and  things. 
Subject  in  the  first  case  respects  the  exercise  of  power; 
subordinate  is  said  of  the  station  and  office ; inferiour, 
either  of  a man’s  outward  circumstances  or  of  his 
merits  and  qualifications ; subservient,  of  one’s  relative 
services  to  another,  but  mostly  in  a bad  sense.  Ac- 
cording to  the  law  of  nature,  a child  should  be  subject 
to  his  parents ; according  to  the  law  of  God  and  man 
he  must  be  subject  to  his  prince;  ‘Esau  was  never 
subject  to  Jacob,  but  founded  a distinct  people,  and 
government,  and  was  himself  prince  over  them.’ — 
Locke.  The  good  order  of  society  cannot  be  rightly 
maintained  unless  there  be  some  to  act  in  a subordinate 
capacity ; ‘ Whether  dark  presages  of  the  night  pro- 
ceed from  any  latent  power  of  the  soul,  during  her  ab- 
straction, or  from  any  operation  of  subordinate  spirits, 
has  been  a dispute.’ — Addison.  Men  of  inferiour 
talent  have  a part  to  act  which,  in  the  aggregate,  is  of 
no  less  importance  than  that  which  is  sustained  by 
men  of  the  highest  endowments;  ‘A  great  person  gets 
more  by  obliging  his  inferiour  than  by  disdaining  him.’ 
— South.  Men  of  no  principle  or  character  will  be 
most  subservient  to  the  base  purposes  of  those  who 
pay  them  best ; ‘ Wicked  spirits  may,  by  their  cunning, 
carry  farther  in  aseeming  confederacy  or  subserviency 
to  tire  designs  of  a good  angel.’— Dryden.  It  is  the 
part  of  the  prince  to  protect  the  subject,  and  of  the 
subject  to  love  and  honour  the  prince;  it  is  the  part  of 
the  exalted  to  treat  the  subordinate  with  indulgence  ; 
and  of  the  latter  to  show  respect  to  those  under  whom 
they  are  placed ; it  is  the  pari  of  the  superiour  to  instruct, 
assist,  and  encourage  the  infeYiour ; it  is  the  part  of  the 
latter  to  be  willing  to  learn,  ready  to  obey,  and  prompt 
to  execute.  It  is  not  necessary  for  any  one  to  act  the 
degrading  part  of  being  subservient  to  another. 

In  the  second  instance  subject  preserves  the  same 
sense  as  before,  particularly  when  it  expresses  the  rela- 
tion of  things  to  persons ; subordinate  designates  the 
degree  of  relative  importance  between  things : infe- 
riour designates  every  circumstance  which  can  render 
things  comparatively  higher  or  lower;  subservient 
designates  tlie  relative  utility  of  things  under  certain 
circumstances,  but  seldom  in  the  bad  sense.  AH  crea- 
tures are  subject  to  man ; ‘ Contemplate  the  world  as 
subject  to  the  Divine  dominion.’ — Blair.  Matters  of 
subordinate  consideration  ought  to  be  entirely  set  out 
of  the  question,  when  any  grand  object  is  to  be  ob- 
tained; ‘The  idea  of  pain  in  its  highest  degree  is  much 
stronger  than  the  highest  degree  of  pleasure,  and  pre- 
serves the  same  superiority  through  all  the  subordinate 
gradations.’ — Burke.  Things  of  rn/erroMr  value  must 
necessarily  sell  for  an  inferiour  price  ; ‘ I can  myself 
remember  the  time  when  in  respect  of  musick  our  reign- 
ing taste  was  in  many  degrees  inferiour  to  the  French.’ 
-Shaftesbury.  There  is  nothing  so  insignificant 
but  it  may  be  made  subservient  to  some  purpose ; 

‘ Though  a writer  may  be  wrong  himself,  he  may 
chance  to  make  his  errours  subservient  to  the  cause  of 
truth.’ — Burke.  The  word  subject  when  expressing 
the  relation  of  things  to  things  has  the  meaning  of 
liable,  as  in  the  following  article. 

SUBJECT,  LIABLE,  EXPOSED,  OBNOXIOUS. 

Subject  is  here  considered  as  expressing  the  relation 
of  things  to  things,  in  distinction  from  its  signification 
in  the  preceding  article ; liable,  compounded  of  lie  and 
able,  signifies  ready  to  lie  nearer  lie  under;  exposed, 
in  Latin  expositus  oarticiple  of  er/^ono,  compounded 


of  ex  and  pono,  signifies  set  out,  set  within  the  view  oi 
reach  ; obnoxious,  in  Latin  obnoxius,  compounded  ol 
ob  and  noxia  mischief,  signifif*s  in  the  w'ay  of  mischief 
All  these  terms  are  ajiplied  to  those  circumstances  in 
human  life  by  w hich  we  are  affected  independently  of 
our  own  choice.  Direct  necessity  is  included  in  he 
term  subject ; whatever  we  are  obliged  to  suflor,  that 
we  are  subject  to;  we  may  apply  remedies  to  remove 
the  evil,  but  often  in  vain  ; ‘The  devout  man  aspires 
after  some  principles  of  more  perfect  felicity,  w'hich 
shall  not  be  subject  to  change  or  decay.’ — Blair.  Li 
able  conveys  more  the  idea  of  casualties , we  may 
suffer  that  which  we  are  liable  to,  but  we  may  also 
escape  the  evil  if  we  are  careful ; ‘ The  sinner  is  not 
only  liable  to  that  disappointment  of  success  which  so 
often  frustrates  all  the  designs  of  men,  but  liable  to  a 
disappointment  still  morecruel,  of  being  successful  and 
miserable  at  once.’ — Blair.  Exposed  conveys  the 
idea  of  a passive  state  into  which  we  may  be  brought, 
either  through  our  own  means  or  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  others  ; we  are  exposed  to  that  which  w'e 
are  not  in  a condition  to  keep  off  from  ourselves ; it  is 
frequently  not  in  our  power  to  guard  against  the  evil; 
On  the  bare  earth  expos'd  he  lies. 

With  not  a friend  to  close  his  eyes. — Dryden. 
Obnoxious  conveys  the  idea  of  a state  into  which 
we  have  altogether  brought  ourselves;  we  may  avoid 
bringing  ourselves  into  the  state,  but  we  cannot  avoid 
the  consequences  which  will  ensue  from  being  thus 
involved ; 

And  much  he  blames  the  softness  of  his  mind, 
Obnoxious  to  the  charms  of  womankind. — Dryden 
We  are  subject  to  disease,  or  subject  to  death;  this  is 
the  irrevocable  law  of  our  nature;  tender  people  are 
liable  to  catch  cold ; all  persons  are  liable  to  make 
mistakes ; a person  is  exposed  to  insults  who  provokes 
the  anger  of  a low-bred  man : a minister  sometimes 
renders  himself  obnoxious  to  the  people,  that  is,  puts 
himself  in  the  way  of  their  animosity. 

To  subject  and  expose,  as  verbs,  are  taken  in  the 
same  sense:  a person  himself  to  impertinent 

freedoms  by  descending  to  indecent  familiarities  with 
his  inferiours ; ‘ If  the  v^sels  yield,  it  subjects  the 
person  to  all  tlie  inconveniences  of  an  erroneous  circu- 
lation.’— Arbuthnot.  He  ez/nises  himself  to  the  de- 
rision of  his  equals  by  an  affectation  of  superiority ; 

Who  here 

Will  envy  whom  the  highest  place  exposes 
Foremost  to  stand  against  the  Thunderer’s  aim. 

Milton 


OBNOXIOUS,  OFFENSIVE. 

Obnoxious,  from  the  intensive  syllable  ob  and  nox 
ious,  signifies  exceedingly  tiozioms  and  causing  offence, 
or  else  liable  to  offence  from  others  by  reason  of  its 
noxiousness ; offensive  signifies  simply  liable  to  give 
offence.  Obnoxious  is,  therefore,  a much  more  com- 
prehensive term  than  offensive;  for  an  obnoxious  man 
both  suffers  from  others  and  causes  sufferings  to  others: 
an  obnoxious  man  is  one  whom  others  seek  to  exclude ; 
an  offensive  man  may  possibly  be  endured;  gross 
vices,  or  particularly  odious  qualities,  make  £f  man  ob- 
noxious ; ‘ I must  have  leave  to  be  grateful  to  any  one 
who  serves  me,  let  him  be  ever  so  obnoxious  to  any 
party.’ — Pope.  Rude  manners  and  perverse  tempers 
make  men  offensive;  ‘The  understanding  is  often 
drawn  by  the  will  and  the  affections  from  fixing  its 
contemplation  on  an  offensive  truth.’ — South.  A man 
is  obnoxious  to  many,  and  offensive  to  individuals : a 
man  of  loose  Jacobinical  principles  will  be  obnoxious 
to  a society  of  loyalists ; a child  may  make  himself 
offensive  to  his  friends. 

TO  HUMBLE,  HUMILIATE,  DEGRADE. 

Humble  and  humiliate  signify  to  make  humble  oi 
bring  tow;  degrade  has  the  same  signification  as  given 
under  Mase. 

Humble  is  commonly  used  as  the  act  either  of  per- 
sons or  things ; a person  may  humble  himself  or  he 
may  be  humbled : humiliate  is  employed  to  characterize 
things ; a thing  is  humiliating  or  an  humiliation.  Nc 
man  humbles  himself  by  the  acknowledgement  of  i 
, fault; 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


Deep  horrour  seizes  ev’ry  human  breast, 

Their  pride  is  kumbled,  and  their  fear  confess’d. 

Drydkn. 

is  a great  humiliation  for  a person  to  be  dependent 
on  another  for  a living  when  he  has  it  in  his  power  to 
obtain  it  for  himself ; ‘ A long  habit  of  humiliation 
does  not  seem  a very  good  preparative  to  manly  and 
vigorous  sentiments.’ — Burkk.  To  humble  is  to  bring 
down  to  the  ground  ; it  supposes  a certain  eminence, 
either  created  by  the  mind,  or  really  existing  in  the 
outward  circumstances;  to  degrade  is  to  let  down 
lower ; it  supposes  steps  for  ascending  or  descending. 
He  who  is  most  elevated  in  his  own  esteem  may  be 
most  humbled;  misfortunes  may  humble  the  proudest 
conqueror ; 

The  mistress  of  the  world,  the  seat  of  empire, 

The  nurse  of  heroes,  tlie  delight  of  gods, 

That  humbled  the  proud  tyrants  of  the  earth. 

Addison. 

He  who  is  most  elevated  in  the  esteem  of  others,  may 
be  the  most  degraded;  envy  is  ever  on  the  alert  to 
degrade ; ‘ Who  but  a tyi-ant  (a  name  expressive  of 
every  thing  which  can  vitiate  and  degrade  human 
nature,)  could  think  of  seizing  on  the  property  of  men 
unaccused  and  unheard  I’— Burke.  A lesson  in  the 
school  of  adversity  \s  humbling  to  one  who  has  known 
nothing  but  prosperity : terms  of  peace  are  humili- 
ating : low  vices  are  peculiarly  degrading  to  a man 
of  rank. 


HUMBLE,  LOWLY,  LOW. 

Humble  (v.  Humble^  modest)  is  here  compared  with 
the  other  terms  as  it  respects  both  persons  and  things. 
A person  is  said  to  be  humble  on  account  of  the  state  of 
his  mind ; he  is  said  to  be  loioly  and  low  either  on  ac- 
count of  his  mind  or  his  outward  circumstances.  An 
humble  person  is  so  in  his  principles  and  in  his  conduct ; 
a lowly  person  is  so  in  the  tone  of  his  feelings,  or  in 
nis  station  and  walk  of  life  ; a low  person  is  so  either 
in  his  sentiments,  in  his  actions,  or  in  his  rank  and 
condition. 

Humility  should  form  a part  of  the  character,  as  it 
is  opposed  to  arrogance  and  assumption ; it  is  most 
consistent  with  the  fallibility  of  our  nature; 

Steep  is  a god  too  proud  to  wait  in  palaces, 

And  yet  so  humble  too  as  not  to  scorn 
The  meanest  country  cottages. — Cowley. 
Lowliness  should  form  a part  of  our  temper,  as  it  is 
opposed  to  an  aspiring  and  lofty  mind ; it  is  most  con- 
sistent with  the  temper  of  our  Saviour,  who  was  meek 
and  lowly  of  mind ; 

Where  purple  violets  lurk. 

With  all  the  lowly  children  of  the  shade. 

Thomson. 

The  humble  and  lowly  are  always  taken  in  a good 
sense ; but  the  low  either  in  a bad  or  an  indifferent 
sense.  A lowly  man,  whether  as  it  respects  his  mind 
or  his  condition,  is  so  without  any  moral  debasement ; 
but  a man  who  is  low  in  his  condition  is  likewise  con- 
ceived to  be  low  in  his  habits  and  his  sentiments, 
which  is  being  near  akin  to  the  vicious.  The  same 
distinction  is  preserved  in  applying  these  terms  to  in- 
animate or  spiritual  objects.  An  humble  roof,  an  humble 
office,  an  humble  station,  are  associated  with  the  highest 
moral  worth ; 

The  example  of  the  heavenly  lark, 

Thy  fellow  poet,  Cowley,  mark ! 

Above  the  skies  let  thy  proud  musick  sound. 

Thy  humble  nest  build  upon  the  ground. 

Cowley. 

A low  offic.e,  a low  situation,  a low  b'rth-  seem  to  ex- 
clude the  idea  of  worth ; 

To  be  worst. 

The  lowest,  most  dejected  thing  of  fortune 
Stands  still  in  esperance. — Shakspeark. 


HUMBLE,  MODEST,  SUBMISSIVE. 

Humble,  in  Latin  humilis  low,  comes  from  humus  the 
ground,  which  is  the  lowest  position;  modest,  in  Latin 
modcstus,  from  modus  a measure,  signifies  keeping  a 
measure ; submissive,  in  Latin  submissus,  participle 
of  ssibmitto,  signifies  put  under. 

in* 


These  terms  designate  a temper  of  mind,  the  reverse 
of  self-conceit  or  pride.  The  humble  is  so  with  regard  ts 
ourselves  or  others:  modesty  is  that  which  respects  our- 
selves only:  submissiveness  that  which  respects  others 
A man  is  humble  from  a sense  of  his  comparative  infe 
riority  to  others  in  point  of  station  and  outward  cir 
curnstances  ; or  he  is  humble  from  a sense  of  his  im 
perfections,  and  a consciousness  of  not  being  what  he 
ought  to  be ; ‘ In  God’s  holy  house,  I prostrate  myself 
in  the  humblest  and  decentest  way  of  genuflection  I 
can  imagine.’ — Howe.  A man  is  modest  in  as  much 
as  he  sets  but  little  value  on  his  qualifications  acquire- 
ments, and  endowments ; 

Of  boasting  more  than  of  a tomb  afraid 

A soldier  should  be  modestasa  maid. — Young. 

Humility  is  a painful  sentiment ; for  when  it  respects 
others  it  is  coupled  with  fear,  when  it  respects  our  own 
unworthiness  it  is  coupled  with  sorrow:  modesty  \s  a 
peaceful  sentiment ; it  serves  to  keep  the  whole  mind 
in  due  bounds. 

When  humility  and  modesty  show  themselves  in  the 
outward  conduct,  the  former  bows  itself  down,  the  latter 
shrinks:  an  humble  man  gives  freely  to  others  from 
a sense  of  their  desert;  a modest  man  demands  nothing 
for  himself,  from  an  unconsciousness  of  desert  in 
himself;  ‘Edition  itself  is  modest  in  the  dawn,  and 
only  toleration  may  be  petitioned,  where  nothing  less 
than  empire  is  designed.’ — South. 

Between  humble  and  submissive  there  is  this  pro- 
minent feature  of  distinction,  that  the  former  marks  a 
temper  of  mind,  the  latter  a mode  of  action:  the  former 
is  therefore  often  the  cause  of  the  latter,  but  not  so 
always : we  may  be  submissive  because  we  are  humble : 
but  we  may  likewise  be  submissive  from  fear,  from 
interested  motives,  from  necessity,  from  duty,  and  the 
like : 

And  potent  Rajahs,  who  themselves  preside 

O’er  realms  of  wide  extent ! But  here  submissive 

Their  homage  pay ; alternate  kings  and  slaves  ! 

Somerville. 

And  on  the  other  hand,  we  may  be  humble  without 
being  submissive,  when  we  are  not  brought  into  con- 
nexion with  others.  A man  is  humble  in  his  closet 
when  he  takes  a review  of  hissinfujness:  he  is  sub 
missive  to  a master  whose  displeasure  he  dreads. 

As  humility  may  displav  itself  in  the  outward  con 
duct,  it  approaches  still  nearer  to  submissive  in  appli- 
cation : hence  we  say  an  humble  air,  and  a submissivi 
air ; the  former  to  denote  a man’s  sense  of  his  own 
comparative  littleness,  the  latter  to  indicate  his  readi 
ness  to  submit  to  the  will  of  another:  a man  therefore 
carries  his  humble  air  about  with  him  to  all  his  siipe- 
riours,  nay,  indeed,  to  the  world  at  large ; but  he  puts  on 
his  submissive  air  only  to  the  individual  who  has  the 
power  of  controlling  him.  Upon  the  same  principle,  if 
I humbly  ask  a person’s  pardon,  or  humbly  solicit  any 
favour,  I mean  to  express  a sense  of  my  own  unworthi- 
ness, compared  with  the  individual  addressed : but 
when  a counsellor  submissively  or  with  submission 
addresses  a judge  on  the  bench,  it  implies  his  willing- 
ness to  submit  to  the  decision  of  the  bench : or  ff  a 
person  submissively  yields  to  the  wishes  of  another,  it 
is  done  with  an  air  that  bespeaks  his  readiness  to  con 
form  his  actions  to  a prescribed  rule  ; 

She  should  be  AumiZe,  who  would  please; 

And  she  must  suffer,  who  can  love.— Prior. 


LOW,  MEAN  ABJECT. 

Low  {v.  Humble)  is  a much  stronger  term  than 
mean ; for  what  is  low  stands  more  directly  opposed  to 
what  is  high,  but  what  is  mean  is  intermediate ; mean, 
in  German  gemein,  &c.  comes  from  the  Latin  commu- 
nis common.  The  low  is  applied  only  to  a certain 
number  or  description ; but  mean,  like  common,  is  ap- 
plicable to  the  great  bulk  of  mankind.  A man  of  low 
extraction  falls  below  the  ordinary  level ; he  is  opposed 
to  a nobleman ; 

Had  I been  bom  a servant,  my  low  life 
Had  steady  stood  from  all  these  miseries. 

Randolph. 

A man  of  mean  birth  does  not  rise  above  the  ordinary 
level ; he  is  upon  a level  with  the  majority  ; 


,48 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


For  t is  the  mind  that  makes  the  iiody  rich  ; 

>Vndas  the  sun  breaks  through  the  darkest  clouds, 

So  honour  ’peareth  in  the  meanest  habit. 

Shaksfeare. 

When  employed  to  designate  character,  they  preserve 
the  same  distinction  ; the  low  is  that  which  is  posi- 
tively sunk  in  itself; 

Yet  sometimes  nations  will  decline  so  low 

From  virtue. — Milton. 

But  the  mean  is  that  which  is  comparatively  low  in 
regard  to  the  outward  circumstances  and  relative  con- 
dition of  the  individual.  Swearing  and  drunkenness 
are  low  vices;  boxing,  cudgelling,  and  wrestling,  are 
low  games ; a misplaced  economy  in  people  of  property 
is  mean;  a condescension  to  those  who  are  beneath  us, 
for  our  own  petty  advantages,  is  meanness ; ‘ We  fast 
not  to  please  men,  nor  to  promote  any  mean^  worldly 
interest.’ — Smalridge.  A man  is  commonly  low  by 
birth,  education,  or  habits ; but  meanness  is  a defect  of 
nature  which  sinks  a person  in  spite  of  every  external 
advantage. 

The  low  and  mean  are  qualities  whether  of  the  con- 
dition or  the  character  : but  abject  is  a peculiar  state 
into  which  a man  is  thrown;  a man  is  in  the  course  of 
things  low  ; he  is  voluntarily  mean  and  involuntarily 
abject ; the  word  abject^  from  the  Latin  abjicio  to  cast 
down,  signifying  literally  brought  very  low.  Lowness 
discovers  itself  in  one’s  actions  and  sentiments;  the 
mean  and  abject  in  one’s  spirit ; the  latter  being  much 
more  powerful  and  oppressive  than  the  former;  the 
mean  man  stoops  in  order  to  get:  the  abject  man  crawls 
in  order  to  submit ; the  lowest  man  will  sometimes  have 
a consciousness  of  what  is  due  to  himself;  he  will  even 
rise  above  his  condition ; the  mean  man  sacrifices  his 
dignity  to  his  convenience  ; he  is  always  below  himself ; 
the  abject  man  altogether  forgets  that  he  has  any  dignity ; 
he  is  kept  down  by  the  pressure  of  adverse  circum- 
stances. The  condition  of  a servant  is  Zmc ; his  man- 
ners, his  words,  and  his  habits,  will  be  low ; but  by 
good  conduct  he  may  elevate  himself  in  his  sphere  of 
life;  a nobleman  is  in  station  the  reverse  of  low:  but 
if  he  will  stoop  to  the  artifices  practised  by  the  vulgar 
in  order  to  carry  a point,  we  denominate  it  7nean,  if  it 
be  but  trilling  ; otherw'ise  it  deserves  a stronger  epithet. 
The  slave  is,  in  every  sense  of  the  word  abject;  as  he 
is  bereft  of  that  quality  which  sets  man  above  the 
brute,  so,  in  his  actions,  he  evinces  no  higher  impulse 
than  wdiat  guides  brutes ; whether  a man  be  a slave  to 
another’s  will  or  to  any  passion,  such  as  fear  or  super- 
stition, he  is  equally  said  to  be  abject ; ‘ There  needs  no 
more  be  said  to  extol  the  excellence  and  power  of  his 
(Waller’s)  wit,  than  that  it  was  of  magnitude  enough 
to  cover  a world  of  very  great  faults,  that  is,  a narrow- 
ness in  his  nature  to  the  lowest  degree,  an  abjectness 
ami  want  of  courage,  an  insinuating  and  servile  flatter- 
ing,’ &c. — Clarendon. 

TO  REDUCE,  LOWER. 

Reduce  is  to  bring  down,  and  lower  to  make  low  or 
lower,  which  proves  the  close  connexion  of  these  words 
in  their  original  meaning  ; it  is,  however,  only  in  their 
improper  application  that  they  have  any  further  con- 
nexion. Reduce  is  used  in  the  sense  of  lessen,  when 
applied  to  number,  quantity,  price,  &;c. ; lower  is  used 
in  the  same  sense  when  applied  to  price,  demands, 
terms,  &c.;  the  former,  however,  occurs  in  cases 
where  circumstances  as  well  as  persons  are  concerned  ; 
the  latter  only  in  cases  where  persons  act : the  price  of 
corn  is  reduced  by  means  of  im|)ortation ; a person 
lowers  his  price  or  his  demandj  when  he  finds  them  too 
high.  As  a moral  quality,  the  former  is  much  stronger 
than  the  latter : a man  is  said  to  be  reduced  to  an  abject 
condition ; but  to  be  lowered  in  the  estimation  of  others, 
to  be  reduced  to  a state  of  slavery,  to  be  lowered  in  his 
own  eyes;  ‘The  regular  metres  then  in  use  may  be 
reduced,  I think,  to  four.’ — Tyrwhitt.  ‘ It  would  be  a 
matter  of  ast.3nishment  to  me,  that  any  critic  should  be 
found  proof  against  the  beauties  of  Agamemnon  so  as 
to  lower  its  author  to  a comparison  with  Sophocles  or 
Euripides.’ — Cumberland. 

BASE,  VILE,  MEAN. 

Base,  in  French  bas  low,  from  the  Latin  basis  the 
foundation  or  lowest  part,  is  the  most  directly  opposed 


to  the  elevated  ; vile,  in  French  vil,  Latin  vihs,  Greek 
(pavXos,  worthless,  of  no  account,  is  literally  opposed  tc 
the  worthy;  mean  and  middle,  from  the  Latin  medius 
signify  moderate,  not  elevated,  of  little  value. 

Base  is  a stronger  term  than  vile,  and  vile  than 
mean.  Base  marks  a high  degree  of  moral  turpitude  • 
vile  and  mean  denote  in  diflerent  degrees  the  want  of 
all  value  or  esteem.  What  is  base  excites  our  s-iihor 
rence,  what  is  vile  provokes  disgust,  what  is  mean 
aw'akens  contempt.  Base  is  opposed  to  magnanimous* 
vile  to  noble  ; mean  to  generous.  Ingratitude  is  base, 
it  does  violence  to  the  best  affections  of  our  nature  i 
flattery  is  vile;  it  violates  truth  in  the  grossest  magnci 
for  the  lowest  purposes  of  gain  ; compliances  are  mean 
which  are  derogatory  to  the  rank  or  dignity  of  the  indi- 
vidual. 

The  base  character  violates  the  strongest  moral  obli- 
gations ; the  vile  character  blends  low  and  despicable 
arts  with  his  vices  ; the  mean  character  acts  incon- 
sistently with  his  honour  or  respectability.  Depravity 
of  mind  dictates  Jase  conduct;  lowness  of  sentiment 
or  disposition  leads  to  vilenpss ; a selfish  temper  en 
genders  meanness.  The  schoolmaster  of  Falerii  was 
guilty  of  the  basest  treachery  in  surrendering  his  help- 
less charge  to  the  enemy  ; the  Roman  general,  there- 
fore, with  true  nobleness  of  mind  treated  him  as  a vile 
malefactor:  sycophants  are  in  the  habits  of  practising 
every  mean  artifice  to  obtain  favour. 

The  more  elevated  a person’s  rank,  the  greater  is  his 
baseness  who  abuses  his  influence  to  the  injury  of 
those  who  repose  confidence  in  him ; 

Scorns  the  base  earth  and  crowd  below. 

And  with  a soaring  wing  still  mounts  on  high 

Creech. 

The  lower  the  rank  of  the  individual,  and  the  mor'^ 
atrocious  his  conduct,  the  viler  is  his  character  • 

That  all  the  petty  kings  him  envy’d. 

And  worshipp’d  be  like  him  and  deify’d. 

Of  courtly  sycophants  and  caitiffs  vile. 

Gilbert  West 

The  more  respectable  the  station  of  the  person,  and  th« 
more  extended  his  wealth,  the  greater  is  his  meawwesa 
when  he  descends  to  practices  fitted  only  for  his  infe 
riours ; ‘ There  is  hardly  a spirit  upon  earth  so  mean  and 
contracted  as  to  centre  all  regards  on  its  own  interest 
exclusive  of  the  rest  of  mankind.’ — Berkeley. 


BIODEST,  BASHFUL,  DIFFIDENT. 

Modest,  in  Latin  modestus,  from  modus  a measure, 
signifies  setting  a measure,  and  in  this  case  setting  a 
measure  to  one’s  estimate  of  one’s  self;  fiasA/wi  signi- 
fies ready  to  be  abashed;  diffident,  from  the  Latin  dif- 
Jido  or  dis  privative,  and  Jido  to  trust,  signifies  literally 
not  trusting,  and  in  this  case  not  trusting  to  one’s  self. 

Modesty  is  a habitor  principle  of  the  mind  ; bashful- 
ness is  a state  of  feeling : modesty  is  at  all  times  be- 
coming; bashfulness  is  only  becoming  in  females,  or 
very  young  persons,  in  the  presence  of  their  superiours : 
modesty  discovers  itself  in  the  absence  of  every  thing 
assumuig,  whether  in  look,  word,  or  action ; 

Her  face,  as  in  a nymph  display’d 
A fair  fierce  boy,  or  in  a boy  betray’d 
The  blushing  beauties  of  a modest  maid. 

Dryden. 

Bashfulncss  betrays  itself  by  a downcast  look,  and  a 
timid  air:  a modest  deportment  is  always  commenda- 
ble; a 6as/r/M/ temper  is  not  desirable ; '■  Mere  bashful- 
ness,  without  merit,  is  awkwardness.’ — Addison.  Mo- 
desty does  not  necessarily  discover  itself  by  any  exter- 
nal mark  ; but  bashfulness  always  shows  itself  in  the 
manner  ; ‘ A man  truly  modest  is  as  much  so  when  he 
is  alone  as  in  company.’ — Budgell. 

Modesty  is  a proper  distrust  of  ourselves  ; diffidence 
is  a culpable  distrust.  ModesUj,  though  opposed  to  as- 
surance, is  not  incompatible  with  a confidence  in  our 
selves  ; diffidence  altogether  unmans  a person,  and  dis- 
qualifies him  for  his  duty  : a person  is  generally  modest 
in  the  display  of  his  talents  to  others ; but  a diffideni 
man  cannot  turn  his  talents  to  their  proper  use  : ‘ Diffi- 
dence and  presumption  both  arise  from  the  want  of 
knowing,  or  rather  endeavouring  to  know,  ourselves 
—Steele. 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


149 


PASSIVE,  SUBMISSIVE. 

PasMive,  in  Lalin  yassivus  from  patior,  and  the 
Greek  itdaxu  to  suffer,  signifying  disposed  to  suffer,  is 
mostly  taken  in  the  bad  sense  of  suffering  indignity 
from  another;  submissive  (v.  Humble)  is  mostly  taken 
in  a good  sense  for  submitting  to  another,  or  suffering 
one’s  self  to  be  directed  by  another;  to  be  passive 
therefore  is  to  he  submissive  to  ati  improper  degree. 

When  men  attempt  unjustly  to  enforce  obedience 
from  a mere  love  of  rule,  it  betrays  a want  of  proper 
spin  t to  be  passive,  or  to  submit  quietly  to  the  imposi- 
tion, ‘1  know  that  we  are  supposed  (by  the  French 
revolutimiists)  a dull,  sluggish  race,  rendered  passive 
by  finding  our  situation  tolerable.’ — Burke.  When 
men  lawfully  enforce  obedience,  it  is  none  but  the  un- 
ruly and  self-willed  who  w'ill  not  be  submissive  ; 

He  in  delight 

Both  of  her  beauty  and  submissive  charms. 

Smil’d  with  superiour  love. — Milton. 


PATIENCE,  RESIGNATION,  ENDURANCE. 

Patience  applies  to  any  troubles  or  pains  whatever, 
small  or  great;  resignation  is  employed  only  for  those 
of  great  moment,  in  which  our  dearest  interests  are 
concerned:  patience  when  compared  with  resignation 
is  somewhat  negative;  it  consists  in  the  abstaining 
Irom  all  complaint  or  indication  of  what  one  suffers: 
but  resignation  consists  in  a positive  sentiment  of  con- 
formity to  the  existing  circumstances,  be  they  what 
they  may.  There  are  perpetual  occurrences  which  are 
apt  to  harass  the  temper,  unless  one  regards  them  with 
oatience;  ‘Though  the  duty  of  patiewce  and  subjection, 
where  men  suffer  wrongfully,  might  possibly  be  of  some 
force  m those  times  of  darkness ; yet  modern  Chris- 
tianity teaches  that  then  only  men  are  bound  to  suffer 
whet}  they  are  not  able  to  resist.’ — South.  The  mis- 
fortunes of  some  men  are  of  so  calamitous  a nature, 
that  if  they  have  not  acquired  the  resignation  of  Chris- 
tians, they  must  inevitably  sink  under  them  ; ‘ My  mo- 
ther is  in  that  dispirited  state  of  resignation  wliicli  is 
the  effect  of  a long  life,  and  the  loss  of  what  is  deai  to 
us.’ — Pope. 

Patience  applies  only  to  the  evils  that  actually  hang 
over  us;  but  there  is  a resignation  connected  with  a 
firm  trust  in  Providence  which  extends  its  views  to  fu- 
turity, and  prepares  us  for  the  worst  that  may  happen. 

As  patience  lies  in  the  manner  and  temper  of  suffer- 
ing, and  endurance  in  the  act : we  may  have  endurance 
and  not  patience:  for  we  may  have  much  to  endure 
and  consequently  endurance:  but  if  we  Ao  not  endure 
it  with  an  easy  mind  and  without  the  disturbance  of 
our  looks  and  words,  we  have  not  patience : on  the 
other  hand  we  may  h^ve patience  but  not  endurance: 
for  our  patience  may  be  exercised  by  momentary  tri- 
fles, which  are  not  sufficiently  great  or  lasting  to  consti- 
tute endurance; 

There  was  never  yet  philosopher 
That  could  endure  the  tooth-ache  patiently. 

Shakspeare. 


PATIENT,  PASSIVE. 

Patient  comes  from  patiens,  the  active  participle  of 
patior  to  suffer ; passive  comes  from  the  passive  parti- 
ciple of  the  same  verb  ; hence  the  difference  between 
the  words : patient  signifies  suffering  from  an  active 
principle,  a determination  to  suffer ; passive  signifies 
suffered  or  acted  upon  for  want  of  power  to  prevent. 
The  former,  therefore,  is  always  taken  in  an  indif- 
ferent or  good  sense ; the  latter  in  an  indifferent  or  bad 
sense.  When  physically  applied  patient  denotes  the 
act  of  receiving  impressions  from  external  agents; 
‘Wheat,  which  is  the  best  sort  of  grain,  of  which  the 

Surest  bread  is  made,  is  patient  of  heat  and  cold.’ — 
•AV.  Passive  implies  the  state  of  being  acted  upon  by 
external  agents ; 

High  above  the  ground 
Their  march  was,  and  the  passive  air  upbore 
Their  nimble  tread.— Milton. 

In  the  moral  applk  ation  the  distinction  is  the  same ; but 
patience  is  always  a virtue,  as  it  signifies  the  suffering 
quietly  that  which  cannot  be  remedied  ; as  there  are 
many  such  evils  incident  to  our  condition,  it  has  been 
made  one  of  the  first  Christian  duties:  passiveness  is 


considered  as  a weakness,  if  not  a vice  ; it  is  the  en 
during  that  from  others  which  we  ought  aot  to  endure 


TO  SUFFER,  BEAR,  ENDURE,  SUPPt)RT. 

Suffer,  in  Latin  suff'cro,  compounded  of  sub  and 
fero,  signifies  bearing  up  or  firm  underneath ; bear  in 
' Saxon  bar  an,  old  German  beran,  Latin  end  He 

brew  to  create ; endure,  in  Latin  induro,  signifies 
to  harden  or  be  hardened  ; support,  from  the  Latin  sub 
and  ;)orto,  signifies  to  carry  up  or  to  carry  from  under- 
neath ourselves,  or  to  receive  the  weight. 

To  suffer  is  a passive  and  involuntary  act;  it  de 
notes  simply  the  being  a receiver  of  evil ; it  is  therefore 
the  condition  of  our  being:  to  bear  is  positive  and  vo 
luntary;  it  denotes  the  manner  in  which  we  receive  the 
evil.  ‘ Man,’  says  the  Psalmist,  ‘ is  born  to  suffering  as 
the  sparks  fly  upwards  ;’  hence  the  necessity  for  us  to 
learn  to  bear  all  the  numerous  and  diversified  evils  to 
which  we  are  obnoxious  ; ‘ Let  a man  be  brought  into 
some  such  severe  and  trying  situation  as  fixes  the  at- 
tention of  the  pubhek  on  his  behaviour.  Tlie  first  ques- 
tion which  we  put  concerning  him  is  not,  what  does  he 
suffer?  but  how  does  he  bear  it  1 If  we  judge  him  to 
be  composed  and  firm,  resigned  to  providence,  and 
supported  by  conscious  integrity,  his  character  rises, 
and  his  miseries  lessen  in  our  view.’ — Blair. 

To  bear  is  a single  act  of  the  resolution,  and  relates 
only  to  common  ills;  w’e  bear  disappointments  and 
crosses  : to  endure  is  a continued  and  powerful  act  of 
the  mind;  w'e  endure  severe  and  lasting  jiains  both  of 
body  and  mind  ; we  endure  hunger  and  cold  ; we  en- 
dure provocations  and  aggravations ; it  is  a making  of 
ourselves,  by  our  own  act,  insensible  to  external  e^^ls ; 
‘ How  miserable  his  state  who  is  condemned  to  endure 
at  once  the  pangs  of  guilt  and  the  vexations  of  calamity.’ 
— Blair.  The  first  object  of  education  should  be  to 
accustom  children  to  bear  contradictions  and  crosses, 
that  they  may  afterward  be  enabled  to  endure  every 
trial  and  misery. 

To  bear  and  endure  signify  to  receive  becomingly 
the  weight  of  what  befalls  ourselves:  to  support  signi 
fies  to  bear  either  our  own  or  another’s  evils  ; for  we 
may  either  support  ourselves,  or  be  supported  by 
others:  but  in  this  latter  case  we  bear  from  the  capa- 
city which  is  within  ourselves:  but  we  support  our- 
selves by  foreign  aid,  that  is,  by  the  consolations  of 
religion,  the  participation  and  condolence  of  friends, 
and  the  like.  As  the  body  may  be  early  and  gradually 
trained  to  iear  cold,  hunger,  and  pain,  until  it  is  enabled 
to  endure  even  excruciating  agonies : so  may  the  mind 
be  brought,  from  bearing  the  roughnesses  of  others’ 
tempers  with  equanimity,  or  the  unpleasantnesses  which 
daily  occur  with  patience,  to  endure  the  utmost  scorn 
and  provocation  which  human  malice  can  invent : but 
whatever  a person  may  bear  or  endure  of  personal  in- 
convenience, there  are  sufferings  arising  from  the 
wounded  affections  of  the  heart  which  by  no  efforts  of 
our  own  we  shall  be  enabled  to  support : in  such  mo- 
ments we  feel  the  unspeakable  value  of  religion,  which 
puts  us  in  possession  of  the  means  of  supporting  every 
sublunary  pain ; 

With  inward  consolations  recompens’d 

And  oft  supported. — Milton. 

The  words  suffer  and  endureare  said  only  of  persons 
and  personal  matters ; to  bear  and  support  are  said 
also  of  things,  signifying  to  receive  a weight : in  this 
case  they  differ  principally  in  the  degree  of  weight  re- 
ceived. To  bear  is  said  of  any  weight,  large  or  small, 
and  either  of  the  whole  or  any  part  of  the  weight ; sup- 
port is  said  of  a great  weight  and  the  whole  weight. 
The  beams  or  the  foundation  bear  the  weight  of  a 
house  ; but  the  pillars  upon  which  it  is  raised,  or  against 
which  it  leans,  support  the  weight. 

OBEDIENT,  SUBMISSIVE,  OBSEQUIOUS. 

Obedient  signifies  ready  to  obey,  and  submissive  the 
disposition  to  submit ; obsequious,  in  Latin  obsequius, 
from  obsequor,  or  the  intensive  ob  and  sequor  to  fol- 
low, signifies  following  diligently,  or  with  intensity  of 
mind. 

One  is  obedient  to  the  command,  submissive  to  the 
power  or  the  will,  obsequious  to  the  person.  Obedi 
ence  is  always  taken  in  a good  sense : one  ought  always 
to  be  obedient  where  obedieme  is  due:  submission  U 
relatively  good ; it  may,  however,  be  indifferent  or  bad 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES 


250 

one  may  be  submissive  from  interested  motives,  or 
meanness  of  spirit,  which  is  a base  kind  of  submission  ; 
out  to  be  submissive  for  conscience  sake  is  the  bounden 
duty  of  a Christian:  obsequiousness  is  never  good;  it 
ts  an  excessive  concern  about  the  will  of  another, 
which  has  always  interest  for  its  end. 

Obedience  is  a course  of  conduct  conformable  either 
to  some  specitick  rule,  or  the  express  will  of  another; 
submission  is  often  a personal  act,  immediately  directed 
to  the  individual.  We  show  our  obedience  to  the  law 
by  avoiding  the  breach  of  it ; we  show  onx  obedience  to 
the  will  of  God,  or  of  our  parent,  by  making  that  will 
the  rule  of  our  life  ; ‘ The  obedience  of  men  is  to  imi- 
'ate  the  obedience  of  angels,  and  rational  beings  on 
.,arth  are  to  live  unto  God  as  rational  beings  in  heaven 
live  unto  him.’ — L.iw.  On  the  other  hand  we  show 
submission  to  the  person  of  the  magistrate  ; we  adopt 
a submissive  deportment  by  a downcast  look  and  a 
bent  body ; 

Her  at  his  feet,  submissive  in  distress. 

He  thus  with  peaceful  words  uprais’d. — Milton. 
Obedience  is  founded  ujjon  principle,  and  cannot  be 
feigned ; 

In  vain  thou  bidst  me  to  forbear. 

Obedience  were  rebellion  here.— Cowlky. 

Submission  is  a partial  bending  to  another,  which  is 
easily  affected  in  our  outward  behaviour ; 

In  all  submission  and  humility, 

York  doth  present  himself  unto  your  highness. 

Shakspkare. 

The  understanding  and  the  heart  produce  the  obe- 
dience ; but  force,  or  the  necessity  of  circumstances, 
give  rise  to  the  submission. 

Obedience  and  submission  suppose  a restraint  on  one’s 
own  will,  in  order  to  bring  it  into  accordance  with  that 
of  another ; but  obsequiousness  is  the  consulting  the 
will  or  pleasure  of  another : we  are  obedient  from  a 
sense  of  right ; 

What  gen’rous  Greek,  obedient  to  thy  word. 

Shall  form  an  ambush,  or  shall  lift  the  sword. 

POPK. 

We  are  submissive  from  a sense  of  necessity  ; ‘ The 
natives  (of  Britain)  disarmed,  dispirited,  and  submis- 
sive, had  lost  all  desire,  and  even  idea,  of  their  former 
liberty.’ — Hume.  We  are  obsequious  from  a desire  of 
gaining  favour ; ‘ Adore  not  so  the  rising  son,  that  you 
forget  the  father,  who  raised  you  to  this  height ; nor  be 
you  so  obsequious  to  the  father,  that  you  give  just  cause 
to  the  son  to  suspect  that  you  neglect  him.’ — Bacon.  A 
love  of  God  is  followed  by  obedience  to  his  will;  they 
are  coincident  sentiments  that  reciprocally  act  on  each 
other,  so  as  to  serve  the  cause  of  virtue;  a submissive 
conduct  is  at  the  worst  an  involuntary  sacrifice  of  our 
independence  to  our  fears  or  necessities,  the  evil  of 
which  is  confined  principally  to  the  individual  who 
makes  the  sacrifice ; but  obsequiousness  is  a voluntary 
sacrifice  of  all  that  is  noble  in  man  to  base  gain,  the 
evil  of  which  extends  far  and  wide:  the  submissive 
man,  however  mean  he  may  be  in  himself,  does  not 
contribute  to  the  vices  of  others ; but  the  obsequious 
man  has  no  scope  for  his  paltry  talent,  but  among  the 
weak  and  wicked,  whose  weakness  he  profits  by,  and 
whose  wickedness  he  encourages. 

DUTIFUL,  OBEDIENT,  RESPECTFUL. 

Dutiful  signifies  full  of  a sense  of  duty,  or  full  of 
what  belongs  to  duty;  obedient,  ready  to  obey;  re- 
spectful, full  of  respect 

The  obedient  and  respectful  are  but  modes  of  the 
dutiful : we  may  be  dutiful  without  being  either  obe- 
dient or  respectful ; but  we  are  so  far  dutiful  as  we  are 
either  obedient  or  respectful.  Duty  denotes  what  is 
due  from  one  being  to  another ; it  is  independent  of  all 
circumstances;  obedienceandrespect  are  relative  duties 
depending  upon  the  character  and  station  of  indivi- 
duals : as  we  owe  to  no  one  on  earth  so  much  as  to  our 
parents,  we  are  said  to  be  dutiful  to  no  earthly  being 
besides ; and  in  order  to  deserve  the  name  of  dutiful,  a 
child  during  the  period  of  his  childhood,  ought  teemake 
a parent’s  will,  to  be  his  aw,  and  at  no  future  period 
ought  that  will  ever  to  be  an  object  of  indifference ; 
‘ For  one  cruel  parent  we  meet  with  a thousand  undu- 
tiful  children.’ — Apdison.  We  may  be  obedient  and 


respectful  to  others  besides  our  parents,  although  tf 
them  obedience  and  respect  are  in  the  highest  degree  and 
in  the  first  case  due ; yet  servants  are  enjoined  to  be 
obedient  to  their  masters,  wives  to  their  husbands,  and 
subjects  to  their  king;  ‘The  obedience  of  child len  to 
their  parents  is  the  basis  of  all  government,  and  set  forth 
as  the  measure  of  that  obedience  which  we  owe  to  those 
whom  Providence  has  placed  over  hs.’-tAddison. 

Respectf  ul  is  a term  of  still  greater  latitude  than 
either,  for  as  the  characters  of  men  as  much  as  •.heh 
stations  demand  respect,  there  is  a respectful  deport 
ment  due  towards  every  superiour ; ‘ Let  your  behaviou’ 
towards  your  superiours  in  dignity,  age,  learning,  or  any 
distinguished  e.xcellence,  be  full  of  respect  and  defe 
rence.’ — Chatham. 


DUTY,  OBLIGATION. 

Duty,  as  we  see  in  the  preceding  section,  consists 
altogether  of  what  is  right  or  due  from  one  being  to  an- 
other ; obligation,  from  the  Latin  obligo  to  bind,  sig- 
nifies the  bond  or  necessity  which  lies  in  the  thing. 

All  duty  depends  upon  moral  obligation  which  sub- 
sists between  man  and  man,  or  between  man  and  his 
Maker ; in  this  abstract  sense,  therefore,  there  can  be 
no  duty  without  a previous  and  where  there 

is  an  obligation  it  involves  a duty ; but  in  the  vulgar 
acceptation,  duty  is  applicable  tc  the  conduct  of  men  in 
their  various  relations ; obligation  only  to  particular 
circumstances  or  modes  of  action  : we  have  duties  to 
perform  as  parents  and  children,  as  husbands  and 
wives,  as  rulers  and  subjects,  as  neighbours  and  citi- 
zens ; 

The  ways  of  Heav’n,  judg’d  by  a private  breast, 

Is  often  what’s  our  private  interest, 

And  therefore  those  who  would  that  will  obey 
Without  their  interest  must  their  duty  weigh. 

Dhvden 

The  debtor  is  under  an  obligation  to  discharge  debt ; 
and  he  who  has  promised  is  under  an  obligation  to 
fulfil  his  promise : a conscientious  man,  therefore, 
never  loses  sight  of  the  obligations  which  he  has  at  dif 
ferent  times  to  discharge;  ‘No  man  can  be  under  an 
obligation  to  believe  any  thing,  who  hath  not  sufficient 
means  wliereby  he  may  be  assured  that  such  a thing  is 
true.’ — Tillotson. 

The  duty  is  not  so  peremptory  as  the  obligation;  the 
obligation  is  not  so  lasting  as  the  duty . our  affections 
impel  us  to  the  dischargeof  duty ; interest  or  necessity 
impels  us  to  the  discharge  of  an  obligation:  it  may 
therefore  osmetimes  happen  that  the  man  whom  a sense 
of  duty  cannot  actuate  to  do  that  which  is  riglu,  will 
not  be  able  to  withstand  the  obligation  under  which  he 
has  laid  himself. 


TO  COMPLY,  CONFORM,  YIELD,  SUBMIT 
'The  original  meaning  of  comply  and  yield  will  be 
explained  under  the  head  of  Accede;  con/orTO,  com- 
pounded of  con  and  form,  signifies  to  put  into  the  same 
form  ; submit,  in  Latin  submitto,  compounded  of  sub 
and  mitto,  signifies  to  put  under,  that  is  to  say,  to  put 
one’s  self  under  another  person. 

Compliance  and  conformity  are  voluntary ; yielding 
and  submission  are  involuntary. 

Compliance  is  an  act  of  the  inclination  ; conformity 
an  act  of  the  judgement;  compliance  is  altogether  op- 
tional ; we  comply  with  a thing  or  not  at  pleasure: 
conformity  is  binding  on  the  conscience  ; it  relates  to 
matters  in  which  there  is  a right  and  a wrong.  Com- 
pliance with  the  fashions  and  customs  of  those  we  live 
with  is  a natural  propensity  of  the  human  mind  that 
may  be  mostly  indulged  without  impropriety ; ‘ I would 
not  be  thought  in  any  part  of  this  relation  to  reflect  upon 
Signor  Nicolini,v/ho  in  acting  this  part  only  com/ihes 
with  the  wretched  taste  of  his  audience.’ — Addison. 
Conformgy  in  religious  matters,  though  not  to  be  en- 
forced by  human  authority,  is  not  on  that  account  less 
binding  on  the  consciences  of  every  member  in  the 
community  ; the  neglect  of  this  duty  on  trivial  grounds 
involves  in  it  the  violation  of  more  than  one  branch  of 
the  moral  law ; ‘ Being  of  a lay  profession,  I humbly 
conform  to  the  constitutions  of  the  church  and  my 
spiritual  superiours,  and  I hold  this  obedience  to  be  an 
acceptable  sacrifice  to  God.’ — Howkl.  Compliances 
*‘n:i4*times  culpable,  but  conformity  at  •'vast  in  tij# 


ENGLISH  SYNGNYMES.  151 


‘exteriour,  is  always  a duty , ‘ The  actions  to  whicli  the 
World  sblicits  our  compliance  are  sins  wiiich  forfeit 
eternal  expectations.’ 

Compliance  and  conformity  are  produced  by  no  ex- 
lernal  action  on  the  mind : they  flow  spontaneously 
from  the  will  and  understandiiifir ; yielding  is  altogether 
the  result  of  foreign  agency.  We  comply  with  a wisli 
as  soon  as  it  is  known  ; it  accords  with  our.feelings  so 
to  do.  wt  yield  to  the  entreaties  of  others;  it  is  the 
eflect  of  [)ersuasion,  a constraint  upon  the  inclination. 
VVe  conform  to  the  regulations  of  a community,  it  is  a 
matter  of  discretion  ; we  yield  to  the  superiour  judge- 
ment or  power  of  another,  we  have  no  choice  or  alter- 
native. We  cwmpZy  cheerfully  ; we  con/orm  willingly  ; 
v\’e  tjield  reluctantly. 

I’o  yield  is  to  give  way  to  another,  either  with  one’s 
will,  one’s  Judgement,  or  one’s  outward  conduct; 
7Htssiowis  tliegiving  upofone’sself  altogether;  it  is  the 
substitution  of  another’s  will  for  one’s  own.  Yielding 
is  partial  ; we  may  yield  in  one  case  or  in  one  action, 
though  not  in  another:  submission  is  general;  it  in- 
cludes a system  of  conduct. 

We  yield  when  we  do  not  resist ; this  may  sometimes 
be  the  act  of  a superiour:  we  submit  only  by  adopting 
the  measures  and  conduct  proposed  to  us ; this  is  always 
the  act  of  an  inferiour.  Yielding  may  be  produced  by 
means  more  or  less  gentle,  by  enticing  or  insinuating 
arts,  or  by  the  force  of  argument ; submission  is  made 
only  to  power  or  positive  force;  one  yields  after  a 
struggle ; one  submits  without  resistance : we  yield  to 
ourselves  or  others;  we  submit  to  others  only : it  is  a 
weakness  to  yield  either  to  the  suggestions  of  others  or 
our  own  inclinations  to  do  tliat  which  our  judgements 
condemn;  it  is  a folly  to  submit  to  the  caprice  of  any 
one  where  there  is  not  a moral  obligation : it  is  obstinacy 
not  Xo  yield  when  one’s  .adversary  has  the  advantage  ; 
it  is  sinful  not  to  submit  to  constituted  authorities ; 
‘ There  has  been  a long  dispute  for  precedency  between 
the  tragick  and  the  heroick  poets.  Aristotle  would  have 
the  latter  yield  the  past  to  the  former,  but  Mr.  Dryden 
and  many  others  would  never  submit  to  this  decision.’ 
— .Addison. 

A cheerful  compliance  with  the  request  of  a friend  is 
the  sinccrest  proof  of  friendship; 

Let  the  king  meet  compliance  in  your  looks, 

A free  and  ready  yielding  to  his  wishes.— Rowe. 
The  wisest  and  most  learned  of  men  have  ever  been 
the  re.idiest  to  conform  to  the  general  sense  of  the  com- 
munity in  which  they  live  ; 

Among  mankind  so  few  there  are 

Who  will  conform  to  philosophick  fare. — Dryden. 

The  harmony  of  social  life  is  frequently  disturbed  by 
the  reluctance  which  men  have  to  yield  to  each  other  ; 
‘ That  yieldingness,  whatever  foundations  it  might  lay 
to  the  disadvantage  of  posterity,  was  a specifick  to 
preserve  us  in  peace  for  his  own  time.’ — Lord  Halifax. 
The  order  of  civil  society  is  frequently  destroyed  by  the 
want  of  proper  submission  to  superiours  ; ‘ Christian 
people  submit  themselves  to  conformable  observances 
of  the  lawful  and  religious  constitutions  of  their  spi- 
ritual rulers.’ — White. 


COMPLAINT,  YIELDING,  SUBMISSIVE. 

As  epithets  from  the  preceding  verbs,  serve  to  desig- 
nate a propensity  to  the  respective  actions  mostly  in  an 
excessive  or  improper  degree. 

A compliant  temper  complies  with  every  wish  of 
another  good  or  bad  , 

Be  silent  and  complying ; you’ll  soon  find 
Sir  John  without  a medicine  will  be  kind. 

Harrison. 

A yielding  temper  leans  to  every  opinion  right  or 
wrong;  ‘ A peaceable  temper  supposes  yielding  nnA 
condescending  manners.’ — Blair.  A submissive  tem- 
per submits  to  every  demand,  just  or  unjust ; ‘ When 
force  and  violence  and  hard  necessity  have  brought  the 
yoke  of  servitude  upon  a people’s  neck,  religion  will 
supply  them  with  a patient  and  submissive  spirit.’— 
Fleetwood. 

A compliant  person  wants  command  of  feeling  ; a 
yielding  person  wants  fixedness  of  principle  ; a sub- 
missive person  wants  resolution : a compliant  disposi- 
tion will  be  imposed  upon  by  the  selfish  and  unrea- 
■onable ; a yielding  disposition  is  most  unfit  for  com 


manding  ; a submissive  disposition  exposes  a person 
to  the  exactions  of  tyranny. 

TO  ACCEDE,  CONSENT,  COMPLY, 
ACaUIESCE,  AGREE. 

Accede,  in  Latin  accedo,  compounded  of  ac  or  ad 
and  cedo  to  go  or  come,  signifies  to  come  or  fall  into  a 
thing  ; consent,  in  French  consentir,  Latin  consentio, 
compounded  of  con  together  and  sentio  to  feel,  signifies 
to  feel  in  unison  with  another;  comply  comes  probably 
from  the  French  complaire,  Latin  complaceo,  signi- 
fying to  be  pleased  in  unison  with  another;  acquiesce, 
in  French  acquicscer,  Latin  acquiesco,  compounded 
of  ac  or  ad  and  quiesco,  signifies  to  be  easy  about  or 
contented  with  a thing;  agree,  in  French  agr^er,  ia 
most  probably  derived  from  the  Latin  gruo,  in  the 
word  congruo,  signifying  to  accord  or  suit. 

We  accede  to  what  others  propose  to  us  by  falling 
in  with  their  ideas : we  consent*  to  what  others  vv-ish 
by  authorizing  it:  we  comply  with  whiH  is  asked  of  us 
by  allowing  it,  or  not  hindering  '•*.  acquiesce  in 
what  is  insisted  by  accepting  it,  and  conforming  to  it . 
we  agree  to  wliat  is  proposed  by  admitting  and  em 
bracing  it. 

We  object  to  those  things  to  which  we  do  not  accede  < 
we  refuse  those  things  to  which  we  do  not  consent,  oi 
with  which  we  will  not  comply : we  oppose  those 
things  in  which  we  will  not  acquiesce : we  dispute  that 
to  which  we  will  not  agree. 

To  accede  is  the  unconstrained  action  of  an  equal ; 
it  is  a matter  of  discretion : consent  and  comply  sup- 
pose a degree  of  superiority,  at  least  the  power  of  pre- 
venting ; they  are  acts  of  good  nature  or  civility  ; ac- 
quiesce implies  a degree  of  submission,  it  is  a matter  of 
prudence  or  necessity : agree  indicates  an  aversion  tc 
disputes  ; it  respects  the  harmony  of  social  intercourse 

Members  of  any  community  ought  to  be  willing  to 
accerfe  to  what  is  the  general  will  of  their  associates, 
‘ At  last  persuasion,  menaces,  and  the  impending  pres- 
sure of  necessity,  conquered  her  virtue,  and  she  ac- 
ceded to  the  fraud.’ — Cumberland.  Parents  should 
never  be  induced  to  consent  to  any  thing  which  may 
prove  injurious  to  their  children ; 

My  poverty,  but  not  my  will  consents. — Shakspeare 
People  ought  not  to  comply  indiscriminately  with  what 
is  requested  of  them  ; ‘ Inclination  will  at  length  come 
over  to  reason,  though  we  can  never  force  reason  to 
comply  with  inclination.’ — Addison.  In  all  matters 
of  difference  it  is  a happy  circumstance  when  the 
parties  will  acquiesce  in  the  judgement  of  an  umpire: 
‘ This  we  ought  to  acquiesce  in,  that  the  Sovereign 
Being,  the  great  Author  of  Nature,  has  in  him  all  pos- 
sible perfection.’ — Addison.  Differences  will  soon  be 
terminated  when  there  is  a willingness  to  agree ; ‘ We 
agreed  to  adopt  the  infant  as  the  orphan  son  of  a dis 
tant  relation  of  our  own  name.’— Cumberland. 


TO  AGREE,  COINCIDE,  CONCUR. 

In  the  former  section  agree  is  compared  with  terms 
that  are  employed  only  for  things ; in  the  present  case 
it  is  compared  with  words  as  they  aie  applied  to  per- 
sons only. 

Agree  implies  a general  sameness ; coincide,  from 
CO  together  and  the  Latin  incido  to  fall,  implies  a meet- 
ing in  a certain  point;  concur,  from  con  together,  and 
curro  to  run,  implies  a running  in  the  same  course,  an 
acting  together  on  the  same  principles. 

Agree  denotes  a state  of  rest;  coincide  and  concur  a 
state  of  motion,  either  towards  or  with  another. 

Agreement  is  either  the  voluntary  or  involuntary  act 
of  persons  in  general ; coincidence  is  the  voluntary  but 
casual  act  of  individuals,  the  act  of  one  falling  into 
the  opinion  of  another ; concurrence  is  the  intentional 
positive  act  of  individuals,  it  is  the  act  of  one  author 
izing  the  opinions  and  measures  of  another. 

Men  of  like  education  and  temperament  agree  upop 
most  subjects ; 

Since  all  agree,  who  both  with  judgement  read, 

’T  is  the  same  sun,  and  does  himself  succeed. 

Tate 

People  cannot  expect  others  to  coincide  with  thew 

* Vide  Abbe  Girard : “ Consentir,  acquicscer  ad 
herer,  tomber  d’acord 


152 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


when  tliey  >dvance  extravagant  positions;  ‘There  is  I 
not  perhaps  any  couple  whose  dispositions  and  relish 
of  Iffe  are  so  perfectly  similar  as  that  their  wills  coir- 
stantly  comcfdc.’— Hawkesworth.  The  wiser  part 
of  mankind  are  backward  in  concurring  in  any 
schemes  which  are  not  warranted  by  experience; 

‘ The  plan  being  thus  concerted,  and  my  cousin’s  con- 
currence obtained,  it  was  immediately  put  in  execu- 
tion.’— Hawkesworth. 

When  coincide  and  concur  are  considered  in  their 
application  to  things,  the  former  implies  simply  meet- 
ing at  a point,  the  latter  running  towards  a point ; the 
former  seems  to  exclude  the  idea  of  design,  the  latter 
that  of  chance  : two  sides  of  different  triangles  coin- 
cide when  they  ars  applied  to  eacli  other  so  as  to  fall 
on  the  same  points;  two  powers  concur  when  they 
both  act  so  as  to  produce  the  same  result. 

A coincidence  of  circumstances  is  sometimes  so 
striking  and  singular  tliat  it  can  hardly  be  attributed 
to  pure  accident;  ‘A  coincidence  of  sentiment  may 
easily  happen  without  any  communication,  since  there 
are  many  occasions  in  which  all  reasonable  men  will 
nearly  think  alike.’ — Johnson.  A concurrence  of 
circumstances,  which  seemed  all  to  be  formed  to  com- 
bine, is  sometimes  notwithstanding  purely  casual; 

‘ Eminence  of  station,  greatness  of  effect,  and  all  the 
favours  of  fortune,  must  concur  to  place  e.xceilence  in 
publick  view.’ — Johnson. 


AGREEMENT,  CONTRACT,  COVENANT, 
COMPACT,  BARGAIN. 

agreement  signifies  what  is  agreed  to  (a.  To  agree); 
contract,  in  French  rontractr,  from  the  Latin  contrac- 
tus, participle  of  contraho  to  bring  close  together  or 
bind,  signifies  the  thing  thus  contracted  or  bound  ; 
covenant,  in  French  covenante,  Latin  conaenti/.s,  parti- 
ciple of  convenio  to  meet  together  at  a point,  signifies 
the  point  at  which  several  meet,  that  is,  the  thing 
agreed  upon  by  many ; compact,  in  Latin  compactus, 
participle  of  cornpingo  to  bind  close,  signifies  the  thing 
to  which  people  bind  themselves  close  ; bargain,  from 
the  Welsh  hargan  to  contract  or  deal  for,  signifies  the 
act  of  dealing,  or  the  thing  dealt  for. 

An  agreement  is  general,  and  aiiplics  to  trdnsactions 
of  every  description,  but  particularly  such  as  are  made 
between  single  individuals  ; in  cases  where  the  other 
terms  are  not  so  applicable;  a contract  is  a binding 
agreement  between  individuals;  a simple  agreement 
may  be  verbal,  but  a contract  must  be  written  and 
legally  executed;  covenant  and  compact  are  agree- 
ments among  communities  ; the  covenant  is  commonly 
a national  and  publick  transaction;  the  compact  re- 
spects individuals  as  members  of  a community,  or 
communities  with  each  other;  the  bargain,  in  its 
proper  sense,  is  an  agreement  solely  in  matters  of 
trade;  but  applies  figuratively  in  the  same  sense  to 
other  objects. 

The  simple  consent  of  parties  constitutec  an  agree- 
ment ; a seal  and  signature  are  requisite  for  a con- 
tract; a solemn  engagement  on  the  one  hand,  and 
faith  in  that  engagement  on  the  other  hand,  enter  into 
the  nature  of  a covenant;  a tacit  sense  of  mutual 
obligation  in  all  the  parties  gives  virtue  to  a compact; 
an  assent  to  stipulated  terms  of  sale  may  form  a 
bargain. 

Friends  make  an  agreement  to  meet  at  a certain 
time ; ‘ Frog  had  given  his  word  that  he  would  meet 
the  above-mentioned  company  at  the  Salutation,  to 
talk  of  this  agreement.' — Arbuthnot  {History  of 
John  Bull).  Two  tradesmen  enter  into  a contract  to 
carry  on  a joint  trade  ; ‘ It  is  impossible  to  see  the  long 
scrolls  in  which  every  contract  is  included,  with  all 
their  appendages  of  seals  and  attestations,  without 
wondering  at  the  depravity  of  those  beings,  who  must 
be  restrained  from  violation  of  promise,  by  such  formal 
and  publick  evidences.’ — Johnson.  The  people  of 
England  made  a covenant  with  King  Charles  I.  entitled 
the  solemn  covenant ; 

These  flashes  of  blue  lightning  gave  the  sign 

Of  covenants  broke ; three  peals  of  thunder  join. 

Dryden. 

In  he  society  of  Freemasons,  every  individual  is 
bound  to  secrecy  by  a solemn  compact ; ‘ In  the  begin- 
nings and  first  establishment  of  speech,  there  was  an 
implicit  compact  among  men,  founded  upon  common 


use  and  consent,  that  sveh  and  such  words  voices, 
actions  or  gestures,  should  be  means  or  signs  whereby 
they  would  express  or  convey  their  thouglits  one  to 
another.’ — South.  The  trading  part  of  the  commu- 
nity are  continually  striking  bargains ; ‘We  see  men 
frequently  dexterous  and  sharp  enough  in  making  a 
bargain,  who,  if  you  reason  with  them  about  matters 
of  religion,  appear  perfectly  stupid.  — Locke. 


AGREEABLE,  PLEASANT,  PLEASING 

The  first  two  of  these  epithets  approach  so  near  ni 
sense  and  application,  that  they  can  with  propriety  :e 
used  indifferently,  the  one  for  the  other  ; yet  there  it 
an  occasional  difference  which  may  be  clearly  defined 
the  agreeable  is  that  which  agrees  with  or  suits  the 
character,  temper,  and  feelings  of  a person ; the  plea- 
sant that  which  pleases ; the  pleasing  that  which  is 
adapted  to  please. 

Jigreeable  expresses  a feeling  less  vivid  than  plea- 
sant: people  of  the  soberest  and  gravest  character 
may  talk  of  passing  agreeable  hours,  or  enjoying 
agreeable  society,  if  those  hours  were  passed  agree- 
ably to  their  turn  of  mind,  or  that  society  which  suited 
their  taste;  ‘To  divert  me,  I took  up  a volume  of 
Shakspeare,  where  I chanced  to  cast  my  eye  upon  a 
liart  in  the  tragedy  of  Richard  the  Third,  which  filled 
my  mind  with  an  agreeable  honour.’ — Steele.  The 
young  and  the  gay  will  prefer  pleasant  society,  where 
vivacity  and  mirth  prevail,  suitable  to  the  tone  of  their 
spirits ; 

Pleasant  the  sun 

When  first  on  this  delightful  land  he  spreads 

His  orient  beams. — Milton. 

A man  is  agreeable  who  by  a soft  and  easy  address 
contributes  to  the  amusement  of  others ; a man  is 
pleasant  who  to  this  softness  adds  affability  and  com- 
municativeness. 

Pleasing  marks  a sentiment  less  vivid  and  distinctive 
than  either; 

Nor  this  alone  t’  indulge  a vain  delight. 

And  make  a pleasing  prospect  for  the  sight. 

Dryden 

A pleasing  voice  has  something  in  it  which  wf  like  . 
an  agreeable  voice  strikes  with  positive  pleasure  upon 
the  ear.  A pleasing  countenance  denotes  tranquillity 
and  contentment;  it  satisfies  us  when  we  view  it.  a 
pleasant  countenance  bespeaks  happiness;  it  gratifies 
the  beholder,  and  invites  him  to  behold. 


TO  AGREE,  ACCORD,  SUIT. 

.Jgree  (v.  To  agree)  is  here  used  in  application  tc 
things  in  which  it  is  allied  ; to  accord,  in  French  ac- 
corder,  from  the  Latin  chorda  the  string  of  a harp, 
signifies  the  same  as  to  attune  or  join  in  tune ; and 
suit,  from  the  Latin  secutus,  participle  of  sequor  to 
follow,  signifies  to  be  in  a line,  in  the  order  as  it  ought 
to  be. 

An  agreement  between  two  things  requires  an  en- 
tire sameness  ; an  accordance  supposes  a considerable 
resemblance ; a suitableness  implies  an  aptitude  to 
coalesce. 

Opinions  agree,  feelings  accord,  and  tempers  suit. 

Two  statements  agree  which  are  in  all  respects 
alike  ; that  accords  with  our  feelings,  which  produces 
pleasurable  sensations ; that  suits  our  taste,  which  we 
wish  to  adopt,  or  in  adopting  gives  us  pleasure. 

Where  there  is  no  agreement  in  the  essentials  of 
any  two  accounts,  their  authenticity  may  be  greatly 
questioned;  if  a representation  of  any  thing  accords 
with  what  has  been  stated  from  other  quarters,  it 
serves  to  corroborate : it  is  advisable  that  the  ages  and 
stations  as  well  as  tempers  of  the  parties  should  be 
suitable,  who  look  forward  for  happiness  in  a matri- 
monial connexion. 

Where  there  is  no  agreement  of  opinion,  there  can 
be  no  assimilation  of  habit;  where  there  is  no  ac 
cordance  of  sound,  there  can  be  no  harmony ; where 
there  is  no  suitability  of  temper,  there  can  be  no  co-ope- 
ration. 

When  opinions  do  not  agree,  men  must  agree  tc 
differ:  the  precepts  of  our'^Saviour  accord  with  the 
tenderest  as  well  as  the  noblest  feelings  of  our  nature  : 
when  the  humours  and  dispositions  of  people  do  »*-' 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  7 52 


iuit^  they  do  wisely  nd  t to  have  any  intercourse  with 
each  Ollier ; 

The  laurel  and  the  myrtle  sweets  agree. — Drvden. 
‘Metre  aids  and  is  adapted  to  the  memory;  it  accords 
to  musick,  and  is  the  vehicle  of  enthusiasm.’-  Cumber- 
land. ‘ Rollo  followed,  in  the  partition  of  his  slates, 
the  customs  'of  the  feudal  law,  which  was  then  uni- 
versally established  in  the  southern  countries  of  Eu- 
rope, and  which  suited  the  peculiar  circumstances  of 
the  age  ’ — Hume. 


CONSONANT,  ACCORDANT,  CONSISTENT. 

Consonant,  from  the  Latin  consonans,  participle  of 
can  and  sono  to  sound  together,  signifies  to  sound,  or 
be,  in  unison  or  harmonj' ; accordant,  from  accord  {v. 
To  Jlgree),  signifies  the  quality  of  according;  con- 
sistent, from  the  Latin  consistens,  participle  of  con- 
sisto,  or  con  and  sisto  to  place  together,  signifies  the 
quality  of  being  able  to  stand  in  unison  together. 

Consonant  is  employed  in  matters  of  representation ; 
accordant  in  matters  of  opinion  or  sentiment ; con- 
sistent in  matters  of  conduct.  A particular  passage  is 
consonant  with  the  whole  tenour  of  the  Scriptures;  a 
particular  account  is  accordant  with  all  one  hears  and 
sees  on  a subject;  a person’s  conduct  is  not  always 
consistent  with  his  station. 

The  consonance  of  the  whole  Scriptures,  in  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  with  regard  to  the  character, 
dignity,  and  mission  of  our  Blessed  Saviour,  has 
•ustly  given  birth  to  that  form  which  constitutes  the 
established  religion  of  England;  ‘ Our  faith  in  the  dis- 
coveries of  the  Gospel  will  receive  confirmation  from 
discerning  their  consonance  with  the  natural  senti- 
ments of  the  human  heart.’ — Blair.  The  accordance 
of  the  prophecies  respecting  our  Saviour  with  the 
event  oHiis  birth,  life,  and  sufferings,  are  incontestable 
evidences  of  his  being  the  true  Messiah ; ‘ The  dif- 
ference of  good  and  evil  in  actions  is  not  founded  on 
arbitrary  opinions  or  institutions,  but  in  the  nature  of 
things,  and  the  nature  of  man ; it  accords  with  the 
universal  sense  of  the  human  mind.’ — Blair.  The 
consistency  of  a man’s  practice  with  his  profession  is 
the  only  criterion  of  his  sincerity; 

Keep  one  consistent  plan  from  end  to  end. — Addison. 

Consonant  is  opposed  to  dissonant;  accordant  to 
discordant ; consistent  to  inconsistent.  Consonance  is 
net  so  positive  a thing  as  either  accordance  or  con- 
sistency, which  respect  real  events,  circumstances, 
and  actions.  Consonance  mostly  serves  to  prove  the 
truth  of  any  thing,  but  dissonance  docs  not  prove  its 
falsehood  until  it  amounts  to  direct  discordance  or  in- 
consistency. There  is  a dissonance  in  the  accounts 
given  by  the  four  Evangelists  of  our  Saviour,  which 
serves  to  prove  the  absence  of  all  collusion  and  impos- 
ture, since  tliere  is  neither  discordance  nor  inconsistency 
in  what  they  have  related  or  omitted. 


TO  CONCILIATE,  RECONCILE. 

Conciliate,  in  Latin  conciliatus,  participle  of  con- 
cilio ; and  reconcile,  in  Latin  reconcilio,  both  come 
from  concilium  a council,  denoting  unity  and  harmony. 
Conciliate  and  reconcile  are  both  employed  in  the 
sense  of  uniting  men’s  affections,  but  under  different 
circumstances. 

The  conciliator  gets  the  good  will  and  affections  for 
himself;  the  reconcile)'  unites  the  affections  of  two 
persons  to  each  other.  The  conciliator  may  either 
gain  new  affections,  or  regain  those  which  are  lost; 
i\\Q  recriciler  always  renews  affections  which  have 
been  once  lost.  The  best  means  of  conciliating  esieem 
IS  by  reconciling  all  that  are  at  variance. 

Conciliate  is  mostly  employed  for  men  in  publick 
stations;  ‘The  preacher  may  enforce  his  doctrines  in 
the  style  of  authority,  for  it  is  his  profession  to  summon 
mankind  to  their  duty;  but  an  uncommissioned  in- 
Ktrncter  will  study  to  conciliate  while  he  attempts  to 
correct  .’ — Cumberland.  RccencrZe  is  indifferently  em- 
ployed for  those  in  publick  or  private  stations ; ‘ He 
(Hammond)  not  only  attained  his  purpose  of  uniting 
aistant  parties  to  each  other,  but,  contrary  to  the  usual 
fate  of  reconcilers,  gained  them  to  himself.’ — Fell. 
Men  i.n  power  have  sometimes  the  happy  opportunity 
if  conciliating  the  good  will  of  those  who  are  most 


averse  to  their  authority,  and  thus  reconciling  them  to 
measures  which  would  otherwise  be  odious. 

Kindness  and  condescension  serve  io  conciliate;  a 
friendly  influence,  or  a well-timed  exercise  of  authori 
ty,  is  often  successfully  exerted  in  reconciling.  Con- 
ciliate is  employed  only  for  persons,  or  that  which  is 
personal ; but  reconciling \s  also  employed  in  the  sense 
of  bringing  a person’s  thoughts  or  feelings  in  unison 
with  the  things  that  he  has  not  liked  before,  or  might 
be  expected  not  to  like  ; ‘ It  must  be  confessed  a happy 
attachment,  which  can  reconcile  the  Laplander  to  hlj 
freezing  snows,  and  the  African  to  his  scorching  sun  ’ 
— Cumberland. 


COMPATIBLE,  CONSISTENT. 

Compatible,  compounded  of  com  or  cum  with,  ana 
patior  to  suffer,  signifies  a fitness  to  be  suffered  togetlier ; 
consistent,  in  Latin  consistens,  participle  of  consisto, 
compounded  of  con  and  sisto,  to  place,  signifies  the 
fitness  to  be  placed  together. 

Compatibility  has  a principal  reference  to  plans  and 
measures ; consistency  to  character,  conduct,  and  sta 
lion.  Every  thing  is  compatible  with  a plan  which 
does  not  interrupt  its  prosecution;  every  thing  is  con 
sistent  with  a person’s  station  by  which  it  is  neither 
degraded  nor  elevated.  It  is  not  coinpatible  with  the 
good  discipline  of  a school  to  allow  of  foreign  interfer 
ence ; ‘ Whatever  is  incompatible  with  the  highest  dig 
nity  of  our  nature  should  indeed  be  excluded  from  oui 
conversation.’ — Hawkesworth.  It  is  not  consistent 
with  the  elevated  and  dignified  character  of  a clergy- 
man to  engage  in  the  ordinary  pursuits  of  other  men  ; 
‘Truth  is  always  consistent  with  itself,  and  needs 
nothing  to  help  it  out.’ — Tillotson. 


INCONSISTENT,  INCONGRUOUS, 
INCOHERENT. 

Inconsistent,  from  sisto  to  place,  marks  the  unfitness 
of  being  placed  together ; incongi-uous,  from  congruc 
to  suit,  marks  the  unsuitableness  of  one  thing  to  an- 
other ; incoherent,  from  hcereo  to  stick,  marks  the  inca- 
pacity of  two  things  to  coalesce  or  be  united  to  each 
other. 

Inconsistency  attaches  either  to  the  actions  or  senti 
ments  of  men  ; incongruity  attaches  to  the  modes  anu 
qualities  of  things ; incoherency  to  words  or  thoughts  : 
things  are  made  inconsistent  by  an  act  of  the  will ; a 
man  acts  or  thinks  inconsistently,  according  to  his  own 
pleasure  ; ‘Every  individual  is  so  uneq.ual  to  himself 
that  man  seems  to  be  the  most  wavering  and  incou' 
sistentheing  in  the  universe.’ — Hughes.  Incongruity 
depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  things ; there  is  some 
thing  very  incongruous  in  blending  the  solemn  and 
decent  service  of  the  church  with  the  extravagant  rant 
of  Methodism ; ‘ The  solemn  introduction  of  the  Phoe- 
nix, in  the  last  scene  of  Sampson  Agonistes,  is  incon- 

f ruous  to  tlie  personage  to  whom  it  is  ascribed.’ — 
OHNSON.  Incoherence  marks  the  want  of  coherence 
in  that  which  ought  to  follow  in  a train ; extemporary 
effusions  from  the  pulpit  are  often  distinguished  most 
by  their  mcoAereiice ; ‘Be  but  a person  in  credit  with 
the  multitude,  he  shall  be  able  to  make  rambling  inco- 
herent stuff  pass  for  high  rhetorick.’ — South. 


CONFORMABLE,  AGREEABLE,  SUITABLE. 

Conformable  signifies  able  to  conform  {v.  To  com- 
ply),  that  is,  having  a sameness  of  form ; agreeable, 
the  quality  of  being  able  to  agree  [v.  To  agree);  suit- 
able, able  to  suit  {v.  To  agree). 

Conformable  is  employed  for  matters  of  obligation; 
agreeable  for  matters  of  choice ; suitable  for  matters 
of  propriety  and  discretion  : what  is  conformable  ac 
cords  with  some  prescribed  form  or  given  rule  ot 
others;  ‘A  man  is  glad  to  gain  numbers  on  his  side, 
as  they  serve  to  strengthen  him  in  his  opinions.  It 
makes  him  believe  that  his  principles  carry  conviction 
with  them,  and  are  the  more  likely  to  be  true,  when  he 
finds  they  are  conformable  to  the  reason  of  others  as 
well  as  to  his  own.’ — Addison.  What  is  agreeable 
accords  with  the  feelings,  tempers,  or  judgements  of 
ourselves  or  others;  ‘As  you  have  formerly  offered 
some  arguments  for  the  soul’s  immortality,  agree  Me 
both  to  reason  and  the  Christian  doctrine  I believe 
vour  rejderswill  not  be  displeased  to  soe  liow.tlie  sanie 


154 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


great  truth  sliines  in  tho  pomp  of  Roman  eloquence.’ — 
Hughes.  What  is  svitdhle  accords  with  outward  cir- 
cumstances; ‘I  think  banging  a cushion  gives  a man 
too  warlike  or  perhaps  too  theatrical  a figure  to  be 
suitable  to  a Christian  congregation.’ — Swift.  It  is 
the  business  of  those  who  act  for  others  to  act  conform- 
ably to  their  directions ; it  is  the  part  of  a friend  to  act 
agreeably  to  the  wishes  of  a friend , it  is  the  part  of 
every  man  to  act  suitably  to  his  station 

The  decisions  of  a judge  must  bestrictly  cow/ormable 
to  the  letter  of  the  law  ; he  is  seldom  at  liberty  to  con- 
sult his  views  of  equity  : the  decision  of  a partisan  is 
always  agreeable  to  the  temper  of  his  party : the  style 
of  a writer  should  be  suitable  to  his  subject. 

Conformable  is  most  commonly  employed  for  mat- 
ters or  temporary  moment;  agreeable  and  suitable  are 
mostly  said  of  things  which  are  of  constant  value  : we 
make  things  con/ormafiZi?  by  an  actof  discretion;  they 
are  agreeable  or  suitable  by  their  own  nature ; a treaty 
of  peace  is  made  conformable  to  the  preliminaries  ; a 
legislator  must  take  care  to  frame  laws  agreeably  to 
Jhe  Divine  law ; it  is  of  ho  small  importance  for  every 
man  to  act  suitably  to  the  character  he  has  assumed. 


TO  FIT,  SUIT,  ADAPT,  ACCOxMMODATE, 
ADJUST. 

Fit  signifies  to  make  or  be  suit  to  make  or  be 
suitable;  adapts  from  aptus  fit,  to  make  fit  for  a spe- 
fifick  purpose;  accommodate^  to  make  commodious; 
adjust,  to  make  a thing  such  as  it  is  desired  to  be. 

To  fit  and  suit  are  used  in  the  literal  sense  of  apply- 
ing things  to  each  other  as  they  are  intended : but  jit  is 
employed  mostly  in  regard  to  material  and  familiar 
objects.  A tailor  fits  on  a coat,  or  a coat  fits  when  it 
is  made  right  to  the  body ; 

Then  meditates  the  mark ; and  couching  low. 

Fits  the  sharp  arrow  to  the  well-strung  bow. — Pope. 
Suit  is  employed  for  intellectual  or  moral  objects; 
'•Suit  the  action  to  the  word,  the  word  to  the  action, 
with  this  special  observance,  that  you  o’erstep  not  the 
modesty  of  nature.’ — Shakspeare.  So  also  intransi- 
tively ; 

111  suits  it  now  the  joys  of  love  to  know. 

Too  deep  my  angu5.sli,  and  too  wild  my  wo. — Pope. 

In  an  extended  app'iration  of  the  terms  to  fit  is  intransi- 
tively used  for  what  :e  morally  fit  in  the  nature  of  things ; 

Nor^ts  it  to  prolong  the  feast 
Timeless,  indecent,  but  retire  to  rest. — Pope. 
Whence  we  speak  of  the^tness  of  things;  suit  is  ap- 
plied either  transitively  or  intransitively  in  the  sense  of 
agree,  as  a thit  g suits  a person’s  taste,  or  one  thing 
suits  with  anolner ; ‘ The  matter  and  manner  of  their 
tales,  and  of  their  telling,  are  so  suited  to  their  different 
educations  and  humours,  that  each  would  be  improper 
in  any  othe'.’— Dryden. 

Her  puiole  habit  sits  with  such  a grace 
On  her  .mooth  shoulders,  and  so  suits  her  face. 

Dryden. 

The  o s intense,  the  other  still  remiss. 

Cannot  veil  suit  with  either,  but  soon  prove 
Tediot^  a.ike  —Milton. 

To  adapt  Js  a species  of  fitting;  to  accommodate  is  a 
species  of  suiting;  both  applied  to  the  intellectual  and 
moral  actions  of  conscious  beings,  Adaptation  is  an 
act  of  the  judgement ; accommodation  is  an  act  of  the 
will : we  adapt  by  an  exercise  of  discretion ; we  ac- 
commodate by  a management  of  the  humours:  the 
adaptation  does  not  interfere  with  our  interests ; but 
the  accommodation  always  supposes  a sacrifice:  we 
adapt  our  language  to  the  understandings  of  our 
hearers;  ‘It  is  npt  enough  that  nothing  offends  the  ear, 
but  a good  poet  will  adapt  the  very  sounds  as  well  as 
words  to  the  things  he  treats  of.’ — Pope.  We  accom- 
modate ourselves  to  the  humours  of  others ; ‘ He  had 
altered  many  things,  not  that  they  were  not  natural 
before,  but  that  he  might  accommodate  himself  to  the 
age  in  which  he  lived  ’ — Dryden.  The  mind  of  an 
infia‘’ely  wise  Creator  is  clearly  evinced  in  the  world, 
by  the  universal  adaptation  of  means  to  their  ends  ; 
‘ it  is  in  his  power  so  to  adapt  one  thing  to  another,  as 
to  fulfil  his  promise  of  making  all  things  work  together 
for  good  to  those  who  love  him.’ — Blair.  A spirit  of 
accommodation  is  not  merely  a characteristick  of  polite 


ness ; it  is  of  sufficient  importance  to  dc  ranked  amo.ni 
the  Christian  duties ; ‘ It  is  an  old  observation  which 
has  been  made  of  politicians,  who  would  rather  ingra 
tiate  themselves  with  their  sovereigns,  than  promote 
Ids  real  service,  that  they  accommodate  their  counsels 
to  his  inclinations.’ — Addison.  The  term  adapt  is 
sometimes  applied  to  things  of  a less  familiar  imture  ; 
‘It  may  not  be  a useless  inqiiry,  in  what  respects  tlie 
love  of  novelty  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  present 
state.’ — Grove.  ‘ Adhesion  may  be  in  part  ascribed, 
either  to  some  elastical  motion  in  the  pressed  glass,  (ir 
to  the  exquisite  adaptation  of  the  almost  innumerable, 
though  very  small  asperities  of  the  one,  and  the  nu- 
merous little  cavities  of  the  other,  whereby  the  surfaces 
do  lock  in  with  one  another,  or  are  as  it  were  clasped 
together.’ — Boyle. 

'Accommodate  and  adjust  are  both  applied  to  the 
affairs  of  men  which  require  to  be  kept  or  put  in  right 
order;  but  the  former  implies  the  keeping  as  well  as 
putting  in  order;  the  latter  simply  the  putting  in  order 
Men  accommodate  each  other,  that  is,  make  tilings 
commodious  for  each  other ; but  they  adjust  things 
either  for  themselves  or  for  others.  Thus  they  accom 
modate  each  other  in  pecuniary  matters ; or  they  adjust 
the  ceremonial  of  a visit.  On  this  ground  we  may  say 
that  a difference  is  either  accommodated  or  adjusted  : 
for  it  is  accommodated,  inasmuch  as  the  parties  yield  to 
each  other ; it  is  adjusted,  inasmuch  as  that  which  was 
wrong  is  set  right ; ‘ When  things  were  thus  far  ad- 
justed, towards  a peace,  all  other  differences  were 
soon  accommodated.' — Addison. 


TO  FIT,  EQUIP,  PREPARE,  QUALIFY. 

To  fit  signifies  to  adopt  means  in  order  to  make  fit, 
and  conveys  the  general  sense  of  all  the  other  terms, 
which  differ  principally  in  the  means  and  circumstances 
of  fitting : to  equip,  probably  from  the  old  barbarous 
Latin  eschipare  to  furnish  or  adorn  ships,  is  to  fit  out 
by  furnishing  the  necessary  materials : to  prepare,  from 
the  Latin  prmparo,  compounded  of  pres  and  paro  to 
get  before  hand,  is  to  take  steps  for  the  purpose  of 
fitting  in  future : to  qualify,  from  the  Latin  qualifico, 
oxfacio  and  qualis  to  make  a thing  as  it  should  be,  is 
\afit  or  furnish  with  the  moral  requisites. 

To  fit  is  employed  for  ordinary  cases  ; to  equip  only 
for  expeditions;  they  may  be  both  employed  in  appli- 
cation to  the  same  objects  with  this  distinction,  a vessel 
is  equipped  when  it  is  furnished  with  every  thing  re 
quisite  for  a voyage ; it  is  fitted  by  simply  putting  those 
things  to  it  which  have  been  temporarily  removed; 

With  long  resounding  cries  they  urge  the  train. 

To  fit  the  ships  and  launch  into  the  main. — Pope 
The  word  equip  is  also  applied  figuratively  in  the  same 
sense ; ‘ The  religious  man  is  equipped  for  the  storm  as 
well  as  the  calm  in  this  dubious  navigation  of  life.’— 
Blair.  To  fit  is  for  an  immediate  purpose ; io  prepare 
is  for  a remote  purpose.  A person  fits  himself  for 
taking  orders  when  he  is  at  the  university : he  prepares 
himself  at  school  before  he  goes  to  the  university. 
To  fit  is  to  adopt  positive  and  decisive  measures;  to 
prepare  is  to  use  those  which  are  only  precarious : a 
scholar  fils  himself  for  reading  Horace  by  reading 
Virgil  with  attention;  he  for  an  examination 

by  going  over  what  he  has  already  learned. 

To  fit  is  said  of  every  thing,  both  in  a natural  and  a 
moral  sense:  to  qualify  is  used  only  in  a moral  sense. 
Fit  is  employed  mostly  for  acquirements  which  are 
gained  by  labour:  qualify  for  those  which  are  gained 
by  intellectual  exertion  ; a youth  himself  for  a me- 
chanical business  by  working  at  it ; a youth  qualified 
himself  for  a profession  by  following  a particular 
course  of  studies. 

COMPETENT,  FITTED,  QUALIFIED. 

Competent,  in  Latin  competens,  participle  of  com 
peto  to  agree  or  suit,  signifies  suitable ; fitted  signifies 
made  fit;  qualified,  participle  of  qualify,  from  the 
Latin  qualis  and /acio,  signifies  made  as  it  ought  to  be. 

Competency  mostly  respects  the  mental  endowments 
and  attainments ;^tn6ss  the  disposition  and  character; 
qualification  the  artificial  acquirements.  A person  is 
competent  to  undertake  an  office  ; fitted  or  qualified  to 
fill  a situation. 

Familiarity  with  any  subject  aided  by  strong  mental 
endowments  gives  competency:  suitable  habits  and 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  155 


leinper  constitJte  the  fitness  : acquaintance  with  the 
business  to  be  done,  and  expertness  in  the  mode  of  per- 
forming it,  constitutes  the  qualification : none  should 
pretend  to  give  their  opinions  on  serious  subjects  who 
are  not  competent  judges;  none  but  lawyers  are  com- 
petent  to,  decide  in  cases  of  law ; none  but  med’cal 
men  are  competent  to  prescribe  medicines;  none  bur 
divines  of  sound  learning,  as  well  as  piety,  to  determine 
on  doctrinal  questions ; ‘ Man  is  not  competent  to  decide 
upon  the  good  or  evil  of  many  events  which  befall  him 
in  this  life.’ — Cumberland.  Men  of  sedentary  and 
studious  habits,  with  a serious  temper,  are  most  fitted 
to  be  clergymen  ; ‘ What  is  more  obvious  and  ordinary 
than  a inolel  and  yet  what  more  palpable  argument  of 
Providence  than  it?  The  members  of  her  body  are  so 
exactly  fitted  to  her  nature  and  manner  of  life.’ — Addi- 
son. Those  who  have  the  most  learning  and  ac- 
quaintance with  the  Holy  Scriptures  are  the  best  qua- 
lified for  the  important  and  sacred  office  of  instructing 
the  people;  ‘Such  benefits  only  can  be  bestowed  as 
others  are  capable  to  receive,  and  such  pleasures  im- 
parted as  others  are  qualified  to  enjoy.’— Johnson. 

Many  are  qualified  for  managing  the  concerns  of 
others,  who  would  not  be  competent  to  manage  a con- 
cern for  themselves.  Many  who  are  fitted  from  their 
turn  of  mind  for  any  particular  charge,  may  be  unfor- 
tunately incompetent  for  want  of  the  requisite  qualifi- 
cations. 


FIT,  APT,  MEET. 

Fit,  from  the  Latin/t  it  is  made,  signifying  made  for 
the  purpose,  is  either  an  acquired  or  a natural  pro- 
perty ; apt.,  in  Latin  aptus,  from  the  Greek  airrw  to 
connect,  is  a natural  property  ; meet,  from  to  meet  or 
measure,  signifying  measured,  is  a moral  quality.  A 
house  is  fit  for  the  accommodation  of  the  family  ac- 
cording to  the  plan  of  the  builder; 

He  lends  him  vain  Goliah’s  sacred  word. 

The  fittest  help  just  fortune  could  afford. — Cowley^ 
The  young  mind  is  apt  to  receive  either  good  or  bad 
impressions;  ‘If  you  hear  a wise  sentence  or  an  apt 
phrase  commit  it  to  your  memory.’ — Sir  Henry  Sid- 
ney. Meet  is  a term  of  rare  use,  except  in  spiritual 
matters  or  in  poetry ; it  is  meet  to  offer  our  prayers  to 
llie  Supreme  Disposer  of  all  things ; 

My  image  not  imparted  to  the  brute 

Whose  fellowship  therefore  not  unmeet  for  thee. 

Good  reason  was  thou  freely  shouldst  dislike. 

Milton. 


CONCORD,  HARMONY. 

The  idea  of  union  is  common  to  both  these  terms, 
butunder  different  circumstances.  Concord,  in  French 
Concorde,  Latin  concordia,  from  con  and  cor,  having 
the  same  heart  and  mind,  is  generally  employed  for  the 
union  of  wills  and  affections ; harmony,  in  French 
harmonic,  Latin  harmonia,  Greek  appovia,  fromapw  to 
fit  or  suit,  signifying  the  state  of  fitting  or  suiting, 
respects  the  aptitude  of  minds  to  coalesce. 

There  may  be  concord  without  harmony,  and  har- 
mony without  concord.  Persons  may  live  in  concord 
who  are  at  a distance  from  each  other ; 

Kind  concord,  heavenly  born  ! whose  blissful  reign 
Holds  this  vast  globe  in  one  surrounding  chain 
Soul  of  the  world. — Tickel. 

Harmony  is  mostly  employed  for  those  who  ate  in 
close  connexion,  and  obliged  to  co-operate ; 

In  us  both  one  soul 
Harmony  to  behold  in  wedded  pair  I • 

More  grateful  than  harmonious  sounds  to  the  ear. 

Milton. 

Concord  should  never  be  broken  by  relations  under  any 
circumstances;  Aarmowy  is  indispensable  in  all  mem- 
bers of  a family  that  dwell  together.  Interest  will 
sometimes  stand  in  the  way  of  brotherly  concord;  a 
love  of  rule,  and  a dogmatical  temper,  will  sometimes 
disturb  the  harmony  of  a family.  Concord  is  as  essential 
to  domestick  happiness,  as  harmony  is  to  the  peace  of 
society  and  the  uninterrupted  prosecution  of  business. 
What  concord  can  there  be  between  kindred  who 
despise  each  other?  what  harmony  between  the  rash 
and  the  discreet?  These  terms  are  both  applied  to 


musick  ; but  concord  solely  respects  the  agreement  of 
twor  or  more  sounds ; 

The  man  that  hath  no  musick  in  himself, 

Nor  is  not  mov’d  with  concord  of  sweet  sounds, 

Is  fit  for  treasons,  villanies,  and  spoils. 

Shakspeake. 

But  harmony  respects  the  effect  of  an  aggregate  number 
of  sounds ; ‘ Harmony  is  a compound  idea  made  up  of 
different  sounds  united.’ — Watts.  Harmony  has  also 
a farther  application  to  objects  in  geneial  to  denote 
their  adaptation  to  each  other ; 

The  harmony  of  things 

As  well  as  that  of  sounds,  from  discord  springs. 

Denham. 

‘If  we  consider  the  world  in  its  subserviency  to  man, 
one  would  think  it  was  made  for  our  use;  but  if  we 
consider  it  in  its  natural  beauty  and  harmony,  one 
would  be  apt  to  conclude  it  was  made  for  our  plea- 
sure.’— Addison. 


MELODY,  HARMONY,  ACCORDANCE 

Melody,  in  Latin  melodia,  from  melos,  in  Greek  pAoj 
a verse,  and  the  Hebrew  H /D  a word  or  a verse  ; har- 
mony, in  Latin  Aarmonia,  Greek  dppovia  concord,  from 
opo)  apto  to  fit  or  suit,  signifies  the  agreement  of  sounds; 
accordance  denotes  the  actor  state  of  according  (v.  To 
agree). 

Melody  signifies  any  measured  or  modulated  sounds 
measured  after  the  manner  of  verse  into  distinct  mem- 
bers or  parts;  harmony  signifies  the  suiting  or  adapting 
difierent  modulated  sounds  to  each  other;  melody  is 
therefore  to  harmony  as  a part  to  the  whole;  we  inust 
first  produce  melody  by  the  rules  of  art ; the  harmony 
which  follows  must  be  regulated  by  the  ear;  there 
may  be  melody  without  harmony,  but  there  cannot  be 
harmony  without  melody : we  speak  of  simple  melody 
where  the  modes  of  musick  are  not  very  much  diversi- 
fied ; but  we  cannot  speak  of  harmony  unless  there  t>e 
a variety  of  notes  to  fall  in  with  each  other. 

A voice  is  me/odions  inasmuch  as  it  is  capable  of  pro 
ducing  a regularly  modulated  note;  it  is  harmonious 
inasmuch  as  it  strikes  agreeably  on  the  ear,  and  pro 
duces  no  discordant  sounds.  The  song  of  a bird  ia 
melodious  or  has  melody  in  it,  inasmuch  as  there  is  a 
concatenation  of  sounds  in  it  which  are  admitted  to  be 
regular,  and  consequently  agreeable  to  the  musical 
ear; 

Lend  me  your  song,  ye  nightingales ! Oh  pom 
The  mazy-running  soul  of  melody 
Into  my  varied  verse.— Thomson. 

There  is  harmony  in  a concert  of  voices  and  instru 
ments ; 

Now  the  distemper’d  mind 
Has  lost  that  concord  of  harmonious  powers. 
Which  forms  the  soul  of  happiness.— Thomson. 
Accordance  is  strictly  speaking  the  property  on  which 
both  melody  and  harmony  is  founded : for  the  whole  of 
musick  depends  on  an  accordance  of  sounds ; 

The  musick 

Of  man’s  fair'eomposition^best  accords 
When ’t  is  in  concert. — Shakspeare. 

The  same  distinction  marks  accordance  and  harmony  in 
the  moral  application.  There  may  be  occasional  ac- 
cordance of  opinion  or  feeling  ; but  harmony  is  an  en- 
tire accordance  in  every  point. 


CORRESPONDENT,  ANSWERABLE, 
SUITABLE. 

Correspondent,  in  French  correspondant,  from  the 
Latin  cum  and  reepondeo  to  answer,  signifies  to  answer 
in  unison  or  in  uniformity ; answerable  and  suitable 
from  answer  and  suit,  mark  the  quality  or  cajiacity 
of  answering  or  suiting.  Correspondent  supposes  a 
greater  agreement  than  answerable,  and  answerable 
requires  a greater  agreement  than  suitable.  Things 
that  correspond  must  be  alike  in  size,  shape,  colour  and 
every  minute  particular;  those  that  answer  must  be 
fitted  for  the  same  purpose ; those  that  suit  must  have 
nothing  disproportionate  or  discordant.  In  the  artifi 
cial  disposition  of  furniture,  or  ail  matters  of  art  and 


156 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES 


ornament,  it  is  of  considerable  importance  to  have  some 
things  made  to  correspond,  so  that  they  may  be  placed 
in  suitable  directions  to  answer  to  each  other. 

In  the  moral  application,  actions  are  said  to  corres- 
pond with  professiotis ; the  success  of  an  undeilaking 
:o  answer  the  expectation  ; particular  measures  to  suit 
the  purpose  of  individuals.  It  ill  corresponds  with  a 
profession  of  friendship  to  refuse  assistance  to  a friend 
in  the  time  of  need ; ‘ As  the  attractive  power  in  bo- 
dies is  the  most  universal  principle  which  produceth 
innumerable  effects,  so  the  corresponding  social  appe- 
tite in  human  souls  is  the  great  spring  and  source  of 
moral  actions.’ — Berkeley.  Wild  schemes  under- 
taken without  thought,  will  never  answer  the  expecta- 
tions of  the  projectors ; ‘ All  the  features  of  the  face  and 
tones  of  the  voice  answer  like  strings  upon  musical 
instruments  to  the  impressions  made  on  them  by  the 
mind.’— Hughes.  It  never  suits  the  purpose  of  the 
selfish  and  greedy  to  contribute  to  the  relief  of  the  ne- 
cessitous ; ‘When  we  consider  the  infinite  power  and 
wisdom  of  the  Maker,  we  have  reason  to  think  that  it  is 
suitable  to  the  magnificent  harmony  of  the  universe, 
that  the  species  of  creatures  should  also  by  gentle  de- 
grees ascend  upward  from  us.’ — Abdison. 


ASSENT,  CONSENT,  APPROBATION, 
CONCURRENCE. 

Assent,  in  Latin  assentio,  is  compounded  of  as  or  ad 
and  sentio  to  think,  signifying  to  bring  one’s  mind  or 
judgement  to  a thing  ; approbation  in  Latin  approba- 
tio,  is  compounded  of  ad  and  probo  to  prove,  signify- 
ing to  make  a th’  .ig  out  good  : consent  and  concurrence 
are  taken  in  the  same  sense  as  in  the  preceding  articles. 

Assent  respects  the  judgement ; consent  respects  the 
will.  We  assent  to  what  we  think  true ; we  consent 
to  the  wish  of  another  by  agreeing  to  it  and  allowing  it. 
Some  men  give  their  hasty  assent  to  propositions 
which  they  do  not  fully  understand ; ‘ Precept  gains 
only  the  cold  approbation  of  reason,  and  comi)els  an 
assent  which  judgement  frequently  yields  with  re- 
luctance, even  when  delay  is  impossible.’— Hawkes- 
vvoRTH.  Some  men  give  their  hasty  consent  to  mea- 
sures which  are  very  injudicious. 

What  in  sleep  thou  didst  abhor  to  dream, 

VVaking  thou  never  wilt  consent  to  do. — Milton. 

It  is  the  part  of  the  true  believer  not  merely  to  assent 
to  the  Christian  doctrines,  but  to  make  them  the  rule 
of  his  life : those  who  consent  to  a bad  action  are  par- 
takers in  the  guiltof  it. 

Approbation  is  a species  of  assent;  concurrence  oi 
consent.  To  approve  is  not  merely  to  assent  to  a thing 
that  is  right,  but  to  feel  it  positively  ; to  have  the  will 
and  judgement  in  accordance ; concurrence  is  the  con- 
sent of  many.  Approbation  respects  the  practical  con- 
duct of  men  in  their  intercourse  with  each  other;  assent 
is  git^en  to  speculative  truths,  abstract  propositions,  or 
direct  assertions.  It  is  a happy  thing  when  our  aclions 
meet  with  the  approbation  of  others  ; but  it  is  of  little 
importance  if  we  have  not  at  the  same  an  approv- 
ing conscience ; 

That  not  past  me,  but 
By  learned  approbation  of  my  judges. 

Shakspe.vrb. 

We  may  often  assent  to  the  premises  of  a question  or 
proposition,  without  admitting  the  deductions  drawn 
from  them ; ‘ Faith  is  the  assent  to  any  proposition  not 
thus  made  out  by  the  deduction  of  reason,  but  upon  the 
credit  of  the  proposer.’ — Locke. 

Concjirrence  respects  matters  of  general  concern,  as 
consent  respects  those  of  individual  interest.  No  bill 
in  the  house  of  parliament  can  pass  for  a second  read- 
ing without  the  concurrence  of  a majority;  ‘ Tarquin 
the  Proud  was  expelled  by  a universal  concurrence 
of  nobles  and  people.’— Swift.  No  parent  should  be 
induced  by  persuasion  to  give  his  consent  to  what  his 
judgement  disapproves  ; ‘ I am  far  from  excusing  or  de- 
nying that  compliance : for  plenary  consent  it  was  not.’ 
— King  Charles. 

Assent  is  opposed  to  contradiction  or  denial ; consent 
to  refusal ; approbation  to  dislike  or  blame ; concur- 
rence to  opposition:  but  we  may  sometimes  seem  to 
give  our  assent  to  what  we  do  not  expressly  contra- 
dict, or  seem  to  approve  whoX  we  do  not  blame;  and 
we  are  supposed  te  co'^sent  to  a request  when  we  do 


not  positively  refuse  it.  We  may  approve  or  disap 
prove  of  a thing  without  giving  an  intimation  either  o( 
our  approbation  or  the  contrary : but  concurrence  can 
not  be  altogether  a negative  action ; it  must  be  signified 
by  some  sign,  although  that  need  not  necessarily  be  a 
word. 

The  assent  of  some  people  to  the  most  important 
truths  is  so  tame,  that  it  might  with  no  great  dilRcultj 
be  converted  into  a contradiction ; ‘ The  evidence  ojf 
God’s  own  testimony  added  unto  the  natural  assent  of 
reason,  concerning  the  certainty  of  them,  doth  not  a 
little  comfort  and  confirm  the  same.’ — Hooker.  He 
who  is  anxious  to  obtain  universal  approbation,  or  even 
to  escape  censure,  will  find  his  fate  depictured  in  the 
story  of  the  old  man  and  his  ass  ; ‘ There  is  as  much 
difference  between  the  approbation  of  the  judgement 
and  the  actual  volitions  of  the  will  With  relation  to  the 
same  object,  as  there  is  between  a man's  viewing  a de- 
sirable thing  with  his  eye  and  his  reaching  after  it  with 
his  hand.’ — South.  According  to  the  old  proverb,  ‘ Si 
lence  gives  consent ‘ Whatever  be  the  reason,  it  ap- 
pears by  the  common  consentoi mankind  that  the  want 
of  virtue  does  not  incur  equal  contempt  with  the  want 
parts.’ — Hawkesworth.  It  is  not  uncommon  for 
ministerial  men  to  give  their  concurrence  in  parliament 
to  the  measures  of  administration  by  a silent  vote, 
while  those  of  the  opposite  party  spout  forth  their  op- 
position to  catch  the  applause  of  the  multitude ; ‘ Sir 
Matthew  Hale  mentions  one  case  wherein  the  Lords 
may  alter  a money  bill  (that  is,  from  a greater  to  a less 
time) — here  he  says  the  bill  need  not  be  sent  back  to 
tlie  Commons  for  their  concMrrence.’ — Blackstone. 


TO  CONSENT,  PERMIT,  ALLOW 

Consent  has  the  same  meaning  as  given  under  the 
head  of  Accede;  permit,  in  French  permettre,  Latin 
permitto,  compounded  of  per  and  niitto,  signifies  to 
send  or  let  go  past;  allow,  in  French  alloucr,  com 
pounded  of  ad  and  louer,  in  German  loben,  low  Ger- 
man laven,  &c.  from  the  Latin  laudare  to  praise,  signi 
fies  to  give  one’s  assent  to  a thing. 

The  idea  of  determining  the  conduct  of  others  by 
some  authorized  act  of  one’s  own  is  common  to  these 
terms,  but  under  various  circumstances.  They  express 
either  the  act  of  an  equal  or  asuperiour. 

As  the  act  of  an  equal  we  consent  to  that  in  which 
we  have  an  interest ; we  permit  or  allow  wliat  is  for 
the  accommodation  of  others : we  allow  by  abstaining 
to  oppose ; we  permit  by  a direct  expression  of  our 
will ; contracts  are  formed  by  the  consent  of  the  parties 
who  are  interested ; 

When  thou  canst  truly  call  these  virtues  thine. 

Be  wise  and  free,  by  heaven’s  consent  and  inine. 

Dryden. 

The  proprietor  of  an  estate  permits  his  friends  to  sport 
on  his  ground:  ‘ You  have  given  me  yarn  permission 
for  this  address,  and  encouraged  me  by  your  perusal  and 
approbation.’ — Dryden.  A person  allows  of  passage 
through  his  premises;  ‘I  was  by  the  freedom  allowa- 
ble among  friends  tempted  to  vent  my  thoughts  with 
negligence.’ — Boyle.  It  is  sometimes  prudent  to  con 
sent;  complaisant  to  permit ; good  natured  or  weak  to 
allow. 

When  applied  tosuperiours,co7rsew«  is  an  act  of  pri 
vate  authority ; permit  and  allow  are  acts  of  private 
or  publick  authority  : in  the  first  case,  consent  respects 
matters  of  serious  importance  ; permit  and  allow  re- 
gard those  of  an  indifferent  nature:  a.  paxeni  consents 
to  the  establishment  of  his  children  ; he  permits  them 
to  read  certain  books ; he  allows  them  to  converse  with 
him  familiarly. 

We  must  pause  before  we  give  our  consent;  it  is  an 
express  sanction  to  the  conduct  of  others  ; it  involves 
our  own  judgement,  and  the  future  interests  of  those 
who  are  under  our  control ; 

Though  w'hatthou  tell’st  some  doubt  within  me  move 
But  more  desire  to  hear,  if  thou  consent 
The  full  relation. — Milton. 

This  is  not  always  so  necessary  in  permitting  and  al- 
lowing; they  are  partial  actions,  which  require  no 
more  than  the  bare  exercise  of  authority,  and  involve, 
no  other  consequences  than  the  temporary  pleasure  of 
the  parties  concerned.  Publick  measures  are  jaermittei 
1 and  allowed,  but  never  consented  to.  The  law  permits 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  13Tf 


allows ; or  the  person  who  is  authorized  permits  or 
allows.  Permit  in  tliis  case  retains  its  positive  sense ; 
allow  its  net;ative  sense,  as  before.  Government  per- 
mits individuals  to  fit  out  privateers  in  time  of  war ; 

After  men  have  acquired  as  much  as  tlie  \aw  permits 
them,  they  have  nothing  to  do  but  to  take  care  of  the 
publick.’— Swift.  Wlien  magistrates  are  not  vigilant, 
many  things  will  be  done  which  are  not  allowed; 
‘ They  referred  all  laws,  that  were  to  be  passed  in  Ire- 
land, to  be  considered,  corrected,  and  allowed  by  the 
state  of  England.’— Spenser.  A judge  is  not  permit- 
ted to  pass  any  sentence,  but  what  is  strictly  conform- 
able to  law  : every  man  who  is  accused  is  allowed  to 
plead  his  own  cause,  or  intrust  it  to  another,  as  he 
thinks  fit. 

All  these  terms  may  be  used  in  a general  sense  with 
the  same  distinction ; 

O no!  our  reason  was  not  vainly  lent ! 

Nor  is  a slave,  but  by  its  own  consent. — Dryden. 

Shame,  and  his  conscience. 

Will  not  permit  him  to  deny  it. — Randolph. 

‘ I think  the  strictest  moralists  allow  forms  of  address 
to  be  used,  without  much  regard  to  their  literal  accep- 
tation.’— Johnson. 


TO  ADMIT,  ALLOW,  PERMIT,  SUFFER, 
TOLERATE. 

Admits  in  French  admettre,  Latin  admitto,  com- 
pounded of  ad  and  mitto,  signifies  to  send  or  to  sutler 
to  pass  into;  to  allow.,  in  French  allouer,  compounded 
of  the  intensive  syllable  al  or  ad  and  louer,  in  German 
loben,  old  German  laubzan,  low  German  laven,  Swe- 
dish lofwa,  Danish  lover,  &c.  Latin  laus  praise,  lau- 
dare  to  praise,  signifies  to  give  praise  or  approbation  to 
a thing  ; permit,  in  French  permettre,  Latin  permitto, 
is  compounded  of  per  through  or  away,  and  mitto  to 
send  or  let  go,  signifying  to  let  it  go  its  way ; suffer,  in 
French  sovffrir,  Latin  suffer o,  is  compounded  of  sub 
and  fero,  signifying  to  bear  with ; tolerate,  in  Latin 
toleratus,  participle  of  tolero,  from  the  Greek  tAcju)  to 
sustain,  signifies  also  to  bear  or  bear  with. 

The  actions  denoted  by  the  first  three  terms  arc 
more  or  less  voluntary  ; those  of  the  last  two  are  invo- 
luntary; admit  is  less  voluntary  than  allow  ; and  that 
than  permit.  We  admit  what  we  profess  not  to  know, 
or  seek  not  to  prevent ; we  aZZow  what  we  know,  and 
tacitly  consent  to  ; we  permit  what  we  authorize  by  a 
formal  consent ; we  suffer  and  tolerate  what  we  object 
to,  but  do  not  think  proper  to  prevent.  We  admit  of 
things  from  inadvertence,  or  the  want  of  inclination  to 
prevent  them ; we  allow  of  things  from  easiness  of 
temper,  or  the  want  of  resolution  to  oppose  them  ; we 
verrnit  things  from  a desire  to  oblige  or  a dislike  to  re- 
fuse ; we  suffer  things  for  want  of  ability  to  remove 
them  ; we  tolerate  things  from  motives  of  discretion. 

What  is  admitted,  allowed,  suffered,  or  tolerated, 
has  already  been  done  ; what  is  permitted  is  desired 
to  be  done.  To  admit,  suffer,  and  tolerate,  are  said  of 
what  ought  to  be  avoided ; allow  and  permit  of  things 
good,  bad,  or  indifferent.  Suffer  is  employed  mostly 
with  regard  to  private  individuals;  tolerate  with  re- 
spect to  the  civil  power.  It  is  dangerous  to  admit  of 
familiarities  from  persons  in  a subordinate  station,  as 
they  are  apt  to  degenerate  into  impertinent  freedoms, 
which  though  not  allow  able  enmox  be  so  conveniently 
resented  : in  this  case  we  are  often  led  to  permit  what 
we  might  otherwise  prohibit:  it  is  a great  mark  of 
weakness  and  blindness  in  parents  to  suffer  that  in 
their  children  which  they  condemn  in  others;  opi- 
nions, however  absurd,  in  matters  of  religion,  must  be 
tolerated  by  the  civil  authority  when  they  have  ac- 
quired such  an  ascendancy  that  they  cannot  be  pre- 
vented without  great  violence. 

A well-regulated  society  will  be  careful  not  to  admit 
of  any  deviation  from  good  order,  which  may  after- 
ward become  injurious  as  a practice;  ‘Both  Houses 
declared  that  they  could  admit  o^  no  treaty  with  the 
king,  till  he  took  down  his  standard  and  recalled  his 
proclamations,  in  which  the  parliament  supposed 
themselves  to  be  declared  traitors.’ — Hume.  It  fre- 
quently happens  that  what  has  been  allowed  from  in- 
discretion is  afterward  claimed  as  a right ; ‘ Plutarch 
says  very  finely,  that  a man  should  not  allow  himself 
u)  hate  even  his  enemies.’ — Addison.  No  earthly 


pow  er  can  permit  that  which  is  prohibited  by  the 
Divine  law ; 

Permit  our  ships  a shelter  on  your  shores. 

Refitted  from  your  woods  with  planks  and  oars, 

That  if  our  prince  be  safe,  we  may  renew 
Our  destin’d  course,  and  Italy  pursue.— Dryden. 
When  abuses  are  suffered  to  creep  in,  and  to  take  deep 
root  in  any  established  institution,  it  is  difficult  to  brin^ 
about  a reform  without  endangering  the  existence  oi 
the  whole  ; ‘ No  man  can  be  said  to  enjoy  health,  who 
is  only  not  sick,  without  he  feel  within  himself  a light 
some  and  invigorating  principle,  which  will  not  suffet 
him  to  remain  idle. — Spectator.  When  abuses  are 
not  very  grievous,  it  is  wiser  to  tolerate  them  than  run 
the  risk  of  producing  a greater  evil ; ‘ No  man  ought  to 
be  tolerated  in  an  habitual  humour,  whim,  or  particu 
larity  of  behaviour,  by  any  who  do  not  wait  uj)on  him 
for  bread.’ — Steele. 


TO  ADMIT,  ALLOW,  GRANT. 

Jldmit  and  allow  are  here  taken  mostly  in  applica 
tion  to  things  that  the  mind  assents  to,  and  in  this  sense 
they  are  closely  allied  to  the  word  grant,  which,  like 
the  words  guarantee,  warrant,  and  guard,  come  from 
the  German  wahren  to  see  or  look  to,  &c.  signifying 
here  to  take  consideration  of. 

We  admit  the  truth  of  a position  ; allow  the  pro- 
priety of  a remark;  what  is  desired.  Some  men 

wilt  not  readily  admit  the  possibility  of  overcoming 
bad  habits  ; ‘ Tliough  the  fallibility  of  man’s  reason, 
and  the  narrowness  of  his  knowledge,  are  very  libe- 
rally confessed,  yet  the  conduct  of  those  who  so  will- 
ingly admit  the  weakness  of  human  nature,  seems  to 
discover  that  this  acknowledgment  is  not  sincere.’ — 
Johnson.  It  is  ungenerous  not  to  allow  that  some 
credit  is  due  to  those  who  effect  any  reformation  in 
themselves;  ‘ The  zealots  in  atheism  are  perpetually 
teasing  their  friends  to  come  over  to  them,  although 
they  allow  that  neither  of  them  shall  get  any  thing 
by  the  bargain.’ — Addison.  It  is  necessary,  before 
any  argument  can  be  commenced,  ths4  something 
should  be  taken  for  granted  on  both  sides  ; ‘ I take  it 
at  the  same  time  for  granted  that  the  immortality  of 
the  soul  is  sufficiently  established  by  other  arguments 
—Steele. 


TO  ASK,  BEG,  REQUEST. 

Ask  {v.  To  ask,  inquire)  is  here  taken  to  denote  an 
expression  of  our  wishes  generally  for  what  we  want 
from  another;  beg  is  contracted  from  the  word  beggar, 
and  the  German  begehren  to  desire  vehemently ; re- 
quest in  Latin  requisitus,  participle  of  require,  is  com 
pounded  of  re  and  queero  to  seek  or  look  after  with 
indications  of  desire  to  possess. 

The  expression  of  a wish  to  some  one  to  have  some- 
thing is  the  common  idea  comprehended  in  these  terms. 
As  this  is  the  simple  signification  of  ask,  it  is  the 
generick  term ; the  other  two  are  specifick ; we  ask  in 
begging  and  requesting,  but  not  vice  versd. 

Asking  is  peculiar  to  no  rank  or  station  ; in  conse- 
quence of  our  mutual  dependence  on  each  other,  it  is 
requisite  for  every  man  to  ask  somethir.„  of  another : 
the  master  asks  of  the  servant,  the  servant  asks  of 
the  master ; the  parent  asks  of  the  child,  the  child 
asks  of  the  parent.  Begging  marks  a degree  of  de- 
pendence which  is  peculiar  to  inferiours  in  station : we 
ask  for  matters  of  indifference ; we  beg  that  which  we 
think  is  of  importance:  a child  asks  a favour  of  his 
parent ; a poor  man  begs  the  assistance  of  one  who  is 
able  to  afford  it:  that  is  asked  for  which  is  easily 
granted ; that  is  begged  which  is  with  difficulty  ob- 
tained. To  ask  therefore  requires  no  effort ; but  to 
beg  is  to  ask  with  importunity  ; those  who  by  merely 
asking  find  themselves  unable  to  obtain  what  they 
wish  will  have  recourse  to  begging. 

As  ask  sometimes  implies  a demand,  and  beg  a 
vehemence  of  desire,  or  strong  degree  of  necessity  j 
politeness  has  adopted  another  phrase,  which  conveys 
neither  the  imperiousness  of  the  one,  nor  the  urgenc) 
of  the  other ; this  is  the  word  request.  Asking  carries 
' with  it  an  air  of  superiority  ; begging  that  of  submis 
sion ; requesting  has  the  air  of  independence  ane' 
equality.  Asking  borders  too  nearly  on  an  infringe 
mentof  personal  liberty;  imposes  a constraint' 


158 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


fcy  mairing  an  appeal  to  the  feelings ; requests  leave 
the  liberty  of  granting  or  refusing  unencumbered.  It 
is  the  character  of  impertinent  people  to  ask  without 
considering  the  circumstances  and  situation  of  the 
person  asked ; they  seem  ready  to  take  without  per- 
mission that  which  is  asked  if  it  be  not  granted ; 

Let  him  pursue  the  promis’d  Latian  shore, 

A short  delay  is  all  I ask  him  now, 

A pause  of  grief,  an  interval  from  wo. — Dryden. 
Selfish  and  greedy  people  beg  with  importunity,  and 
Lb  a tone  that  admits  of  no  refusal ; 

But  we  must  beg  our  bread  in  climes  unknown. 
Beneath  the  'jcorchingor  the  frozen  zone. — Dryden. 
Men  of  good  breeding  tender  their  requests  with 
moderation  and  discretion;  they  request  nothing  but 
what  they  are  certain  can  be  conveniently  complied 
with ; 

But  do  not  you  my  last  request  deny. 

With  yon  perfidious  man  your  int’rest  try. 

Dryden. 

Ask  is  altogether  exploded  from  polite  life,  although 
beg  is  not.  We  may  beg  a person’s  acceptance  of  any 
thing ; we  may  beg  him  to  favour  or  honour  us  with 
his  company  ; but  we  can  never  talk  of  asking  a per- 
son’s acceptance,  or  askmg  him  to  do  us  an  honour. 
Beg  in  such  cases  indicates  a condescension  which  is 
sometimes  not  unbecoming,  but  on  ordinary  occasion 
request  is  with  more  propriety  substituted  in  its  place. 


TO  BEG,  DESIRE. 

Beg  in  its  original  sense  as  before  given  (u.  To  ask, 
beg)  signifies  to  desire ; desire,  in  French  desir, 
Latin  desidero,  comes  from  desido  to  fix  the  mind  on 
an  object. 

To  beg,  marks  the  wish  ; to  desire,  the  will  and  de- 
ermination. 

Beg  is  the  act  of  an  inferiour,  or  one  in  subordinate 
jondition;  desire  is  the  act  of  a superiour : we  a 
>hing  as  a favour;  we  desire  it  as  a right ; children  beg 
Jieir  parents  to  grant  them  an  indulgence ; 

She  ’ll  hang  upon  his  lips,  and  beg  him  tell 

The  story  of  my  passion  o’er  again.— Southern. 
Parents  desire  their  children  to  attend  to  their  busi- 
ne.ss ; ‘ Once,  when  he  was  without  lodging,  meat,  or 
ilothes,  one  of  his  friends  left  a message,  that  he  de- 
sired to  see  him  about  nine  in  the  morning.  Savage 
knew  that  it  was  his  intention  to  assist  him  ; but  was 
very  much  disgusted  that  he  should  presume  to  pre- 
scribe the  hour  of  his  attendance,  and  I believe  refused 
to  see  him.’ — Johnson. 


TO  BEG,  BESEECH,  SOLICIT,  ENTREAT, 
SUPPLICATE,  IMPLORE,  CRAVE. 

Beg  is  here  taken  as  before  (v.  To  ask,  beg)  ; be- 
seech, compounded  of  be  and  seech,  or  seek,  is  an  in- 
tensive verb,  signifying  to  seek  strongly;  solicit,  in 
French  soliciter,  Latin  solicito,  is  probably  compound- 
ed of  solum  or  totum,  and  cito  to  cite,  summon,  appeal 
to  siirnifying to  rouse  altogether;  entreat,  compounded 
of  erfor  m and  treat,  in  French  trailer,  Latin  tracto 
to  manage,  signifies  to  act  upon  ; supplicate,  in  Latin 
supplicaius,  participle  of  si/ppl<eo,  compounded  of  sup 
or  sub  and  plico  to  fold,  signifies  to  bend  the  body  down 
in  token  of  submission  or  distress  in  order  to  awaken 
notice;  implore,  in  French  implorer,  Latin  imploro, 
compounded  of  im  or  in  and  ploro  to  weep  or  lament, 
signifies  to  act  upon  by  weeping;  crave,  in  Saxon 
cravian,  signifies  to  long  for  earnestly. 

All  these  terms  denote  a specie-s  of  asking,  varied  as 
to  the  person,  the  object,  and  the  manner;  the  first  four 
do  not  mark  such  a state  of  dependence  in  the  agent  as 
the  last  three;  to  beg  denotes  a state  of  want;  to  I eseech, 
entreat,  and  solicit,  a state  of  urgent  necessitj  ; sup- 
plicate and  implore,  a state  of  abject  distress ; crave,  the 
lowest  state  of  physical  want;  one  begs  with  impor- 
tunity ; beseeches  with  earnestness ; entreats  by  the 
force  of  reasoning  and  strong  representation ; one  soli- 
cits by  virtue  of  one’s  interest ; supplicates  by  an  hum- 
ble address;  implores  by  every  mark  of  dejection  and 
Humiliation. 

Begging  is  the  act  of  the  poor  when  they  need  as- 
sistaniTe  ; beseeching  and  entreating  are  resorted  to  by 
friends  and  equals,  when  they  want  to  influence  or 


persuade,  but  beseeching  is  more  urgent;  entreating 
more  argumentative : solicitations  are  employed  to  ob- 
tain favours,  which  have  more  respect  to  the  circum- 
stances than  the  rank  of  the  solicitor ; supplicating  and 
imploring  are  resorted  to  by  sufferers  for  the  relief  of 
their  misery,  and  are  addressed  to  those  who  have  the 
power  of  averting  or  increasing  the  calamity ; craving 
is  the  consequence  of  longing;  it  marks  an  earnestness 
o^ supplication  : an  abject  state  of  suffering  dependence. 

Those  who  have  any  object  to  otitain  commonly  have 
recourse  to  begging  ; 

What  more  advance  can  mortals  make  in  sin. 

So  near  perfection,  who  with  blood  begin  ? 

Deaf  to  the  calf  that  lies  beneath  the  knife. 

Looks  up,  and  from  the  butcher  begs  her  life. 

Dryden 

A kind  parent  will  sometimes  rather  beseech  an  undu 
tiful  child  to  lay  aside  his  wicked  courses,  than  plunge 
him  deeper  into  guilt  by  an  ill-timed  exercise  of  au- 
thority; ‘ Modesty  never  rages,  never  murmurs,  never 
pouts  when  it  is  ill-tieated;  it  pines,  it  beseeches,  it 
languishes.’ — Steele.  When  we  are  entreated  to  do 
an  act  of  civility,  it  is  a mark  of  unkiiidness  to  be  heed- 
less to  the  wishes  of  our  friends ; 

I have  a wife,  whom  I protest  I love ; 

I would  she  were  in  heav’n,  so  she  could 
Entreat  some  pow’r  to  change  this  currish  Jew. 

Shxkspe.^.re 

Gentlemen  in  office  are  perpetually  exposed  to  the  soli 
citations  of  their  friends,  to  procure  for  themselves  oi 
their  connexions  places  of  trust  and  emolument ; ‘ As 
money  collected  by  subscription  is  necessarily  received 
in  small  sums,  Savage  was  never  able  to  send  his  poems 
to  the  press,  but  for  many  years  continued  his  solicita- 
tion, and  squandered  whatever  he  obtained.’ — John- 
son. A slave  supplicates  his  master  for  pardon,  whom 
he  has  offended;  ‘ Savage  wrote  to  Lord  Tyrconnel, 
not  in  a style  of  supplication  and  respect ; but  of  re- 
proach, menace,  and  contempt.’ — Johnson.  An  of- 
fender implores  mercy  for  the  mitigation,  if  not  the 
remission,  of  his  punishment ; 

Is ’t  then  so  hard,  Monimia,  to  forgive 
A fault,  where  humble  love,  like  mine,  implores  thee  ? 

Otway. 

A poor  wretch,  sufiering  with  hunger,  craves  a morsel 
of  bread ; 

For  my  past  crimes,  my  forfeit  life  receive. 

No  pity  for  my  sufferings  here  I crave, 

And  only  hope  forgiveness  in  the  grave. 

Rowe’s  Jane  Shore 


SOLICITATION,  IMPORTUNITY. 

Solicitation  {v.  To  beg)  is  general ; importunity,  from 
the  Latin  importunus,  or  in  and  portus,  signifies  a run 
ning  into  harbour  after  the  manner  of  distressed  mari 
ners,  is  a vehement  and  troublesome  form  of  solicita- 
tion. Solicitation  is  itself  indeed  that  which  gives 
trouble  to  a certain  extent,  but  it  is  not  always  unrea- 
sonable ; there  may  be  cases  in  which  we  may  yield  to 
the  solicitations  of  friends,  to  do  that  which  we  have 
no  objection  to  be  obliged  to  do ; but  importunity  is  that 
solicitation  which  never  ceases  to  apply  for  that  which 
it  is  not  agreeable  to  give.  We  nriay  sometimes  be 
urgent  in  our  solicitations  of  a friend  to  accept  some 
proffered  honour;  the  solicitation  however,  in  this 
case,  although  it  may  even  be  troublesome,  yet  it  is 
sweetened  by  the  motive  of  the  action : the  importunity 
of  beggars  is  often  a politick  means  of  e.xtorting  money 
from  the  passenger ; ‘ Although  the  devil  cannot  compel 
a man  to  sin,  yet  he  can  follow  a man  with  continual 
solicitations.'— 'Sov^H.  The  torment  of  ixpectalion 
is  not  easily  to  be  borne,  when  the  heart  has  no  rivai 
engagements  to  withdraw  it  from  the  importunities  of 
desire.’— Johnson. 


PRESSING,  URGENT,  IMPORTUNATE 
Pressing  and  urgent,  from  to  press  and  urge,  are  ap 
plied  as  qualifying  terms,  either  to  persons  or  things; 
importunate,  from  the  verb  to  importune,  which  pro 
bably  signifies  to  wish  to  get  into  port,  to  land  at  some 
port,  is  applied  only  to  persons.  In  regard  to  pressing 
it  is  said  either  of  one’s  demands,  one’s  requests  o. 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


159 


one  s exhortations ; urgent  is  said  of  one’s  solicitations 
or  entreaties  ; importunate  is  said  of  one’s  begging  or 
applying  for.  The  pressing  has  more  of  violence  in  it ; 
it  is  supported  by  force  and  authority  ; it  is  employed 
w matters  of  right,  and  appeals  to  the  understanding  ; 

Mr.  Gay,  whose  zeal  in  your  concern  is  worthy  a 
friend,  writes  to  me  in  the  most  pressing  terms  about 
it.’ — PoPK.  The  urgent  makes  an  appeal  to  one’s 
feelings ; it  is  more  persuasive,  and  is  employed  in 
matters  of  favour;  ‘ Neither  would  he  have  done  it  at 
all  but  at  my  urgency.' — Swift.  The  importunate  has 
some  of  the  force,  but  none  of  the  authority  or  obligation 
of  the  pressing ; it  is  employed  in  matters  of  personal 
gratification ; ‘ Sleep  may  be  put  off  from  time  to  time, 
yet  the  demand  is  of  so  importunate  a nature  as  not  to 
remain  long  unsatisfied.’— Johnson.  When  applied  to 
tilings,  pressing  is  as  much  more  forcible  than  urgent^ 
as  in  the  former  case ; we  speak  of  a pressing  necessity, 
an  urgent  case.  A creditor  will  be  pressing  for  his 
money  when  he  fears  to  lose  it ; one  friend  is  urgent 
with  another  to  intercede  in  his  behalf;  beggars  are 
commonly  importunate  with  the  hope  of  teasing  persons 
out  of  their  money. 


TO  DESIRE,  WISH,  LONG  FOR,  HANKER 
AFTER,  COVET. 

Desire.,  in  Latin  desidero,  comes  from  desido  to  rest 
or  fix  upon  with  the  mind  ; wish,  in  German  wunschen, 
comes  from  wonne  pleasure,  signifying  to  take  pleasure 
in  a thing  ; long,  from  the  German  langen  to  reach 
after,  signifies  to  seek  after  with  the  mind ; hanker, 
hanger,  or  hang,  signifies  to  hang  on  an  object  with 
one’s  mind  ; covet  is  changed  from  the  Latin  cupio  to 
desire. 

Tlie  desire  is  imperious,  it  demands  gratification ; 
* When  men  have  discovered  a passionate  desire  of 
fame  in  the  ambitious  man  (as  no  temper  of  mind  is 
more  apt  to  show  itself,)  they  become  sparing  and  re- 
served in  their  commendations.’ — Addison.  TherctsA 
is  less  vehement,  it  consists  of  a strong  inclination ; ‘ It 
is  as  absurd  in  an  old  uian  to  wish  for  the  strength  of 
youth,  as  it  would  be  in  a young  man  to  wish  for  the 
strength  of  a bull  or  a horse.’ — ^Stkkle.  Longina-  is 
an  impatient  and  continued  species  of  desire;  * 
Extended  on  the  fun’ral  couch  he  lies. 

And  soon  as  morning  paints  the  eastern  skies. 

The  sight  is  granted  to  thy  longing  eyes.— Pope. 
Hankering  is  a desire  for  that  which  is  set  out  of  one’s 
reach;  ‘The  wife  is  an  old  coquette  that  is  always 
hankering  after  the  diversions  of  the  town.’ — Addi- 
son. Coveting  is  a desire  for  that  which  belongs  to  an- 
other, or  what  it  is  in  his  power  to  grant ; ‘ You  knf/vv 
Chaucer  has  a tale,  where  a knight  saves  his  head  by 
discovering  it  was  the  thing  which  all  women  most 
coveted.'— Gky.  We  desire  or  long  for  that  which  is 
near  at  hand,  or  within  view;  we  wish  for  and  covet 
that  which  is  more  remote,  or  less  distinctly  seen ; we 
hanker  after  that  which  has  been  once  enjoyed;  a dis- 
contented person  wishes  for  more  than  he  has ; he  who 
is  in  a strange  land  longs  to  see  his  native  country; 
vicious  men  hanker  after  the  pleasures  which  are  de- 
nied them;  ambitious  meu  covet  honours,  avaricious 
men  covet  riches. 

Desires  ought  to  be  moderated ; wishes  to  be  limited ; 
longings,  hankerings,  and  coveting s to  be  suppressed : 
uncontrolled  desires  become  the  greatest  torments ; un- 
bounded wishes  are  the  bane  of  all  happiness  ; ardent 
longings  are  mostly  irrational,  and  not  entitled  to  in- 
dulgence; coretrn^  is  expressly  prohibited  by  the  Divine 
law. 

Desire,  as  it  regards  others,  is  not  less  imperative 
than  when  it  respects  ourselves ; it  lays  an  obligation 
on  the  person  to  whom  it  is  expressed  : a wish  is  gentle 
and  unassuming;  it  appeals  to  the  good  nature  of  an- 
other: we  act  by  the  desireof  a superiour,  and  according 
to  the  wishes  of  an  equal : the  desire  of  a parent  will 
amount  to  a command  in  the  mind  of  a dutiful  child: 
his  wishes  will  be  anticipated  by  the  warmth  of  affec- 
tion. 


TO  WILL,  WISH. 

The  will  is  that  faculty  of  the  soul  which  is  the  most 
wompt  and  decisive ; it  immediately  impels  to  action ; 
hp  tcish  is  but  a gentle  motion  of  the  soul  towards  a 


thing.  We  can  nothing  bm  what  we  can  "efiTect , 
we  may  wish  for  many  things  which  lie  above  our 
reach.  The  will  must  be  under  the  entire  control  of 
reason,  or  it  will  lead  a person  into  every  miscnief ; ‘ A 
good  inclination  is  but  the  first  rude  draught  of  virtue  , 
but  the  finishing  strokes  are  from  the  will.' — South. 
Wishes  ought  to  be  under  the  direction  of  reason ; or 
otherwise  they  may  greatly  disturb  our  happiness; 
‘ The  wishing  of  a thing  is  not  properly  the  willing  of 
it ; it  imports  no  more  than  an  idle,  unoperative,  com 
placency  in,  and  desire  of,  the  object.’— South. 


WILLINGLY,  VOLUNTARILY,  SPONTA 
NEOUSLY. 

To  do  a thing  willingly  is  to  do  it  with  a good-will , 
to  do  a thing  voluntarily  is  to  do  it  of  one’s  own  accord : 
the  formei  respects  one’s  willingness  to  comply  with 
the  wishes  of  another;  we  do  what  is  asked  of  us,  it  is 
a mark  of  good  nature : the  latter  respects  our  freedom 
from  foreign  influence  ; we  do  that  which  we  like  tc 
do;  it  is  a mark  of  our  sincerity.  It  is  pleasant  to  see 
a child  do  his  task  willingly  ; 

Food  not  of  angels,  yet  accepted  so. 

As  that  more  willingly  thou  couldst  not  seem. 

At  heav’n’s  high  feasts  t’  have  fed. — Milton. 

It  is  pleasant  to  see  a man  voluntarily  engage  in  any 
service  of  publick  good ; ‘ Thoughts  are  only  criminal 
when  they  are  first  chosen,  and  then  voluntarily 
continued.’ — Johnson.  Spontaneously  is  but  a mode 
of  the  voluntary,  applied,  however,  more  commonly  to 
inanimate  objects  than  to  the  will  of  persons:  the 
ground  produces  spontaneously,  when  it  produces 
without  culture ; and  words  flow  spontaneously,  which 
require  no  effort  on  the  part  of  the  speaker  to  produce 
them ; 

Of  these  none  uncontroll’d  and  lawless  rove. 

But  to  some  destin’d  end  spontaneous  move. 

Jenyns 

If,  however,  applied  to  the  will,  it  bespeaks  in  a 
stronger  degree  the  totally  unbiassed  state  of  the  agent’s 
mind : the  spontaneous  effusions  of  the  heart  are  more 
than  the  voluntaryser\icos  of  benevolence.  Thewill'ivg 
is  opposed  to  the  unwilling,  the  voluntary  to  the  me 
chanical  or  involuntary,  the  spontaneous  to  the  reluc 
tant  or  the  artificial. 


TO  LEAN,  INCLINE,  BEND. 

Lean  and  incline  both  come  from  the  Latin  clino,  and 
Greek  kXivw  to  bow  or  bend ; bend  is  conn  ected  with 
the  German  wenden  to  turn,  and  the  English  wind,  &c. 

In  the  proper  sense  lean  and  incline  are  both  said  of 
the  position  of  bodies ; bend  is  said  of  the  shape  of 
bodies : that  which  leans  rests  on  one  side,  or  in  a side- 
ward direction;  that  which  inclines,  leans  or  turns 
only  in  a slight  degree;  that  which  bends  forms  a cur- 
vature ; it  does  not  all  lean  the  same  way : a house 
leans  when  the  foundation  gives  way;  a tree  may 
grow  so  as  incline  to  the  right  or  the  left,  or  a road  may 
incline  this  or  that  way ; a tree  or  a road  bends  when  it 
t’jrns  out  of  the  straight  course. 

In  the  improper  sense  the  judgement  leans,  the  will 
inclines,  the  will  or  conduct  bends,  in  consequence  of 
some  outward  action.  A person  leans  to  this  or  that 
side  of  a question  which  he  favours  ; he  inclines  or  is 
mchwed  to  this  or  that  mode  of  conduct;  heAendstothe 
will  of  another.  It  is  the  duty  of  a judge  to  lean  to 
the  side  of  mercy  as  far  as  is  consistent  with  justice ; 
Like  you  a courtier  born  and  bred. 

Kings  lean'd  their  ear  to  what  I said.— Gay. 
Whoever  inclines  too  readily  to  listen  to  the  tales  of 
distress  which  are  continually  told  to  excite  compas 
Sion,  will  find  himself  in  general  deceived ; 

Say  what  you  want : the  Latins  you  shall  find. 

Not  forc’d  to  goodness,  but  by  will  fnehn’ d.—DRYDEN 
An  unb ending ievaper\s  the  bane  of  domcstick  felicity; 
And  as  on  corn  when  western  gusts  descend. 
Before  the  blast  the  lofty  harvest  Acnd.— Pope. 

BENT,  BIAS,  INCLINATION,  PREPOSSESSION 
Bias,  in  French  Biais,  signifies  a w<  i"ht  fixed  on 
one  side  of  a bowl  in  orjer  to  turn  its  co.,'de  wav 


160 


ENGLISH  SYNON\MES. 


towards  which  the  bias  bans,  from  the  Greek  pia 
force ; inclination,  in  French  inclination,  Latin  incli- 
natio,  from  inclino,  Greek  kXIvo),  signifies  a leaning 
towards  ; prepossession,  compounded  of  pre  and  vos- 
session,  signifies  tlie  taking  possessrorj  of  the  mind  pre- 
viously. or  beforehand. 

All  tlrese  terms  denote  a preponderating  influence  on 
the  mind.  Bent  is  applied  to  the  will,  affection,  and 
power  in  general;  bias  solely  to  the  judgement;  incli- 
nation and  prepossession  to  the  state  of  the  feelings. 
The  bent  includes  the  general  state  of  the  mind,  and 
die  object  on  which  it  fi.xes  a regard ; 

Servile  inclinations,  and  gross  love. 

The  guilty  bent  of  vicious  appetite.— Havard. 
Bias,  the  particular  influential  power  which  sways  the 
judging  faculty  ; ‘The  choice  of  man’s  will  is  indeed 
uncertain,  because  in  many  things  free  ; but  yet  there 
are  certain  habits  and  principles  in  the  soul  that  have 
some  kiiii.  of  sway  upon  it,  apt  to  bias  it  more  one  way 
than  anotner.’ — South.  The  one  is  absolutely  con- 
sidered with  regard  to  itself;  the  other  relatively  to  its 
results  and  the  object  it  acts  upon. 

Bent  is  sometimes  with  regard  to  bias,  as  cause  is  to 
effect;  we  may  frequently  trace  in  the  particular  bent 
of  a person’s  likes  and  dislikes  t:»je  principal  bias  which 
determines  his  opinicns.  Inclination  is  a faint  kind  of 
bent;  prepossession  is  a weak  species  of  bias:  an 
inclination  is  astatiof  something,  namely,  a state  of 
the  feelings:  prepossession  is  an  actual  something, 
namely,  the  thing  that  pre/7ossesses. 

We  may  discover  the  bent  of  a person’s  mind  in  his 
gay  or  serious  moments;  in  his  occupations,  and  in  his 
pleasures ; in  some  persons  it  is  so  strong,  that  scarcely 
an  action  passes  w'hich  is  not  more  or  less  influenced  by 
it,  and  even  the  e.xteriour  of  a man  will  be  under  its 
control : in  all  disputed  matters  the  support  of  a party 
will  operate  more  or  less  to  bias  the  minds  of  men  for 
or  against  particular  men,  or  particular  measures: 
when  wc  are  attached  to  the  party  that  espouses  the 
cause  of  religion  and  good  order,  this  bias  is  in  some 
measure  commendable  and  salutary  : a mind  without 
inclination  would  be  a blank,  and  where  inclination  is, 
there  is  the  groundwork  for  prepossession.  Strong 
minds  will  be  strongly  bent,  and  labour  under  a strong 
'tias  ; but  there  is  no  mind  so  weak  and  powerless  as 
not  to  have  its  inclinations,  and  none  so  perfect  as  to 
be  without  its  prepossessions  : the  mind  that  has  vir- 
tuous inclinations  will  be  prepossessed  in  favour  of 
every  thing  that  leans  to  virtue’s  side ; it  were  well  for 
mankind  that  this  were  the  only  prepossession ; but  in 
the  present  mixture  of  truth  and  errour,  it  is  necessary 
to  guard  against  prepossessions  as  dangerous  anticipa- 
tions of  the'judgement;  if  their  object  be  not  perfectly 
pure,  or  their  force  be  not  qualified  by  the  restrictive 
powers  of  the  judgement,  much  evil  springs  from  their 
abuse ; 

’T  is  not  indulging  private  inclination. 

The  selfish  passions,  that  sustains  tlie  world, 

And  lends  its  Ruler  grace. — Thomson. 

I take  it  for  a rule,  that  in  marriage  the  chief  busi- 
ness is  to  acquire  a prepossession  in  favour  of  each 
Dther.’ — Steele. 


INCLINATION,  TENDENCY,  PROPENSITY, 
PRONENESS. 

All  these  terms  are  employed  to  designate  the  state  of 
die  will  towards  an  object : inclination  {v.  Bent) 
denotes  its  first  movement  towards  an  object : tendency, 
from  to  tend,  is  a continued  inclination : propensity, 
from  the  Latin  propensus  and  propendeo  to  hang  for- 
ward denotes  a still  stronger  leaning  of  the  will ; and 
pront^  rom  the  Latin  pronus  downward,  characterizes 
an  habitual  and  fixed  state  of  the  will  towards  an 
object.  The  inclination  expresses  the  leaning  but  not 
th.'  direction  of  that  leaning  ; it  may  be  to  the  right  or 
to  the  left,  upwards  or  downwards;  consequently  we 
may  have  an  inclination  to  that  which  is  good  or  bad, 
high  or  low;  tendency  does  not  specify  any  particular 
direction ; but  from  the  idea  of  pressing,  which  it  con- 
veys, it  is  appropriately  applied  to  those  things  which 
degenerate  or  lead  to  what  is  bad  ; excessive  strictness 
in  the  treatment  of  children  has  a tendency  to  damp 
the  spirit:  propensity  and  proneness  both  designate  a 
downward  direction,  and  consequently  refer  only  to 
that  which  is  bad  and  low  ; a person  has  a propensity 
tn  dunking,  and  a vroneness  to  lying 


Inclination  is  always  at  the  command  of  the  inder 
standing  ; it  is  our  duty  therefore  to  suppress  the  first 
risings  of  any  inclination  to  extravagance,  intem- 
perance, or  any  irregularity ; ‘ Partiality  is  jnoperly  the 
understanding’s  judging  according  to  the  fne/inatww  ot 
the  will.’ — South.  As  tendency  refers  to  the  thing 
rather  than  the  person,  it  is  our  business  to  avoid  that 
which  has  a tendency  to  evil ; ‘Every  immoral  act,  in 
the  direct  tendency  of  it,  is  certainly  a step  down 
wards.’ — South.  The  propensity  will  soon  get  the 
mastery  of  the  best  principles,  and  the  firmest  resolu 
tion  ; it  is  our  duty  therefore  to  seek  all  the  aids  which 
religion  affords  to  subdue  every ‘Such  is 
the  propensity  of  our  nature  to  vice,  that  stronger 
restraints  than  those  of  mere  reason  are  necessary  to 
be  imposed  on  man.’ — Blair.  Proneness  to  evil  is 
inherent  in  our  nature  which  we  derive  from  our  first 
parents ; it  is  the  grace  of  God  which  alone  can  lift  us 
up  above  this  grovelling  part  of  ourselves;  /Every 
commission  of  sin  imprints  upon  the  soul  a further  dis 
position  and  proneness  to  sin.’ — South. 


BIAS,  PREPOSSESSION,  PREJUDICE. 

Bias  (v.  Bent,  Bias)  marks  the  state  of  the  mind  , 
prepossession  applies  either  to  the  general  or  particular 
state  of  the  feelings;  prejudice  is  employed  only  for 
opinions.  Prejudice,  in  French  pi  ejudice,  halin  pres- 
judicium,  coniftounded  of  pree  before,  and  judicium 
judgement,  signifies  a judgement  before  hand,  that  is, 
before  examination.  Ciiildren  may  receive  an  early 
bias  that  influences  their  future  character  and  destiny : 
prepossessions  spring  from  casualties;  they  do  not 
exist  in  young  minds:  prejudices  are  the  fruits  of  a 
contracted  education.  Physical  infirmities  often  give 
a strong  bias  to  serious  pursuits;  ‘It  should  be  the 
principal  labour  of  moral  writers  to  remove  the  bias 
which  inclines  the  mind  rather  to  prefer  natural  than 
moral  endowments.’ — Hawkesworth.  Preposses 

sions  created  by  outward  appearances  are  not  always 
fallacious:  ‘A  man  in  power,  who  can,  without  the 
ordinary  prepossessions  which  stop  the  way  to  the 
true  knowledge  and  service  of  mankind,  overlook  the 
little  distinctions  of  fortune,  raise  obscure  merit,  and 
discountenance  successful  indesert,  has,  in  the  minds  of 
knowing  men,  the  figure  of  an  angel  rather  than  a 
' man.’ — Steele.  It  is  at  present  the  fashion  to  brand 
every  thing  with  the  name  of  prejudice,  which  does  not 
coincide  with  the  lax  notions  of  the  age  ‘ It  is  the 
work  of  a philosopher  to  be  every  day  subduing  his 
passions,  and  laying  aside  h\s prejudices.  I endeavour 
at  least  to  look  upon  men  and  tlleir  actions  only  as  an 
impartial  spectator.’— Spectator.  A bias  may  be 
overpowered,  a prepossession  overcome,  and  a pre 
judice  corrected  or  removed. 

We  may  be  biassed  for  or  against,  we  are  always 
prepossessed  in  favour,  and  mostly  prejudiced  against. 

COVETOUSNESS,  CUPIDITY,  AVARICE 

Covetousness,  from  covet,  and  cupido  to  desire, 
signifies  having  a desire ; cupidity  is  a more  immediate 
derivative  from  the  Latin  cupiditas,  and  signifies  the 
same  thing ; avarice,  from  aveo  lo  long  for,  signifies 
by  distinction  a longing  for  money. 

All  these  terms  are  employed  to  express  an  illicit 
desire  after  objects  of  gratification ; but  covetousness 
is  applied  to  property  in  general ; cupidity  and  avarice 
only  to  money  or  possessions.  A child  may  display  its 
covetousness  in  regard  to  the  playthings  which  fall  in 
its  way ; a man  shows  his  cupidity  in  regard  to  the  gains 
that  fall  in  his  way  ; we  should  therefore  be  careful  to 
check  a covetous  disposition  in  early  life,  lest  it  show 
itself  in  the  more  hateful  character  of  cupidity  in  ad- 
vanced years.  Covetousness  is  the  natural  disposition  for 
having  or  getting;  cupidity  is  the  acquired  disposition. 
As  the  love  of  appropriation  is  an  innate  characteristick 
in  man,  that  of  accumulating  or  wanting  to  accumulate, 
which  constitutes  covetousness,  will  show  itself,  in 
some  persons,  among  the  first  indications  of  character ; 

‘ Nothing  lies  on  our  hands  with  such  uneasiness  as 
time.  Wretched  and  thoughtless  creatures  ! In  the 
only  place  where  covetousness  were  f virtue,  we  turn 
prodigals.— Addison.  Where  the  prospect  of  amassing 
great  wealth  is  set  before  a man,  as  in  the  case  of  a 
governourof  a distant  province,  it  will  evince  grea* 
virtue  in  him,  if  his  cupidity  be  not  excited  ; ‘ If  pre 
scriution  be  once  shaken,  no  species  of  property  i* 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


161 


secure,  when  it  once  becomes  an  object  large  enough  to 
tempt  the  cupidity  oi  indigent  power.’ — Burke. 

The  covetous  man  seeks  to  add  to  what  he  has;  the 
avaricious  man  ordy  strives  to  retain  what  he  has ; the 
covetous  man  sacrifices  others  to  indulge  himself ; 
the  avaricious  man  will  sometimes  sacrifice  himself  to 
indulge  others:  for  generosity,  which  is  opposed  to 
covetousness,  is  sometimes  associated  with  avarice ; 
‘At  last  Swift’s  avarice  grew  too  powerful  for  his 
kindness  ; he  would  refuse  (his  friends)  a bottle  of 
wine.’ — Johnson. 


AVARICIOUS,  MISERLY,  PARSIMONIOUS, 
NIGGARDLY., 

Avaricious,  from  the  Latin  aveo  to  desire,  signifies 
in  general  longing  for,  but  by  distinction  longing  for 
money;  miserly  signifies  like  a.  miser  or  miserable  man, 
for  none  are  so  miserable  as  the  loveis  of  money ; par- 
simonious, from  the  Latin  parco  to  spare  or  save,  sig- 
nifies literally  saving;  niggardly  is  a frequentative  of 
nigh  or  close,  signifies  very  nigh. 

The  avaricious  man  and  the  miser  are  one  and  the 
same  character,  with  this  exception,  that  the  miser 
carries  his  passion  for  money  to  a still  greater  excess. 
An  avaricious  man  shows  his  love  of  money  in  his 
ordinary  dealings;  but  the  miser  lives  upon  it,  and 
sufiers  every  privation  rather  than  part  with  it.  An 
avaricious  man  may  sometimes  be  indulgent  to  him- 
self, and  generous  toothers;  ‘Though  the  apprehen- 
sions of  the  aged  may  justify  a cautious  frugality, 
they  can  by  no  means  e'^cuse  a sordid  avarice.' — Blair. 
The  miser  is  dead  to  every  thing  but  the  treasure  which 
liP  has  amassed ; 

As  some  lone  miser  visiting  his  store. 

Bends  at  his  treasure,  counts,  recounts  it  o’er; 
Hoards  after  hoards  his  rising  raptures  fill. 

Yet  still  he  sighs,  for  hoards  are  wanting  still ; 
Thus  to  my  breast  alternate  passions  rise. 

Pleas’d  with  each  bliss  that  Heav’n  to  man  supplies. 
Yet  oft  a sigh  prevails  and  sorrows  fall. 

To  see  the  hoard  of  human  bliss  so  small. 

Goldsmith. 

Parsimonious  and  niggardly  are  the  subordinate 
characieristicks  of  avarice.  The  avaricious  man  in- 
dulges his  passion  for  money  by  parsimony,  that  is,  by 
saving  out  of  himself,  or  by  niggardly  ways  in  his 
dealings  with  others.  He  who  spends  a farthing  on 
himself,  where  others  with  the  same  means  spend  a 
shilling,  does  it  from  parsimony;  ‘Armstrong  died  in 
September,  1779,  and  to  the  surprise  of  his  friends  left 
a considerable  sum  of  money,  saved  by  great  parsi- 
mony out  of  a very  moderate  income.’ — Johnson.  He 
who  looks  to  every  farthing  in  the  bargains  he  makes, 
gets  the  name  of  a niggard ; ‘ I have  heard  Dodsley, 
by  whom  Akenside’s  ^'•Pleasures  of  the  Imagination" 
was  published,  relate,  that  when  the  copy  was  offered 
him,  he  carried  the  work  to  Pope,  who,  having  looked 
into  it,  advised  him  not  to  make  a niggardly  offer,  for 
this  was  no  every  day  writer.’ — Johnson.  Avarice 
sometimes  cloaks  itself  under  the  name  of  prudence  : 
it  is,  as  Goldsmith  says,  often  the  only  virtue  which  is 
left  a man  at  the  age  of  seventy-two.  The  miser  is  his 
own  greatest  enemy,  and  no  man’s  friend ; his  ill-got- 
ten wealth  is  generally  a curse  to  him  by  wltom  it  is 
inherited.  A man  is  sometimes  rendered  parsimoni- 
ous by  circumstances;  he  who  first  saves  from  neces- 
sity but  too  often  ends  with  saving  from  inclination. 
The  niggard  is  an  object  of  contempt,  and  sometimes 
hatred ; every  one  fears  to  lose  by  a man  who  strives 
to  gain  from  all. 

CECONOMICAL,  SAVING,  SPARING,  THRIFTY, 
PENURIOUS,  NIGGARDLY. 

The  idea  of  not  spending  is  common  to  all  these 
terms;  hot  (economical  signifies  not  spending  unneces- 
sarily or  unwisely ; saving  is  keeping  and  laying  by 
with  care ; sparing  is  keeping  out  of  that  which  ought 
to  be  spent;  thrifty  or  thriving  is  accumulating  by 
means  of  saving:  penurious  is  suffering  asfrom^ewM- 
ry  by  means  of  saving;  niggardly,  after  the  manner 
of  a niggard,  nigh  or  close  person,  is  not  spending  or 
letting  go,  but  in  the  smallest  possible  quantities. 

To  be  /economical  is  a virtue  in  those  who  have  but 

frow  means ; ‘ I cannot  fancy  that  a shopkeeper’s 

11 


wife  in  Cheapside  has  a greater  tenderness  for  the  for- 
tune of  her  husband  than  a citizen’s  wife  in  Paris;  or 
that  Miss  in  a boarding-school  is  more  an  (economist  in 
dress  than  Mademoiselle  in  a nunnery.’ — Goldsmith 
All  the  other  epithets  however  are  employed  in  a sense 
more  or  less  unfavourable ; he  who  is  saving  when 
young,  will  be  covetous  when  old  ; he  who  is  sparing 
will  generally  be  sparing  out  of  the  comforts  of  others ; 
he  who  is  thrifty  commonly  adds  the  desire  of  getting 
with  that  of  saving;  he  who  is  penurious  wants  no 
thing  to  make  him  a complete  miser;  he  who  is  nig 
gardly  in  his  dealings  will  be  mostly  avaricious  iu  hia 
charaoter;  ‘I  may  say  of  fame  as  Falstafl’  did  ot 
honour,  “if  it  comes  it  comes  unlook’d  for,  and  there 
is  an  end  on’t.”  I am  content  with  a bare  saving 
game.’ — Pope. 

Youth  is  not  rich,  in  time  it  may  be  poor. 

Part  with  it,  as  with  money,  sparing. — Young. 

‘Nothing  is  penuriously  imparted,  of  which  a more 
liberal  distribution  would  increase  real  felicity.’ — 
Johnson. 

Who  by  resolves  and  vows  engag’d  does  stand. 
For  days  that  yet  belong  to  fate. 

Does  like  an  unthrift  mortgage  his  estate 
Before  it  falls  into  his  hands. — Cowley. 

No  niggard  nature;  men  are  prodigals. — Young. 


CECONOMY,  FRUGALITY,  PARSIMONY 
(Economy,  from  the  Greek  diKovopta,  implies  ma- 
nagement ; frugality,  from  the  Latin  fruges  fruits, 
implies  temperance ; parsimony  {v.  Avaricious)  im- 
plies simply  forbearing  to  spend,  which  is  in  fact  the 
common  idea  included  in  these  terms  ; but  the  (econo- 
mical man  spares  expense  according  to  circumstances ; 
he  adapts  his  expenditure  to  his  means,  and  renders  it 
by  contrivance  as  effectual  to  his  purpose  as  possible ; 
‘War  and  (economy  things  not  easily  reconciled, 
and  the  attempt  of  leaning  towards  par-smoray  in  such 
a state  may  be  the  worst  (economy  in  the  w'orld.’ — 
Burke.  The  frugal  man  spares  expense  on  himself 
or  on  his  indulgences;  he  may  however  be  liberal  to 
others  while  he  is  frugal  towards  himself;  ‘I  accept 
of  your  invitation  to  supper,  but  I must  make  this 
agreement  beforehand,  that  you  dismiss  me  soon,  and 
treat  me  frugally.' — Melmoth  (^Letters  of  Pliny). 
The  parsimonious  man  saves  from  himself  as  well  as 
others ; he  has  no  other  object  than  saving.  By  (econo- 
my, a man  may  make  a limited  income  turn  to  the 
best  account  for  himself  and  his  family ; by  frugality 
he  may  with  a limited  income  be  enabled  to  do  much 
good  to  others;  hy  parsimony  he  maybe  enabled  to 
accumulate  great  sums  outof  a narrow  income:  hence 
it  is  that  we  recommend  a plan  for  being  (economical ; 
we  recommend  a diet  for  being  frugal ; we  condemn 
a habit  or  a character  for  hem^  parsimonious. 


(ECONOMY,  MANAGEMENT. 

(Economy  (u.  (Economy)  has  a more  comprehensive 
meaning  than  management ; for  it  includes  the  system 
of  science  and  of  legislation  as  well  as  that  of  uomes- 
tick  arrangements ; as  the  (economy  of  agriculture ; the 
Internal  (economy  of  a government ; political,  civil,  or 
religious  (economy;  or  the  (economy  of  one’s  house 
hold;  ‘ Your  (economy  I suppose  begins  now  to  be  set- 
tled; your  expenses  are  adjusted  to  your  revenue.’ — 
Johnson.  Management,  on  the  contrary,  is  an  action 
that  is  very  seldom  abstracted  from  its  agent,  and  is 
always  taken  in  a partial  sense,  namely,  a?  a part  of 
(economy.  The  internal  (economy  of  a family  depends 
principally  on  the  prudent  management  of  the  female : 
the  (economy  of  every  well-regulated  community  re- 
quires that  all  the  members  should  keep  their  station, 
and  preserve  a strict  subordination  ; 

Oh  spare  this  waste  of  being  half  divine, 

And  vindicate  th’  (economy  of  heav’n. — Young. 
The  management  of  particular  branches  of  civil  cco- 
womy  should  belong  to  particular  individuals ; ‘What 
incident  can  show  more  management  and  address  in 
the  poet  (Milton),  than  this  of  Sampson’s  refusing  the 
summons  of  the  idolaters,  and  obeying  the  visitation 
of  God’s  spirit.’— Cumberland. 


62 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES 


AVIDITY,  GREEDINESS,  EAGERNESS, 

Arc  epithets  expressive  of  a strong  desire;  avidity. 
In  Latin  aviditas,  from  aveo  tq  desire,  expresses  very 
strong  desire ; greediness,  from  tlie  German  gierig,  and 
begehren  to  desire,  signifies  the  same;  eagerness,  from 
eager,  and  the  Latin  acer  sharp,  signifies  acuteness  of 
feeling. 

Avidity  is  in  mental  desires  what  greediness  is  in 
animal  af.petites : eagerness  is  not  so  vehement,  but 
more  impatient  than  avidity  or  greediness.  Avidity 
and  greediness  respect  simply  the  desire  of  possessing ; 
eagerness  the  general  desire  of  attaining  an  object. 
An  opportunity  is  seized  with  avidity;  or  a person 
gratifies  his  avidity ; ‘ 1 have  heard  that  Addison’s 
avidity  did  not  satisfy  itself  with  the  air  of  renown, 
but  that  with  great  eagerness  he  laid  hold  on  his  pro- 
portion of  the  profits.’— Johnson.  The  miser  grasps 
at  money  with  greediness,  or  the  glutton  devours  with 
greediness.  A person  runs  with  eagerness  in  order  to 
get  to  the  place  of  destination : a soldier  fights  with 
eagerness  in  order  to  conquer:  a lover  looks  with 
eager  impatience  for  a letter  from  the  object  of  his 
affection ; 

Bid  the  sea  listen,  when  the  greedy  merchant, 

To  gorge  its  ravenous  jaws,  hurls  all  his  wealth, 
And  stands  himself  upon  the  splitting  deck 
For  the  last  plunge. — Lee. 

Avidity  is  employed  in  an  adverbial  form  to  qualify 
an  action;  v/e  seize  with  avidity.  Greediness  mnxhs 
the  abstract  quality  or  habit  of  the  mind ; it  is  the  cha- 
racteristick  of  low  and  brutal  minds : eagerness  de- 
notes the  transitory  state  of  a feeling;  a person  dis- 
covers his  eagerness  in  his  looks. 


TO  GIVE,  GRANT,  BESTOW,  ALLOW. 

Give,  in  Saxon  gif  an,  German  geben,  &c.  is  derived 
by  Adelung  from  the  old  word  gaff  the  hollow  of  the 
hand,  because  the  hand  was  commonly  used  in  pledging 
or  giving,  whence  this  word  is  allied  to  the  Greek 
cyyvditi  to  pledge  or  promise,  and  yviov  a limb;  grant 
is  probably  contracted  from  guarantee,  and  the  French 
garantir,  signifying  to  assure  any  thing  to  a person  by 
one’s  word  or  deed  ; bestow  is  compounded  of  be  and 
ftotc,  which  in  English  and  the  northern  languages  sig- 
nifies to  place,  whence  to  bestow  signifies  to  dispose  ac- 
cording to  one’s  wishes  and  convenience ; allow  is  here 
taken  in  the  same  general  sense  as  in  the  article  To 
admit,  allow. 

The  idea  of  communicating  to  another  what  is  our 
own,  or  in  our  power,  is  common  to  these  terms;  this 
is  the  whole  signification  of  give;  h\il  grant,  bestow, 
and  allow  include  accessory  ideas  in  their  meaning. 
To  grant  is  to  give  at  one’s  pleasure  ; to  bestow  is  to 
give  with  a certain  degree  of  necessity.  Giving  is 
confined  to  no  object ; whatever  property  we  transfer 
Into  the  hands  of  another,  that  we  give;  we  give 
money,  clothes,  food,  or  whatever  is  transferable: 
granting  is  confined  to  such  objects  as  afford  plea- 
sure or  convenience ; they  may  consist  of  transferable 
property  or  not ; bestowing  is  applied  to  such  objects 
only  as  are  necessary  to  supply  wants,  which  always 
consist  of  that  which  is  transferable.  We  give  what 
is  liked  or  not  liked,  asked  for  or  unasked  for;  we 
grant  that  only  which  is  wished  for  and  requested. 
One  may  give  poison  or  medicine;  one  may^ire  to  a 
beggar,  or  to  a friend  ; one  grants  a sum  of  money  by 
way  of  loan  : we  give  what  is  wanted  or  not  wanted ; 
we  bestow  that  only  which  is  expressly  wanted  : we 
give  with  an  idea  of  a return  or  otherwise ; we  grant 
voluntarily,  without  any  prospect  of  a return ; w^e 
give  for  a permanency  or  otherwise;  we  bestow  only 
in  particular  cases  which  require  immediate  notice. 
Many  give  things  to  the  rich  only  to  increase  the  num- 
ber of  their  superfluities,  and  they  to  the  poor  to 
relieve  their  necessities;  they  bestow  their  alms  on 
an  indigent  sufferer. 

To  give  has  no  respect  to  the  circumstances  of  the 
action  or  the  agent ; it  is  applicable  to  persons  of  all 
conditions  • to  grant  bespeaks  not  only  the  will  but 
the  power  and  influence  of  the  grantor;  to  bestow 
bespeaks  the  necessitous  condition  of  the  receiver. 
Children  may  give  to  their  parents  and  parents  to  their 
children,  kings  to  their  si^jects  or  subjects  to  their 
kings;  but  monarchs  on'y  grant  to  their  subjects,  or 


parents  to  their  children ; and  superiours  m genera^ 
bestow  upon  their  dependants  that  which  they  lannol 
provide  for  themselves. 

In  an  extended  application  of  the  terms  o moiul  ob- 
jects or  circumstances,  they  strictly  adhere  o the  same 
line  of  distinction.  We  give  our  conser  , we  give 
our  promise ; we  give  our  word  ; we  give  credit ; we 
give  in  all  cases  that  which  may  be  simply  transferred 
from  one  to  another ; 

Happy  when  both  to  the  same  centre  move, 

When  kings  give  liberty,  and  subjects  love. 

DenhajI. 

Liberties,  rights,  privileges,  favours,  indulgences,  per 
missions,  and  all  things  are  granted,  which  are  in  ths 
hands  only  of  a few,  but  are  acceptable  to  many ; 

The  gods  will  grant 

What  their  unerring  wisdom  sees  they  want 

Dryden. 

Blessings,  care,  eoncern,  and  the  like,  are  bestowed 
upon  those  who  are  dependent  upon  others  for  what- 
ever they  have. 

Give  and  bestow  are  likewise  said  of  things  as  well 
as  of  persons  ; grant  is  said  only  of  persons.  Give 
is  here  equally  general  and  indefinite  , bestow  conveys 
the  idea  of  giving  under  circumstances  of  necessity 
and  urgency.  One  gives  a preference  to  a particulai 
situation  ; one  gives  a thought  to  a subject  that  is  pro- 
posed ; one  gives  time  and  labour  to  any  matter  that 
emiages  one’s  attention  ; ‘ Milton  afterward  give  us  a 
description  of  the  morning,  which  is  wonderfully  suita 
ble  to  a divine  poem.’ — Addison.  But  one  bestows 
pains  on  that  which  demands  particular  attention , 
one  bestows  a moment’s  thought  on  one  particular 
subject,  out  of  the  number  which  engage  attention' 

‘ After  having  thus  treated  at  large  of  Paradise  Lost,  I 
could  not  think  it  sufficient  to  have  celebrated  this 
poem,  in  the  whole,  without  descending  to  particulars: 
I have  therefore  iestozeed  a paper  on  each  book.’- 
Addison. 

That  is  granted  which  is  desired,  if  not  directly 
asked  for ; that  is  bestowed  which  is  wanted  as  a 
matter  of  necessity;  that  is  allowed  v;hich  may  be  ex 
pected,  if  not  directly  required. 

What  is  granted  is  perfectly  gratuitous  on  the  pan 
of  the  giver,  it  is  a pure  favour,  and  lays  the  receiver 
under  an  obligation  ; what  is  bestowed  is  occasional 
altogether  depending  on  the  circumstances  and  dispo- 
sition of  both  giver  and  receiver ; what  is  allowed  is  a 
gift  stipulated  as  to  time  and  quantity,  which  as  ia 
continuance  depends  upon  the  will  of  the  giver. 

It  is  as  improper  to  grant  a person  more  than  ha 
asks,  as  it  is  to  ask  a person  for  more  than  he  ca/i 
grant.  Alms  are  very  ill  bestowed  which  only  serve 
to  encourage  beggary  and  idleness ; many  of  the  pool 
are  allowed  a small  sum  weekly  from  the  parish. 

A grant  comprehends  in  it  something  more  in,, 
portant  than  an  allowance,  and  passes  between  persor.s 
in  a higher  station;  what  is  bestowed  is  of  less  value 
than  either.  A father  allows  his  son  a yearly  sum  for 
his  casual  expenses,  or  a master  allows  his  servant  a 
maintenance ; ‘ Martial’s  description  of  a species  of 
lawyers  is  full  of  humour:  “Men  that  hire  out  their 
words  and  anger,  that  are  more  or  less  passionate  as 
they  are  paid  for  it,  and  allow  their  client  a quantity 
of  wrath  proportionable  to  the  fee  which  they  receive 
from  him.”  ’ — Addison.  Kings  grant  pensions  to  their 
officers ; governments  grant  subsidies  to  one  another 
If  you  in  pity  grant  this  one  request. 

My  death  shall  glut  the  hatred  of  his  breast. 

Dryden. 

Relief  is  bestowed  on  the  indigent ; Our  Saviour  doth 
plainly  witness  that  there.should  not  be  as  much  as  a 
cup  of  cold  water  bestowed  for  his  s^ke  without  re- 
ward.’— Hooker. 

In  a figurative  acceptation  that  is  granted  which  is 
given  byway  of  favour  or  indulgence;  that  is  be- 
stowed which  is  done  in  justice,  or  by  way  of  reward 
or  necessity ; that  is  allowed  which  is  done  by  way  of 
courtesy  or  compliance. 

In  former  times  the  kings  of  England  grunted  cer 
tain  privileges  to  some  towns,  which  they  retain  to 
this  day ; ‘All  the  land  is  the  queen’s,  unlcsr,  there  b« 
some  grant  of  any  part  thereof  to  be  showed  froir  hej 
majesty.’— Spenser.  Those  who  are  hdist*,  iu  ,4 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  IM 


piauding  frequently  bestow  their  commendations  on 
very  undeserving  objects  ; 

So  much  the  more  thy  diligence  bestow, 

In  depth  of  winter  to  defend  tiie  snow. — Dryden. 
A candid  man  allows  merit  even  in  his  rivals  ; ‘ I shall 
be  ready  to  allow  the  pope  as  little  power  here  as  you 
please.’ — Sw  ift. 

TO  GIVE,  AFFORD,  SPARE. 

Give  is  here  the  generick  term,  as  in  the  preceding 
article,  afford,  probably  changed  from  aj^er red.  from 
the  Latin  affero,  or  ad  and  fero,  signifies  literally  to 
bring  to  a person;  spare,  in  German  sparen,  Latin 
varco,  and  Hebrew  p‘^£3  to  preserve,  signifies  here  to 
lay  up  for  a particular  purpose.  These  words  are 
allied  to  each  other  in  the  sense  of  sending  forth  : but 
the  former  denotes  an  unqualified  and  unconditional 
action  ; the  latter  bears  a relation  to  the  circumstances 
of  the  agent.  A person  is  said  to  give  money  without 
any  regard  to  the  state  of  his  finances : he  is  said  to 
afford  what  he  gives,  when  one  wishes  to  define  his 
pecuniary  condition ; ‘ Nothing  can^ziie  that  to  another 
which  it  hath  not  itself.’— Bramiiall.  ‘The  same 
errours  run  through  all  families,  wliere  there  is  wealth 
enough  to  afford  that  their  sons  may  be  good  for  no- 
thing.’— Swift.  The  same  idea  runs  through  the  ap- 
plication of  these  terms  to  all  other  cases,  in  which 
inanimate  things  are  made  the  agents; 

Are  these  our  great  pursuits  1 Is  this  to  live, 

These  all  the  hopes  this  much-lov’d  world  can  give  ? 

Jenyns. 

Our  paper  manufacture  takes  into  use  several  mean 
materials,  which  could  be  put  to  no  other  use,  and 
affords  work  for  several  hands  in  the  collection  of 
them,  which  are  incapable  of  any  other  employment.’ 
— Addison.  When  we  say  a thing  gives  satisfaction, 
we  simply  designate  the  action ; when  we  say  it  affords 
pleasure,  we  refer  to  the  nature  and  properties  of  the 
thing  thus  specified;  the  former  is  employed  only  to 
declare  the  fact,  the  latter  to  characterize  the  object. 
Hence,  in  certain  cases,  we  should  say,  this  or  that 
posture  of  the  body  gives  ease  to  a sick  person  ; but, 
as  a moral  sentiment,  we  should  say,  nothing  affords  j 
such  ease  to  the  mind  as  a clear  conscience ; ‘ Tliis  is 
the  consolation  of  all  good  men,  unto  whom  the  ubi- 
quity affordeth  continual  comfort  and  security.’ — 
Bkowth.  {Vulg.  Err.)  Upon  the  same  grounds  the 
use  of  these  terms  is  justified  in  the  following  cases ; 
to  give  rise ; or  give  birth  ; to  give  occasion ; to  afford 
an  opportunity ; to  afford  a plea  or  a pretext ; to  afford 
ground,  and  the  like. 

To  afford  and  spare  both  imply  the  deducting  from 
one’s  property  with  convenience,  but  afford  respects 
solely  expenses  which  are  no  more  than  commensurate 
with  our  income;  spare  \s  said  of  things  in  general, 
which  we  may  part  with  without  any  sensible  dimi- 
nution of  our  comfort.  There  are  few  so  destitute 
that  they  cannot  afford  something  for  the  relief  of 
others,  who  are  more  destitute  ; 

Accept  whate’er  ASneas  can  afford, 

Untouch’d  thy  arms,  untaken  by  thy  sword. 

Dryden. 

He  who  has  two  things  of  a kind  may  easily  spare 
one  ; ‘ How  many  men,  in  the  common  concerns  of 
life,  lend  sums  of  money  which  they  are  not  able  to 
spare.' — Addison. 

TO  GIVE,  PRESENT,  OFFER,  EXHIBIT. 

These  terms  have  a common  signification,  inasmuch 
as  they  designate  the  manual  act  of  transferring  some- 
thing from  one's  self  to  another.  The  first  is  here  as 
elsewhere  (w.  To  give,  grant)  the  most  indefinite  and 
extensive  in  its  meaning  ; it  denotes  the  complete  act  .* 
the  latter  two  refer  rather  to  the  preliminaries  of  giv 
vig,  than  to  the  act  itself.  What  is  given  is  actually 
transferred:  what  is  presented,  that  is  made  a present 
to  any  one  ; what  is  offered  is  brought  in  the  way  of  a 
person,  or  put  in  the  way  of  being  transferred : we 
•present  in  giving,  and  offer  in  order  to  give;  but  it 
may  be  that  we  may  give  without  presenting  or  offer- 

♦ Vide  Girard  : “ Donner,  presenter, 


ing;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  we  may  present  oi  offer 
without  giving. 

'I’o  give  is  the  familiar  term  which  designates  the 
ordinary  transfer  of  property  : to  present  is  a term  of 
respect;  it  includes  in  it  the  formality  and  ceremony 
of  setting  before  another  that  whicJi  we  wish  to  give  ; 
to  offer  is  an  act  of  humility  or  solemnity  : it  bespeaks 
the  movement  of  the  heart,  which  impels  to  the  mak- 
ing a transfer  or  gift.  We  give  to  our  domesticks ; vve 
present  to  princes;  we  offer  to  God’  we  give  to  a 
person  what  we  wish  to  be  received  ; we  present  to  a 
person  wliat  we  think  agreeable;  we  offer  what  we 
think  acceptable:  what  is  given  is  supposed  to  be 
ours; 

Of  seven  smooth  joints  a mellow  pipe  I have. 

Which  with  his  dying  breath  Damoetas  gave. 

Dryden. 

What  we  offer  is  supposed  to  be  at  our  command ; 

Alexis  will  thy  homely  gifts  disdain ; 

Nor,  shoukistthou  offer  all  thy  little  store, 

Will  rich  lolas  yield,  bat  offer  more. — Dryden. 
What  we  present  need  not  be  either  our  own  or  at  our 
command  ; ‘ It  fell  out  at  the  same  time,  that  a very 
fine  colt,  which  promised  great  strength  and  speed, 
was  presented  to  Octavius ; Virgil  assured  them  tliat 
he  would  prove  a jade  : upon  trial,  it  was  found  as  he 
had  said.’ — Walsh.  We  give  a person  not  only  our 
external  property,  but  our  esteem,  our  confidence,  our 
company,  and  the  like;  an  ambassador  his 

credentials  at  court ; a subject  oj’e/'s  his  services  to  his 
king. 

They  bear  the  same  relation  to  each  other  when  ap- 
plied to  words  or  actions,  instead  of  property;  we 
speak  of  giving  a person  an  assurance,  or  a contradic 
tion  : of  presenting  an  address,  and  offering  an  apo 
logy:  oi  giving  a reception,  presenting  a figure,  or 
offering  an  insult.  They  may  likewise  be  extendea  in 
their  application,  not  only  to  personal  and  individual 
actions,  but  also  to  such  as  respect  the  publick  at  large  • 
we  give  a description  in  writing,  as  well  as  by  wor  d of 
mouth  ; one  presents  the  publick  with  the  fruit  of  one’s 
labours  ; we  offer  remarks  on  such  things  as  attract 
notice,  and  call  for  animauversion. 

These  terms  may  also  be  emjiloyed  to  designate  the 
1 actions  of  unconscious  agents,  by  which  they  are  cha- 
racterized : in  this  sense  they  come  very  near  to  the 
word  exhibit,  which,  from  exhibeo,  signifies  to  hold  or 
put  forth.  Here  the  word  give  is  equally  indefinite 
and  general,  denoting  simply  to  send  from'  itself,  and 
applies  mostly  to  what  proceeds  from  another  thing,  by 
a natural  cause : thus,  a thing  is  said  to  give  pain,  oi 
to  give  pleasure ; 

The  apprehension  of  the  good 
Gives  but  the  greater  feeling  to  the  worse. 

Shakspeare. 

Things  are  said  to  present  or  offer,  that  is,  in  the  sense 
of  setting  them  to  view ; others  only  by  the  figure  of 
personification:  thus,  a town  is  said  to  present  a fine 
view,  or  an  idea  presents  itself  to  the  mind ; 

Its  pearl  the  rock  presents,  its  gold  the  mine. 

Jenyns. 

An  opportunity  offers,  that  is,  offers  Itself  to  our  notice ; 
True  genuine  dulness  mov’d  his  pity. 

Unless  it  offer'd  to  be  witty. — Swift 
To  exhibit  is  properly  applied  in  this  sense  of  setting 
forth  to  view;  but  expresses  likewise  the  idea  of  at- 
tracting notice  also:  that  which  is  exhibited  is  more 
striking  than  what  is  presented  or  offered ; thus  a poem 
is  said  to  exhibit  marks  of  genius ; ‘ The  recollection 
of  the  past  becomes  dreadful  to  a guilty  man.  It  exhibits 
to  him  a life  thrown  away  on  vanities  and  follies 
Blair. 


TO  INTRODUCE,  PRESENT. 

To  introduce,  from  the  Latin  introduco,  signifies 
literally  to  bring  within  or  into  any  place  ; to  present 
(v.  To  give)  signifies  to  bring  into  the  presence  of.  As 
they  respect  persons,  the  former  passes  between  equals, 
the  latter  only  among  persons  of  rank  and  power  : one 
literary  man  is  introduced  to  another  by  means  of  a 
common  friend:  heispresented  at  court  by  a noblemair 
As  these  terms  respect  things,  we  Bay  that  subject* 


/64 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


aie  mt^jduced  ki  Ihe  course  of  conversation;  ‘The 
endeavours  of  freethinkers  tend  only  to  introduce 
slavery  and  errour  among  men.’ — Berkeley.  Men’s 
particular  views  upon  certain  subjects  are  presented  to 
the  notice  of  others  through  the  medium  of  publication, 
or  objects  are  presented  to  the  view ; 

Now  every  leaf,  and  every  moving  breath. 
Presents  a foe,  and  every  foe  a death. 

Denham. 


ALLOWANCE,  STIPEND,  SALARY,  WAGES, 
HIRE,  PAY. 

All  these  terms  denote  a stated  sum  paid  according 
to  certain  stipulations.  Jillowance,  from  allow  {v.  To 
admit,  allow),  signifies  the  thing  allowed;  stipend,  in 
Latin  stipendium,  from  stipes  a piece  of  money,  signi- 
fies money  paid;  salary,  in  French  salaire,  Latin  sa- 
larium,  comes  from  sal  salt,  which  was  originally  the 
principal  ;>a?/  for  soldiers  ; wages,  in  French  o-a^e,  La- 
tin vadium,  from  the  Hebrew  pj;’',  labour,  signifies  that 
which  is  paid  for  labour  ; hire  expresses  the  sum  for 
which  one  is  hired,  and  pay  the  sum  that  is  to  be  paid. 

An  allowance  is  gratuitous  ; it  ceases  at  the  pleasure 
of  the  donor;  ‘Sir  Richard  Steele  was  officiously  in- 
formed, that  Mr.  Savage  had  ridiculed  him  : by  which 
he  was  so  much  exasperated  that  he  withdrew  the  al- 
lowance which  he  had  paid  him.’ — Johnson.  All  the 
rest  are  the  requital  for  some  supposed  service ; they 
cease  with  the  engagement  made  between  the  parties. 
A stipend  is  more  fixed  and  permanent  than  a salary  ; 
and  that  than  reaves,  hire,  ox  pay:  a stipend  depends 
upon  the  fulfilling  of  an  engagement,  rather  than  on 
the  will  of  an  individual ; a salary  is  a matter  of  con- 
tract between  the  giver  and  receiver,  and  may  be  in- 
creased or  diminished  at  will. 

An  allowance  may  be  given  in  any  form,  or  at  any 
stated  times ; a stipend  and  salary  are  paid  yearly,  or 
at  even  portions  of  a year  ; wages,  hire,  and  pay,  are 
estimated  by  days,  weeks,  or  months,  as  well  as  years. 

An  allowance  may  be  made  by,  with,  and  to  persons 
of  all  ranks,  a stipend  and  salary  are  assignable  only 
tc  persons  of  respectability  ; 

Is  not  the  care  of  souls  a load  sufficient? 

Are  not  your  holy  stipends  paid  for  this  ? 

Dryden. 

■ Several  persons,  out  of  a salary  of  five  hundred 
pounds,  have  always  lived  at  the  rate  of  trvo  thousand.’ 
—Swift.  Wages  are  given  to  labourers  ; ‘ The  pea- 
sant and  the  mechanick,  when  they  have  received  the 
wages  of  the  day,  and  procured  their  strong  beer  and 
supper,  have  scarce  a wish  unsatisfied.’ — Hawkes- 
woRTH.  Hire  is  given  to  servants ; 

I have  five  hundred  crowns. 

The  thrifty  hire  I sav’d  under  your  father. 

Shaksfeare. 

Pay  is  given  to  soldiers  or  such  as  are  employed  under 
government ; 

Come  on,  brave  soldiers,  doubt  not  of  the  day ; 

And  that  once  gotten,  doubt  nor;  of  large  pay. 

Shaksfeare. 


GIFT,  PRESENT,  DONATION,  BENEFAC- 
TION. 

Gift  is  derived  from  to  give,  in  tne  sense  of  what  is 
communicated  to  another  gratuitously  of  one’s  pro- 
perty ; present  is  derived  from  to  present,  signifying  the 
thing  presented  to  another  ; donation,  from  the  French 
donation,  and  the  Latin  dono  to  present  or  give,  is  a 
species  of  gift. 

The  gift  is  an  act  of  generosity  or  condescension  ; it 
contributes  to  the  benefit  of  the  receiver : the  present  is 
an  act  of  kindness,  courtesy,  or  respect ; it  contributes 
to  the  pleasure  of  the  receiver.  The  gift  passes  from 
the  rich  to  the  poor,  from  the  high  to  the  low,  and  creates 
an  obligation  ; ihe  present  passes  either  between  equals, 
or  from  the  inferiour  to  the  superiour.  Whatever  we 
receive  from  God,  through  the  bounty  of  his  Providence, 
we  entitle  a gift ; 

The  gifts  of  heav’n  my  following  song  pursues. 

Aerial  honey  and  ambrosial  dews. — Dryden. 
Whatever  we  receive  from  our  friends,  or  whatever 


princes  receive  firom  thcii  subjects,  are  entitled  pn 
sents  ; 

Have  what  you  ask,  your  presents  I receive ; 

Land,  where  and  when  you  please,  with  am  pie  leave, 

Dryden 

W^e  are  told  by  all  travellers  that  it  is  a custom  in  the 
east,  never  to  approach  a great  man  without  a present ; 
the  value  of  di  gift  is  often  heightened  by  being  given 
opportunely.  The  value  of  a present  often  depends 
upon  the  value  we  have  for  the  giver;  the  smallest 
present  from  an  esteemed  friend  is  of  more  worth  in  our 
eyes,  than  tne  costliest  presents  that  monarchs  receive 
The  gift  is  private,  and  benefits  the  individual ; the 
donation  is  publick,  and  serves  some  general  purpose  . 
what  is  given  to  relieve  the  necessities  of  any  pxior 
person,  is  a gift ; what  is  given  to  support  an  insHtu- 
tion  is  a donation.  The  clergy  are  indebted  to  tJeir 
patrons  for  the  livings  which  are  in  their  gift; 

And  she  shall  have  them,  if  again  she  sues, 

Since  you  the  giver  and  the  gift  refuse. — Dryden 
It  has  been  the  custom  of  the  pious  and  charitable,  in  all 
ages,  to  make  donations  for  the  support  of  alms-houses, 
hospitals,  infirmaries,  and  such  institutions  as  serve  to 
diminish  the  sum  of  human  misery ; ‘ The  ecclesias- 
ticks  were  not  content  with  the  donations  made  them 
by  the  Saxon  princes  and  nobles.’ — Hume. 

Benefaction  and  donation  both  denote  an  act  of  cha- 
rily, but  the  former  comprehends  more  than  the  latter; 
a benefaction  comprehends  acts  of  personal  service  in 
general  towards  the  indigent ; donation  respects  simply 
the  act  of  giving  and  the  thing  given.  Benefactions  ara 
for  private  use ; donations  are  for  publick  service.  A 
benef  actor  to  the  poor  does  not  confine  himself  to  the 
distribution  of  money;  he  enters  into  all  their  neces- 
sities, consults  their  individual  cases,  and  suits  his  Z>e7ie- 
f actions  to  their  exigencies  ; his  influence,  his  counsel, 
his  purse,  and  his  property,  are  employed  for  their  good ; 
his  donations  form  the  smallest  part  of  the  good  which 
he  does;  ‘The  light  and  influence  that  the  heavens 
bestow  upon  this  lower  world,  though  the  lower  world 
cannot  equal  their  benefaction,  yet  with  a kind  of 
grateful  return,  it  reflects  those  rays  that  it  cannot  re- 
compense.’— South.  ‘ Titles  and  lands  given  to  God 
are  never,  and  plates,  vestments,  and  other  sacred  uten- 
sils, are  seldom  consecrated  ; yet  certain  it  is  that  after 
the  donation  of  them  to  the  church,  it  is  as  really  a sa- 
crilege to  steal  them  as  it  is  to  pull  down  a church.’— 
South. 


TO  DEVISE,  BEaUEATH. 

Devise,  compounded  of  de  and  vise  or  visus,  parti- 
ciple of  video  to  see  or  show,  signifies,  to  point  out  spe- 
cifically; bequeath,  compounded  of  be  and  queath,m 
Saxon  cues  an,  from  the  Latin  queeso  to  say,  signifies  to 
give  over  to  a person  by  saying  or  by  word  of  mouth. 

To  devise  is  a formal,  to  bequeath  is  an  informal 
assignment  of  our  property  to  another  on  our  death. 
We  devise  only  by  a legal  testament;  ‘The  right  ol 
inheritance  or  descent  to  his  children  and  relations 
seems  to  have  been  allowed  much  earlier  than  the 
right  of  devising  by  testament.’ — Blackstone.  We 
may  bequeath  simply  by  word  of  mouth,  or  by  any  ex- 
pression of  our  will : we  can  devise  only  that  which  is 
property  in  the  eye  of  the  law ; we  may  bequeath  in  the 
moral  sense  any  thing  which  we  cause  to  pass  over  to 
another:  a man  devises  his  lands;  he  bequeaths  his 
name  or  his  glory  to  his  children  ; 

With  this,  the  Medes  to  lab’ring  age  bequeath 
New  lungs. — Dryden. 


WILL,  TESTAMENT. 

A will  is  any  written  document  which  contains  the 
last  will  of  a man  in  regard  to  the  disposal  of  his  pro- 
perty ; this  may  be  either  a formal  or  an  informal  in- 
strument in  the  eye  of  the  law  ; ‘Do  men  make  their 
\d£\.  wills  by  word  of  mouth  only?’— Stephens  A 
testament,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a formal  instrument 
regularly  drawn  up,  and  duly  attested,  according  to  the 
forms  of  law;  ‘Hebringeth  arguments  from  the  love 
which  the  testator  always  bore  him,  imagining  that 
these,  or  the  like  proofs,  will  convict  a testament  to 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


I6i 


nave  Jhat  in  it  wlii  2h  other  men  can  nowhere  oy  reading 
find.’ — Hooker. 

BENEFICENT,  BOUNTIFUL  OR  BOUNTEOUS, 

MUNIFICENT,  GENEROUS,  LIBERAL. 

Beneficent^  from  benefacio,  signifies  doing  well  or 
good,  that  is,  by  distinction  for  others  ; bountiful  sig- 
nifies full  of  bounty  or  goodness,  from  the  French  bonU, 
Latin  bonitas ; munificent^  in  Latin  munificus,  from 
munus  and  facio,  signifies  the  quality  of  making  pre- 
sents ; geneiousi  in  French  genereux,  Latin  gencrosus, 
of  high  blood,  noble  extraction,  and  consequently  of  a 
noble  character  ; liberal^  in  French  liberal,  Latin  libe- 
ralis,  from  liber  free,  signifies  the  quality  of  being  like 
a free  man  in  distinction  from  a bondman,  and  by  a 
natural  association  being  of  a free  disposition,  ready  to 
communicate. 

Beneficent  respects  every  thing  done  for  the  good  of 
others . bounty,  munificence,  and  generosity,  are  species 
of  beneficence : liberality  is  a qualification  of  all.  The 
first  two  denote  modes  of  action ; the  latter  three  either 
modes  of  action  or  modes  of  sentiment.  The  sincere 
well-wisher  to  his  fellow-creatures  is  beneficent  ac- 
cording to  his  means  ; he  is  bountiful  in  providing  for 
the  comfort  and  happiness  of  others  ; he  is  munificent 
in  dispensing  favours  ; he  is  generous  in  imparting  his 
property  ; he  is  liberal  in  all  he  does. 

Beneficence  and  bounty  are  characteristicks  of  the 
Deity  as  well  as  of  his  creatures : munificence,  genero- 
sity, and  liberality,  are  mere  human  qualities.  Benefi- 
cence and  bounty  are  the  peculiar  characteristicks  of 
the  Deity>:  with  him  the  will  and  the  act  of  doing  good 
Are  commensurate  only  with  the  power  ; he  was  bene- 
ficent to  us  as  our  Creator,  and  continues  his  beneficence 
to  us  by  his  daily  preservation  and  protection ; to  some, 
however,  he  has  been  more  bountiful  than  to  others,  by 
providing  them  with  an  unequal  share  of  the  good 
things  of  this  life. 

The  beneficence  of  a man  is  regulated  by  the  bounty 
of  Providence;  to  whonk  much  is  given,  from  him 
much  will  be  required.  Instructed  by  his  word,  and 
illumined  by  that  spark  of  benevolence  which  was 
infused  into  their  souls  with  the  breath  of  life,  good 
men  are  ready  to  believe  that  they  are  but  stewards  of 
all  God’s  gifts,  holden  for  the  use  of  such  as  are  less 
bountifully  provided  for ; ‘ The  most  beneficent  of  all 
beings  is  He  who  hath  an  absolute  fulness  of  perfec- 
tion in  himself,  who  gave  existence  to  the  universe, 
and  so  cannot  be  supposed  to  want  that  which  he  com- 
municated.’— Grove.  Good  men  will  desire,  as  far 
as  their  powers  extend,  to  imitate  this  feature  of  the 
Deity  by  bettering  with  their  beneficent  counsel  and 
assistance  the  condition  of  all  who  require  it,  and  by 
gladdening  the  hearts  of  many  with  their  bountiful 
provisions ; 

Hail ! Universal  Lord,  be  bounteous  still 

To  give  us  only  good. — Milton. 

Princes  are  munificent,  friends  are  generous,  patrons 
liberal.  Munificence  is  measured  by  the  quality  and 
quantity  of  the  thing  bestowed  ; generosity  by  the 
extent  of  the  sacrifice  made  ; liberality  by  the  warmth 
of  the  spirit  discovered.  A monarch  displays  his 
munificence  in  the  presents  which  he  sends  by  his 
ambassadors  to  another  monarch.  A generous  man 
will  waive  his  claims,  however  powerful  they  may  be, 
when  the  accommodation  or  relief  of  another  is  in 
question.  A liberal  spirit  does  not  stop  to  inquire 
the  reason  for  giving,  but  gives  when  the  occasion 
offers. 

Munificence  may  spring  either  from  ostentation  or 
a becoming  sense  of  dignity ; ‘ I esteem  a habit  of 
benignity  greatly  preferable  to  munficence.' — Steele 
after  Cicero.  Generosity  may  spring  either  from  a 
generous  temper,  or  an  easy  unconcern  about  pro- 
perty; ‘We  may  with  great  confidence  and  equal 
truth  affirm,  that  since  there  was  such  a thing  as  man- 
kind in  the  world,  there  never  was  any  heart  truly 
great  and  generous,  that  was  not  also  tender  and  com- 
passionate.’— South.  Liberality  of  conduct  is  dic- 
tated by  nothing  but  a warm  heart  and  an  expanded 
mind  ; ‘The  citizen,  above  all  other  men,  has  opportu- 
nities of  arriving  at  the  highest  fruit  of  wealth,  to  be 
liberal  without  the  least  expense  of  a man’s  own  for- 
tune.’— Steele.  Munificence  is  confined  simply  to 
giving,  but  we  may  he  generous  in  assisting,  and  liberal 
in  rewarding 


BENEVOLENCE,  BENEFICENCE.  ' 

Benevolence  is  literally  well-willing ; beneficence  is 
literally  well  doing.  The  former  consists  of  intention, 
the  latter  of  action ; the  former  is  the  cause,  the  latter 
the  result.  Benevolence  may  exist  without  beneficence : 
but  beneficence  always  supposes  benevolence : a man  is 
not  said  to  be  beneficent  who  does  good  from  sinister 
views.  The  benevolent  man  enjoys  but  half  his  hap- 
piness if  he  cannot  he  beneficent ; yet  there  will  still 
remain  to  him  an  ample  store  of  enjoyment  in  the 
contemplation  of  others’  happiness ; the  man  who  is 
gratified  only  with  that  happiness  which  he  himself  is 
the  instrument  of  producing,  is  not  entitled  to  the  name 
of  benevolent ; ‘ The  pity  which  arises  on  sight  of 
persons  in  distress,  and  the  satisfaction  of  mind  which 
is  the  consequence  of  having  removed  them  into  a 
happier  state,  are  instead  of  a thousand  arguments  to 
prove  such  a thing  as  a disinterested  benevolence,' — 
Grove. 

As  benevolence  is  an  affair  of  the  hear^  and  bene- 
ficence of  the  outward  conduct,  the  former  is  confined 
to  no  station,  no  rank,  no  degree  of  education  or 
power;  the  poor  may  be  benevolent  as  well  as  the  rich, 
the  unlearned  as  well  as  the  learned,  the  weak  as  well 
as  the  strong;  the  latter  on  the  contrary  is  controlled 
by  outward  circumstances,  and  is  therefore  principally 
confined  to  the  rich,  the  powerful,  the  wise,  and  the 
learned ; ‘ He  that  banishes  gratitude  from  among 
men,  by  so  doing  stops  up  the  stream  of  beneficence : 
for  though,  in  conferring  kindness,  a truly  generous 
man  doth  not  aim  at  a return,  yet  he  looks  to  the  quali- 
ties of  the  person  obliged.’ — Grove. 

BENEVOLENCE,  BENIGNITY,  IIUMANITV 
KINDNESS,  TENDERNESS. 

Benevolence  is  well-willing ; benignity,  in  Lati* 
benignitas,  from  bene  and  signifies  the  quality 

or  disposition  for  producing  good ; humanity,  in  French 
huinaniti,  Latin  humanitas,  from  humanus  and  homo 
signifies  the  quality  of  belonging  to  man,  or  having 
what  is  common  to  man ; kindness,  the  disposition  to 
be  kind,  or  the  act  which  marks  that  disposition; 
tenderness,  a tender  feeling. 

Benevolence  and  benignity  lie  in  the  will ; humanity 
lies  in  the  heart ; kindness  and  tenderness  in  the  affec- 
tions; benevolence  mAxernes  a general  good  will  to  all 
mankind  ; benignity  a particular  good  will,  flowing  out 
of  certain  relations;  humanity  is  a general  tone  of 
feeling;  kindness  and  tenderness  mo  particular  modes 
of  feeling. 

Benevolence  consists  in  the  wish  or  intention  to  do 
good ; it  is  confined  to  no  station  or  object ; the  bene- 
volent man  may  be  rich  or  poor,  and  his  benevolence 
will  be  exerted  wherever  there  is  an  opportunity  of 
doing  good ; benignity  is  always  associated  with  power, 
and  accompanied  with  condescension. 

Benevolence  in  its  fullest  sense  is  the  sum  of  moral 
excellence,  and  comprehends  every  other  virtue ; wher 
taken  in  this  acceptation,  benignity,  humanity,  kind 
ness,  and  tenderness,  are  but  modes  of  benevolence. 

Benevolence  and  benignity  tend  to  the  communi 
eating  of  happiness;  humanity  is  concerned  in  the  re- 
moval of  evil.  Benevolence  is  common  to  the  Creator 
and  his  creatures;  it  differs  only  in  degree;  the  former 
has  the  knowledge  and  power  as  well  as  the  will  tp  do 
good ; man  often  has  the  will  to  do  good  without 
having  the  power  to  carry  it  into  effect ; ‘ I have  heard 
say,  that  Pope  Clement  XL  never  passes  through  the 
people,  who  always  kneel  in  crowds  and  ask  his  bene- 
diction, but  the  tears  are  seen  to  flow  from  his  eyes. 
This  must  proceed  from  an  imagination  that  he  is  the 
father  of  all  these  people,  and  that  he  is  touched  with 
so  e.xtensive  a benevolence,  that  it  breaks  out  into  a 
passion  of  tears.’ — Steele.  Benignity  is  ascribed  tc 
the  stars,  to  heaven,  or  to  princes ; ignorant  and  super- 
stitious people  are  apt  to  ascribe  their  good  fortune  tc 
the  benign  influence  of  the  stars  rather  than  to  the 
gracious  dispensations  of  Providence ; ‘ A constant 
benignity  in  commerce  with  the  rest  of  the  world, 
which  ought  to  run  through  all  a man’s  actions,  has 
effects  more  useful  to  those  whom  you  oblige,  and  is 
less  ostentatious  in  yourself.’ — Steele.  Humanity 
belongs  to  man  only ; it  is  "his  peculiar  characteristick, 
and  ought  at  all  times  to  be  his  boast ; when  he  tlirows 
off  this,  his  distinguishing  badge,  he  loses  every  thina 
valuable  in  him ; it  is  a virtue  tliat  ia  indispensable  in 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


iG6 

his  present  suffering  condition  humanity  is  as  uni- 
versal in  its  application  as  benevolence ; wherever  there 
is  distress,  humanity  flies  to  its  relief ; humanity  is, 
however,  not  merely  an  attribute  of  man ; it  is  also 
the  peculiar  feeling  for  one’s  fellow-creatures  which 
exists  in  some  men  in  a greater  degree  than  in  others ; 

" The  greatest  wits  I have  conversed  with  are  men 
eminent  for  their  humanity.' — Addison.  Kindness 
and  tenderness  are  partial  modes  of  affection,  contined 
to  those  who  know  or  are  related  to  each  other ; we  are 
kind  to  friends  and  acquaintances,  tender  towards  those 
who  are  near  and  dear : kindness  is  a mode  of  affec- 
tion most  fitted  for  social  beings ; it  is  what  every  one 
can  sliow,  and  every  one  is  pleased  to  receive ; ‘ Bene- 
ficence, would  the  followers  of  Epicurus  say,  is  all 
founded  in  weakness;  and  whatever  be  pretended, 
the  kindness  that  passeth  between  men  and  men  is  by 
■^very  man  directed  to  himself.  This  it  must  be  con- 
•issed  is  of  a piece  with  that  hopeful  philosophy 
hich,  having  patched  man  up  out  of  the  four  ele- 
iuts,  attributes  his  being  to  chance.’ — Grove.  Ten- 
..rness  is  a state  of  feeling  that  is  sometimes  praise- 
v^/orthy ; the  young  and  the  weak  demand  tenderness 
trom  those  who  stand  in  the  closest  connexion  with 
them,  but  this  feeling  may  be  carried  to  an  excess  so 
as  to  injure  the  object  on  which  it  is  fixed ; ‘ Depend- 
ence is  a perpetual  call  upon  humanity,  and  a greater 
incitement  to  tenderness  and  pity  than  any  other 
motive  whatsoever.’ — Addison. 

There  are  no  circumstances  or  situation  in  life  which 
preclude  the  exercise  of  benevolence : next  to  the  plea- 
sure of  making  others  happy,  the  benevolent  man 
rejoices  in  seeing  them  so;  the  benign  influence  of  a 
benevolent  monarch  extends  to  the  remotest  corner  of 
his  dominions : benignity  is  a becoming  attribute  for 
a prince,  when  it  does  not  lead  him  to  sanction  vice  by 
its  impunity;  it  is  highly  to  be  applauded  in  him  as  far 
as  it  renders  him  forgiving  of  minor  offences,  gracious 
to  all  who  are  deserving  of  his  favours,  and  ready  to 
afford  a gratification  to  all  whom  it  is  in  his  power  to 
serve  : the  multiplied  misfortunes  to  which  all  men  are 
exposed  afford  ample  scope  for  the  exercise  of  hu- 
manity, which,  in  consequence  of  the  unequal  distri- 
bution of  wealth,  power,  and  talent,  is  peculiar  to  no 
situation  of  life;  even  the  profession  of  arms  does  not 
exclude  humanity  from  the  breasts  of  its  followers ; and 
when  we  observe  men’s  habits  of  thinking  in  various 
situations,  we  may  remark  that  the  soldier,  with  arms 
by  his  side,  is  commonly  more  humane  than  the  partisan 
with  arms  in  his  hands.  Kindness  is  always  an 
amiable  feeling,  and  in  a grateful  mind  always  begets 
kindness  : but  it  is  sometimes  ill  bestowed  upon  selfish 
people,  who  requite  it  by  making  fresh  exactions: 
tenderness  is  frequently  little  better  than  an  amiable 
weakness,  when  directed  to  a wrong  end,  and  fixed  on 
an  improper  object;  the  false  tenderness  of  parents 
has  often  been  the  ruin  of  children. 


BENEFIT,  FAVOUR,  KINDNESS,  CIVILITY. 

Benefit  signifies  here  that  which  benefits ; favour,  in 
French  favour,  Latin  favor  and  faveo  to  bear  good 
will,  signifies  the  act  flowing  from  good  will ; kind- 
ness signifies  an  action  that  is  kind ; civility,  that 
which  is  civil  (a.  Civil). 

The  idea  of  an  action  gratuitously  performed  for  the 
advantage  of  another  is  common  to  these  terms. 

Benefits  and  favours  are  granted  by  superiours ; 
kindnesses  and  civilities  pass  between  equals. 

Benefits  serve  to  relieve  actual  wants : the  power  of 
conferring  and  the  necessity  of  receiving  them,  consti- 
tute the  relative  difference  in  station  between  the  giver 
and  the  receiver;  favoursXend  to  promote  the  interest 
or  convenience : the  power  of  giving  and  the  advantage 
of  receiving  are  dependent  on  local  circumstances, 
more  than  on  difference  of  station.  Kindnesses  and 
civilities  serve  to  afford  mutual  accommodation  by  a 
reciprocity  of  kind  offices  on  the  many  and  various 
occasions  which  offer  in  human  life:  they  are  not  so 
important  as  either  benefits  or  favours,  but  they  carry 
a charm  with  them  which  is  not  possessed  by  the 
former.  Kindnesses  are  more  endearing  than  civilities, 
and  pass  mostly  between  those  who  are  known  to  each 
ither  : civilities  may  pass  between  strangers. 

Dependence  affords  an  opportunity  for  conferring 
tnefits ; partiality  gives  rise  to  favours:  kindnesses 
te  the  result  of  personal  regard-,  civilities  of  general 


benevolence.  A master  confers  his  benefits  on  such  o 
his  doinesticks  as  are  entitled  to  encouragement  foi 
their  fidelity.  Men  in  power  distribute  their/aijours 
so  as  to  increase  their  influence.  Friends,  in  their 
intercourse  with  each  other,  are  perpetually  called  upon 
to  perform  kindnesses  for  each  other  There  is  no  man 
so  mean  that  he  may  not  have  it  in  his  power  to  show 
civilities  to  those  who  are  above  him. 

Benefits  tend  to  draw  those  closer  to  each  other  w ho 
by  station  in  life  are  set  at  the  greatest  distance  from 
^ach other:  affection  is  engendered  in  him  who  bene- 
fits ; and  devoted  attachment  in  him  who  is  benefited  • 

‘ I think  I have  a right  to  conclude  that  there  is  such  a 
thing  as  generosity  in  the  world.  Though  if  I were 
under  a mistake  in  this,  I should  say  as  Cicero  in  rela- 
tion to  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  I willingly  err  ; for 
the  contrary  notion  naturally  teaches  people  to  be  un- 
grateful by  possessing  them  with  a persuasion  concern- 
ing their  benefactors,  that  they  have  no  regard  to  them 
in  the  benefits  they  bestow.’— Grove.  Favours  in- 
crease obligation  beyond  its  due  limits ; if  they  are 
not  asked  and  granted  with  discretion,  they  may  pro- 
duce servility  on  the  one  hand,  and  haughtiness  on  the 
other ; ‘ A favour  well  bestowed  is  almost  as  great  an 
honour  to  him  who  confers  it,  as  to  him  who  receives 
it.  What,  indeed,  makes  for  the  superiour  reputation 
of  the  patron  in  this  case  is,  that  he  is  always  sur- 
rounded with  specious  pretences  of  unworthy  candi- 
dates.’—Steele.  Kindnesses  are  the  offspring  and 
parent  of  afi'ection;  they  convert  our  multiplied  wants 
into  so  many  enjoyments;  ‘Ingratitude  is  too  base  to 
return  a kindness,  and  too  proud  to  regard  it.’— South 
Civilities  are  the  sweets  which  we  gather  in  the  way 
as  we  pass  along  the  journey  of  life ; ‘ A common 
civility  to  an  impertinent  fellow  often  draws  upon  one 
a great  many  unforeseen  troubles.’ — Steele. 

BENEFIT,  SERVICE,  GOOD  OFFICE. 

These  terms,  like  the  former  (v.  Benefit,  favour), 
agree  in  denoting  some  action  performed  for  the  good 
of  another,  but  they  differ  in  the  principle  on  which 
the  action  is  performed. 

A benefit  {v.  Benefit,  favour)  is  perfectly  gratuitous, 
it  produces  an  obligation : a service  {v.  Advantage)  is 
not  altogether  gratuitous;  it  is  that  ai  least  which  may 
be  expected,  though  it  cannot  be  demanded;  a gooa 
office  is  between  the  two;  it  is  in  part  gratuitous,  and 
in  part  such  as  one  may  reasonably  expect. 

Benefits  flow  from  superiours,  and  services  from  in 
feriours  or  equals;  hut  good  offices  are  performed  by 
equals  only.  Princes  confer  benefits  on  their  subjects ; 
subjects  perform  services  for  their  princes;  neighbours 
do  good  offices  for  each  other.  Benefits  are  sometimes 
the  reward  of  services : good  offices  produce  a return 
from  the  receiver. 

Benefits  consist  of  such  things  as  serve  to  relieve 
the  difficulties,  or  advance  the  interests,  of  the  re- 
ceiver: services  consist  in  those  acts  which  tend  to 
lessen  the  trouble,  or  increase  the  ease  and  conveni 
ence  of  the  person  served : good  offices  consist  in  the 
employ  of  one’s  credit,  influence,  and  mediation  for 
the  advantage  of  another:  it  is  a species  of  voluntary 
service. 

Humanity  leads  to  benefits;  the  zeal  of  devotion  or 
friendship  renders  services  ; general  good-will  dictates 
good  offices. 

It  is  a great  benefit  to  assist  an  embarrassed  trades 
man  out  of  his  difficulty ; ‘I  have  often  pleased  my 
self  with  considering  the  two  kinds  of  benefits  which 
accrue  to  the  publick  from  these  my  speculations,  and 
which,  were  I to  speak  after  the  manner  of  logicians, 
I should  distinguish  into  the  material  and  formal.’ — 
Addison.  It  is  a great  service  for  a soldier  to  save  the 
life  of  his  commander,  or  for  a friend  to  open  the  eyes 
of  another  to  see  his  danger  ; ‘ Cicero,  whose  learning 
and  services  to  his  country  are  so  well  known,  was 
inflamed  by  a passion  for  glory  to  an  extravagant  de- 
gree.’- Hughes.  It  is  a good  office  for  any  one  to  in 
terpose  his  mediation  to  settle  disputes,  and  heal  divi 
sions;  ‘There  are  several  persons  who  have  many 
pleasures  and  entertainments  in  their  possession  whicl 
they  do  not  enjoy  It  is  therefore  a kind  and  goot 
office  to  acquaint  them  with  their  own  happiness.’— 
Steele. 

It  is  possible  to  be  loaded  with  benefits  so  as  to  affecK 
one's  independence  of  character.  Services  are  some- 


EiNGLlSH  SYNONYMES. 


167 


Jlnies  a source  of  dissatisfaction  and  disappointment 
wiien  they  do  not  meet  with  the  reniiiiieration  or  re- 
turn which  they  are  supposed  to  deserve.  Good 
Mces  tend  to  nothing  but  the  increase  of  good  will. 
Those  wlio  perform  them  are  too  indei)endent  to  ex- 
pect a return , and  those  wlio  receive  them  are  too  sen- 
sible of  their  ’»alue  not  to  seek  an  opportunity  of  mak- 
ing a return. 

rO  OFFER,  BID,  TENDER,  PROPOSE. 

Offer  signifies  the  same  as  before  («.  To  Offer^  exhi- 
bit) ; bid,  in  Saxon  besdan,  bidden  to  ofier,  old  German 
buden,  low  German  bedan,  high  German  bieten,  &.c. 
comes  in  all  probability  from  the  Latin  vito  and  invito, 
from  in  and  viam,  signifying  to  call  into  the  way  or 
measure  of  another ; tender,  like  the  word  teiid,  from 
tendo  to  stretch,  signifies  to  stretch  forth  by  way  of 
offering- ; propose,  in  Latin  proposui,  perfect  of  pro- 
pono  to  place  or  set  before,  likewise  characterizes  a 
mode  of  offering. 

Offer  is  employed  for  that  which  is  literally  trans- 
ferable, or  for  that  which  is  indirectly  communicable ; 
bid  and  tender  belong  to  offer  in  the  first  sense  ; pro- 
pose belongs  to  offer  in  the  latter  sense.  To  offer  is  a 
voluntary  and  discretionary  act;  the  offer  may  be  ac- 
cepted or  rejected  at  pleasure;  to  bid  and  tender  me 
specifick  modes  of  offering  which  depend  on  circum- 
stances ; one  bids  with  the  hope  of  its  being  acce[)ted  ; 
one  tenders  from  a prudential  motive,  and  in  order  to 
serve  specifick  purposes.  We  offer  money  to  a poor 
person,  it  is  an  act  of  charity  or  good  nature  ; or  we 
offer  a reward  by  way  of  inducing  another  to  do  a 
thing,  which  is  an  act  of  discretion  ; 

Nor  should  thou  offer  all  thy  little  store, 

Will  rich  lolas  yield  but  offer  more.— Dryden. 

Should  all  these  offers  for  my  friendship  call, 

’T  is  he  that  offers,  and  I scorn  them  all. — Pope. 

We  bid  a price  for  the  purchase  of  a house,  it  is  a 
commercial  dealing  subject  to  the  rules  of  commerce ; 

‘ To  give  interest  a share  in  friendship,  is  to  sell  it  by 
inch  of  candle ; he  that  iids  most  shall  have  it;  and 
when  it  is  mercenary,  there  is  no  depending  upon  it.’ 
—Collier.  We  tender  a sum  of  money  by  way  of 
payment,  it  is  a matter  of  prudence  in  order  to  fulfil 
an  obligation;  ‘Aulus  Gellius  tells  a story  of  one 
Lucius  Neratius  who  made  it  his  diversion  to  give  a 
blow  to  whomsoever  he  pleased,  and  then  tender  them 
the  legal  forfeiture.’ — Bla.ckstone.  By  the  same  rule 
one  offers  a person  the  use  of  one’s  horse  ; one  bids  a 
sum  at  an  auction  ; one  tenders  one’s  services  to  the 
government. 

To  offer  andpropose  are  both  employed  in  matters 
of  practice  or  speculation ; but  the  former  is  a less  de- 
finite and  decisive  act  than  the  latter ; we  offer  an  opi- 
nion by  way  of  promoting  a discussion  ; we  propose  a 
plan  for  the  deliberation  of  others.  Sentiments  which 
differ  widely  from  those  of  the  major  part  of  the  pre- 
sent company  ought  to  be  offered  with  modesty  and 
caution  ; ‘ Our  author  offers  no  reason.’ — Locke.  We 
should  not  propose  to  another  what  we  should  be  un- 
willing to  do  ourselves;  ‘We  propose  measures  for 
securing  to  the  young  the  possession  of  pleasure  (by 
connecting  with  it  religion).’ — Blair.  We  commonly 
■>ffer  by  way  of  obliging;  we  commoidy  propose  by 
way  of  arranging  or  accommr  dating.  It  is  an  act  of 
luerility  to  offer  to  do  more  tnan  one  is  enabled  to  per- 
bnn ; it  does  not  evince  a sincere  disposition  for  peace 
.0 propose  such  terms  as  we  know  cannot  be  accepted; 
\]pon  the  proposal  of  an  agreeable  object,  a man’s 
choice  will  rather  incline  him  to  accept  than  refuse  it.’ 

South. 


TO  INVEST,  ENDUE  OR  ENDOW. 

To  invest,  from  vestio,  signifies  to  clothe  with  any 
thing;  endue  or  endow,  from  the  Latin  induo,  signifies 
to  put  on  any  thing.  One  is  invested  with  that  which 
is  external;  one  is  endued  with  that  which  is  internal. 
We  invest  a person  with  an  office  or  a dignity:  one 
endues  a person  with  good  qualities.  The  investment 
is  a real  external  action  ; but  endue  may  be  merely  fic- 
titious or  mental.  The  king  is  mvested  with  supreme 
authority ; ‘A  strict  and  efficacious  constitution,  indeed, 
which  invests  the  church  with  no  power  at  all,  but 
wheie  men  will  be  so  civil  as  to  obey  it.’ — South,  a 


I lover  endues  hi?  mistress  with  every  earthly  perfec- 
tion ; ‘ As  in  the  natural  body,  the  eye  does  not  speak, 
nor  the  tongue  see;  so  neither  in  the  spiritual,  is  every 
one  endued  also  with  the  gift  and  spirit  of  government. 
— South.  Endow  is  hut  a variation  of  endue,  and  yet 
it  seems  to  have  acquired  a distinct  office:  we  may 
say  that  a person  is  endued  or  endowed  with  a good  un 
dersfanding;  but  as  an  act  of  the  imagination  endoze 
is  not  to  be  substituted  for  endue : for  we  do  not  say 
that  it  endows  but  endues  things  with  properties. 


TO  CONFER,  BESTOW. 

Confer,  in  French  cortferer,  Latin  confero,  com 
pounded  of  con  and  fero,  signifies  to  bring  something 
towards  a per.«on,  or  place  it  upon  him,  in  which  sense 
it  is  allied  to  bestow  {v.  To  give,  grant). 

Conferring  is  an  act  of  authority  ; bestowing  tnat 
of  charity  or  generosity.  Princes  and  men  in  power 
confer ; people  in  a private  station  bestow.  Honours, 
dignities,  privileges,  and  rank,  are  the  things  conferred; 
‘ The  conferring  this  honour  upon  him,  would  increase 
the  credit  he  had.’ — Clarendon.  Favours,  kind- 
nesses, and  pecuniary  relief,  are  the  things  bestowed; 
‘You  always  exceed  expectations  as  if  yours  was 
not  your  own,  but  to  bestow  on  wanting  merit.’ — 
Dryden. 

Merit,  favour,  interest,  caprice,  and  intrigue,  give  rise 
to  conferring ; necessity,  solicitation,  and  private  affec 
tion,  lead  to  bestowing.  England  affords  more  than 
one  instance  in  which  the  highest  honours  of  the  state 
have  been  conferred  on  persons  of  distinguished  merit, 
though  not  of  elevated  birth ; it  is  the  characteristick 
of  Christianity,  that  it  inspires  its  followers  with  a 
desire  of  bestowing  their  goods  on  the  poor  and  neces- 
sitous. 

It  is  not  easy  to  confer  a favour  on  the  unthankful 
the  value  of  a kindness  is  greatly  enhanced  by  the 
manner  in  which  it  is  bestowed  ; 

On  him  confer  the  poet’s  sacred  name, 

Whose  lofty  voice  declares  the  heavenly  flame 

Addison 

‘ It  sometimes  happens,  that  even  enemies  and  envious 
persons  bestow  the  sincerest  marks  of  esteem  when  they 
least  design  it.’ — Steele. 

TO  MINISTER,  ADMINISTER,  CONTRIBUTE. 

To  minister,  from  the  noun  minister,  in  the  sense  of 
a servant,  signifies  to  act  in  subservience  to  another, 
either  in  a good,  bad,  or  indifferent  sense  : we  minister 
to  the  caprices  or  indulgences  of  another  when  we  en- 
courage them  unnecessarily ; or,  we  minister  to  one 
who  is  entitled  to  our  services;  administer  is  taken  in 
the  good  sense  of  serving  another  to  his  advantage: 
thus  the  good  Samaritan  administered  to  the  comfort 
of  the  man  who  had  fallen  among  thieves  ; contribute, 
from  the  Latin  cont.ribuo,  or  con  and  tribuo  to  bestow, 
signifying  to  bestow  for  the  same  end,  or  for  some 
particular  purpose,  is  taken  in  either  a good  or  bad 
sense ; we  may  contribute  to  the  relief  of  the  indi- 
gent, or  we  may  contribute  to  the  follies  and  vices  of 
others. 

It  is  the  part  of  the  Christian  minister  to  minister  to 
the  spiritual  wants  of  the  flock  iitrusted  to  his  charge  ; 
‘Those good  men  who  take  such  pleasure  in  lelieving 
the  miserable  for  Christ’s  sake,  would  not  have  been 
less  forward  to  mzmster  unto  Christ  himself.’ — Atter- 
BURY.  It  is  the  part  of  every  Christian  to  administer, 
as  far  as  lies  in  his  power,  comfort  to  those  who  are  in 
want,  consolation  to  the  afflicted,  advice  to  those  who 
ask  for  it,  and  require  it ; help  to  those  who  are  feeble, 
and  support  to  those  who  cannot  uphold  themselves. 
On  the  same  ground  we  speak  of  grace  or  spiritual 
gifts  being  administered ; ‘ By  the  universal  adminis- 
tration of  grace,  begun  by  our  blessed  Saviour,  en- 
larged by  his  Apostles,  carried  on  by  their  immediate 
successors,  and  to  be  completed  by  the  rest  to  the 
world’s  end  ; all  types  that  darkened  this  faith  are  en 
lightened.’— Spratt.  It  is  the  part  of  all  who  are  in 
high  stations  to  contribute  to  the  dissemination  of  reli- 
gion and  morality  among  their  dependants  ; but  there 
are,  on  the  contrary,  many  who  contribute  to  the 
spread  of  immorality,  and  a contempt  of  all  sacred 
things,  by  the  most  pernicious  example  of  irreligion  in 
themselves:  ‘Parents  owe  their  children  not  on'v 


163 


ENGLlbH  SYNONYMES. 


material  ssbsistence  for  their  Dody,  but  much  more  spi- 
ritual contributions  for  their  mind.’ — Digby.  As  ex- 
pressing the  act  of  unconscious  agents,  they  bear  a 
similar  distinction ; 

He  flings  the  pregnant  ashes  through  the  air, 

And  speaks  a mighty  prayer, 

Both  which  the  minist'ring  winds  around  alt  Egypt 
bear. — Cowley. 

Thus  do  our  eyes,  as  do  alt  common  mirrors. 
Successively  reflect  succeeding  images ; 

Not  what  they  would,  but  must!  a star  or  toad. 

Just  as  the  hand  of  chance  administers. 

Congreve. 

May  from  my  bones  anew  Achilles  rise, 

That  shall  infest  the  Trojan  colonies 

With  fire,  and  sword,  and  famine,  when,  at  length. 

Time  to  our  great  attempts  contributes  strength. 

Denham. 


TO  CONDUCE,  CONTRIBUTE. 

To  conduce,  from  the  Latin  conduce,  or  con  and  duco, 
signifying  to  bring  together  for  the  same  end,  is  applied 
to  that  which  serves  the  full  purpose  ; to  contribute,  as 
in  the  preceding  article,  is  applied  to  that  only  which 
serves  as  a subordinate  instrument : the  former  is  al- 
ways taken  in  a good  sense,  the  latter  in  a bad  or  good 
sense.  E.xercise  conduces  to  the  health ; M contributes 
to  give  vigour  to  the  frame. 

Nothing  conduces  more  to  the  well-being  of  any 
community  than  a spirit  of  subordination  among  all 
ranks  and  classes;  ‘ It  is  to  be  allowed  that  doing  all 
honour  to  the  superiority  of  heroes  above  the  rest  of 
mankind,  must  needs  conduce  to  the  glory  and  advan- 
tage of  a nation.’ — Steele.  A want  of  firmness  and 
vigilance  in  the  government  or  magistrates  contributes 
greatly  to  the  spread  of  disafiection  and  rebellion ; 
‘The  true  choice  of  our  diet,  and  our  companions  at 
it^  seems  to  consist  in  that  which  contributes  most  to 
cheerfulness  and  refreshment.’ — Fuller. 

Schemes  of  ambition  never  conduce  to  tranquillity 
of  mind.  A single  failure  may  contribute  sometimes 
to  involve  a person  in  perpetual  trouble. 

TAX,  CUSTOM,  DUTY,  TOLL,  IMPOST, 
TRIBUTE,  CONTRIBUTION. 

Tax,  in  French  taxe,  Latin  taxo,  from  the  Greek 
Taaau),  rd^w,  to  dispose  or  put  in  order,  signifies  what 
is  disposed  in  order  for  each  to  pay;  custom  signifies 
that  vdiich  is  given  under  certain  circumstances,  ac- 
cording to  custom;  duty,  that  which  is  given  as  a due 
or  debt;  toll,  in  Saxon  toll,  &c.  Latin  telonium,  from 
the  Greek  riXos  a custom,  signifies  a particular  kind  of 
custom  or  due. 

Tax  is  the  most  general  of  these  terms,  and  applies 
to  or  implies  whatever  is  paid  by  the  people  to  the 
government,  according  to  a certain  estimate:  the  cus- 
toms are  a species  of  tax  which  are  less  specifick  than 
■)ther  taxes,  being  regulated  by  custom  rather  than  any 
definite  law ; the  customs  apply  particularly  to  what 
was  customarily  given  by  merchants  for  the  goods 
which  they  imported  from  abroad : the  duty  is  a spe- 
cies of  tax  more  positive  and  binding  than  the  custom, 
being  a specifick  estimate  of  what  is  due  upon  goods, 
according  to  their  value  ; hence  it  is  not  only  applied 
to  goods  that  are  imported,  but  also  to  many  other  arti- 
cles of  inland  produce;  toll  is  that  species  of  tax  which 
serves  for  the  repair  of  roads  and  havens. 

The  preceding  terms  refer  to  that  which  is  levied  by 
authority  on  the  people  ; but  they  do  not  directly  e.x- 
press  the  idea  of  levying  or  paying ; impost,  on  the 
contrary,  signifies  literally  that  which  is  imposed;  and 
tribute  that  which  is  paid  or  yielded:  the  former, 
therefore  exclude  that  idea  of  coercion  which  is  in- 
cluded in  the  latter.  The  tax  is  levied  by  the  consent 
of  many;  the  impost  is  imposed  by  the  will  of  one; 
and  the  tribute  is  paid  at  the  demand  of  one  or  a few ; 
the  tax  serves  for  the  support  of  the  nation  ; the  impost 
and  the  tribute  serve  to  enrich  a government.  Con- 
querors lay  heavy  imposts  upon  the  conouered  coun- 
tries; distant  provinces  pay  a tribute  to  the  princes  to 
whom  they  owe  allegiance.  Contribution  signifies 
me  tribute  of  many  in  unison,  or  for  the  same  end  ; in 
this  general  sense  it  includes  all  the  other  terms  ; for 
taxes  and  impos  s are  alike  paid  by  many  for  the  same 


purpose ; but  as  the  predominant  idea  in  tontriouUon 
is  that  cf  jommor;  consent,  it  supposes  a degree  of 
freedom  a;  the  agent  which  is  incompatible  with  the 
exercise  of  authority  expressed  by  the  other  terms 
hence  the  term  is  with  more  propriety  applied  to  those 
cases  in  which  men  voluntarily  unite  in  giving  towards 
any  particular  object;  as  charitable  contributions,  ot 
contributions  in  support  of  a war;  but  it  may  be  taken 
in  the  general  sense  of  a forced  fcvtrent,  as  in  speak 
ing  of  military  contribution. 


TAX,  RATE,  ASSESSMENT. 

Tax,  agreeably  to  the  above  explanation  (a.  Tax), 
and  rate,  from  the  Latin  ratus  and  reor  to  think  ot 
estimate,  both  derive  their  principal  meaning  from  the 
valuation  or  proportion  according  to  which  any  sum  is 
demanded  from  the  people ; but  the  tax  is  imposed 
directly  by  the  government  for  publick  purposes,  as 
the  land  tax,  the  window  tax,  and  the  like;  and  the 
rate  is  imposed  indirectly  for  the  local  purposes  of 
each  parish,  as  the  church  rates,  the  poor  rates,  and 
the  like.  The  tax  or  rate  is  a general  rule  or  ratio,  by 
which  a certain  sum  is  raised  upon  a given  number  of 
persons ; the  assessment  is  the  application  of  that  rule 
to  the  individual. 

The  house-duty  is  a tax  upon  houses,  according  to 
their  real  or  supposed  value;  the  poor’s  rate  is  a rate 
laid  on  the  individual  likewise,  according  to  the  value 
of  his  house,  or  the  supposed  rent  which  he  pays ; the 
assessment  in  both  these,  is  the  valuation  of  the  house, 
which  determines  the  sum  to  be  paid  by  each  indivi 
dual  ; it  is  the  business  of  the  minister  to  make  the 
tax;  of  the  parish  officers  to  make  the  rate;  of  the 
commissioners  or  assessors  to  make  the  assessment; 
the  former  has  the  publick  to  consider;  the  latter  the 
individual.  An  equitable  tax  must  not  bear  harder 
upon  one  class  of  the  community  than  another:  an 
equitable  assessment  must  not  bear  harder  upon  one 
inhabitant  than  another. 


TO  ALLOT,  ASSIGN,  APPORTION, 
DISTRIBUTE. 

Allot  is  compounded  of  the  Latin  al  or  ad  and  the 
word  lot,  which  owes  its  origin  to  the  Saxon  and  other 
northern  languages.  It  signifies  literally  to  set  apart 
as  a particular  lot;  assign,  in  French  assignor,  Latin 
assigno,  is  compounded  of  as  m ad  and  signo  to  sign, 
or  mark  to,  or  for,  signifying  to  mark  out  for  any  one , 
apportion  is  compounded  of  ap  or  ad  and  portion,  sig 
nifying  to  portion  out  for  a certain  purpose  ; distribute, 
in  Latin  distributus,  participle  of  dis  and  tribuo,  sig 
nifies  to  bestow  or  portion  out  to  several. 

To  allot  is  to  dispose  on  the  ground  of  utility  for  the 
sake  of  good  order;  to  assign  is  to  communicate  ac 
cording  to  the  merit  of  the  object ; to  apportion  is  to 
regulate  according  to  the  due  proportion  ; to  distribute 
is  to  give  in  several  distinct  portions. 

A portion  of  one’s  property  is  allotted  to  chaiitable 
purposes,  or  a portion  of  one’s  time  to  religious  medi- 
tation; ‘ Every  one  that  has  been  long  dead,  has  a due 
proportion  of  praise  allotted  him,  in  which,  while  he 
lived,  his  friends  were  too  profuse,  and  his  enemies  toe 
sparing.’— Addison.  A prize  is  assigned  to  the  most 
meritorious,  or  an  honourable  post  to  those  whose 
abilities  entitle  them  to  distinction ; I find  by  several 
hints  in  ancient  authors,  that  when  the  Romans  were 
in  the  height  of  power  and  luxury  they  assigned  out 
of  their  vast  dominions  an  island  called  Amicyra,  as 
a habitation  for  madmen.’ — Steele.  A person’s 
business  is  apportioned  to  the  time  and  abilities  he  has 
for  performing  it;  ‘Of  the  happiness  and  misery  of 
our  present  condition,  part  is  distributed  by  nature 
and  part  is  in  a great  measure  apportioned  by  ourselves.’ 
—Johnson.  A person’s  alms  ought  to  be  distributed 
among  those  who  are  most  indigent ; 

From  thence  the  cup  of  mortal  man  he  fills, 
Blessings  to  these,  to  those  distributes  ills. — Pope 
When  any  complicated  undertaking  is  to  be  per 
formed  by  a number  of  individuals,  it  is  necessary  te 
allot  to  each  his  distinct  task.  It  is  the  part  of  a wise 
prince  to  assign  the  highest  offices  to  the  most  worthy 
and  to  apportion  to  every  one  of  his  ministers  an  em 
ployment  suited  to  his  neculiar  character  and  qua! ifi 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


182 


nations;  t'le  busin£ss  of  the  state  thus  distributed  will 
proceed  with  regularity  and  exactitude. 

TO  ALLOT,  APPOINT,  DESTINE. 

To  allot  is  taken  in  a similar  sense  as  in  the  pre- 
ceding article;  appoint,  in  French  appointer,  Latin 
appono,  that  is,  ap  or  ad  and  pono  to  place,  signifies  to 
put  in  a particular  place,  or  in  a particular  manner ; 
destine,  in  Latin  destino,  compounded  of  de  and  stino, 
8to  or  sisto.,  signifies  to  place  apart. 

Allot  is  used  only  for  things,  appoint  and  destine  for 
persons  or  things-  A space  of  ground  is  allotted  for 
cultivation;  a person  is  appointed  .-'s  steward  or  go- 
vernour;  a youth  is  destined  for  a particular  profes- 
sion. Allotments  are  mostly  made  in  the  time  past  or 
present;  they  are  made  lor  a special  purpose,  and  ac- 
cording to  a given  design,  whence  we  may  speak  of 
the  allotments  of  Providence ; ‘It  is  unworthy  a rea- 
sonable being  to  spend  any  of  the  little  time  allotted 
ns  without  some  tendency,  direct  or  oblique,  to  the 
end  of  our  existence.’ — Johnson.  Appointments  re- 
spect either  the  present  or  the  future ; they  mostly  re- 
gard matters  of  human  prudence ; ‘ Having  notified  to 
my  good  friend.  Sir  Roger,  that  I should  set  out  for 
London  the  next  day,  ids  horses  were  ready  at  the 
appointed  hour.’ — Steele.  Destinations  always  re- 
spect some  distant  purposes,  and  include  preparatory 
measures;  tliey  may  be  either  the  work  of  God  or 
man  ; ‘ Look  round  and  survey  the  various  beauties  of 
the  globe,  which  Heaven  has  destined  for  man,  and 
consider  whether  a world  thus  exquisitely  framed 
could  be  meant  for  the  abode  of  misery  and  pain.’ — 
Johnson.  A conscientious  man  allots  a portion  of 
his  annual  income  to  the  relief  of  the  poor;  when 
publick  meetings  are  held  it  is  necessary  to  appoint  a 
particular  day  for  the  purpose:  our  plans  in  life  are 
defeated  by  a thousand  contingencies : the  man  who 
builds  a house  is  not  certain  he  will  live  to  use  it  for 
the  purpose  for  which  it  was  destined. 


DESTINY,  FATE,  LOT,  DOOM. 

De^i‘.ni/,  from  destine  {v.  To  appoint)  signifies  either 
•he  power  that  destines,  or  the  thing  destined;  fate,  in 
Latin  fatum,  participle  of  for  to  speak  or  decree,  sig- 
nifies that  wliich  is  decreed,  or  tlte  power  that  decrees  ; 
lot,  in  German  loos,  signifies  a ticket,  die,  or  any  other 
thing  by  which  the  casual  distribution  of  things  is  de- 
termined ; and  in  an  extended  sense,  it  expresses  the 
portion  thus  assigned  by  chance;  doom,  in  Saxon  dome, 
Danish  ddm,  most  probably  like  the  word  deem,  comes 
from  the  Hebrew  n to  judge,  signifying  the  thing 
judged,  spoken,  or  decreed. 

All  these  terms  are  employed  with  regard  to  human 
events  which  are  not  under  one’s  control : among  the 
heathens  destiny  and  fate  were  considered  as  deities, 
who  each  in  his  way  could  direct  human  affairs,  and 
were  both  superiour  even  to  Jupiter  himself:  the  Des- 
tinies, orParcae  as  they  were  termed,  presided  only  over 
life  and  death ; but  fate  was  employed  in  ruling  the 
general  affairs  of  men.  Since  revelation  has  instructed 
mankind  in  the  nature  and  attribKtes  of  the  true  God, 
these  blind  powers  are  now  not  acknowledged  to  exist 
in  the  overruling  providence  of  an  all-wise  and  an 
all-good  Being;  the  terms  destiny  and  fate  therefore 
have  now  only  a relative  sense,  as  to  what  happens 
without  the  will  or  control  of  the  individual  who  is  the 
subject  of  it. 

Destiny  is  used  in  regard  to  one’s  station  and  walk 
in  life ; fate  in  regard  to  what  one  suffers  ; lot  in  regard 
to  what  one  gets  or  possesses  ; and  doom  is  that  portion 
of  one’s  destiny  or  fate  which  depends  upon  the  will 
of  another : destiny  is  marked  out ; fate  is  fixed  ; a lot 
is  assigned ; a doom  is  passed. 

It  vv-as  the  destiny  of  Julius  Caesar  to  act  a great  part 
in  the  world,  and  to  establish  a new  form  of  govern- 
ment at  Rome ; it  was  his  fate  at  last  to  die  by  the 
hands  of  assassins,  the  chief  of  whom  had  been  his 
avowed  friends',  had  he  been  contented  with  an  hum- 
bler lot  than  that  of  an  empire,  he  might  have  enjoyed 
honours,  riches,  and  a long  life  ; his  doom  was  sealed 
by  the  last  step  which  he  took  in  making  himself  em- 
peror : it  is  not  permitted  for  us  to  inquire  into  our 
future  destiny ; it  is  our  duty  to  submit  to  our  fate, 
to  be  contenu  d with  our  lot,  and  prepared  for  our 


doom:  a parent  may  have  great  influence  over  the 
destiny  of  his  child,  by  the  education  he  gives  to  him 
or  the  principles  he  instils  into  his  mind  ; 

If  death  be  your  design — at  least,  said  she. 

Take  us  along  to  share  your  destiny. — Dryden. 
There  are  many  who  owe  their  unliappy  fate  entirely 
to  the  want  of  early  habits  of  piety  ; 

The  gods  these  armies  and  this  force  employ, 

TJie  hostile  gods  conspire  the /ate  of  Troy. — Pope 
Riclies  and  poverty  may  be  assigned  to  us  as  our  lot, 
but  the  former  will  not  ensure  us  happiness,  nor  the 
latter  prevent  us  from  being  liappy  if  we  have  a con 
tented  temper ; 

' To  labour  is  the  Zot  of  man  below. 

And  when  Jove  gave  us  life,  he  gave  us  wo. 

Pope 

Criminals  must  await  the  doom  of  an  earthly  judge; 
but  all  men,  as  sinners,  must  meet  the  doom  which  is 
prepared  for  them  at  the  awful  day  of  judgement; 

Oh ! grant  me,  gods ! ere  Hector  meets  his  doom 

All  lean  ask  of  Heav’n,  auearly  tomb. — Pope. 

It  is  the  destiny  of  some  men  to  be  always  changing 
their  plan  of  life;  it  is  but  too  frequently  the  fate  of 
authors  to  labour  for  the  benefit  of  mankind,  and  to 
reap  nothing  for  themselves  but  poverty  and  nejlect; 
it  is  the  lot  but  of  very  few,  to  enjoy  what  they  them 
selves  consider  a competency. 


DESTINY,  DESTINATION. 

Both  destiny  and  destination  are  used  for  the  thing 
destined;  but  the  former  is  said  in  relation  to  a man’s 
important  concerns,  the  latter  only  of  particular  cir- 
cumstances; in  which  sense  it  may  likewise  be  em- 
ployed for  the  act  of  destining. 

Destiny  is  the  pointer  line  marked  out  in  the  walk 
of  life ; destination  is  the  place  fixed  upon  in  particular, 
as  every  man  lias  his  peculiar  destiny,  so  every  tra- 
veller has  his  particular  destination.  Destiny  is  alto- 
gether set  above  human  control ; no  man  can  deter- 
mine, though  he  may  influence  the  destiny  of  another; 
destination  is,  however,  the  specifick  act  of  an  indivi- 
dual, either  for  himself  or  another  : we  leave  the  des- 
tiny of  a man  to  develope  itself ; but  we  may  inquire 
about  his  owm  destination,  or  that  of  his  children:  it  is 
a consoling  reflection  that  the  destinies  of  short-sighted 
mortals,’ like  ourselves,  are  in  the  hands  of  One  who 
both  can  and  will  overrule  them  to  our  advantage  jf  we 
place  full  reliance  in  Him: 

At  the  pit  of  Acheion 
Meet  one  i’  th’  morning ; thither  he 
Will  come  to  know  his  destiny. — Shakspeare. 
In  the  destination  of  children  for  their  several  profes 
sions  or  callings,  it  is  of  importance  to  consult  their  par 
ticular  turn  of  mind,  as  well  as  inclination  ; ‘ Moore’s 
original  destination  appears  to  have  been  for  trade  ’ - 
Johnson. 


TO  SENTENCE,  DOOM,  CONDEMN. 

To  sentence,  or  pass  sentence,  is  to  give  a final  opi 
nion  or  decision  which  is  to  influence  the  fate  of  ap 
object ; condemn,  from  damnum  a loss,  is  to  pass  such  a 
sentence  as  shall  be  to  the  hurt  of  an  object:  doom, 
which  is  a variation  from  damnum,  has  the  same  mean- 
ing. 

Sentence  is  the  genorick,  the  two  others  specifick  terms. 
Sentence  and  condemn  are  used  in  the  juridical  as  well 
as  the  moral  sense ; doom  is  employed  in  the  moral 
sense  only.  In  the  juridical  sense,  sentence  is  indefi- 
nite ; condemn  is  definite:  a criminal  may  be  sentenced 
to  a mild  or  severe  punishment;  he  is  always  con- 
demned to  that  which  is  severe ; he  is  sentenced  to  im 
prisonment,  or  transportation,  or  death : he  is  con 
demned  to  the  galleys,  to  transportation  for  life,  or  to 
death. 

In  the  moral  application  they  are  in  like  manner  dis- 
tinguished. To  sentence  is  a softer  term  than  to  con 
demn,  and  this  is  less  than  to  doom.  Sentence  applies 
to  inanimate  objects ; condemn  and  doom  only  to  per- 
sons or  that  which  is  personal.  An  author  is  sentenced 
by  the  decision  of  the  publick  to  suffer  neglect ; a thing 
is  sentenced  »o  be  thrown  away  which  is  esteemed  ag 
worthless ; we  may  be  condemned  to  hear  the  prating  of 


170  ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


a loquacious  person;  we  may  be  doomed  to  spend  our 
lives  in  penury  and  wretchedness.  Sentence,  particu- 
larly when  employed  as  a noun,  may  even  be  favour- 
able to  the  interests  of  a person ; condemn  is  always 
prejudicial,  either  to  his  interest,  his  comfort,  or  his  re- 
putation ; doom  is  always  destructive  of  his  happiness, 
it  is  that  which  always  runs  most  counter  to  the  wishes 
of  an  individual  It  is  of  importance  for  an  author, 
that  n critick  should  pronounce  a favourable  sentence  on 
his  works ; ‘ Let  him  set  out  some  of  Luther’s  works  ; 
that  by  them  we  may  pass  sentence  upon  his  doctrines.’ 
-Attkrbury.  But,  in  the  signification  of  a sentence 
oassed  by  a judge,  it  is,  when  absolutely  taken,  always 
m a bad  sense ; ‘ At  the  end  of  the  tenth  book  the  poet 
loins  this  beautiful  circumstance,  that  they  offered^up 
their  penitential  prayere  on  the  very  place  where  their 
judge  appeared  to  them  when  he  pronounced  their  sen- 
tence.'— Aomsos.  Immoral  writers  are  justly  con- 
demned to  oblivion  or  perpetual  infamy ; ‘ Liberty 
(Thomson’s  Liberty)  called  in  vain  upon  her  votaries 
to  read  her  praises,  her  praises  were  condemned  to  har- 
bour spiders  and  gather  dust.’— Johnson.  Some  of 
the  best  writers  have  been  doomed  to  experience  ne- 
glect in  their  life  time ; ‘ Even  the  abridger,  compiler, 
and  translator,  though  their  labours  cannot  be  ranked 
with  those  of  the  diurnal  biographer,  yet  must  not  be 
rashly  doomed  to  annihilation.’ — Johnson. 

A sentence  and  condemnation  is  always  the  act  of 
some  person  or  conscious  agent : doom  is  sometimes  the 
fruit  of  circumstances.  Tarquin  the  Proud  was  sen- 
tenced by  the  Roman  people  to  be  banished  from  Rome ; 
Regalus  was  condemned  to  the  most  cruel  death  by  the 
Carthaginians;  many  writers  have  been  doomed  to 
pass  their  lives  in  obscurity  and  want,  whose  works 
have  acquired  for  them  lasting  honours  after  their 
death. 


CHANCE,  FORTUNE,  FATE. 

Chance,  probably  contracted  from  the  Latin  cadens 
.'ailing,  is  here  considered  as  the  cause  of  what  falls  out ; 
fortune,  in  French  fortune,  Latin  fortuna,  from  fors 
chance,  in  Hebrew  ; fate  signifies  the  same  as  in 
the  preceding  article.  These  terms  have  served  at  all 
limes  as  cloaks  for  human  ignorance,  and  before  man-  j 
kind  were  favoured  by  the  light  of  Divine  Revelation, 
they  had  an  imaginary  importance  which  has  now  hap- 
pily vanished. 

Believers  in  Divine  Providence  no  longer  conceive 
the  events  of  the  world  as  left  to  themselves,  or  as 
under  the  control  of  any  unintelligent  or  unconscious 
agent,  but  ascribe  the  whole  to  an  overruling  mind, 
which,  though  invisible  to  the  bodily  eye,  is  clearly  to 
be  traced  by  the  intellectual  eye,  wherever  we  turn  our- 
selves. In  conformity  however  to  the  preconceived 
notions  attached  to  these  words,  we  now  employ  them 
in  regard  to  the  agency  of  secondary  causes.  But  how 
far  a Christian  may  use  them  without  disparagement  to 
the  majesty  of  the  Divine  Being,  it  is  not  so  much  my 
business  to  inquire,  as  to  define  their  ordinary  accep- 
tation ; ‘ Some  there  are  who  utterly  proscribe  the 
name  of  chance  as  a word  of  impious  and  profane  sig- 
nification : and  indeed  if  it  be  taken  by  us  in  that  sense 
in  which  it  was  used  by  the  heathens,  so  as  to  make 
any  thingcasual  in  respect  of  God  himself,  their  excep- 
tion ought  to  be  admitted.  But  to  say  a thing  is  a cAawce 
or  casualty  as  it  relates  to  second  causes,  is  not  profane- 
ness, but  a great  truth.’— South. 

In  this  ordinary  sense,  chance  is  the  generick,  fortune 
and/ate  are  specifick  terms:  chance  applies  to  all  things 
nersonal  or  otherwise;  fortune  and  fate  are  mostly  said 
«f  that  which  is  personal. 

Chance  neither  forms  orders  nor  designs:  neither 
Knowledge  nor  intention  is  attributed  to  it;  its  events 
are  uncertain  and  variable; 

Chance  aids  their  daring  with  unhop’d  success. 

Drydkn. 

Fortune  forms  plans  and  designs,  but  without  choice; 
W’e  attribute  to  it  an  intention  without  discernment ; it 
is  said  to  be  blind ; ‘ We  should  learn  that  none  but  in- 
tellectual possessions  are  what  we  can  properly  call  our 
own.  All  things  from  without  are  but  borrowed. 
What  fortune  gives  us  is  not  ours,  and  whatever  she 
gives  she  can  take  away.’ — Steele.  Fate  forms  plans 
and  chains  of  causes;  intention  knowledge,  and  power 


are  attributed  to  it:  its  views  are  fixej,  its  results  de 
cisive ; 

Since /ale  divides  then,  since  I must  lose  thee. 

For  pity’s  sake,  for  love’s,  oh ! sutler  me. 

Thus  languishing,  thus  dying,  to  approach  thee; 

And  sigh  my  last  adieu  upon  thy  bosom.— Trapp 
A person  goes  as  chance  directs  him  when  he  has  nc 
express  object  to  determine  his  choice  one  way  or 
other;  h\s  fortune  favours  him,  if  without  any  expec 
tation  he  gets  the  thing  he  wishes;  his  fate  wills  it,  il 
he  reaches  the  desired  point  contrary  to  what  he  in- 
tended. 

Men’s  success  in  their  undertakings  depends  oftener 
on  chance  than  on  their  ability  ; we  are  ever  ready  to 
ascribe  to  ourselves  what  we  owe  to  our  good  fortune; 
it  is  the  fate  of  some  men  to  fail  in  every  thing  they 
undertake. 

When  speaking  of  trivial  matters,  this  language  is 
unquestionably  innocent,  and  any  objection  to  their  use 
must  spring  from  an  over  scrupulous  conscience. 

If  I suffer  my  horse  to  direct  me  in  the  road  I take 
to  London,  I may  fairly  attribute  it  to  chance  if  I take 
the  right  instead  of  the  left;  if  I meet  with  an  agree- 
able companion  by  the  way  I shall  not  hesitate  to  call  it 
my  good  fortune  that  led  me  to  take  one  road  in  prefei 
ence  to  another  ; if  in  spite  of  any  previous  intention 
to  the  contrary,  I should  be  led  to  take  the  same  road 
repeatedly,  and  as  often  to  meet  with  an  agreeable 
companion,  I shall  immediately  say  that  is  my  fate  to 
meet  with  an  agreeable  companion  whenever  I go  to 
London. 


CHANCE,  PROBABILITY. 

Chance  signifies  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  article, 
probability,  in  French  probability,  Latin  probabilitas, 
from  probabilis  and  probo  to  prove,  signifies  the  quality 
of  being  able  to  be  proved  or  made  good. 

These  terms  are  both  employed  in  forming  an  esti- 
mate of  future  events;  but  the  chance  is  either  for  or 
against,  the  probability  is  always  for  a thing.  Chance 
is  but  a degree  of  probability ; there  may  in  this  latter 
case  be  a chance  where  there  is  no  probability.  A 
chance  affords  a possibility ; many  chances  are  requisite 
to  constitute  a probability. 

What  has  been  once  may,  under  similar  circum 
stances,  be  again  ; for  that  there  is  a chance ; what  has 
fallen  to  one  man  may  fall  to  another  ; so  far  he  has  a 
chance  in  his  favour;  but  in  all  the  chances  of  life  there 
will  be  no  probability  of  success,  where  a man  does  not 
unite  industry  with  integrity ; 

Thus  equal  deaths  are  dealt  with  equal  chance, 

By  turns  they  quit  their  ground,  by  turns  advance. 

Dryden 

Chance  cannot  be  calculated  upon  ; it  is  apt  to  produce 
disappointment:  probability  justifies  hope;  it  is  sanc- 
tioned by  experience ; ‘“There  never  appear,”  says 
Swift,  “ more  than  five  or  six  men  of  genius  in  an  age, 
but  if  they  were  united  the  world  could  not  stand  before 
them.”  It  is  happy  therefore  ftr  mankind  that  of  this 
union  there  is  no  probability.'— ioansoa. 

CHANCE,  HAZARD. 

Chance  signifies  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  article , 
hazard  comes  from  the  oriental  zar  and  tzar,  signifying 
any  thing  bearing  an  impression,  particularly  the  dice 
used  in  chance  games,  which  is  called  by  the  Italians 
zara,  and  by  the  Spaniards  azar. 

Both  these  terms  are  employed  to  mark  the  course  ot 
future  events,  which  is  not  discernible  by  the  human 
eye.  With  the  Deity  there  is  neither  chance  nor  hazard; 
his  plans  are  the  result  of  omniscience;  but  the  designs 
and  actions  of  men  are  all  dependent  on  chance  or 
hazard.  Chance  may  be  favourable  or  unfavourable, 
more  commonly  the  former;  hazard  is  always  unfa 
vourable : it  is  properly  a species  of  chance.  There  is  a 
chance  either  of  gaining  or  losing : there  is  a hazard  of 
losing.  In’most  speculations  the  chance  of  succeeding 
scarcely  outweighs  the  hazard  of  losing ; 

Against  ill  chances  men  are  ever  merry. 

But  heaviness  foreruns  the  good  event. 

Shakspearb. 

‘ Though  wit  and  learning  are  certain  and  habitual 
perfections  of  the  mind,  yet  the  declaration  of  them 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  i j 


«hi  ;h  alone  brings  the  repute,  is  subject  to  a thousand 
hazards' — South 


TO  HAZARD,  RISK,  VENTURE. 

Hazard  signifies  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  article ; 
risk  may  be  traced  to  the  French  risque^  the  Italian 
rischio,  and  the  Spanish  riesgo,  and  has  been  further 
traced  by  Meursius  to  the  barbarous  Greek  word  pi^rjKov 
fortune  or  chance,  but  its  more  remote  derivation  is 
uncertain  ; venture  is  the  same  as  adventure. 

All'.hese  terms  denote  actions  performed  under  an 
uncertainty  of  the  event;  but  Aazar-d  bespeaks  a want 
of  design  and  choice  on  the  part  of  the  agent ; to  risk 
.mplies  a choice  of  alternatives ; to  venture,  a calcula- 
2ion  and  balance  of  probabilities:  one  hazards  and 
risks  under  the  fear  of  an  evil ; one  ventures  with  the 
hope  of  a good.  He  who  hazards  an  opinion  or  an  as- 
sertion does  it  from  presumptuous  feelings  and  upon 
slight  grounds ; chances  are  rather  against  him  than  for 
him  that  it  may  prove  erroneous; 

They  list  with  women  each  degenerate  name 
Who  dares  not  hazard  life  for  future  fame. 

DaVDEN. 

He  who  risks  a battle  does  it  often  from  necessity ; he 
who  chooses  the  least  of  two  evils,  although  the  event 
is  dubious,  yet  he  fears  less  from  a failure  than  from 
inaction  ; ‘If  the  adventurer risywes  honour,  herisques 
more  than  the  knight.’ — Hawkesworth.  He  who 
ventures  on  a mercantile  speculation  does  it  from  a love 
of  gain;  he  flatters  himself  with  a favourable  event, 
and  acquires  boldness  from  the  prospect ; ‘Socrates,  in 
his  discourse  before  his  death,  says,  he  did  not  know 
whether  his  body  shall  (would)  remainSifter  death,  but 
he  thought  so,  and  had  such  hopes  of  it  that  he  was 
very  willing  to  venture  his  life  upon  these  hopes.’— Til- 

LOTSON. 

There  are  but  very  few  circumstances  to  justify  us 
in  hazarding ; there  may  be  several  occasions  which 
render  it  necessary  to  risk,  and  very  many  cases  in 
which  it  may  be  advantageous  to  venture. 


DANGER,  PERIL,  HAZARD. 

Danger,  in  French  danger,  comes  from  the  Latin 
damnum  a loss  or  damage,  signifying  the  chance  of  a 
loss ; peril,  in  French  peril,  comes  from  pereo,  which 
signifies  either  to  go  over,  or  to  perish,  and  periculum, 
which  signifies  literally  that  which  is  undergone  ; de- 
signating a critical  situation,  a rude  trial,  which  may 
terminate  in  one’s  ruin;  hazard  signifies  the  same  as 
in  the  preceding  article 

The  idea  of  chance  or  uncertainty  is  common  to  all 
these  terms ; but  the  two  former  may  sometimes  be 
foreseen  and  calculated  upon  ; the  latter  is  purely  con- 
tingent. Danger  and  peril  are  applied  to  a positive 
evil;  hazard  may  simply  respect  the  loss  of  a good ; 
risks  are  voluntarily  run  from  the  hope  of  good;  there 
maybe  many  dangers  included  \u  a hazard;  and  there 
cannot  be  a hazard  without  some  danger. 

A general  hazards  a battle,  in  order  to  disengage 
himself  from  a difficulty  ; he  may  by  this  step  involve 
himself  in  imminent  danger  of  losing  his  honour  or  his 
life;  but  it  is  likewise  possible  that  by  his  superiour 
skill  he  may  set  both  out  of  all  danger:  we  are  hourly 
exposed  to  dangers  which  no  human  foresight  can 
guard  against,  and  are  frequently  induced  to  engage  in 
enterprises  at  the  hazard  of  our  lives,  and  of  all  that 
we  hold  dear ; 

One  was  their  care,  and  their  delight  was  one  ; 

One  common  hazard  in  the  war  they  shared. 

Dryden. 

Dangers  are  far  and  near,  ordinary  and  extraordi- 
nary ; they  meet  us  if  we  do  not  go  in  search  of  them  ; 

Proud  of  the  favours  mighty  Jove  has  shown. 

On  certain  dangers  we  too  rashly  run. — Pope. 

Perils  are  always  distant  and  extraordinary  ; we  must 
go  out  of  our  course  to  expose  ourselves  to  them  : in  the 
quiet  walk  of  life  as  in  the  most  busy  and  tumultuous, 
it  is  the  lot  of  man  to  be  surrounded  by  danger ; he  has 
nothing  which  he  is  not  in  danger  of  losing  ; and  knows 
of  nothing  which  he  is  not  in  danger  of  suffering:  the 
mariner  and  the  traveller  who  go  in  search  of  unknown 


countries  put  themselves  in  tnc  way  of  undergoing 
perils  both  by  sea  and  land  ; 

From  that  dire  deluge  through  the  watery  waste. 
Such  length  of  years,  such  various  perils  past. 

At  last  escaped,  to  Latium  we  repair. — Dryden. 

The  same  dist  jiction  exists  between  the  epithets  that 
are  derived  from  these  terms. 

It  is  dangerous  for  a youth  to  act  without  the  advice 
of  his  friends  ; it  is  perilous  for  a traveller  to  explore 
the  wilds  of  Africa:  it  is  hazardous  for  a merchant  to 
speculate  in  time  of  war:  experiments  in  matters  of 
policy  or  government  are  always  dangerous ; 

Hear  this  and  tremble ! all  who  would  be  great. 

Yet  know  not  what  attends  that  dang'rous,  wretched 
state. — Jenyns. 

A journey  through  deserts  that  are  infested  with  beasts 
of  prey  is  perilous  ; 

The  grisly  boar  is  singled  from  his  herd, 

A match  for  Hercules ; round  him  they  fly 
In  circles  wide,  and  each  in  passing  sends. 

His  feather’d  death  into  his  brawny  sides  ; 

Bui  perilous  th’  attempt. — Somerville. 

A military  expedition  conducted  with  inadequate 
means  is  hazardous ; ‘ The  previous  steps  being  taken, 
and  the  time  fixed  for  this  Aazardows  attempt.  Admiral 
Holmes  moved  with  his  squadron  farther  up  the  river, 
about  three  leagues  above  the  place  appointed  for  the 
disembarkation,  that  he  might  deceive  the  enemy  ’ — 
Smollet. 


TO  HAPPEN,  CHANCE. 

To  happen,  that  is,  to  fall  out  by  a hap,  is  to  chance 
(v.  Chance,  fortune)  as  the  genus  to  the  species  ; what- 
ever chances  happens,  but  not  vice  versd.  Happen  re- 
spects all  events  without  including  any  collateral  idea; 
chance  comprehends,  likewise,  the  idea  of  the  cause 
and  order  of  events  ; whatever  comes  to  pass  happens 
whether  regularly  in  the  course  of  things,  or  particu- 
larly, and  out  of  the  order;  whatever  chances  happens 
altogether  without  concert,  intention,  and  often  without 
relation  to  any  other  thing.  Accidents  happen  daily 
which  no  human  foresight  could  prevent;  the  newspa- 
pers contain  an  account  of  all  that  happens  in  the 
course  of  the  day  or  week  ; 

With  equal  mind  what  happens  let  us  bear. 

Nor  joy,  nor  grieve  too  much  for  things  beyond  our  care 

Dryden. 

Listeners  and  busy  bodies  are  ready  to  catch  every 
word  that  cAances  to  fall  in  their  hearing;  ‘An  idiot 
chancing  to  live  within  the  sound  of  a clock,  always 
amused  himself  with  counting  the  hour  of  the  day 
whenever  the  clock  struck;  but  the  clock  being  spoiled 
by  accident,  the  idiot  continued  to  count  the  hour 
without  the  help  of  it.’ — Addison. 


ACCIDENT,  CHANCE. 

Accident,  in  French  accident,  liVLtin  accidens,  parti 
ciple  of  accido  to  happen,  compounded  of  ac  or  ad  and 
cado  to  fall,  signifies  the  thing  faffing  out;  chance  {v. 
Chance,  fortune.) 

Accident  is  said  of  things  that  have  been  ; chance  of 
things  that  are  to  he.  That  is  an  accident  wdiich  is 
done  without  intention  : that  is  a chance  which  cannot 
be  brought  about  by  the  use  of  means.  It  is  an  accident 
when  a house  falls ; it  is  a chance  when  and  how  it 
may  fall ; ‘ That  little  accident  of  Alexander’s  taking  a 
fancy  to  bathe  himself  caused  the  interruption  of  his 
march  ; and  that  interruption  gave  occasion  to  that 
great  victory  that  founded  the  third  monarchy  of  the 
world.’ — South.  ‘Surely  there  could  not  be  a greater 
chance  than  that  which  brought  to  light  the  Powder- 
Treason.’ — South. 

Accidents  cannot  be  prevented ; chances  cannot  be 
calculated  upon.  Accidents  may  sometimes  be  reme- 
died ; chances  can  never  be  controlled  : accidents  give 
rise  to  sorrow,  tiiey  mostly  occasion  mischief ; chances 
give  rise  to  hope ; they  often  produce  disappointme».t ' 
it  is  wise  to  dwell  upon  neither. 


172 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


ACCIDENT,  CONTINGENCY,  CASUALTY. 
Occident  signifies  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  arti- 
cle; contivgency,  in  French  contingence,  Latin  coiitin- 
gens,  participle  of  contingo,  compounded  of  con  and 
tango  to  touch  one  another,  signifies  the  falling  out  or 
hafipening  together ; or  the  thing  that  happens  in  con- 
junction with  another;  casualty^  in  French  casualty, 
fronr  the  Latin  casualis  and  cado  to  fall  or  happen,  sig- 
nifies what  happens  in  the  course  of  events. 

These  words  imply  whatever  takes  jJace  independ- 
ently of  our  intentions,  ./iccrdewts  express  more  than 
contingencies ; the  former  comprehend  events  with 
their  causes  and  consetiuences ; the  latter  respect  colla- 
teral actions,  or  circumstances  appended  to  events; 
casualties  have  regard  simply  to  circumstances.  Acci- 
dents are  frequently  occasioned  by  carelessness,  and 
contingencies  by  trivial  mistakes ; but  casualties  arc 
altogether  independent  of  ourselves. 

The  overturning  a carriage  is  an  accident;  our 
situation  in  a carriage,  at  the  time,  is  a contingency, 
which  may  occasion  us  to  be  more  or  less  hurt;  the 
passing  of  any  one  at  the  time  is  a casualty.  We  are 
all  exposed  to  the  most  calamitous  accidents ; ‘ This 
natural  impatience  to  look  into  futurity,  and  to  know 
what  accidents  may  happen  to  us  hereafter,  has  given 
birth  to  many  ridiculous  arts  and  inventions.’ — Addi- 
son. The  happiness  or  misery  of  every  man  depends 
upon  a thousand  contingencies ; ‘Nothing  less  than 
infinite  wisdom  can  have  an  absolute  command  over 
fortune  ; the  highest  degree  of  it  which  man  can  pos- 
sess is  by  no  means  equal  to  fortuitous  events,  and  to 
such  contivgencies  as  may  rise  in  the  prosecution  of 
our  aflairs.’ — Addison.  The  best  concerted  scheme 
may  be  thwarted  by  casualties,  which  no  human  fore- 
sight can  prevent ; ‘ Men  are  exposed  to  more  casualties 
than  women,  as  battles,  sea-voyages,  with  several  dan- 
gerous trades  and  professions. — Addison. 

ACCIDENTAL,  INCIDENTAL,  CASUAL,  CON- 
TINGENT. 

Accidental  belonging  to  or  after  the  manner  of  an 
accident  (n.  Accident) : incidental,  from  incident,  in 
Latin  incidens  and  incido  or  in  and  cado  to  fall  upon, 
signifies  belonging  to  a thing  by  chance  ; casual  after 
the  manner  of  a chance  or  casualty ; and  contingent, 
after  the  manner  of  a contingency. 

Accidental  is  opposed  to  what  is  designed  or  planned, 
ncidental  to  what  is  premeditated,  casual  to  what  is 
constant  and  regular,  contingent  to  what  is  definite  and 
’ixed.  A meeting  may  be  accidental,  an  expression 
incidental,  alook,  Expression,  cfcc.  casual,  an  expense  or 
circumstance  contingent.  We  do  not  expect  what  is 
accidental ; we  do  not  suspect  or  guard  against  what 
is  incidental ; we  do  not  heed  what  is  casual ; we  are 
not  prepared  for  wiiat  is  contingent.  Many  of  the 
most  fortunate  and  important  occurrences  in  our  lives 
are  accidental:  many  remarks,  seemingly  mc/dcTitai, 
do  in  reality  conceai  a settied  intent,  ‘ This  book  feii 
accidentally  into  the  hands  of  one  who  had  never  seen 
It  before.’— Addison.  ‘The  distempers  of  the  mind 
may  be  figuratively  classed  under  the  several  charac- 
ters of  those  maladies  which  are  incidental  to  the 
body.’ — Cumberland.  A casual  remark  in  the  course 
of  conversation  will  sometimes  make  a stronger  im- 
pression on  the  minds  of  children  than  the  most  elo- 
quent and  impressive  discourse  or  repealed  counsel ; 

‘ Savage  lodged  as  much  by  accident  and  passed  the 
night  sometimes  in  mean  houses,  which  are  set  open  at 
night  to  any  casual  wanderers.’ — Johnson.  In  the 
prosecution  of  any  plan  we  ought  to  be  prepared  for  the 
numerous  contingencies  wliich  we  may  meet  with  to 
interfere  with  our  arrangements ; ‘ We  see  how  a con- 
iingcnt  event  baffles  man’s  knowledge  and  evades  his 
power.’— South. 

EVENT,  INCIDENT,  ADVENTURE,  OCtUR- 
RENCE. 

Event,  in  Latin  eventus,  participle  of  envenii  to 
eome  out,  signifies  that  which  falls  out  or  turns  up; 
incident,  in  Latin  incidens,  from  incido,  signifies  that 
which  falls  in  or  forms  a collateral  part  of  any  tiling 
{v.  Accidental) ; adventure,  from  the  Latin  advenio  to 
come  to,  signifies  what  comes  to  or  befalls  one ; occur- 
rence, from  the  Latin  occurro,  signifies  tliat  wliich 
runs  or  comes  in  the  way. 


These  terms  are  e.xpressive  of  what  passes  in  me 
world,  which  is  the  sole  signification  of  the  term 
event ; while  to  that  of  the  otiier  terms  are  annexed 
some  accessary  ideas:  an  incident  is  a personal  extent: 
an  accident  an  unpleasant  event;  an  adventure  an 
extraordinary  event;  an  occurrence  an  ordinary  or  do 
mestick  event:  cjjewf  in  its  ordinary  and  unlimited  ac 
ceptation  excludes  the  idea  of  chance;  accident  ex 
eludes  that  of  design  ; incident,  adventure,  and  occur 
rence,  are  applicable  in  both  cases. 

Events  affect  nations  and  communities  as  well  as 
individuals;  incidents  and  adDenfwres  aflect  particular 
individuals;  accidents  and  occurrences  affect  persons 
or  things  particularly  or  generally,  individually  of  col- 
lectively: the  making  of  peace,  the  loss  of  a battle,  or 
the  death  of  a prince,  are  national  events ; a marriage 
or  a death  are  domestick  events ; ‘ These  events,  tlie 
permission  of  which  seems  to  accuse  liis  goodness 
now,  may,  in  the  consummation  of  things,  both  mag- 
nify his  goodness  and  exalt  his  wisdom.’ — Addison 
The  forming  a new  acquaintance  and  the  revival  of 
an  old  one  are  incidents  that  have  an  interest  for  the 
parties  concerned ; ‘I  have  laid  before  you  only  small 
incidents  seemingly  frivolous,  but  they  are  principally 
evils  of  this  nature  which  make  marriages  unliappy.’ — 
Steele.  An  escape  from  shipwreck,  an  encounter 
with  wild  beasts  or  savages,  are  adventures  which  indi 
viduals  are  pleased  to  relate,  and  others  to  hear; 

For  I must  love,  and  am  resolv’d  to  try 

My  fate,  or  failing  in  the  adventure,  die. — Dryden 
A fire,  the  fall  of  a house,  the  breaking  of  a limb  are 
accidents  or  occurrences ; a robbery  or  the  death  of  indi- 
viduals are  properly  occurrences  which  afford  subjects 
for  a newspaper,  and  excite  an  interest  in  the  reader; 
‘I  think  there  is  somewhere  in  Montaigne  mention 
made  of  a family  book,  wherein  all  the  occurrences 
that  happened  from  one  generation  of  that  house  to  an 
other  were  recorded.’ — Steele. 

Event,  when  used  for  individuals,  is  always  of 
greater  importance  than  an  incident.  The  settleinenl 
of  a young  person  in  life,  the  adoption  of  an  employ 
ment,  or  the  taking  a wife,  are  events,  but  not  incidents , 
while  on  the  other  hand  the  setting  out  on  a journey  oi 
the  return,  the  purchase  of  a house  or  the  despatch  of 
a vesse’,  are  characterized  as  incidents  and  not  events. 

It  is  fartlier  to  be  observed  that  incident,  event,  and 
occui'  ence  are  said  only  of  that  whicli  is  supposed 
really  to  happen : incidents  and  adventures  are  often 
fictitious ; in  this  case  the  incident  cannot  be  too  im 
portant,  nor  the  adventure  too  marvellous.  History 
records  the  events  of  nations;  plays  require  to  be  full  oi 
incident  in  order  to  render  them  interesting;  ‘No 
person,  no  incident  in  the  play,  but  must  be  of  use  to 
carry  on  the  main  design.’ — Dryden.  Romances  and 
novels  derive  most  of  their  charms  from  tlie  extra 
vagance  of  the  adaentnres  which  they  describe;  ‘To 
make  an  episode,  “ take  any  remaining  adventure  of 
your  former  collection,”  in  which  you  could  no  way 
involve  your  hero,  or  any  unfortunate  accident  that  was 
too  good  to  be  thrown  away.’ — Pope.  Periodical 
works  supply  the  puhlick  with  information  respecting 
daily  occurrences. 

CIRCUMSTANCE,  INCIDENT’,  FACT. 

Circumstance,  in  Latin  circumstanha,  from  circum 
and  sto,  signifies  what  stands  about  a thing  or  belongs 
to  it  as  its  accident;  incident  signifies  the  same  as 
before ; fact,  in  Eatm  factum,  participle  of  facio  to  do, 
signifies  the  thing  done. 

Circumstance  is  a general  term ; incident  and  fact 
are  species  of  circumstances.  Incident  is  wliat  hap- 
pens ; fact  is  what  is  done ; circumstance  is  not  only 
what  happens  and  is  done,  but  whatever  is  or  belongs 
to  a thing.  To  everything  are  annexed  circumstances 
either  of  time,  place,  age,  colour,  or  other  collateral  ap- 
pendages which  change  its  nature.  Every  thing  that 
moves  and  operates  is  exposed  to  incidents,  effects  are 
produced,  results  follow,  and  changes  are  brought 
about ; these  are  incidents  : whatever  moves  and  ope- 
rates does,  and  what  it  produces  is  done  or  is  the  fact  t 
when  the  artificer  performs  any  work  of  art,  it  depends 
not  only  on  his  skill,  but  on  the  excellence  of  his  tools, 
the  time  he  employs,  the  particular  frame  of  his  mind, 
the  place  where  he  works,  with  a variety  of  otlier  cir 
cumstances  whether  he  will  succeed  in  producing  any 
thing  masterly.  Newspapers  abound  with  the  varv'uj 


ii^NGLlSH  SYNONYMES. 


73 


incidents  whiih  occur  in  tlie  animal  or  the  vegetable 
world,  gome  of  which  are  surprising  and  singular;  they 
likewise  contain  a number  of  facts  which  serve  to 
present  a melancholy  picture  of  human  depravity. 

Circumstance  is  as  often  employed  with  regard  to  the 
aperations  of  things,  in  which  case  it  is  most  ana- 
logous to  inciden.  and  fact : it  may  then  be  employed 
for  the  whole  affair,  or  any  part  of  it  whatever,  that 
can  be  distinctly  considered.  Incidents  and  facts  either 
are  circumstances,  or  have  circumstances  belonging  to 
them.  A remarkably  abundant  crop  in  any  particular 
part  of  a field  is  for  the  agriculturist  a singular  circum- 
stance or  incident ; this  may  be  rendered  more  surpris- 
ing if  associated  with  unusual  sterility  in  other  parts 
of  the  same  field.  A robbery  may  either  be  a.  fact  or  a 
circumstance ; its  atrocity  may  be  aggravated  by  the 
murder  of  the  injured  parties;  the  savageness  of  the 
perpetrators,  and  a variety  of  circumstances. 

Circumstance  comprehends  in  its  signification  what- 
ever may  be  said  or  thought  of  any  thing:  ‘ You  very 
often  hear  people  after  a story  has  been  told  with  some 
entertaining  circumstances,  tell  it  again  with  parti- 
culars that  destroy  the  jest.’ — Steele.  Incident  carries 
with  it  the  ide<a*of  whatever  may  befall  or  be  said  to 
befall  any  thing;  ‘It  is  to  be  considered  that  Provi- 
dence in  its  economy  regards  the  whole  system  of  time 
and  things  together,  so  that  we  cannot  discover  the 
beautiful  connexion  between  incidents  which  lie  widely 
separate  in  time.’ — Addison.  Fact  includes  in  it 
nothing  but  what  really  is  or  is  done  ; ‘In  describing 
the  achievements  and  institutions  of  the  Spaniards  in 
the'Nevv  World,  I have  departed  in  many  instances 
from  the  accounts  of  preceding  historians,  and  have 
often  related /acts  which  seem  to  have  been  unknown 
to  them.’ — Robertson.  A narrative  therefore  may 
contain  many  circumstances  and  incidents  without  any 
fact,  when  what  is  related  is  either  fictitious  or  not 
positively  known  to  have  happened  : it  is  necessary  for 
a novel  or  play  to  contain  much  incident,  but  no  facts, 
in  order  to  render  it  interesting ; history  should  contain 
nothing  but  facts,  as  authenticity  is  its  chief  merit. 

CIRCUMSTANCE,  SITUATION. 

Circumstance  signifies  the  same  as  in  the  preceding 
article;  situation,  in  French  situation,  comes  from  the 
Latin  situs,  and  the  Hebrew  to  place,  signifying 
what  is  placed  in  a certain  manner. 

Circumstance  is  to  situation  as  a part  to  a whole ; 
many  circumstances  constitute  a situation;  a situation 
is  an  aggregate  of  circumstances.  A person  is  said  to  be 
in  circumstances  of  affluence  who  has  an  abundance  of 
every  thing  essential  for  his  comfort ; he  is  in  an  easy 
situation  when  nothing  exists  to  create  uneasiness. 

Circumstance  respects  that  which  externally  affects 
us;  situation  is  employed  both  for  the  outward  cfrcwwi- 
stances  and  the  inward  feelings.  The  success  of  any 
undertaking  depends  greatly  on  {\\o  circumstances  under 
which  it  is  begun  ; ‘ As  for  Ihe  ass’s  behaviour  in  such 
nice  circum.stances,  whether  he  would  starve  sooner 
than  violate  his  neutrality  to  the  two  bundles  of  bay,  I 
shall  not  presume  to  determine.’ — Addison.  The  par- 
ticular situation  of  a person’s  mind  will  give  a cast  to 
his  words  or  actions;  ‘We  are  not  at  present  in  a 
proper  situation  to  judge  of  the  councils  by  which  Provi- 
dence acts.’ — Addison.  Circumstances  are  critical,  a 
situation  is  dangerous. 

CIRCUMSTANTIAL,  PARTICULAR,  MINUTE. 

Circumstantial,  from  circumstance,  signifies  con- 
sisting of  circumstances;  particular,  m¥cenc,\\parti- 
culier,  from  the  word  particle,  signifies  consisting  of 
particles ; minute,  in  French  minute,  Latin  minutus, 
participle  of  minuo  to  diminish,  signifies  diminished  or 
redticed  to  a very  small  point. 

Circumstantial  expresses  less  than  particular,  and 
that  less  than  minute.  A circumstantial  account  con- 
tains all  leading  events ; a particular  ao3ount  includes 
every  event  and  movement  however  trivial;  a minute 
account  omits  nothing  as  to  person,  time,  place,  figure, 
form,  and  every  other  trivial  circumstance  connected 
with  the  events.  A narrative  may  be  circumstantial, 
particular,  or  minute ; an  inquiry,  investigation,  or  de- 
scription may  be  particular  or  minute,  a detail  may  be 
minute.  An  event  or  occurrence  may  be  particular,  a 
tircumsiance  or  particular  may  be  minute.  We  may 


be  generally  satisYed  with  \ circumstantial  account  ol 
ordinary  events ; but  whatever  interests  the  feelings 
cannot  be  detailed  with  too  much  particularity  or  mi- 
nuteness ; ‘ Thomson’s  wide  expansion  of  general 
views  and  his  enumeration  of  circumstantial  varieties, 
would  have  been  obstructed  and  embarrassed  by  the 
frequent  intersections  of  the  sense  which  are  the  neces 
sary  effects  of  the  rhyme.’ — Johnson.  ‘ I am  extremel} 
troubled  at  the  return  of  your  deafness  ; you  cannot  be 
too  particular  in  the  accounts  of  your  health  to  me.’— 
Pope.  When  Pope’s  letters  were  published  an/ 
avowed,  as  they  had  relation  to  recent  facts,  and  per 
sons  either  then  living  or  not  yet  forgotten,  they  may  be 
supposed  to  have  found  readers,  but  as  the  facts  were 
minute,  and  the  characters  little  known,  or  little  re- 
I garded,  they  awakened  no  popular  kindness  or  resent- 
ment.’— Johnson. 

CONJUNCTURE,  CRISIS. 

Con  juncture,  in  Latin  conjunctura,  from  conjungo 
to  join  together,  signifies  the  joining  together  of  circum- 
stances ; crisis,  in  Latin  crisis,  Greek  KQiaii  a judge- 
ment, signifies  in  an  extended  sense  whatever  decides 
or  turns  the  scale. 

Both  these  terms  are  employed  to  express  a period  of 
time  marked  by  the  state  of  affairs.  A conjuncture  is  a 
joining  or  combination  of  corresponding  circumstances 
tending  towards  the  same  end ; ‘ Every  virtue  requires 
time  and  place,  a proper  object,  and  a fit  conjuncture  of 
circumstances  for  the  due  exercise  of  it.’ — Addison, 
A crisis  is  the  high-wrought  state  of  any  aflhir  wliich 
immediately  precedes  a change  ; 

Thought  he,  this  is  the  lucky  hour. 

Wines  work,  when  vines  are  in  the  flower ; 

This  crisis  then  I will  set  my  rest  on. 

And  put  her  boldly  to  the  question.-  Butler. 

A conjuncture  may  be  favourable,  a crisis  alarming 

An  able  statesman  seizes  the  conjuncture  which  pro 
misrs  to  suit  his  purpose,  for  the  introduction  of  a fk 
vourite  measure  : the  abilities,  firmness,  and  persevp 
ranee  of  Alfred  the  Great,  at  one  important  crisis  of  hU 
reign,  saved  England  from  destruction. 

EXIGENCY,  EMERGENCY. 

Necessity  is  the  idea  which  is  common  to  tlie  signifi- 
cation of  these  terms  : the  former,  from  the  Latin  exige 
to  demand,  expresses  what  the  case  demands ; and  the 
latter,  from  emergo,  to  arise  out  of,  denotes  what  rises 
out  of  the  case. 

The  exigency  is  more  common,  but  less  pressing ; the 
emergency  is  imperious  when  it  comes,  but  comes  less 
frequently  : a prudent  traveller  will  never  carry  more 
money  with  him  than  what  will  supply  the  exigencies 
of  his  journey ; and  in  case  of  an  emergency  will  rather 
borrow  of  his  friends  than  risk  his  property;  ‘Savage 
was  again  confined  to  Bristol,  where  he  was  every  day 
hunted  by  bailiffs.  In  this  exigence  he  once  more  found 
a friend  who  sheltered  him  in  his  house.’ — Johnson. 
When  it  was  formerly  the  fashion  to  husband  a lie 
and  to  trump  it  up  in  some  extraordinary  emergency,  it 
generally  did  execution ; but  at  present  every  man  is 
on  his  guard.’ — Addison. 


ENTERPRISING,  ADVENTUROUS. 

These  terms  mark  a disposition  to  engage  in  that 
which  is  extraordinary  and  hazardous : but  enterpris- 
ing, from  enterprise  {v.  Attempt),  is  connected  with 
the  understanding;  and  adventurous,  from  adventure^ 
venture  or  trial,  is  a characteristick  of  the  passions^ 
Tlie  enterprising  character  conceives  great  projects, 
and  pursues  objects  that  are  difficult  to  be  obtained: 
the  adventurous  character  is  contented  with  seeking 
that  which  is  new,  and  placing  himself  in  dangerous 
and  unusual  situations.  An  enterprising  spirit  belongs 
to  the  commander  of  an  army,  or  the  ruler  of  a nation ; 
an  adventurous  disposition  is  sometimes  to  be  found  in 
men  of  low  degree,  but  was  formerly  attributed  for  the 
most  part  to  knights;  Robinson  Crusoe  was  a rr«in  of 
an  adventurous  turn ; 

At  land  and  sea,  in  many  a doubtful  fight 
Was  never  known  a more  adventurous  knight. 

Who  oftener  drew  his  sword,  and  always  for  the  right 

Dryden. 


174 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


Peter  the  Great  possessed,  in  a pecuhar  manner,  an 
enterprising  genius  ; ‘ Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  who  had 
anew  forfeited  the  king’s  friendship,  by  an  intrigue 
with  a maid  of  honour,  and  who  had  been  thrown  into 
prison  for  this  misdemeanour,  no  sooner  recovered  his 
liberty  than  he  was  pushed  by  his  active  and  enter- 
prising genius  to  attempt  some  great  action.’ — Humk. 
Enterprising  characterizes  persons  only:  but  adven- 
turous is  also  applied  to  things,  to  signify  containing 
adventures  ; as  a journey,  or  a voyage,  or  a history, 
may  be  denominated  adventurous : also  in  the  sense 
of  hazardous ; 

But  ’tis  enough 

In  this  late  age,  advent' rous  to  have  touch’d 

Light  on  the  numbers  of  the  Samian  sage  ; 

High  heaven  forbids  the  bold  presumptuous  strain.  ■ 
Thomson. 


TO  HOLD,  CONTAIN. 

These  terms  agree  in  sense,  but  differ  in  application. 
To  hold  {v.  To  hold,  keep)  is  the  familiar  term  employed 
only  for  material  objects ; contain,  in  French  contenir, 
Latin  contineo,  compounded  of  con  and  teneo,  signifying 
to  keep  together  in  one  place,  is  a term  of  more  noble 
use,  being  applied  to  moral  or  spiritual  objects. 

To  hold  is  to  occupy  a space,  whether  enclosed  or 
open ; to  contain  is  to  fill  an  enclosed  space;  hence  it  is 
that  these  words  may  both  be  applied  to  the  same  ob- 
jects A cask  is  said  to  hold,  or  in  more  polished  lan- 
guage it  is  said  to  contain  a certain  number  of  gallons. 
A coach  holds  or  contains  a given  number  of  persons  ; 
a room  holds  a given  quantity  of  furniture ; a house  or 
city  contains  its  inhabitants.  Hold  is  applied  figura- 
tively and  in  poetry  in  a similar  sense  ; 

Death  only  this  mysterious  truth  unfolds. 

The  mighty  soul  how  small  a body  holds. 

Dryden. 

Contain  is  applied  in  its  proper  sense  to  spiritual  as 
material  objects ; 

But  man,  the  abstract 
Of  all  perfection,  which  the  workmanship 
Of  heav’n  hath  modell’d,  in  himself  contains 
Passions  of  several  qualities. — Ford. 

CAPACITY,  CAPACIOUSNE.SS. 

Capacity  is  the  abstract  of  capax,  receiving  or  apt  to 
tfold,  and  istherefote  applied  to  the  contents  of  hollow 
bodies:  capaciousness  is  the  abstract  of  capacious, uiiA 
is  therefore  applied  to  the  plane  surface  comprehended 
within  a given  space.  Hence  we  speak  of  the  capacity 
of  a vessel,  and  the  capaciousness  of  a room. 

Capacity  is  an  indefinite  term  simply  designating  fit- 
ness to  hold  or  receive;  but  capaciousness  denotes 
something  specifically  large.  Measuring  the  capacity 
of  vessels  belongs  to  the  science  of  mensuration : the 
capaciousness  of  rooms  is  to  be  observed  by  the  eye. 
They  are  marked  by  the  same  distinction  in  their  moral 
application:  men  are  born  with  various  capacities; 
some  are  remarkable  for  the  capaciousness  of  their 
minds. 


TO  COMPRISE,  COMPREHEND,  EMBRACE, 
CONTAIN,  INCLUDE. 

Comprise,  through  the  French  compris,  participle  of 
comprevdre,  comes  from  the  same  source  as  comprehend 
{v.  Comprehensive);  embrace,  in  French  emhrasser, 
from  em  or  in  and  bras  the  arm,  signifies  literally  to 
enclose  in  the  arms;  contain  has  the  same  signification 
as  in  the  preceding  article  ; include,  in  Latin  includo, 
compounded  of  in  and  cludo  or  claudo,  signifies  to  shut 
in  or  within  a given  space. 

Persons  or  things  comprise  or  include ; things  only 
comprehend,  embrace,  and  contain : a person  comprises 
a certain  quantity  of  matter  within  a given  space ; he 
includes  one  thing  within  another : an  author  comprises 
his  work  within  a certain  number  of  volumes,  and  in- 
cludes in  it  a variety  of  interesting  particulars. 

When  things  are  spoken  of,  comprise,  comprehend, 
and  embrace,  have  regard  to  the  aggregate  value,  quan- 
tity, or  extent : include,  to  the  individual  things  which 
form  the  whole:  contain,  either  to  the  aggregate  or  to 
the  individual,  being  in  far  t a term  of  more  ordinary 
application  than  any  of  the  others.  Comprise  and 


contain  are  used  either  in  the  proper  or  the  figurative 
sense ; comprehend,  embrace,  and  include,  in  the  figura- 
tive sense  only : a stock  comprises  a variety  of  articles; 
a library  comprises  a variety  of  books ; the  whole  ia 
comprised  within  a small  compass: 

What,  Egypt,  do  thy  pyramids  comprise  ? 

What  greatness  in  the  high-raised  folly  lies ! 

Skweli.. 

Rules  comprehend  a number  of  particulars ; laws  com- 
prehend a number  of  cases;  countries  comprehend  a 
certain  number  of  districts  or  divisions  ; terms  compre- 
hend a certain  meaning;  ‘That  particular  scheme 
which  comprehends  the  social  virtues  may  give  employ- 
ment to  the  most  industrious  temper,  and  find  a man  ir. 
business  more  than  the  most  active  station  of  life.’ — 
Addison.  A discourse  embraces  a variety  of  topickst 
a plan,  project,  scheme,  or  system,  embraces  a variety 
of  objects; 

The  virtues  of  the  several  soils  I sing, 

Mtecenas,  now  the  needful  succour  bring; 

Not  that  my  song  in  such  a scanty  space 

So  large  a subject  fully  can  embrace. — Dryden. 

A house  contains  one,  two,  or  more  persons ; a city 
contains  a number  of  houses ; a book  contains  much 
useful  matter;  a society  contains  very  many  individu- 
als ; ‘ All  a woman  has  to  do  in  this  world  is  contained 
within  the  duties  of  a daughter,  a sister,  a wife,  and  a 
mother.’ — Steele.  A society  includes  none  but  per 
sons  of  a certain  class ; or  it  includes  some  of  every 
class ; ‘ The  universal  axiom  in  which  all  complaisance 
is  included  is,  that  no  man  should  give  any  preference 
to  himself.' — Johnson. 

Their  arms  and  fishing  tackle  comprise  the  persona! 
effectsof  most  savages ; all  the  moral  law  of  a Christian 
is  comprised  under  the  word  charity : Sweden  compre- 
hends Finland  and  Lapland : London  is  said  to  contain 
above  a million  of  inhabitants:  bills  of  mortality  are 
made  out  in  most  large  parishes,  but  they  include  only 
such  persons  as  die  of  diseases ; a calculator  of  ex- 
penses will  always  fall  short  of  his  estimate  who  does 
not  include  the  minor  contingencies  which  usually 
attach  to  every  undertaking. 

It  is  here  worthy  of  observation,  that  in  the  last  two 
examples  from  Steele  and  Johnson  the  words  compre- 
hend and  comprise  would,  according  to  established 
usage,  have  been  more  appropriate  than  contain  and 
include. 

COMPREHENSIVE,  EXTENSIVE. 

Comprehensive  respects  quantity,  extensive  regards 
space  ; that  is  comprehensive  that  comprehends  much, 
that  is  extensive  that  extends  into  a wide  field : a com- 
prehensive view  of  a subject  includes  all  branches  of 
it;  an  extensive  \\e\v  of  a subject  enters  into  minute 
details : the  comprehensive  is  associated  with  the  con- 
cise ; the  extensive  with  the  diffuse : it  requires  a capa- 
cious mind  to  take  a comprehensive  survey  of  any 
subject;  it  is  possible  for  a superficial  thinker  to  enter 
very  extensively  into  some  parts,  while  he  passes 
over  others. 

Comprehensive  is  employed  only  with  regard  to  in- 
tellectual objects ; ‘ It  is  natural  to  hope  that  a compre- 
hensive is  likewise  an  elevated  soul,  and  that  whoever 
is  wise  is  also  honest.’ — Johnson.  Extensive  is  used 
both  in  the  properand  the  improper  sense  : the  significa- 
tion of  a word  is  comprehensive,  or  the  powers  of  the 
mind  are  comprehensive : a plain  is  extensive,  or  a 
field  of  inquiry  is  extensive;  ‘The  trade  carried  on  by 
the  Phoenicians  of  Sidon  and  Tyre  was  more  extensive 
and  enterprising  than  that  of  any  state  in  the  ancient 
world.’ — Robertson. 


TO  ENCLOSE,  INCLUDE. 

From  the  Latin  includo  and  its  participle  inclusus 
are  derived  enclose  and  include ; the  former  to  express 
the  proper,  and  the  latter  the  improper  signification : a 
yard  is  enclosed  by  a wall ; particular  goods  are  in 
eluded  in  a reckoning:  the  kernel  of  a nut  is  enclosed 
in  a shell,  or  a body  of  men  are  enclosed  within  walls  ' 

With  whom  she  marched  straight  against  her  foes, 
And  them  unawares  besides  the  Severne  did  enclose 

OFENSER 


lnglish  synonymes. 


17o 


Morality  as  well  as  faith  is  included  in  Christian  per- 
fection ; ‘ The  idea  of  being  once  present  is  included  in 
the  idea  of  its  being  past.’ — Grove. 

TO  CIRCUMSCRIBE,  ENCLOSE. 

Circumscribe,  from  the  Latin  circum  about,  and 
scribo  to  write,  marks  simply  the  surrounding  with  a 
line ; enclose,  from  the  Latin  inclusus,  participle  of 
includo,  compounded  of  in  and  claudo  to  shut,  marks 
a species  of  continement. 

The  extent  of  any  place  is  drawn  out  to  the  eye  by 
a circumscription : ‘Who  can  imagine  that  the  exist- 
ence of  a creature  is  to  be  circumscribed  by  time, 
whose  thoughts  are  not"?’ — Addison.  The  extent  of 
a nlace  is  limited  to  a given  point  by  an  enclosure ; 
Remember  on  that  happy  coast  to  build, 

And  with  a trench  enclose  the  fruitful  field. 

Dryden. 

A garden  is  circumscribed  by  any  ditch,  line,  or  posts, 
that  serve  as  its  boundaries  ; it  is  enclosed  by  a wall  or 
fence.  An  enclosure  may  serve  to  circumscribe,  but 
that  which  barely  circumscribes  will  seldom  serve  to 
enclose. 

TO  SURROUND,  ENCOMPASS,  ENVIRON, 
ENCIRCLE. 

Surround,  in  old  French  surrender,  signifies,  by 
means  of  the  intensive  syllable  sur  over,  to  go  all 
round ; encompass,  compounded  of  en  or  in  and  com- 
pass, signifies  to  bring  within  a certain  compass  formed 
by  a circle  ; so  likewise  environ,  from  the  Latin  gyrus, 
and  the  Greek  yvpdi  a curve,  and  also  encircle,  signify 
to  bring  within  a circle. 

Surround  is  the  most  literal  and  general  of  all  these 
terms,  which  signify  to  enclose  any  object  either  directly 
or  indirectly.  We  may  surround  an  object  by  standing 
at  certain  distances  all  round  it;  in  this  manner  a 
town,  a house,  or  a person,  may  be  surrounded  by 
other  persons,  or  an  object  xnny  surrounded  by  en- 
closing it  in  every  direction,  and  at  every  point ; in  this 
manner  a garden  is  surrounded  by  a wall ; 

But  not  to  me  returns 

Day,  or  the  sweet  approach  of  ev’n  or  morn. 

But  cloud  instead,  and  ever-during  dark 
Surrounds  me. — Milton. 

To  encompass  is  to  surround  in  the  latter  sense,  and 
applies  to  objects  of  a great  or  indefinite  extent : the 
earth  is  encompassed  by  the  air,  which  we  terra  the 
atmosphere : towns  are  encompassed  by  walls; 

Where  Orpheus  on  his  lyre  laments  his  love. 

With  beasts  encompass'd,  and  a dancing  grove. 

Dryden. 

To  surround  is  to  go  round  an  object  of  any  form, 
whether  square  or  circular,  long  or  short ; but  to  en- 
viron and  to  encircle  carry  with  them  the  idea  of  form- 
ing a circle  round  an  object ; thus  a town  or  a valley 
may  be  environed  by  hills,  a basin  of  water  may  be 
encircled  by  trees,  or  the  head  may  be  encircled  by  a 
wreath  of  flowers ; 

Of  fighting  elements,  on  all  sides  round 
Env  iron' d. — M i lton. 

As  in  the  hollow  breast  of  Apennine, 

Beneath  the  shelter  of  encircling  hills, 

A myrtle  rises,  far  from  human  eye. 

So  flourish’d,  blooming,  and  unseen  by  all. 

The  sweet  Lavinia.— Thomson. 

In  an  extended  or  moral  sense  we  are  said  to  be  sur- 
rounded by  objects  which  are  in  great  numbers,  and  in 
different  directions  about  us  : thus  a person  living  in  a 
particular  spot  where  he  has  many  friends  may  say  he 
is  surrounded  by  his  friends ; so  likewise  a particular 
person  may  say  that  he  is  surrounded  by  dangers  and 
difficulties;  but  in  speaking  of  man  in  a general  sense, 
we  should  rather  say  he  is  encompassed  by  dangers, 
which  expresses  in  a much  stronger  manner  our  pecu- 
liarly exposed  condition. 

CIRCLE,  SPHERE,  ORB,  GLOBE. 

Circle,  in  Latin  circulus,  Greek  k^k^os,  in  all  proba- 
bility comes  from  the  Hebrew  JIH  ^ circle  ; sphere,  in 
■•.4atin  phara,  Greek  atpaipa,  from  ane'ipa  a line,  signi- 


fies that  which  is  contained  within  a prescribed  line ; 
orb,  in  Latin  orbis,  from  orho  to  circumscribe  with  a 
circle,  signifies  the  thing  that  is  circumscribed  ; globe, 
in  Latin  globus,  in  ail  prooability  comes  from  the 
Hebrew  a rolled  heap. 

Rotundity  of  figure  is  the  common  idea  expressed 
by  these  terms;  but  the  circle  is  that  figure  which  is 
represented  on  a plane  superficies;  the  others  are 
figures  represented  by  solids.  We  draw  a circle  by 
means  of  compasses ; the  sphere  is  a round  body,  con- 
ceived to  be  formed  according  to  the  rules  of  geometry 
by  the  circumvolution  of  a circle  round  about  its 
diameter;  hence  the  whole  frame  of  the  world  is 
denominated  a sphere.  An  orb  is  any  body  which 
describes  a circle;  hence  the  heavenly  bodies  are 
termed  orbs  ; 

Thousands  of  suns  beyond  each  other  blaze, 

Orbs  roll  o’er  orbs,  and  glow  with  mutual  rays 

Jknyns. 

A globe  is  any  solid  body,  the  surface  of  which  is  in 
every  part  equn»isiant  from  the  centre ; of  this  de 
scription  is  the  D-rrestrial  globe. 

The  term  circle  may  be  applied  in  the  improper  sense 
to  any  round  figure,  which  is  formed  or  supposed  to  be 
formed  by  circumscribing  a space;  simple  rotundity 
constituting  a circle:  in  this  manner  a circle  may  be 
formed  by  real  objects,  as  persons,  or  by  moral  objects, 
as  pleasures; 

Might  I from  fortune’s  bounteous  hand  receive 
Each  boon,  each  blessing  in  her  power  to  give; 

E’en  at  this  mighty  price  1 ’d  not  be  bound 
To  tread  the  same  dull  circle  round  and  round 
The  soul  requires  enjoyments  more  sublime. 

By  space  unbounded,  undestroy’d  by  time. 

Jenyns 

To  the  idea  of  circle  is  annexed  that  of  extent  around, 
in  the  signification  of  a sphere,  as  a sphere  of  activity, 
whether  applied  in  the  philosophical  sense  to  natural 
bodies,  or  in  the  moral  sense  to  men ; 

Or  if  some  stripes  from  Providence  we  feel. 

He  strikes  with  pity,  and  but  wounds  to  heal ; 
Kindly,  perhaps,  sometimes  afilicts  us  here. 

To  guide  our  views  to  a sublimer  sphere. — Jenyn? 
Hollowness,  as  well  as  rotundity,  belongs  to  an  orb , 
hence  we  speak  of  the  orb  of  a wheel.  Of  a globe 
solidity  is  the  peculiar  characteristick ; hence  any  ball, 
like  the  ball  of  the  earth,  may  be  represented  as  a 
globe ; 

Thus  roaming  with  advent’rous  wing  the  globe. 
From  scene  to  scene  excursive,  I behold 
In  all  her  workings,  beauteous,  great,  or  new 
Fair  nature,— Mallet. 


CIRCUIT,  TOUR,  ROUND. 

Circuit,  in  French  circuit,  Latin  circuitus,  participK 
of  circumeo,  signifies  either  the  act  of  going  round,  o.^ 
the  extent  gone ; tour  is  but  a variation  of  turn,  signi- 
fying a mere  turn  of  the  body  in  travelling ; rowid 
marks  the  track  round,  or  the  space  gone  round. 

A circuit  is  made  for  a specifick  end  of  a serious 
kind ; a tour  is  always  made  for  pleasure ; a round, 
like  a circuit,  is  employed  in  matters  of  business;  but 
of  a more  familiar  and  ordinary  kind.  A judge  goes 
his  circuit  at  particular  periods  of  time : gentlemen,  in 
times  of  peace,  consider  it  as  an  essential  part  of  their 
education  to  make  what  is  termed  the  grand  tour: 
tradesmen  have  certain  rounds  which  they  take  on 
certain  days ; 

’T  is  night ! the  season  when  the  happy  take 

Repose,  and  only  wretches  are  awake ; 

Now  discontented  ghosts  begin  their  rounds. 

Haunt  ruin’d  buildings  and  unwholesome  grounds. 

Otway. 

We  speak  of  making  the  circuit  of  a place;  of 
taking  a tour  in  a given  county ; or  going  a particular 
round.  A circuit  is  wide  or  narrow ; a tour  and  a 
round  is  great  or  little.  A circuit  is  prescribed  as  to 
extent ; a tour  is  optional ; a round  is  prescribed  or 
otherwise.  Ci^c-uit  is  seldom  used  but  in  a specifick 
sense ; 

Th’  unfledg’d  commanders  and  the  martial  train. 

First  make  the  circuit  of  the  sandy  plain.--DRYDEN 


176 


ENGLISH  SVNONYMES. 


Tour  13  seldom  employed  but  in  regard  to  travelling ; 
Goldsmith’s  tour  through  Europe  we  are  told  was 
made  f^r  the  most  part  on  foot.’ — Johnson.  Round 
may  be  taken  liguratively,  as  when  we  speak  of  going 
one's  round  of  pleasure;  ‘ Savage  had  projected  a per- 
etual  round  of  innocent  pleasure  in  Wales,  of  which 
e suspected  no  interruption  from  pride,  or  ignorance, 
9r  brutality.’— Johnson. 

TO  BOUND,  LIMIT,  CONFINE,  CIRCUM- 
SCRIBE, RESTRICT. 

Bound  comes  from  the  verb  bind^  signifying  that 
Tvhicli  binds  fast  or  close  to  an  object ; limit,  from  the 
Latin  limes  a landmark,  signifies  to  draw  a line  which 
is  to  be  the  exteriour  line  or  limit ; confine  signifies  to 
bring  witliin  confines  (v.  Border) ; circumscribe  has 
the  same  signification  as  given  under  the  head  of  Cir- 
cumscribe; restrict,  in  Latin  restriction,  participle  of 
restringo,  compounded  of  re  and  stringo,  signifies  to 
Keep  fast  back. 

The  first  four  of  these  terms  are  employed  in  the 
proper  sense  of  parting  oft'  certain  spaces. 

Bound  applies  to  the  natural  or  political  divisions  of 
the  earth;  countries  arefbounded  by  mountains  and 
3eas;  kingdoms  are  often  bounded  by  each  other; 
Spain  is  bounded  on  one  side  by  Portugal,  on  another 
side  by  the  Mediterranean,  and  on  the  third  by  the 
Pyrenees.  Limit  applies  to  any  artificial  boundary: 
as  landmarks  in  fields  serve  to  show  the  limits  of  one 
man’s  ground  from  another;  so  may  walls,  palings, 
hedges,  or  any  other  visible  sign,  be  converted  into  a 
limit,  to  distinguish  one  spot  from  another,  and  in  this 
manner  a field  is  said  to  be  limited,  because  it  has  limits 
assigned  to  it.  To  confine  is  to  bring  the  limits  close 
together ; to  part  off  one  space  absolutely  from  another; 
in  this  manner  we  confine  a garden  by  means  of  walls. 
To  circumscribe  is  literally  to  surround : in  this  manner 
a circle  may  circumscribe  a square  ; there  is  this  differ- 
ence however  between  confine  and  circumscribe,  that 
.he  former  denotes  not  only  visible  limits,  but  such  as 
may  also  prevent  egress  and  ingress;  whereas  the 
'atter,  which  is  only  a line,  is  but  a simple  mark  that 
Umits. 

From  the  proper  acceptation  of  these  terms  we  may 
jasily  perceive  the  ground  on  which  their  improper 
icceptation  rests  : to  bound  is  an  ketion  suited  to  the 
lature  of  things  or  to  some  given  rule  ; in  this  manner 
onr  views  are  bounded  by  the  objects  which  intercept 
jur  sight;  we  bound  our  desires  according  to  principles 
of  propriety.  To  limit,  confine,  and  circumscribe,  all 
convey  the  idea  of  control  which  is  more  or  less  ex- 
ercised. To  limit,  whether  it  be  said  of  persons  Zi/nzt- 
ing  things,  or  persons  being  limited  by  things,  is  an 
affair  of  discretion  or  necessity ; we  Zmzt  our  expenses 
because  we  are  limited  by  circumstances.  Confine 
conveys  the  same  idea  to  a still  stronger  degree : what 
is  confined  is  not  only  brought  within  a limit  but  is 
kept  to  that  Izniit  which  it  cannot  pass:  in  this  man- 
ner a person  confines  himself  to  a diet  which  he  finds 
absolutely  necessary  for  his  health,  or  he  is  confined  in 
the  size  of  his  house,  in  the  choice  of  his  situation,  or 
n other  circumstances  equally  uncontrollable:  hence 
the  term  confined  expresses  also  the  idea  of  the  limits 
being  made  narrow  as  well  as  impassable  or  unchange- 
able. To  circumscribe  is  figuratively  to  draw  a line 
round ; in  this  manner  we  are  circumscribed  in  our 
pecuniary  circumstances  when  our  sphere  of  action  is 
brought  within  a line  by  the  want  of  riches.  In  as 
much  as  all  these  terms  convey  the  idea  of  being  acted 
upon  involuntarily,  they  become  allied  to  the  term  re- 
strict, which  simply  expresses  the  exercise  of  control 
on  the  will ; we  use  restriction  when  we  limit  and  con- 
Une,  but  we  may  restrict  without  limiting  or  confin- 
ing : to  limit  and  confine  are  the  acts  of  things  upon 
persons,  or  persons  upon  persons  ; but  restrict  is  only 
the  act  of  persons  upon  persons ; we  are  limited  or 
confined  only  to  a certain  degree,  but  we  may  be  re- 
stricted to  an  indefinite  degree  : the  limiting  and  con- 
fining  depend  often  on  ourselves ; the  restriction  de- 
pends upon  the  will  of  others : a person  limits  himself 
to  so  many  hours’  work  in  a day ; an  author  confines 
himself  to  a particular  branch  of  a subject ; a person 
is  restricted  by  his  physician  to  a certain  portion  of 
food  in  the  day  ; to  be  confined  to  a certain  spot  is  irk- 
some to  one  who  has  always  had  his  liberty  ; but  to 
be  restricted  in  all  his  actions  would  be  ii.tolerable. 


Our  greatest  happiness  consists  in  hounding  Our  dc 
sires  to  our  condition ; 

My  passion  is  too  strong 

In  reason’s  narrow  bounds  to  be  confin'd. 

Wandeskoud 

It  is  prudent  to  limit  our  exertions,  when  we  fi.  d 
them  prejudicial  to  our  health;  ‘ The  operations  of  the 
mind  are  not,  like  those  of  the  hands,  limited  to  one 
individual  object,  but  at  once  extended  to  a whole 
species.’ — Bartlet.  It  is  necessary  to  confine  our 
attention  to  one  object  at  a time ; ‘ Mechaijical  motions 
or  operations  are  confined  to  a narrow  circle  of  low  and 
little  things.’— Bartlet.  It  is  unfortunate  to  bt  cir- 
cumscribed in  our  means  of  doing  good  ; 

Therefore  must  his  choice  be  circumscrib'd 
Unto  the  voice  and  yielding  of  that  body. 
Whereof  he ’s  head. — Shakspeare. 

It  is  painful  to  be  restricted  in  the  enjoyment  of  inno 
cent  pleasure;  ‘It  is  not  necessary  to  teach  men  to 
thirst  after  power ; but  it  is  very  expedient  that  by 
moral  instructions  they  should  be  taught,  and  by  their 
civil  institutions  they  should  be  compelled,  to  put  many 
restrictions  upon  the  immoderate  exercise  of  it.’ — 
Blackstone. 

Bounded  is  opposed  to  unbounded,  limited  to  extend- 
ed, confined  to  expanded,  circumscribed  to  ample,  re- 
stricted to  unshackled. 


BORDER,  EDGE,  RIM  OR  BRIM,  BRINK, 
MARGIN,  VERGE. 

Border,  in  French  bord  or  ZiordMre,TeutonickJord, 
is  probably  connected  with  bret,  and  the  English  board 
from  brytan,  in  Greek  irpiltiv  to  split ; edge,  in  Saxon 
ege,  low  German  egge,  nigh  German  ecke  a point, 
Latin  acies,  Greek  dKy  sharpness,  signifies  a sharp 
point ; rim,  in  Saxon  rima,  high  German  rahmen  a 
frame,  riemen  a thong,  Greek  pS/za  a tract,  from  fiim  to 
draw,  signifies  a line  drawn  round ; brim,  brink,  are 
but  variations  of  rim ; margin,  in  French  margin, 
Latin  margo,  probably  comes  from  mare  the  sea,  as  it 
is  mostly  connected  with  water  ; verge,  from  the  Latin 
virga,  signifies  a rod,  but  is  here  used  in  the  improper 
sense  for  the  extremity  of  an  object. 

Of  these  terms  border  is  the  least  definite  point,  edge 
the  most  so ; rim  and  brink  are  species  of  edge;  mar- 
gin and  verge  are  species  of  border.  A border  is  a 
stripe,  an  edge  is  a line.  The  border  lies  at  a certain 
distance  from  the  edge,  the  edge  is  the  exteriour  termi- 
nation of  the  surface  of  any  substance;  ‘Methought 
the  shilling  that  lay  upon  the  table  reared  itsehf  upon 
its  edge,  and  turning  i.s  face  towards  me  opened  its 
mouth.’ — Addison.  Whatever  is  wide  enough  to  ad- 
mit of  any  space  round  its  circumference  may  have  a 
border ; 

So  the  pure  limpid  stream,  when  with  foul  stains 
Of  rushing  torrents  and  descending  rains. 

Works  itself  clear,  and  as  it  runs  refines. 

Till  by  degrees  the  crystal  mirror  shines. 

Reflects  each  flower  that  on  its  border  grows. 

Addison. 

Whatever  comes  to  a narrow  extended  surface  has  an 
edge.  Many  things  may  have  both  a border  and  an 
edge;  of  this  description  are  caps,  gowns,  carpets,  and 
the  like  ; others  have  a border  but  no  edge,  as  lands; 
and  others  have  an  edge  but  no  border,  as  a knife  or  a 
table. 

A rim  is  the  edge  of  any  vessel ; 

But  Merion’s  spear  o’ertook  him  as  he  flew. 

Deep  in  the  belly’s  rim  an  entrance  found 
Where  sharp  the  pang,  and  mortal  is  the  wound. 

Pope. 

The  brim  is  the  exteriour  edge  of  a cup ; a brink  is  thfl 
edge  of  any  precipice  or  deep  place ; 

As  I approach  the  precipice’s  brink. 

So  steep,  so  terrible,  appears  the  depth. 

Lansdowne. 

A margin  is  the  border  of  a book  or  a piece  of  watef 
By  the  sea’s  margin  on  the  watery  strand 
Thy  monument,  Themistocles,  shall  stand. 

Cumberland. 

A vorge  is  the  extreme  border  of  a place; 


ENferUSH  SYNONYMES. 


17’’ 


10  the  earth’s  utmost  veree  1 wLil  pursue  him ; 

No  place,  though  e’er  so  holy,  shall  protect  him. 

Rowe. 


BOUNDLESS,  UNBOUNDED,  UNLIMITED, 
INFINITE. 

Boundless,  or  without  bounds,  is  applied  to  infinite 
objects  which  admit  of  no  bounds  to  be  inade  or  con- 
ceived by  us ; unbounded,  or  not  bounded,  is  applied  to 
that  which  might  be  bounded ; unlimited,  or  not  limit- 
ed, applies  to  that  which  might  be  limited ; infinite,  or 
not  finite,  applies  to  that  which  in  its  nature  admits  of 
no  bounds. 

The  ocean  is  a boundless  object  so  long  as  no  bounds 
to  it  have  been  discovered,  or  no  bounds  are  set  to  it  in 
our  imagination ; 

And  see  the  country  far  diffus’d  around 

One  boundless  blush,  one  white  empurpled  shower 

Of  mingled  blossoms.— Thomson. 

Desires  are  often  unbounded,  which  ought  always  to 
be  bounded ; 

The  soul  requires  enjoyments  more  sublime. 

By  space  unbounded,  uadestroy’d  by  time. 

Jenyns. 

Power  is  sometimes  unlimited  when  it  would  be  better 
limited ; ‘ Gray’s  curiosity  was  unlimited,  and  his 
judgement  cultivated.’— Johnson.  Nothing  is  infinite 
but  that  Being  from  whom  all  finite  beings  proceed; 

‘ In  the  wide  fields  of  nature  the  sight  wanders  up  and 
down  without  confinement,  and  is  fed  with  an  infinite 
variety  of  images.’ — Addison. 

BOUNDS,  BOUNDARY. 

Bounds  and  boundary,  from  the  verb  bound  {v.  To 
tioMwd),  signify  the  line  which  sets  a bound,  or  marks 
the  extent  to  which  any  spot  of  ground  reaches.  The 
term  bounds  is  employed  to  designate  the  whole  space 
including  the  outer  line  that  coir^nes ; boundary  com- 
prehends  only  this  outer  line.  Bounds  are  made  for 
a local  purpose ; boundary  for  a political  purpose : the 
master  of  a school  prescribes  the  bounds  beyond  which 
the  scholar  is  not  to  go ; 

So  when  the  swelling  Nile  contemns  her  hounds, 

And  with  extended  waste  the  valleys  drowns, 

At  length  her  ebbing  streams  resign  the  field. 

And  to  the  pregnant  soil  a tenfold  harvest  yield. 

Cibber. 

The  parishes  throughout  England  have  their  bounda- 
ries, which  are  distinguished  by  marks ; fields  have 
likewise  their  boundaries,  which  are  commonly  marked 
out  by  a hedge  or  a ditch ; ‘ Alexander  did  not  in  his 
progress  towards  the  East  advance  beyond  the  banks 
of  the  rivers  that  fall  into  the  Indus,  which  is  now  the 
Western  boundary  of  the  vast  continent  of  India.’— 
Robertson. 

Bounds  are  temporary  and  changeable ; boundaries 
permanent  and  fixed  : whoever  has  the  authority  of 
prescribing  bounds  for  others,  may  in  !il?e  manner  con- 
tract or  extend  them  at  pleasure  ; the  boundaries  of 
places  are  seldom  altered,  but  in  consequence  of  great 
political  changes. 

In  the  figurative  sense  bound  or  bounds  is  even  more 
frequently  used  than  boundary : we  speak  of  setting 
bounds  or  keeping  wiHiin  bounds  ; but  of  knowing  a 
boundary  : it  is  necessary  occasionally  to  set  bounds  to 
the  inordinate  appetites  of  the  best  disposed  children  ; 
‘There  are  bounds  within  which  our  concern  for 
worldly  success  must  be  confined.’— Blair.  Children 
cannot  be  expected  to  know  the  exact  boundary  for  in- 
dulgence; ‘It is  the  proper  ambition  of  heroes  in  lite- 
rature to  enlarge  the  boundaries  of  knowledge  by  dis- 
covering and  conquering  new  regions  of  the  intellec- 
tual world.' — Johnson. 


LIMIT,  EXTENT. 

Limit  its  a more  specifick  and  definite  term  than  ex- 
tent ; by  the  former  we  are  directed  to  the  point  where 
any  thing  ends ; by  the  latter  we  are  led  to  no  particu- 
lar point,  but  to  the  whole  space  included ; the  limits 
are  in  their  nature  something  finite  ; the  extent  is  either 
finite  or  infinite:  we  therefore  speak  of  that  which 
exceeds  the  limits,  or  comes  within  the  limits ; and  of 


that  which  comprehends  the  extent,  or  is  according  to 
the  extent : a plenipotentiary  or  minister  must  not  ex 
ceed  the  limits  of  his  instruction  ; when  we  think  of 
the  immense  extent  of  this  globe,  and  that  it  is  among 
the  smallest  of  an  infinite  number  of  worlds,  the  mind 
is  lost  in  admiration  and  amazement:  it  does  not  fall 
within  the  limits  of  a periodical  work  to  enter  into 
historical  details  ; ‘ Whatsoever  a man  accounts  his 
treasure  answers  all  his  capacities  of  pleasure.  It  is 
the  utmost  limit  ol  enjoyment.’— South  A complete 
history  of  anv  country  is  a work  of  great  extent ; ‘ It  is 
observable  that,  either  by  nature  or  habit,  our  facul 
lies  are  fitted  to  images  of  a certain  extent.' — J^)F..vtON 

TERM,  LIMIT,  BOUNDARY. 

* Term,  in  Latin  terminus,  from  the  Greek  rtpim  ar, 
end,  is  the  point  that  ends,  and  that  to  which  we  direct 
our  steps  : limit,  from  the  Latin  limes  a landmark,  is 
the  line  which  we  must  not  pass : boundary,  from  to 
bound,  is  the  obstacle  which  interrupts  our  progress,  and 
prevents  us  from  passing. 

We  are  either  carried  towards  or  away  from  the 
term;  we  either  keep  within  limits,  or  we  overstep 
them  ; we  contract  or  extend  r^boundary. 

The  term  and  the  limit  belong  to  the  thing ; by  them 
it  is  ended ; they  include  it  in  the  space  which  it  occu 
pies,  or  contain  it  within  its  sphere;  the  boundary  is 
extraneous  of  it.  The  Straits  of  Gibraltar  was  the 
term  of  Hercules’  voyages  : it  was  said  with  more  elo- 
quence than  truth,  that  the  limits  of  the  Roman  empire 
were  those  of  the  world  : the  sea,  the  Alps,  and  the  Py- 
renees, are  the  natural  boundaries  of  France.  We 
mostly  reach  the  term  of  our  prosperity  when  we  at- 
temi)l  to  pass  the  limits  which  Providence  has  assigned 
to  human  efforts  : human  ambition  often  finds  a boun 
dary  set  to  its  gratification  by  circumstances  which 
were  the  most  unlooked  for,  and  apparently  the  least 
adapted  to  bring  about  such  important  results. 

We  see  the  term  of  our  evils  only  in  the  term  of  oui 
life ; 

No  term  of  time  this  union  shall  divide.— Dryden, 
Our  desires  have  no  limits;  their  gratification  only 
serves  to  extend  our  prospects  indefinitely;  ‘The  wall 
of  Antoninus  was  fixed  as  the  limit  of  the  Roman  ein 
pire.’ — Gibbon.  Those  only  are  happy  whose  fortune 
is  the  boundary  of  their  desires ; ‘ Providence  has  fixed 
the  limits  of  human  enjoyment  by  immoveable  boun 
danes.’— Johnson. 


CONTRACTED,  CONFINED,  NARROW 

Contracted,  from  the  verb  contract,  in  Latin  con 
tractus,  participle  of  contraho  to  draw  or  come  close 
together,  signifies  either  the  state  or  quality  of  being 
shrunk  up,  lessened  in  size,  or  brought  within  a smaller 
compass;  cow^wed  marks  the  state  of  being  confined; 
narrow  is  a variation  of  near,  signifying  the  quality 
of  being  near,  close,  or  not  extended. 

Contraction  arises  from  the  inherent  state  of  the  ob 
ject;  confined  is  produced  by  some  external  agent;  a 
limb  is  contracted  from  disease;  it  is  confined  by  a 
chain;  we  speak  morally  of  the  contracted  span  of  a 
man’s  life,  and  the  confined  view  which  ne  takes  of  a 
subject. 

Contracted  and  confined  respect  the  operation  ol 
things ; narrow,  their  qualities  or  accidents : whatever 
is  contracted  or  confined  is  more  or  less  narrow  ; but 
many  things  are  narrow  which  have  never  been  con- 
tracted or  confined  ; what  is  narrow  is  therefore  more 
positively  so  than  either  contracted  or  confined ; a con 
traded  mind  has  but  few  objects  on  which  it  dwells  to 
the  exclusion  of  others;  ‘Notwithstanding  a narrow, 
contracted  temper  be  that  which  obtains  most  in  the 
world,  we  must  not  therefore  conclude  this  to  be  the 
genuine  characteristick  of  mankind  ’ — Grove.  A con- 
fined education  is  confined  to  few  points  of  knowledge  oi 
information ; ‘ In  its  present  habitation,  thesoul  is  plainly 
confined  in  its  operations.’ — Blair.  ‘ The  presence  of 
every  created  being  is  confined  to  a certain  measure  oi 
space,  and  consequently  his  observation  is  stinted  to  a 
certain  number  of  objects.’ — Addison.  A narrow  soul 
is  hemmed  in  by  a single  selfish  passion . ‘ Resentments 
are  noteasily  dislodged  from  narrow  minds.’— Cumber 
LAND 


* Vide  Girard ; “Termes^limUes,  homes.’ 


178 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


TO  ABRIDGE  CURTAIL,  CONTRACT. 

.^bridge,  in  Fren:h  abriger,  I atin  abbreviare,  is 
Pompouiided  of  tlic  intensive  syllable  ab  and  breviare, 
from  brevis  short,  signifying  to  make  short;  curtail^  in 
French  courts  short,  and  teller  to  cut,  signifies  to  di- 
minish in  length  by  cutting;  contract,  in  Latin  con- 
tractus, participle  of  contraho,  is  compounded  of  con 
and  trako,  signifying  to  draw  close  together. 

By  abridging,  in  the  figurative  as  well  as  the  literal 
sense,  the  quality  is  diminished;  by  curtailing,  the 
magnitude  or  number  is  reduced;  by  contracting,  a 
thing  is  brought  within  smaller  compass.  Privileges 
are  abridged,  pleasures  curtailed,  and  powers  con- 
tracted. 

When  the  liberty  of  a person  is  too  much  abridged, 
the  enjoyments  of  life  become  curtailed,  as  the  powers 
of  acting  and  thinking,  according  to  the  genuine  ini 
pulse  of  the  mind,  are  thereby  considerably  contracted ; 
‘ This  would  very  much  abridge  the  lover’s  pains  in 
this  way  of  writing  a letter,  as  i»  would  enable  him  to 
express  the  most  useful  and  significant  words  with  a 
single  touch  of  the  needle.’ — Addison.  ‘I  remember 
several  ladies  who  were  once  vi  ry  near  seven  feet  high, 
that  at  present  want  some  indies  of  five:  how  they 
came  to  be  thus  curtailtd  I cannot  learn.’ — Addison. 
‘ He  that  rises  up  early  and  goes  to  bed  late  only  to  re- 
ceive addresses  is  really  as  much  tied  and  abridged  in 
his  freedom  as  he  that  wails  all  that  time  to  present  one.’ 
—South.  ‘ God  has  given  no  mun  a body  as  strong  as 
his  appetites ; but  has  corrected  the  boundlessness  of 
his  voluptuous  desires,  by  stinting,  his  strength  and  con- 
tracting his  capacities.’ — Soijtb 


CONFINEMENT,  IMPRISONMENT,  CAPTIVITY. 

Confinement  signifies  the  act  of  confining,  or  the  state 
of  being  confined  ; imprisonment,  compounded  of  im 
and  prison,  French  prison,  from  pris,  participle  of 
prendre,  Latin  prehendo  to  take,  signifies  the  act  or 
state  of  being  taken  or  laid  hold  of;  captivity,  in 
French  captiviti,  Latin  captivitas  from  capio  to  take, 
signifies  likewise  the  state  of  being,  or  being  kept  in 
possession  by  another. 

Confinement  is  the  generick,  the  other  two  specifick 
terms.  Confinement  and  imprisonment  both  imply  the 
abridgement  of  one’s  personal  freedom,  but  the  former 
specifies  no  cause  which  the  latter  does.  We  may  be 
confined  in  a room  by  ill  health,  or  confined  in  any  place 
by  way  of  punishment;  but  we  are  never  imprisoned 
but  in  some  specifick  place  appointed  for  the  confine- 
ment of  ofienders,  and  always  on  some  supposed  of- 
fence. W e are  captives  by  the  rights  of  war,  when  we 
fall  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy. 

Confinement  does  not  specify  the  degree  or  manner 
as  the  other  terms  do;  it  may  even  extend  to  the  re- 
stricting of  the  body  of  its  free  movements.  Imprison- 
ment simply  cow^nes  the  person  within  a certain  extent 
of  ground,  or  the  walls  of  a prison  ; ‘ Confinement  of 
any  kind  is  dreadful:  let  your  imagination  acquaint 
you  with  what  I have  not  words  to  express,  and  con- 
ceive, if  possible,  the  horronrs  of  imprisonment,  attended 
with  reproach  and  ignominy.’ — Johnson.  Captivity 
leaves  a person  at  liberty  to  range  within  a whole 
country  or  district ; 

There  in  captivity  he  lets  them  dwell 

Xhe  space  of  seventy  years  ; then  brings  them  back, 

Rememb’ring  mercy.— Milton. 

For  life,  being  weary  of  these  worldly  bars. 

Never  lacks  power  to  dismiss  itself ; 

In  that  each  bondman,  in  his  own  hand,  bears 
The  power  to  cancel  his  captivity: 

But  I do  think  it  cowardly  and  vile.— Shakspeare. 
Confinement  is  so  general  a term,  as  to  be  applied  to 
animals  and  even  to  inanimate  objects;  imprisonment 
and  captivity  are  applied  in  the  proper  sense  to  persons 
only,  but  they  admit  of  a figurative  application.  Poor 
stray  anima’s,  who  are  found  trespassing  on  unlawful 
ground,  are  doomed  to  a wretched  confinement,  ren- 
dered still  more  hard  and  intolerable  by  the  want  of 
food:  the  confinement  of  plants  within  too  narrow  a 
spice  will  stop  their  growth  for  want  of  air ; 

But  now  my  sorrows,  long  with  pain  supprest. 

Burst  their  confinement  with  impetuous  sway. 

Young 


There  is  many  a poor  captive  in  a cage  \rho,  lik 
Sterne’s  starling,  would  say,  if  it  could,  ‘I  want  to  ge* 
out.”  ^ 

FINITE,  LIMITED. 

Finite,  from  finis  an  end,  is  the  natural  property  of 
things  ; and  limited,  from  limes  a boundary,  is  tiie  arti- 
ficial property  : the  former  is  opposite  only  to  the  infi- 
nite ; but  the  latter,  which  lies  within  the  finite,  is  op- 
posed to  the  unlimited  or  the  infinite.  This  wor  d ii 
finite,  and  space  infinite ; ‘Methinks  this  single  censi 
deration  of  the  progress  of  a finite  spirit  to  perfeeJer. 
will  be  sutficient  to  extinguish  all  envy  in  inferiour  na 
tures,  and  all  contempt  in  superiour.’ — Addison.  The 
power  of  a prince  is  some;,imes Zmited;  ‘Those  com 
plaints  which  we  are  apt  to  make  of  our  limited  capa 
city  and  narrow  view,  are  just  as  unreasonable  as  thr 
childish  complaints  of  our  not  being  formed  with  a mi 
croscopick  eye.’ — Blair.  It  is  not  in  our  power  to  ex 
tend  the  bounds  of  the  finite,  but  the  limited  is  mostly 
under  our  control.  We  are  finite  beings,  and  our  ca 
pacities  are  variously  limited  either  by  nature  or  cir- 
cumstances. 


TO  RESERVE,  RETAIN. 

Reserve,  from  the  Latin  servo  to  keep,  signifies  tc 
keep  back ; and  retain,  from  teneo  to  hold,  signifies  tc 
hold  back ; they  in  some  measure,  therefore,  have  the 
same  distinction  as  hold  and  keep,  mentioned  in  a for 
mer  article. 

To  reserve  is  an  act  of  more  specifick  design  ; we  re- 
serve that  which  is  the  particular  object  of  our  choice . 
to  retain  is  a simple  exertion  of  our  power;  we  retain 
that  which  is  once  come  into  our  possession.  To  re 
serve  is  employed  only  for  that  which  is  allowable  ; we 
reserve  a thing,  that  is,  keep  it  back  with  care  for  some 
future  purpose;  ‘Augustus  caused  most  of  theprojihetick 
books  to  be  burnt,  as  spurious,  reserving  only  those 
which  bore  the  name  of  some  of  the  sybils  for  their 
authors.’ — Prideaux.  To  retain  is  often  an  unlawful 
act,  as  when  a debtor  retains  in  his  hands  the  money 
which  he  has  borrowed ; sometimes  it  is  simply  an  un 
reasonable  act;  ‘ They  who  have  restored  painting  in 
Germany,  not  having  seen  any  of  those  fair  relicks  a" 
antiquity,  have  retained  much  of  that  barbarous  me 
thod.’ — Dryden. 

Reserve,  whether  in  the  proper  or  improper  applies 
tion,  is  employed  only  as  the  act  of  a conscious  agent; 
retain  is  often  the  act  of  an  unconscious  agent : we  re 
serve  what  we  have  to  say  on  a subject  until  a more 
suitable  opportunity  offers;  ‘Conceal  your  esteem  and 
love  in  your  own  breast,  and  reserve  your  kind  looks 
and  language  for  private  hours.’ — Swift.  The  mind 
retains  the  impressions  of  external  objects,  by  its  pecu- 
liar faculty,  the  memory  ; certain  substances  are  said  to 
retain  the  colour  with  which  they  have  been  dyed; 
‘ Whatever  ideas  the  mind  can  receive  and  contemplate 
without  the  help  of  the  body,  it  is  reasonable  to  con 
elude  it  can  retain  without  the  help  of  the  body  too  ’ — 
Locke.  ‘The  beautiesof  Homer  are  difficult  to  be  lost, 
and  those  of  Virgil  to  be  retained.' — Johnson. 

RESERVE,  RESERVATION. 

Reserve  and  reservation,  from  servo  to  keep,  both 
signify  a keeping  back,  but  differ  as  to  the  object  and 
the  circumstance  of  the  action.  Reserve  is  applied  in 
a good  sense  to  any  thing  natural  or  moral  which  is 
kept  back  to  be  employed  for  a better  purpose  on  a 
future  occasion  : reservation  is  an  artful  keeping  back 
for  selfish  purposes  : there  is  a prudent  reserve  which 
every  man  ought  to  maintain  in  his  discourse  with  a 
stranger;  equivocators  deal  altogether  in  mental  re 
servation  ; ‘ There  is  no  maxim  in  politicks  more  indis- 
putable than  that  a nation  should  have  many  honours 
in  reserve  for  those  who  do  national  services.’ — Addi- 
son. ‘There  be  three  degrees  of  this  hiding  and 
veiling  of  a man’s  self:  first  reservation  and  secrecy 
second  dissimulation  in  the  negative;  and  the  third 
simulation.’ — Bacon. 

TO  KEEP,  PRESERVE,  SAVE. 

To  keep  has  the  same  original  meaning  here  as  ex 
plained  under  the  article  To  hold,,  keep ; to  pre-eerve, 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


179 


cotiip()ui.<ied  of  pre  and  the  Latin  servo  to  keep,  sig- 
lifies  to  keep  away  from  all  mischief ; sare  signifies  to 
keep  safe. 

The  idea  of  having  in  one’s  possession  is  common  to 
all  these  terms;  which  is,  however,  the  simple  meaning 
of  keep:  io  preserve  is  to  keep  with  care  and  free  from 
all  injury,  to  save  is  to  keep  laid  up  in  a safe  place, 
and  free  from  destruction.  Things  are  kept  at  all 
times,  and  under  all  circumstances;  they  are  preserved 
in  circumstances  of  peculiar  difficulty  and  danger; 
they  are  saved  in  the  moment  in  which  they  are  threat- 
ened with  destruction;  things  are  kept  at  pleasure; 
‘We  are  resolved  to  keep  an  established  church,  an 
established  monarchy,  an  established  aristocracy,  and 
an  established  democracy,  each  in  the  degree  it  e.xists 
and  no  greater.’ — Burke.  Things  are  preserved  by  an 
exertion  of  power;  ‘A  war  to  preserve  national  inde- 
pendence, property, and  liberty,  from  certain  universal 
havock,  is  a war  just  and  necessary  ’ — Burke. 
Things  are  saved  by  the  use  of  extraordinary  means  ; 

‘ If  any  thing  defensive  can  possibly  save  us  from  the 
disasters  of  a regicide  peace,  Mr.  Pitt  is  the  man  to 
save  us.’ — Burke.  The  shepherd  keeps  his  flock  by 
simply  watching  over  them;  children  are  sometimes 
wonderfully  preserved  in  the  midst  of  the  greatest 
dangers ; things  are  frequently  saved  in  the  midst  of 
/ire,  by  the  exertions  of  those  present. 

KEEPING,  CUSTODY. 

Keeping  is  as  before  the  most  general  term ; custody, 
In  Latin  tustodia  and  custos,  comes  in  all  probability 
from  cura  care,  because  care  is  particularly  required  in 
keeping.  The  keeping  amounts  to  little  more  than 
having  purposely  i.n  one’s  possession  ; but  custody  is  a 

[(articular  kind  of  keeping,  for  the  purpose  of  prevent- 
ng  an  escape : inanimate  o’ojects  may  be  in  one’s 
keeping;  but  prisoners  or  that  which  is  in  danger  of 
getting  away,  is  placed  in  custody  : a person  hasin  his 
keepuig  that  which  he  values  as  the  property  of  an 
absent  friend;  ‘I.ife  and  all  its  enjoyments  would  be 
scarce  worth  the  keeping,  if  we  were  under  a per- 
petual dread  of  losing  them.’ — Spectator.  The  offi- 
cers of  justice  get  into  their  custody  those  who  have 
offended  against  the  laws,  or  such  property  as  has  been 
^tclen;  ‘Prior  was  suffered  to  live  in  his  own  house 
inder  the  custody  of  a messenger,  until  he  w'as  ex- 
imined  before  a committee  of  the  Privy  Council.’ — 
Johnson. 


TO  SAVE,  SPARE,  PRESERVE,  PROTECT. 
To  save  signifies  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  article ; 
spare,  in  German  sparen,  comes  from  the  hatin  pai-co, 
and  the  Hebrew  p*^3  to  free;  to  preserve  signifies  the 
same  as  in  the  preceding  article;  andjrrofccf,  the  same 
as  under  the  article  To  defend,  protect. 

The  idea  of  keeping  free  from  evil  is  common  to  all 
these  terms,  and  the  peculiar  signification  of  the  term 
save;  they  differ  either  in  the  n.iture  of  the  evil  kept 
off,  or  the  circumstances  of  the  agent : we  may  be 
saved  from  every  kind  of  evil ; but  we  are  spared  only 
from  those  which  it  is  in  the  power  of  another  to 
inflict : we  may  be  saved  from  falling,  or  sav'^d  from 
an  illness ; a criminal  is  sjtared  from  the  punishment, 
or  we  may  be  .spared  by  Divine  Providence  in  the 
midst  of  some  calamity ; we  may  be  .saved  and  sjmred 
from  any  evils,  large  or  small ; we  are  preserved  and 
protected  mostly  from  evils  of  magnitude;  we  may  be 
saved  either  from  the  inclemency  of  the  weather,  or 
the  fatal  vicissitudes  of  life,  or  from  destruction  here 
and  hereafter ; 

A wondrous  ark 

To  save  himself  and  household  from  amidst 
A world  devote  to  universal  wreck. — Milton. 

Ve  may  be  .spared  the  pain  of  a disagreeable  meeting, 
)r  we  may  be  spared  our  lives  ; 

Let  Caesar  spread  his  conquests  far. 

Less  pleased  to  triumph  than  to  spare. — Johnson. 
(Ve  are  preserved  from  ruin,  or  protected  from  op- 
jrression;  ‘Cortes  was  extremely  solicitous  to  preserve 
Ihecity  of  Mexico  as  much  as  possible  from  being  de- 
stroyed.’— Robertson. 

How  poor  a thing  is  man,  whom  death  itself 
Cannotprotect  from  injuries. — Randolph. 

12* 


To  save  and  .spare  apply  to  evils  that  are  actual'  anc 
teuiporary  ; preserve  and  protect  to  those  which  are 
possible  or  permanent ; we  may  be  saved  from  drown- 
ing, or  we  may  save  a thing  instead  of  throwing  it 
away ; 

Attilius  sacrific’d  himself  to  save 

That  faith  which  to  his  barb’rous  foes  he  gave. 

Denham. 

A person  may  oe  spared  from  the  sentence  of  the  law 
or  spared  a pain  ; 

Spare  my  sight  the  pain 
Of  .seeing  what  a world  of  tears  it  costs  you. 

Dryden 

W e preserve  with  care  that  which  is  liable  to  injury, 
or  protect  ourselves  against  the  attacks  of  robbers. 

To  save  may  be  the  effect  of  accident  or  design  ; to 
spare  is  always  the  eflect  of  some  design  or  connexion; 
to  preserve  and  protect  are  the  effect  of  a special  e.x- 
ertion  of  power;  the  latter  in  a still  higher  degree  than 
the  former  ; we  may  he  preserved,  by  ordinary  means, 
from  the  evils  of  liuman  life  ; but  we  axe  protected  by 
the  government,  or  by  Divine  Providence,  from  the 
active  assaults  of  those  who  aim  at  doing  us  mischief 

TO  DEFEND,  PROTECT,  VINDICATE. 

To  defend,  which  signifies  literally  to  keep  off  any 
evil  {v.  To  guard),  \s  closely  allied  to  protect,  which 
comes  from  the  Latin  protectuw.,  participle  of protego, 
compounded  of  pro  and  tego,  signifies  to  put  any  thing 
before  a person  as  a covering,  and  also  to  vindicate, 
which  comes  from  the  Latin  vindico  and  the  Greek 
ivSiKeu)  to  avenge  by  bringing  an  offender  to  justice. 

Defend  is  a general  term ; it  defines  nothing  with 
regard  to  the  degree  and  manner  of  the  action : protect 
is  a particular  and  positive  term,  expressing  an  action  ot 
some  consiuerable  importance.  Persons  may  defend 
others  without  distinction  of  rank  or  station  : none  but 
superiours  protect  their  inferiours.  Defence  is  an  occa- 
sional action ; protection  is  a permanent  action.  A 
person  may  be  defended  in  any  particular  case  of  actuai 
danger  or  difficulty ; he  is  protected  from  what  niav 
happen  as  well  as  what  does  happen.  Defence 
respects  the  evil  that  threatens ; ‘ A master  may  justify 
an  assault  in  defence  of  his  servant,  and  a servant  in 
defence  of  his  master.’ — Blackstone.  Protection 
involves  the  supply  of  necessities  and  the  affording  of 
comforts;  ‘ They  who  protccterZ  the  weakness  of  our 
infancy  are  entitlel  to  our  protection  iu  their  old  age.’ — 
Blackstone. 

Defence  requires  some  active  exertion  either  of  body 
or  mind;  protect  may  consist  only  of  the  extension 
of  power  in  belialf  of  any  particular.  A defence  is 
successful  or  unsuccessful;  aprotectionveeak  or  sLi  uug 
A soldier  defends  his  country;  a counsellor  defends  his 
client  ‘ Savage  (on  his  trial  for  the  murder  of  Sinclair) 
did  not  deny  the  fact,  but  endeavoured  to  justify  it  by 
the  necessity  of  self-defc  ce,  and  the  hazard  of  his  own 
life  if  he  had  lost  the  opportunity  of  giving  the  thi  ust.’ 
— Johnson.  A prince  protects  his  subjects ; 

First  give  thy  faith  and  plight,  a prince’s  word, 

Of  sure  protection  by  thy  power  and  sword ; 

For  I must  speak  what  wisdom  would  conceal, 

And  truth  invidious  to  the  great  reveal. — Pope. 
Henry  the  Eighth  styled  himself  defender  of  the  faith 
(that  is  of  the  Romish  faith)  at  the  time  that  he  was 
subverting  the  whole  religious  system  of  the  Gatho- 
licks : Oliver  Cromwell  styled  himself  protector  at  the 
time  that  he  was  overturning  the  government. 

In  a figurative  and  extended  sense,  things  may  either 
defend  or  protect  with  a similar  distinction : a coat 
defends  us  from  the  inclemencies  of  the  weather  ; 
How  shall  the  vine  with  tender  leaves  defend 
Her  teeming  clusters  when  the  rains  descend  ? 

Dryden. 

Houses  are  a protection  not  only  against  the  changes  ol 
the  seasons,  but  also  against  the  violence  of  men  ; 

Some  to  the  hoUy  hedge 
Nestling  repair,  and  to  the  thicket  some : 

Some  to  the  rude  protection  of  the  thorn 
Commit  their  feeble  offspring.— Thomson. 

To  vindicate  is  a species  of  defence  only  in  the  moral 
sense  of  the  word.  Acts  of  importance  are  defended; 
tho:e  of  trifling  import  are  commonly  vindicated 


J80 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMESc 


Cicero  defended  Muo  against  the  cliarge  of  murder,  in 
which  he  was  implicated  by  the  death  of  Clodius;  a 
child  or  a servant  vindicates  himself  wlien  any  blame 
is  attached  to  him.  Defence  is  employed  either  in 
matters  of  opinion  or  conduct;  vindicate  oi\\y  in  matters 
of  conduct.  No  absurdities  are  too  great  to  want  occa- 
sional defenders  among  the  various  advocates  to  free 
inquiry  ; ‘ While  we  can  easily  defend  our  character, 
we  are  no  more  disturbed  at  an  accustition,  than  we  are 
alarmed  by  an  enemy  whom  we  are  sure  to  conquer.’ — 
Johnson.  He  who  vindicates  the  conduct  of  another 
should  be  fully  satisfied  of  the  innocence  of  the  person 
whom  he  de/ends ; ‘In  this  poem  (the  Epistle  to  Dr. 
Arbuthnot),  Pope  seems  to  reckon  with  the  publick. 
He  vindicates  himself  from  censures,  and  with  dignity 
rather  than  arrogance,  enforces  his  claims  to  kindness 
and  respect.’ — Pope. 

DEFENDANT,  DEFENDER. 

I'he  defendant  defends  himself  {v.  To  defend;)  the 
defender  defends  another.  We  are  defendants  when 
any  cliarge  is  brought  against  us  which  we  wish  to 
refute  ; ‘ Of  what  consequence  could  it  be  to  the  cause 
whether  the  counsellor  did  or  did  not  know  the  de- 
fendant!'— SiMOLLET.  We  are  defenders  when  we 
undertake  to  rebut  or  refute  the  charge  brought  against 
another  ; ‘The  abbot  of  Paisley  was  a warm  partizan 
of  France,  and  a zealous  defender  of  the  established 
religion.’ — Robertson. 

DEFENDER,  ADVOCATE,  PLEADER. 

A defender  exerts  himself  in  favour  of  one  that 
wants  support  ; an  advocate,  in  Latin  advocatus,  from 
advoco  to  call  to  one’s  aid,  signified  originally  one  who 
was  called  into  court  to  speak  in  behalf  of  his  friend, 
and  who  if  he  pleaded  his  cause  was  styled  patronus ; 

‘ Q,:a  defendit  alterum  in  judicio,  ant  patronus  dicitur, 
si  orator  est;  aut  advocatus  si  aut  jus  suggerit,  aut 
piiEscntiam  suam  comrnodat  amico.’ — Asconius  in 
Cic.  A pleader,  from  plea  or  excuse,  signifies  one  who 
brings  forward  pleas  in  favour  of  him  that  is  accused. 
Thuse  terms  are  now  employed  more  in  a general  than 
a technical  sense,  which  brings  them  into  still  closer 
alliance  with  each  other.  A defender  attempts  to  keep 
off  the  threatened  injury  by  rebutting  the  attack  of 
another:  an  advocate  states  that  which  is  to  the  advan- 
tage of  the  person  or  thing  advocated:  a pleader  throws 
in  pleas  and  extenuations:  he  blends  entreaty  with 
argument.  Oppressed  or  accused  persons  and  disputed 
opinions  require  defenders ; the  time  was  now 
come  whenWarburton  was  to  change  his  opinion,  and 
Pope  was  to  find  a defender \n  him  who  had  contributed 
so  much  to  the  exaltation  of  his  rival.’ — Johnson.  That 
which  falls  in  with  the  humours  of  men  will  always 
have  advocates ; ‘ It  is  said  that  some  endeavours  were 
used  to  incense  the  queen  against  Savage,  but  he 
found  advocates  to  obviate  at  least  part  of  their  effect.’ 
-Johnson.  The  unfortunate  and  the  guilty  require 
vleaders ; 

Next  call  ihepleader  from  his  learned  strife, 

To  the  calm  blessings  of  a learned  life. 

Horneck. 

St.  Paul  was  a bold  defender  of  the  faith  which  is  in 
Christ  Jesus  Epicurus  has  been  charged  with  being 
the  advocate  Cor  pleasure  in  its  gross  and  sensual  sense, 
whence  the  advocates  for  sensual  indulgences  have 
been  termed  Epicureans.  Vetruvia  and  Volumnia,  the 
wife  and  mother  of  Coriolanus,  were  pleaders  in  be- 
half of  the  Roman  republick,  too  powerful  for  him  to 
be  able  to  refuse  their  request. 


DEFENSIBLE,  DEFENSIVE. 

-Jej ensihlexsemnloyoA  for  the  thing  that  is  defended: 
aefensive  for  the  thing  that  defends.  An  opinion  or  a 
fine  of  conduct  is  defensible;  a weapon  or  a military 
operation  is  defensive.  The  defensible  is  opposed  to 
the  indefensible ; and  the  defensive  to  the  offensive. 

It  is  the  height  of  folly  to  attempt  to  defend  that 
which  indefensible  ; ‘Impressing  is  only  defensible 
from  publick  necessity,  to  which  all  private  considera- 
tions must  give  way.’ — Blackstone.  It  is  sometimes 
prudent  to  act  on  the  defensive,  when  we  are  not  in  a 
condition  to  commence  the  offensive ; ‘ A king  circum- 


stanced as  the  present  king  (of  France)  has  no  generou* 
interest  that  can  excite  him  to  action.  At  best  his  con 
duct  will  be  passive  and  defensive.' — Burkz. 


TO  GUARD,  DEFEND,  WATCH. 

Guard  is  but  a variation  of  ward  and  guarantee,, 
&c.,  which  comes  from  the  Teutonick  wahren  to  look 
to ; watch  and  wake,  through  the  medium  of  the 
northern  languages,  are  derived  from  the  Latin  vigil 
watchful,  vigeo  to  ffourish,  and  the  Greek  aydAAw^to 
exult  or  be  in  spirits. 

Guard  seems  to  include  in  it  the  idea  of  both  defend 
and  watch,  inasmuch  as  one  aims  to  keep  off  danger, 
by  personal  efforts;  guard  comprehends  the  significa- 
tion of  defend,  inasmuch  as  one  employs  one’s  powers 
to  keep  off  the  danger.  Guard  comprehends  the  idea 
of  watch,  inasmuch  as  one  employs  one’s  eyes  to  delect 
the  danger ; one  defends  and  watches,  therefore,  when 
one  guards ; but  one  does  not  always  guard  when  one 
defends  or  watches. 

To  defend  is  employed  in  a case  of  actual  attack ; 
to  guard  is  to  defend  by  preventing  the  attack : the 
soldier  guards  the  palace  of  the  king  in  time  of  peace ; 
Fix’d  on  defence,  the  Trojans  are  not  slow 
To  guard  their  shore  from  an  expected  foe. 

Dryden. 

He  defends  the  power  and  kingdom  of  his  prince  in 
time  of  war,  or  the  person  of  the  king  in  the  field  of 
battle ; 

Forthwith  on  all  sides  to  his  aid  was  run. 

By  angels  many  and  strong,  who  interpos’d 
Defence. — Milton. 

One  guards  in  cases  where  resistance  is  requisite,  and 
attack  is  threatened ; one  watches  in  cases  where  an 
unresisting  enemy  is  apprehended : soldiers  or  armed 
men  are  employed  to  guard  those  who  are  in  custody 
children  are  set  to  watch  the  corn  which  is  threateneo 
by  the  birds  ; hence  it  is  that  those  are  termed  guards 
who  surround  the  person  of  the  monarch,  and  those 
are  termed  watchmen  who  are  employed  by  night,  to 
watch  for  thieves  and  give  the  alarm,  rather  than  make 
any  attack. 

In  the  improper  application  they  have  a similar 
sense:  modesty  guards  female  honour;  it  enables  h,*i 
to  present  a bold  front  to  the  daring  violator ; ‘ Modesty 
is  not  only  an  ornament,  but  also  a guard  to  virtue.’ — 
Adl'ison.  Claihing  defends  against  the  inclemenc7 
of  the  weather ; 

And  here  th’  access  a gloomy  grove  defends. 

And  here  th’  unnavigable  lake  extends. — Dryden 
Watching  is  frequently  employed  not  merely  to  prevent 
an  external  evil,  but  also  for  the  attainment  of  some 
object  of  desire ; thus  a person  watches  an  opportunity 
to  escape,  or  watches  the  countenance  of  another ; 

But  see  the  well-plum’d  hearse  comes  nodding  on 

Stately  and  slow,  and  properly  attended 

By  the  whole  sable  tribe,  that  painful  watch 

The  sick  man’s  door,  and  live  upon  the  dead. 

Blair. 

The  love  of  his  subjects  is  the  king’s  greatest  safe 
.guard;  walls  are  no  defence  against  an  enraged  multi 
tude ; it  is  necessary  for  every  man  to  set  a watch  upon 
his  lips,  lest  he  suffer  that  to  escape  from  him  of  whicb 
he  may  afterward  repent. 

GUARD,  SENTINEL. 

These  terms  are  employed  to  designate  those  who 
are  employed  for  the  protection  of  either  persons  or 
things ; but  the  sentinel,  in  French  sentinelle,  is  pro- 
perly a species  of  guard,  namely,  a military  in 

the  time  of  a campaign  ; any  one  may  be  set  as  guard 
over  property,  who  is  empowered  to  keep  off’  every 
intruder  by  force ; but  the  sentinel  acts  in  the  army  as 
the  watch  in  the  police,  rather  to  observe  the  motions 
of  the  enemy,  than  to  repel  any  force; 

Fast  as  he  could,  he  sighing  quits  the  walls. 

And  thus  descending  on  the  guards  he  calls. 

Pope. 

‘ One  of  the  sentinels  who  stood  on  the  stage  to  pre 
vent  disorder,  burst  into  tears.’— Steele.  In  the 
moral  acceptation  of  the  terms,  the  guard  acts  ii» 


ENGLlSfl  SYNONYMES. 


18J 


ordinary  cases,  where  there  is  no  immediate  danger, 
but  the  sentinel  where  one  is  surrounded  with  danger ; 
Conscience  ia  the  sentinel  of  virtue.’ — Johnson. 


GUARD,  GUARDIAN. 

These  words  are  derived  from  the  verb  to  guard 
(f.  To  guard);  but  they  have  acquired  a distinct 
office. 

Guard  is  used  either  in  the  literal  or  figurative  sense ; 
guardian  only  in  the  improper  sense.  Guard  is  ap- 
plied either  to  persons  or  tilings ; guardian  only  to 
persons.  In  application  to  persons,  tlie  guard  is  tem- 
porary; the  guardian  is  fixed  and  permanent:  the 
guard  on\y  guards  against  external  evils ; the  guardian 
takes  upon  him  the  oflice  of  parent,  counsellor,  and 
director : when  a house  is  in  danger  of  being  attacked, 
a person  may  sit  up  as  a guard ; when  the  parent  is 
dead,  the supplies  his  place:  we  expect  from 
9.  guard  nothing  but  human  assistance;  but  from  our 
guardian  angel  we  may  expect  supernatural  assist- 
ance ; 

Him  Hermes  to  Achilles  shall  convey. 

Guard  of  his  life,  and  partner  of  his  way. 

Pope. 

Ye  guides  and  guardians  of  our  Argive  race ! 

Come  all ! let  gen’rous  rage  your  arms  employ. 

And  save  Patroclus  from  the  dogs  of  Troy. 

Pope. 

In  an  extended  application  they  preserve  a similar 
distinction;  ‘ He  must  be  trusted  to  his  own  conduct, 
since  there  cannot  always  be  a guard  upon  him,  ex- 
cept what  you  put  into  his  own  mind  by  good  prin- 
ciples.’— Locke.  ‘ It  then  becomes  the  common  con- 
cern of  all  that  have  truth  at  heart,  and  more  espe- 
cially of  those  who  are  the  appointed  guardians  of  the 
Christian  faith,  to  be  upon  the  watch  against  seducers.’ 

Waterland. 


TO  GUARD  AGAINST,  TAKE  HEED- 

Both  these  terms  simply  express  care  on  the  part  of 
ihe  agent ; but  the  former  is  used  with  regard  to  ex- 
icrnat  or  internal  evils,  the  latter  only  with  regard  to 
internal  or  mental  evils:  in  an  enemy’s  country  it  is 
essential  to  be  particularly  on  one’s  guards  for  fear  of 
a surprise;  in  difficult  matters,  where  we  are  liable  to 
err,  it  is  of  importance  to  ta\e  heed  lest  we  run  from 
one  extreme  to  another:  young  men,  on  their  entrance 
into  life,  cannot  be  too  much  on  their  against 

associating  with  those  who  would  lead  them  into  ex- 
pensive pleasures ; ‘ One  would  take  ntore  than  ordi- 
nary care  to  guard  one’s  self  against  this  particular  im- 
perfection (changeableness),  because  it  is  that  which 
our  nature  very  strongly  inclines  ns  to.’ — Addison. 
In  slippery  paths,  whether  physically  or  morally  under- 
stood, it  is  necessary  to  take  heed  how  we  go ; ‘ Take 
'leed  of  that  dreadful  tribunal  where  it  will  not  be 
enough  to  say  that  I thought  this  or  I lieard  that.’ — 
South. 

TO  APOLOGIZE,  DEFEND,  JUSTIFY,  EXCUL- 
PATE, EXCUSE,  PLEAD. 

Jlpologize,  from  the  French  apologie,  Greek  dm- 
Xoyia,  and  diroXoytoftai,  compounded  of  and  from  or 
away,  and  Xiyto  to  speak,  signifies  to  do  away  by 
speaking ; defend^  in  French  defendre,  Latin  defendo, 
compounded  of  de  and  fendo,  signifies  to  keep  or  ward 
off ; justify,  in  French  justijier,  Latin  justifico,  com- 
pounded of  justus  and  facia,  signifies  to  make  or  set 
right,  that  is,  to  set  one’s  self  right  with  others ; excul- 
pate, in  Latin  exculpatus,  participle  of  exculpo,  com- 
pounded of  ex  and  culpa,  signifies  to  get  out  of  a fault ; 
excuse,  in  French  excuser,  Latin  excuse,  compounded 
of  ex  and  causa,  signifies  to  get  out  of  any  cause  or 
affair;  plead,  in  French  pZa/der,  may  either  come  from 
olacitum  or  placendum,  or  be  contracted  from  appel- 
latum. 

There  is  always  some  imperfection  supposed  or  real 
which  gives  rise  to  an  apology ;*  with  regard  to  per- 

* According  to  the  vulgar  acceptation  of  the  term, 
this  imperfection  is  always  presumed  to  be  real  in  the 
thing  for  which  we  apologize;  but  the  bishop  of  Lan- 
laff  did  not  use  the  term  in  this  sense  when  he  wrote  his 


sons  it  presupposes  a consciousness  of  impropriety,  il 
not  of  guilt ; we  apologize  for  an  errour  by  acknow- 
ledging ourselves  guilty  of  it:  a defence  presuprposes  a 
consciousness  of  innocence  more  or  less ; we  defend 
ourselves  against  a charge  by  proving  its  fallacy:  a 
justification  is  founded  on  the  conviction  not  only  of 
entire  innocence,  but  of  strict  propriety;  we  justify 
our  conduct  against  any  imputation  by  proving  that  it 
was  blameless:  ezcaZ/xztZo/i  rests  on  the  conviction  of 
innocence  with  regard  to  the  fact ; we  exculpate  our 
selves  from  all  blame  by  proving  that  we  took  no  part 
in  the  transaction : excuse  and  plea  are  not  grounded  on 
any  idea  of  innocence ; they  are  rather  appeals  for 
favour  resting  on  some  collateral  circumstance  which 
serves  to  extenuate;  a plea  is  frequently  an  idle  or 
unfounded  excuse,  a frivolous  attempt  to  lessen  dis- 
pleasure ; we  cxcMse  ourselves  for  a neglect  by  alleging 
indisposition  ; we  plead  for  forgiveness  by  solicitation 
and  entreaty. 

An  apology  mostly  respects  the  conduct  of  individu 
als  with  regard  to  each  other  as  equals:  it  is  a voluntary 
act  springing  out  of  a regard  to  decorum,  or  the  good 
opinion  of  others.  To  avoid  misunderstandings  it  is 
necessary  to  apologize  for  any  omission  that  wears  the 
appearance  of  neglect.  A dc/eirce  respects  matters  of 
higher  importance  ; the  violation  of  law's  or  publick 
morals  ; judicial  questions  decided  in  a court,  or  mat 
ters  of  opinion  which  are  offered  to  the  decision  of  the 
publick  : no  one  defends  himself,  but  he  whose  conduct 
or  opinions  are  called  in  question.  A justification  is 
applicable  to  all  moral  cases  in  common  life,  wiiethei 
of  a serious  nature  or  otherwise  : it  is  the  act  of  indivi- 
duals towards  each  other  according  to  their  different 
stations : no  one  can  demand  a justification  from  an- 
other wdthout  a sufficient  authority,  and  no  one  will  at- 
tempt to  justifiy  himself  to  another  whose  authority  he 
does  not  acknowledge  : man  justify  thertiselves  either 
on  principles  of  honour,  or  from  the  less  creditable  mo 
tive  of  concealing  their  imperfections  from  the  obser 
vation  and  censure  of  others.  An  exculpation  is  the  act 
of  an  inferiour,  it  respects  the  violations  of  duty  to 
wards  a superiour;  it  is  dictated  by  necessity,  and  sel 
dom  the  offspring  of  any  liigher  motive  than  the  desire 
to  screen  one’s  self  from  punishment:  exculpation  re 
gards  offences  only  of  commission;  excr/se  is  employed 
for  those  of  omission  as  w'ell  as  commission  : we  excuse 
ourselves  oftener  for  W'hat  we  have  not  done,  than  for 
what  we  have  done  ; it  is  the  act  of  persons  in  all  sta 
tions,  and  arises  from  various  motives  dishonourable  oi 
otherwise : a person  may  often  have  substantial  rea- 
sons to  excuse  himself  from  doing  a thing,  or  for  not 
having  done  it ; an  excuse  may  likewise  sometimes  bi. 
the  refuge  of  idleness  and  selfishness.  Toplead  is  pro- 
perly a judicial  act,  and  extended  in  its  sense  to  the  or- 
dinary concerns  of  life;  it  is  mostly  employed  for  the 
benefit  of  others,  rather  than  ourselves. 

Excuse  and  plea,  which  are  mostly  employed  in  an 
unfavourable  sense,  are  to  apology,  defence,  and  ex- 
culpation, as  the  means  to  an  end  : an  apology  is  lame 
when,  instead  of  an  honest  confession  of  an  uninten- 
tional errour,  an  idle  attempt  is  made  at  justification : 
a defence  is  poor  when  it  does  not  contain  sufficient  to 
invalidate  the  charge  : a justification  is  nugatory  when 
it  applies  to  conduct  altogether  w'rong  : an  excuse  or  a 
plea  is  frivolous  or  idle,  which  turns  upon  some  false 
hood,  misrepresentation,  or  irrelevant  point. 

There  are  some  men  who  are  contented  to  be  the 
apologists  for  the  vices  of  others ; ‘ But  for  this  practice 
(detraction),  however  vile,  some  have  dared  to  apolo- 
gize by  contending  that  the  report  by  which  they  injured 
an  absent  character  was  true.’ — Hawkesworth.  No 
man  should  hold  precepts  secretly  w’hich  he  is  not  pre- 
pared to  tZf/ew<Z  openly;  ‘Attacked  by  great  injuries, 
the  man  of  mild  and  gentle  spirit  will  feel  what  human 
nature  feels,  and  will  defend  and  resent  as  his  duty 
allows  him.’— Blair.  It  is  a habit  with  some  people 
contracted  in  early  life  to  justify  themselves  on  every 


Jlpology  fox  the  Bible;”  by  which,  bearing  in  mind 
the  original  meaning  of  the  word,  he  wished  to  imply 
an  attempt  to  do  away  the  alleged  imperfections  of 
the  Bible,  or  to  do  away  the  objections  made  to  it 
Whether  the  learned  prelate  might  not  have  used  a less 
classical,  but  more  intelligible  expression  for  such  3 
work,  is  a question  w'hich,  happily  for  mankin*'  it 
not  necessary  now  to  decide. 


182 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


« 


occasion,  from  a reluctance  which  hey  feel  to  acknow- 
ledge themselves  in  an.  errour ; 

Whatever  private  views  and  passions  plead, 

No  cause  can  justify  so  black  a deed. 

Thomson. 

When  several  are  involved  in  a general  charge  each 
seeks  to  exculpate  himself  ‘A  good  child  will  not 
seek  to  exculpate  herself  at  the  expense  of  the  most  re- 
vered characters.’ — Richardson.  A plea  of  incapacity 
is  often  set  up  to  excuse  remissness,  which  is  in  fact  but 
the  refuge  of  idleness  and  indolence  ; ‘ The  strength  of 
lie  passions  will  never  be  accepted  as  an  excuse  for 
omplying  with  them.’ — Spectator.  It  is  the  boast 
of  Englishmen  tliat,  in  their  courts  of  judicature,  the 
poor  luan’splea  will  be  heard  with  as  much  attention  as 
that  of  his  rich  neighbour ; ‘ Poverty  on  this  occasion 
pleads  her  cause  very  notably,  and  represents  to  her 
old  landlord  that  should  she  be  driven  out  of  the  country, 
all  t'leir  trades,  arts,  and  sciences  would  be  driven  out 
with  h«r.’ — Addison. 

TO  EXCUSE,  PARDON. 

We  excuse  {v.  To  apologize)  a person  or  thing  by 
exempting  him  from  blame  ; we  pardon  (from  the  pre- 
positive par  or  per  and  dono  to  give)  by  giving  up  or 
not  insisting  on  the  punishment  of  another  for  his  of- 
fence. 

We  excuse  a small  fault,  we  pardon  a great  fault ; 
we  excuse  that  which  personally  affects  ourselves  ; we 
pardon  that  wliich  offends  against  morals;  we  may 
excuse  as  equals  ; we  can  pardon  only  as  superiours. 
We  exercise  good  nature  in  excusing:  we  exercise 
generosity  or  mercy  in;?ar<Z<»im^.  Friendseicuse  each 
other  for  the  unintentional  omission  of  formalities ; 

I will  not  quarrel  with  a slight  mistake 
Such  as  our  natuie’s  frailly  may  excuse. 

Roscommon. 

li  IS  the  privilege  of  the  prince  to  pardon  criminals 
whose  offences  will  admit  of  pardon; 

But  infinitq  in  pardon  is  my  judge. — Milton. 

The  violation  of  good  manners  is  inexcusable  in  those 
who  are  cultivated  ; falsehood  is  unpardonable  even 
ill  u child. 

VENIAL,  PARDONABLE. 

Venial,  from  the  Latin  venia  pardon  or  indulgence, 
is  applied  to  what  may  be  tolerated  without  express 
disparagement  to  the  individual,  or  direct  censure  ; but 
*\\c  pardonable  is  that  which  may  only  escape  severe 
censure,  but  cannot  be  allowed  ; garrulity  is  a venial 
offence  in  old  age ; ‘ While  the  clergy  are  employed  in 
extirpating  mortal  sins,  I should  be  glad  to  rally  the 
world  out  of  indecencies  and  venial  transgressions.’ — 
Cumberland.  Levity  in  youth  is  ^ardonaZfZe  in  single 
instances;  ‘The  weaknesses  of  Elizabeth  were  not 
confined  to  that  period  of  life  when  they  are  more^ar- 
donable.' — Robertson, 


TO  EXONERATE,  EXCULPATE. 
Exonerate,  from  onus  a burthen,  signifies  literally  to 
take  ofl’a  burthen,  either  physically,  as  in  the  sense  of 
relieving  the  body  from  a burthen ; 

This  tyrant  God,  the  belly ! Take  that  from  us 
With  all  its  bestial  appetites,  and  man. 

Exonerated  man,  shall  be  all  soul.’— Cumberland. 
Or  in  the  moral  application  of  relieving  from  the  bur- 
then of  a charge  or  of  guilt ; to  exculpate,  from  culpa  a 
fault  or  blame,  is  to  throv/  off  the  blame : the  first  is  the 
act  of  another;  the  second  is  one’s  own  act : we  exone- 
rate him  upon  whom  a charge  has  lain,  or  who  has  the 
load  of  guilt ; we  exculpate  ourselves  when  there  is  any 
danger  of  being  blamed  ; circumstances  may  sometimes 
tend  to  exonerate ; the  explanation  of  some  person  is 
requisite  to  exculpate : in  a case  of  dishonesty  the  ab- 
sence of  an  individual  at  the  moment  when  the  act  was 
committed  will  altogether  exonerate  him  from  suspi- 
cion ; it  is  fruitless  for  any  one  to  attempt  to  exculpate 
himself  from  the  charge  of  faithlessness  who  is  detected 
in  conniving  at  the  dishonesty  of  others ; ‘ By  this  fond 
and  easy  acceptance  of  exculpatory  comment.  Pope 
testified  that  he  had  not  intentionally  attacked  religion.’ 
—Johnson. 


TO  EXTENUATE,  PAIXIATE. 

Extenuate,  from  the  Latin  tenuis  thin,  small,  signlfiM 
literally  to  make  small ; palliate,  in  Latin  palhatus, 
participle  of  pallia,  from  pallium  a cloak,  signifies  to 
throw  a cloak  over  a thing  so  that  it  may  not  be  seen. 

These  terms  are  both  applicable  to' the  moral  conduct, 
and  express  the  act  of  lessening  the  guilt  of  any  impro 
priety.  To  extenuate  is  simply  to  lessen  guilt  without 
reference  to  the  means;  to  palliate  is  to  lessen  it  by 
means  of  art.  To  extenuate  is  rather  the  effect  of 
circumstances ; to  palliate  is  the  direct  effort  of  au 
individual.  Ignorance  in  the  offender  may  serve  us 
an  extenuation  of  his  guilt,  although  not  of  his  ef 
fence ; ‘ Savage  endeavoured  to  extenuate  the  fact  cof 
having  killed  Sinclair),  by  urging  the  suddenness  of  tne 
whole  action.’— Johnson.  It  is  but  a poor  palliation  ot 
a man’s  guilt,  to  say  that  his  crimes  have  not  been  at 
tended  with  the  mischief  which  they  were  calculated 
to  produce ; ‘ Mons.  St.  Evremond  has  endeavoured  to 
palliate  the  superstitions  of  the  Roman  Catholick  reli 
gion.’— Addison. 


TO  ABSOLVE,  ACQUIT,  CLEAR. 

Msolve,  in  Latin  absolvo,  is  compounded  of  ab  liom 
and  solvo  to  loose,  signifying  to  loose  from  that  with 
which  one  is  bound ; acquit,  in  French  acquitter,  is 
compounded  of  the  intensive  syllable  ac  or  ad,  and  quit, 
quitter,  in  Latin  quietus  quiet,  signifying  to  make  easy 
by  the  removal  of  a charge  ; to  clear  is  to  make  clear 

These  three  words  convey  an  importsmt  distinction 
between  the  act  of  the  Creator  and  the  creature. 

To  absolve  is  the  free  act  of  an  omnipotent  and  mer 
ciful  being  towards  sinners;  to  acquit  is  ilie  act  of  an 
earthly  tribunal  towards  supposed  offenders;  by  uiso- 
lution  we  are  released  from  the  bondage  of  sin,  and 
placed  in  a state  of  favour  with  God  ; by  an  acquittal 
we  are  released  from  the  charge  of  guilt,  and  reinstated 
in  the  good  estimation  of  our  fellow-creatures. 

.Absolution  is  obtained  not  from  our  own  merits,  but 
the  atoning  merits  of  a Redeemer  ; acquittal  is  an  acl 
of  justice  due  to  the  innocence  of  the  individual.  Ab- 
solution is  the  work  of  God  only  ; by  him  alone  it  can 
be  made  known  to  the  penitent  offender; 

Yet  to  be  secret  makes  not  sin  the  less; 

’Tis  only  hidden  from  the  vulgar  view, 

Maintains  indeed  the  reverence  due  to  princes. 

But  not  absolves  the  conscience  from  the  crin/e 
Dry  DEN 

Acquittal  is  the  work  of  man  only ; by  him  alone  it  is 
pronounced  ; ‘ The  fault  of  Mr.  Savage  was  rather  neg- 
ligence than  ingratitude;  but  Sir  Richard  Steele  must 
likewise  be  acquitted  of  severity ; for  who  is  there  that 
can  patiently  bear  contempt  from  one  whom  he  has 
relieved  and  supported?’ — Johnson 

Although  but  few  individuals  may  have  occasion  foi 
acquittal;  yet  we  all  stand  in  daily  and  hourly  need  of 
absolution  at  the  hands  of  our  Creator  and  Redeemer 

One  is  absolved  (v.  To  absolve)  from  an  oath,  acquit 
ted  of  a charge,  and  cleared  from  actual  guilt,  that  is, 
made  clearly  free. 

No  one  can  absolve  from  an  oath  but  he  to  whom  the 
oath  is  made ; no  one  can  acquit  another  of  a charge 
but  he  who  has  the  right  of  substantiating  the  charge; 
yet  any  one  may  clear  himself  or  another  from  guilt,  or 
the  suspicion  of  guilt,  who  has  adequate  proofs  of  inno- 
cence to  allege. 

The  Pope  has  assumed  to  himself  the  right  of  absol- 
ving subjects  at  pleasure  from  their  oath  of  allegiance 
to  their  sovereign ; but  as  an  oath  is  made  to  God  only 
it  must  be  his  immediate  act  to  cancel  the  obligation 
which  binds  men’s  consciences  ; 

Compell’d  by  threats  to  take  that  bloody  oath, 

And  the  act  ill,  I am  absolv'd  by  both.’ — Waller. 

It  is  but  justice  to  acquit  a man  of  blame,  who  is 
enabled  to  clear  himself  from  the  appearance  of  guilt; 

‘ Those  who  are  truly  learned  will  acquit  me  in  this 
point,  in  which  I have  been  so  far  from  offending,  that 
I have  been  scrupulous  perhaps  to  a fault  in  quoting 
the  authors  of  several  passages  which  I have  made  my 
own.’ — Addison  ‘In  vain  we  attempt  to  clear  ou! 
conscience  by  affecting  to  compensate  for  fraud  or  cru 
elly  by  acts  of  strict  relipiousliomage  towards  God 
Clajr. 


Ki\ G Lisn  S Yi\ON YMES 


183 


TO  GUARANTEE,  BE  SECURITY,  BE  RE- 
SPONSIBLE, WARRANT 

Guarantee  and  warrant  are  both  derived  from  the 
Teutonick  wahren  to  look  to  ; to  be  security  is  to  be 
that  which  makes  secure ; and  to  be  responsible,  from 
tlie  Latin  respondeo  to  answer,  is  to  take  upon  one’s 
self  to  answer  for  another. 

Guarantee  is  a term  of  higher  import  than  the 
others:  one  guarantees  for  otliers  in  matters  of  con- 
tract and  stipulation:  is  cmiiloyed  in  matters 

of  right  and  justice ; one  may  be  security  for  another, 
or  give  security  for  one’s  self:  responsibility  is  em- 
pl:.'yed  in  moral  concerns;  we  take  the  respunsibility 
U[on  ourselves:  warrant  is  employed  in  civil  and 
commercial  concerns;  we  warrant  for  that  which 
concerns  ourselves. 

We  guarantee  by  virtue  of  our  power  and  the  con- 
fidence of  those  who  accept  the  guarantee ; it  is  given 
by  n.eans  of  a word,  which  is  accepted  as  a pledge  for 
the  future  performance  of  a contract;  governments, 
ill  order  to  make  peace,  frequently  guarantee  for  the 
performance  of  certain  stiiiulationsby  powers  of  minor 
importance;  ‘’I'he  people  of  England,  then,  are  will- 
ing to  trust  to  the  sympathy  of  regicides,  the  guarantee 
of  the  British  monarchy.’— Burke.  We  are  security 
by  virtue  of  our  wealth  and  credit ; the  security  is  not 
confined  to  a simple  word,  it  is  always  accompanied 
with  some  legitimate  act  that  binds,  it  regards  the  pay- 
ment of  money  for  another ; tradesmen  are  frequently 
security  for  Others  who  are  not  sujiposed  sutficiently 
wealthy  to  answer  for  themselves  ; ‘ Richard  Cromwell 
desired  only  security  for  the  debts  he  had  contracted.’ 
-Burnet.  We  are  responsible  by  virtue  of  one’s 
office  and  relation ; the  responsibility  binds  for  the 
reparation  of  injuries;  teachers  axe  responsible  for  the 
good  conduct  of  the  children  intrusted  to  tlieir  care: 
one  warrants  by  virtue  of  one’s  knowledge  and  situa- 
tion : ‘ What  a dreadful  thing  is  a standing  army,  for 
the  conduct  of  the  whole  or  of  any  part  of  which  no 
one  is  responsible.'-— The  warrant  binds  to 
make  restitution  ; the  seller  warrants  his  articles  on 
sale  to  be  such  as  are  worth  the  purchase,  or  in  case 
of  defectiveness  to  be  returned ; and  in  a moral  appli- 
cation things  are  said  to  warrant  or  justify  a person  in 
forming  conclusions  or  pursuing  a line  of  conduct; 
• No  man’s  mistake  will  be  able  to  warrant  an  unjust 
£'urmise,  much  less  justify  a false  censure.’ — South. 
A king  guarantees  for  the  transfer  of  the  lands  of  one 
prince,  on  his  decease,  into  the  possession  of  another  ; 
when  men  have  neither  honour  nor  money,  they  must 
tfct  others  to  be  security  for  them,  if  any  can  be  found 
sufficiently  credulous  ; in  England  masters  are  respon- 
•sible  for  all  ihe  mischiefs  done  by  their  servants;  a 
.radesman  who  stands  upon  his  reputation  will  be  care- 
,ul  not  to  warrant  any  thing  wliich  he  is  not  assured 
will  stand  the  trial. 

ANSWERABLE,  RESPONSIBLE,  ACCOUNT- 
ABLE, AMENABLE. 

Answerable  signifies  ready  or  able  to  answer  for; 
t;  Bsponsible,  from  respondeo  to  answer,  has  a similar 
riieaning  in  its  original  sense;  accountable,  from  ac- 
cifunt,  signifies  able  or  ready  to  give  an  account ; 
amenable,  from  the  French  amener  to  lead,  signifies 
liable  to  be  led. 

We  are  answerable  for  a demand  ; responsible  for  a 
trust;  accountable  tox  our  proceedings ; and  amenable 
to  the  laws.  When  a man’s  credit  is  firmly  established 
he  will  have  occasions  to  be  answerable  for  those  in 
less  flourishing  circumstances : every  one  becomes  re- 
sponsible more  or  less  in  proportion  to  the  confidence 
which  is  reposed  in  his  judgement  and  integrity  : we 
are  all  accountable  beings,  either  to  one  another,  or  at 
•east  to  the  great  Judge  of  all ; when  a man  sincerely 
vishes  to  do  right,  he  will  have  no  objection  to  be 
amenable  to  the  laws  of  his  country. 

An  honest  man  will  not  make  himself  answerable 
for  any  thing  which  it  is  above  his  ability  to  fulfil ; 

‘ That  he  might  render  tne  execution  of  justice  strict 
and  regular,  Alfred  divided  all  England  into  counties, 
these  counties  he  subdivided  into  hundreds,  and  the 
hundreds  into  tithings.  Every  householder  was  an- 
swerable for  the  behaviour  of  his  family  and  his  slaves, 
and  even  of  his  guests  if  they  lived  above  three  days 
in  his  house.’ — Hume.  A prudent  man  will  avoid  a 
too  heavy  resvnnsibility ; ‘ As  a person’s  re.sponsibility 


bears  respect  to  Ins  reason,  so  do  human  punishments 
bear  respect  to  his  responsibility ; infants  and  boys  are 
chastised  by  the  hand  of  the  parent  or  the  master; 
rational  adults  are  amenable  to  \h&  laws' — Cumber 
LAND.  An  upright  man  never  refuses  to  ne  account 
able  to  any  who  are  invested  with  proper  authority , 
‘We  know  that  we  are  the  subjects  of  a Supreme 
Righteous  Governour,  to  whom  we  are  accountable  for 
our  conduct.’ — Blair.  A conscientious  man  makes 
himself  amenable  to  the  wise  regulations  of  society. 


FENCE,  GUARD,  SECURITY 

Fence,  from  the  Latin  fendo  to  fend  or  keep  ofl, 
serves  to  prevent  the  attack  of  an  external  enemy ; 
guard,  which  is  but  a variety  of  ward,  from  the  old 
German  wahren  to  look  to,  and  wachen  to  watch,  sig 
nifies  that  which  keeps  from  any  danger ; security  im- 
plies that  which  secures  or  prevents  injury,  mischief, 
and  loss. 

The  fence  in  the  proper  sense  is  an  inanimate  object , 
the  guard  is  a living  agent;  the  former  is  of  perma- 
nent utility,  the  latter  acts  to  a partial  extent:  in  the 
figurative  sense  they  retain  the  same  distinction.  Mo- 
desty is  a fence  to  a woman’s  virtue  ; the  love  of  the 
subject  is  the  monarch’s  greatest  safeguard.  There 
are  prejudices  which  favour  religion  and  subordina- 
tion, that  act  as  fences  against  the  introduction  of 
licentious  principles  into  the  juvenile  or  enlightened 
mind ; ‘ Whatever  disregard  certain  modern  refiners 
of  morality  may  attempt  to  throw  on  all  the  instituted 
means  of  public  religion,  they  must  in  their  lowest 
view  be  considered  as  the  out-guards  and  fences  of 
virtuous  conduct.’ — Blair.  A proper  sense  of  an 
overruling  providence  will  serve  as  a guard  to  pre 
vent  the  admission  of  improper  thoughts;  ‘Let  the 
heart  be  either  wounded  by  sore  distress,  or  agitated  by 
violent  emotions : and  you  shall  presently  see  that  vir- 
tue without  religion  is  inadequate  to  the  government 
of  life.  It  is  destitute  of  its  proper  ^uard,  of  its  firm 
est  support,  of  its  chief  encouragement.’ — Blair.  The 
guard  only  stands  at  the  entrance,  to  prevent  the  in- 
gress of  evil : the  security  stops  up  all  the  avenues,  it 
locks  up  with  firmness.  A guard  serves  to  prevent 
the  ingressof  every  thing  that  may  have  an  evil  inten- 
tion or  tendency : the  security  rather  secures  the  pos- 
session of  what  one  has,  and  prevents  a loss.  A king 
has  a guard  about  his  person  to  keep  off  all  violence. 
The  security  may  either  secure  against  the  loss  of  pro- 
perty or  against  the  loss  of  any  external  advantage  or 
moral  benefit ; ‘ The  Romans  do  not  seem  to  have 
known  the  secret  of  paper  money  or  securities  upon 
mortgages.’ — Arbutiinot. 


DEPOSITE,  PLEDGE,  SECURITY. 

Deposite  is  a general  term  from  the  Latin  depositus, 
participle  of  depono  to  lay  down,  or  put  into  the  hands 
of  another,  signifying  that  which  is  laid  down  or  given 
in  charge,  as  a guarantee  for  the  peifoi  mance  of  an 
engagement ; pledge,  comes  probably  from  plico,  signi- 
fying what  engages  by  a tie  or  envelope;  security  sig- 
nifies that  which  makes  secure. 

The  deposite  has  most  regard  to  the  confidence  we 
place  in  another ; the  pledge  has  most  regard  to  the 
security  we  give  for  ourselves;  security  is  a species  of 
pledge.  A deposite  is  always  voluntarily  placed  in  the 
hands  of  an  indilferent  person;  apledgeax\A  security 
are  required  from  the  parties  who  are  interested.  A 
person  may  make  a deposite  for  purposes  of  charity  or 
convenience  ; he  gives  a pledge  or  security  for  a tem- 
porary accommodation,  or  the  relief  of  a necessity. 
Money  is  deposited  in  the  hands  of  a friend  in  order  ic 
execute  a commission  : a pledge  is  given  as  an  equi- 
valent for  that  which  has  been  received  : a security  is 
given  by  way  of  security  for  the  performance. 

» A deposite  may  often  serve  the  purpose  of  a security  ; 
but  it  need  not  contain  any  thing  so  binding  as  either  a 
pledge  or  a security ; both  of  which  involve  a loss  on 
the  non-fulfilment  of  a certain  contract.  A pledge  is 
given  for  matters  purely  personal ; a security  is  given 
in  behalf  of  another. 

Deposites  are  always  transportable  articles,  consist 
ing  either  of  money,  papers,  jewels,  or  other  valuables 
a pledge  is  seldom  pecuniary,  but  it  is  always  some 
article  of  positive  value,  as  estates,  furniture,  and  Uu 
like,  given  at  the  moment  of  forming  the  contra 


184 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES, 


security  is  always  peCj^niary,  but  it  often  consists  of  a 
promise,  and  not  of  any  immediate  resignation  of  one’s 
property.  Dcposites  are  made  and  securities  given  by 
the  wealthy;  pledges  are  commonly  given  by  those 
who  are  in  distress. 

These  words  bear  a similar  distinction  in  the  figura- 
tive application  ; ‘ It  is  without  reason  we  praise  the 
wisdom  of  our  constitution,  in  putting  under  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  crown  the  awful  trust  of  war  and  peace, 
if  the  ministers  of  the  crown  virtually  return  it  again 
into  our  hands.  The  trust  was  placed  there  as  a sacred 
depos/te,  to  secure  us  against  popular  rashness  in  plung- 
ing into  wars.’ — Burkk. 

These  garments  once  were  his,  and  left  to  me. 

The  pledges  of  his  promised  loyalty. — Drydbn. 

It  is  possible  for  a man,  who  hath  the  appearance  of 
religion,  to  be  wicked  and  a hypocrite ; but  it  is  im- 
possible for  a man  who  openly  declares  against  reli- 
gion, to  give  any  reasonable  security  that  he  will  not 
be  false  and  cruel.’ — Swift. 


EARNEST,  PLEDGE. 

In  the  proper  sense,  the  earnest  {v.  Eagei^  is  given 
as  a token  of  our  being  in  earnest  in  the  promise  we 
have  made;  Ihe pledge,  in  all  probability  from  plica  to 
fold  or  implicate,  signifies  a security  by  which  we  are 
engaged  to  indemnify  for  a loss. 

The  earnest  has  regard  to  the  confidence  inspired  ; 
the  pledge  has  regard  to  ‘he  bond  or  lie  produced: 
when  a contract  is  only  verbally  formed,  it  is  usual  to 
give  earnest ; whenever  money  is  advanced,  it  is  com- 
mon to  give  a pledge. 

In  the  figurative  application  the  terms  bear  the  same 
analogy:  a man  of  genius  sometimes,  though  not 
always,  gives  an  earnest  in  youth  of  his  future  great- 
ness ; 

Nature  has  wove  into  the  human  mind 
This  anxious  care  for  names  we  leave  behind, 

T’  extend  our  narrow  views  beyond  the  tomb. 

And  give  an  eai-nestoi  a life  to  come.— Jenyns. 
Children  are  the  dearest  pledges  of  affection  between 
parents ; 

Fairest  of  stars,  last  in  the  train  of  night, 

If  better  thou  belong  not  to  the  dawn, 

Sure  pledge  of  day  that  crown’st  the  smiling  morn, 
With  thy  bright  circlet  praise  him  in  thy  sphere. 

Milton. 


TO  APPOINT,  ORDER,  PRESCRIBE,  ORDAIN. 

To  appoint  {v.  Allot)  is  either  the  act  of  an  equal  or 
superiour:  we  appoint  a meeting  with  any  one  at  a 
given  lime  and  place ; a king  appoints  his  ministers. 
To  order,  in  French  ordre,  Latin  ordino  to  anange, 
dispose,  ordo  order,  Greek  i'pxos  a row  of  trees,  which 
is  the  symbol  of  order,  is  the  act  of  one  invested  with 
a partial  authority : a customer  orders  a commodity 
from  his  tradesman ; a master  gives  his  orders  to  his 
servant.  To  prescribe,  in  Latin  prescribo,  compound- 
ed of  pre  before,  and  scribo  to  writ^,  signifying  to  draw 
a line  for  a person,  is  the  act  of  ono  who  is  superiour 
by  virU’.e  of  his  knowledge  : a physician  prescribes  to 
his  patient.  To  ordain,  which  is  a variation  of  order, 
is  an  act  emanating  front  the  highest  authority: 
kings  and  councils  ordain;  but  their  ordinances  must 
be  conformable  to  what  is  ordained  by  the  Divine 
Being. 

Appointments  are  made  for  the  convenience  of  indi- 
liduals  or  communities;  but  they  may  be  altered  or 
annulled  at  the  pleasure  of  the  contracting  parlies  ; 

Majestic  months 

Sex  out  with  him  to  their  appointed  race.-  -Dryden. 
Orders  are  dictated  by  the  superiour  only,  but  they  pre- 
suppose a discretionary  obligation  on  the  part  of  the 
individual  to  whom  they  are  given;  ‘Upoti  this  new 
fright  an  order  was  made  by  both  Houses  for  disarm- 
ing ah  papists.’ — Clarendon.  Prescriptions  are  bind- 
ing on  none  but  such  as  voluntarily  admit  tlieir  autho- 
rity; ‘ It  will  be  found  a work  of  nt  small  difficulty,  to 
dispossess  a vice  from  that  heart,  where  long  possession 
begins  to  plead  prescription.' — South.  Ordinances 
leave  no  choice  to  those  on  whom  they  are  imposed  to 
accept  or  reject  them  : the  ordinances  of  man  are  not 
less  bindi  ng  than  those  of  God,  so  long  as  they  do  not 


expressly  contradict  the  Divine  law ; ‘It  seemeth  tiara 
to  plant  any  sound  ordinance,  or  reduce  them  'the 
Irish)  to  a civil  government;  since  all  their  ill  customs 
are  permitted  unto  them.’ — Spenser. 

Appointments  are  kept,  orders  executed  or  obe}  ed, 
prescriptions  followed,  ordinances  submitted  to.  It  is 
a point  of  politeness  or  honour,  if  not  of  direct  moral 
obligation,  to  keep  the  appointments  which  we  have 
made.  Interest  will  lead  men  to  execute  the  orders 
which  they  receive  in  the  course  of  business : di«y  ob 
liges  them  to  obey  the  orders  of  their  superiours.  It  is  a 
nice  matter  \.o  prescribe  to  another  without  hurting  his 
pride : this  principle  leads  men  often  to  regard  the 
counsels  of  their  best  friends  as  prescriptions : w h 
children  it  is  an  unquestionable  duly  to  follow  the  p7 
scriptions  of  those  whose  age,  station,  or  experience, 
authorize  them  io  prescribe;  ‘ Sir  Francis  Bacon,  in 
his  Essay  upon  Health,  has  not  thought  it  improper  to 
prescribe  to  his  reader  a poem  or  a prospect,  where  he 
particularly  dissua.les  him  from  knotty  or  subtle  disqui- 
sitions.’— Addison.  God  has  ordained  pH  things  for 
our  good  ; it  rests  vs  ith  ourselves  to  submit  to  his  ordi- 
nances and  be  happy  ; ‘ It  was  perhaps  ordained  by 
Providence  to  hinder  us  from  tyrannizing  over  one  an- 
other, that  no  individual  should  be  of  such  importance 
as  to  cause  by  his  retirement  or  death  any  chasm  in 
the  world.’ — Johnson.  Sometimes  the  word  order  is 
taken  in  the  sense  of  direct  and  regulate,  whicli  brings 
it  still  nearer  to  the  word  ordain.  God  is  said  to  or- 
dain, as  an  act  of  power  ; he  is  said  to  order,  as  an  act 
of  wisdom ; ‘ The  whole  course  of  things  is  so  ordered, 
that  we  neither  by  an  irregular  and  precipitate  educa 
tion  become  men  loo  soon ; nor  by  a fond  and  trifling 
indulgence  be  suffered  to  continue  children  for  ever  ’ - 
Blair. 

TO  DICTATE,  PRESCRIBE. 

Dictate,  from  the  Latin  dictatus  and  dictum,  a wora, 
signifies  to  make  a word  for  another ; and  prescribe 
literally  signifies  to  write  down  for  another  (d.  To  ap 
point),  in  which  sense  the  former  of  these  terms  is 
used  technically  for  a principal  who  gets  his  secretary 
to  write  down  his  words  as  he  utters  them ; and  the 
latter  for  a physician  who  writes  down  for  his  patient 
what  he  wishes  him  to  take  as  a remedy.  They  are 
used  figuratively  for  a species  of  counsel  given  by  a su- 
periour : to  dictate  is  however  a greater  exercise  of  au- 
thority than  to  prescribe. 

To  dictate  amounts  even  to  more  than  to  command, 
it  signifies  commanding  with  a tone  of  unwarrantable 
authority,  or  still  oftener  a species  of  commanding  by 
those  who  have  no  right  to  command  ; T is  therefore 
mostly  taken  in  a bad  sense.  To  prescribe  partakes 
altogether  of  the  nature  of  counsel,  and  nothing  of 
command  ; it  serves  as  a rule  to  the  person  prescribed, 
and  is  justified  by  the  superiour  wisdom  and  knowledge 
of  the  person  prescribing ; it  Is  therefore  always  taken 
in  an  indifferent  or  a good  sense.  He  who  dictates 
speaks  with  an  adventitious  authority  ; he  who  pre 
scribes  has  the  sanction  of  reason. 

To  dictate  imp!‘es  an  entire  subserviency  in  the  per 
son  dictated  to:  to  prescribe  carries  its  own  weight 
with  it  in  the  nature  of  the  Xh'mg  prescribed.  Upstarts 
are  ready  to  dictate  even  io  tlieir  superiours  on  every 
occasion  that  offers.  ‘J'he  physician  and  divine  are 
often  heard  to  dictate  in  private  company  with  the 
same  authority  which  they  exercise  over  their  patients 
and  disciples.’— Budoell.  Modest  people  are  often 
fearful  of  giving  advice  lest  they  should  be  suspected 
of  prescribing ; ‘ In  the  form  which  is  prescribed  to  us 
(the  Lord’s  Prayer),  we  only  pray  for  that  happiness 
which  is  our  chief  good,  and  the  great  end  of  our  ex- 
istence, when  we  petition  the  Supreme  for  the  coming 
of  his  kingdom.’ — Addison. 

DICTATE,  SUGGESTION. 

Dictate  signifies  the  thing  dictated,  and  has  an  im 
perative  sense  as  in  the  former  case  {v.  To  dictate) 
suggestion  signifies  the  thing  suggested,  and  conveys 
the  idea  of  being  secretly  or  in  a gentle  manner  pro 
posed. 

The  dictate  comes  from  the  conscience,  the  reason 
or  the  passion  ; suggestions  spring  from  the  mind,  thf 
will,  or  the  desire.  Dictate  is  taken  cither  in  a good 
or  bad  sense ; suggestion  mostly  in  a bad  sense.  It 
is  the  part  of  a Christian  at  all  times  to  listen  to  the 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


18.^ 


dicLits  of  conscience;  it  is  the  characteristick  of  a 
weak  mind  to  follow  the  suggestions  of  ein  y.  A man 
-enounces  tlie  character  of  a rational  being  who  yields 
JO  the  dictates  of  passion  ; ‘ When  the  dictates  of  ho- 
nour are  contrary  to  tliose  of  religion  and  equity,  they 
are  the  greatest  depravations  of  human  nature.’ — Ad- 
dison. Whoever  does  not  resist  tlie  suggestions  of 
his  J-^vn  evil  mind  is  very  far  gone  in  corruption,  and 
will,  '.ever  be  able  to  bear  up  long  against  temptation  ; 

‘ Did  not  conscience  suggest  this  natural  relation  be- 
tween guilt  and  punishment;  the  mere  principle  of  ap- 
probation or  disapprobation,  with  respect  to  moral  con- 
duct, would  prove  of  small  efficacy.’ — Blair. 

Dictate  is  etnployed  only  for  what  passes  inwardly; 
suggestion  may  be  used  for  any  action  on  the  mind  by 
external  objects.  No  man  will  err  essentially  in  the 
ordinary  affairs  of  life  who  is  guided  by  the  dictates 
of  plain  sense.  It  is  the  lot  of  sinful  mortals  to  be 
drawn  to  evil  by  the  suggestions  of  Satan  as  well  as 
their  own  evil  inclinations. 

COMMAND,  ORDER,  INJUNCTION,  PRECEPT, 
MANDATE. 

Command^  compounded  of  com  and  mando,  manudo, 
or  dare  in  manus  to  give  into  the  hand,  signifies  giving 
or  ap[)ointing  as  a task;  a command  is  imperative ; it 
is  the  strongest  e.xercise  of  authority;  order,  which  in 
the  extended  sense  of  regularity,  implies  what  is  done 
in  the  way  of  order,  or  for  the  sake  of  regularity;  an 
order  is  instructive  ; it  is  an  expression  of  the  wishes : 
injunction,  in  Frencli  injunction,  from  in  and  jungo, 
signifies  literally  to  join  or  bring  close  to;  figuratively 
to  impress  on  the  mind  ; an  injunction  is  decisive;  it 
is  a greater  e.xercise  of  authority  titan  order,  and  less 
than  command ; precept,  in  French  pr4cepte,  Latin 
preeceptum,  participle  of  prcecipio,  compounded  of 
prm  and  capio  to  put  or  lay  before,  signifies  the  thing 
proposed  to  the  mind;  a precept  is  a moral  law  ; it  is 
binding  on  the  conscience.  The  three  former  of  these 
are  personal  in  their  application;  the  latter  is  general: 
a command,  an  order,  and  an  injunction,  must  be  ad- 
dressed to  some  particular  individual ; a precept  is 
addressed  to  all. 

Command  and  order  exclusively  flow  from  the  will 
of  the  speaker  in  the  ordinary  concerns  of  life;  in- 
junction has  more  regard  to  the  conduct  of  the  person 
addressed  ; precept  is  altogether  founded  on  the  moral 
obligations  of  men  to  each  other.  A command  is  just 
or  unjust;  an  order  is  prudent  or  imprudent;  an  in- 
junction is  mild  or  severe ; a precept  is  general  or  par- 
ticular. 

Command  and  order  are  affirmative ; injunction  or 
precept  are  either  affirmative  or  negative : the  command 
and  the  order  oblige  us  to  do  a thing ; the  injunction 
and  precept  oblige  us  to  do  it,  or  leave  it  undone.  A 
sovereign  issues  his  commands,  which  the  well-being 
of  society  requires  to  be  instantly  obeyed ; 

’Tis  Heav’n  commands  me,  and  you  urge  in  vain  : 

Had  any  mortal  voice  the  injunction  laid, 

Nor  augur,  seer,  or  priest,  had  been  obey’d. — Pope. 

A master  gives  his  orders,  which  it  is  the  duty  Of 
»he  servant  to  e.xecute ; 

A stepdame  too  I have,  a cursed  she, 

Who  rules  my  henpeck’d  sire,  and  orders  me. 

Dryden. 

This  done,  A5neas  orders  for  the  close. 

The  strife  of  archers  with  contending  bows. 

Dryden, 

A father  lays  an  injunction  on  his  children,  which 
they  with  filial  regard  ought  to  endeavour  to  follow; 
‘The  duties  which  religiori  enjoins  us  to  perform 
towards  God  are  those  which  have  oftenest  furnished 
matter  to  the  scoffs  of  the  licentious.’ — Blair.  The 
moralist  lays  down  his  precepts,  which  every  rational 
creature  is  called  upon  to  practise ; 

We  gay  not  that  these  ills  from  virtue  flow ; 

Did  her  wise  precepts  rule  the  world,  we  know 
The  golden  ages  would  again  begin. — Jenyns. 

Mandate,  in  Latin  mandatum,  participle  of  mando, 
r.as  the  same  original  meaning  as  command,  but  is  em- 
ployed to  denote  di  command  given  by  publick  authority; 
whence  the  co  nmands  of  princes,  or  the  commands 
of  the  church,  are  properly  denominated  mandates ; 


‘The  necessities  of  the  times  cast  the  power  of  the 
three  estates  upon  himself,  that  his  mandates  should 
pass  for  laws,  whereby  he  laid  what  taxes  he  pleased  ' 
— Howell. 


COMMANDING,  IMPERATIVE,  IMPERIOUS, 
AUTHORITATIVE. 

Commanding,  which  signifies  having  the  force  of  a 
command  {v.  To  command) , is  either  good  or  bad  ac 
cording  to  circumstances;  a commanding  voice  is 
necessary  for  one  who  has  to  command ; hut  a com 
manding  air  is  offensive  when  it  is  affected  ; 

Oh  ! that  my  tongue  had  every  grace  of  speech, 
Great  and  commanding  as  the  breath  of  kings. 

Rowe. 

Imperative  from  impero,  to  command,  signifying  sim 
ply  in  the  imperative  mood,  is  applied  to  things,  and 
used  in  an  indifferent  sense;  imperious,  which  sig- 
nifies literally  in  the  tone  or  way  of  command,  is 
used  for  persons  or  things  in  the  bad  sense:  any 
direction  is  imperative  which  comes  in  the  shape  of  a 
command,  and  circumstances  are  likewise 
which  act  with  the  force  of  a command;  ‘ Ouitting 
the  dry  imperative  style  of  an  act  of  Parliament  he 
(Lord  Somers)  makes  the  Lords  and  Commons  fall  to  a 
pious  legislative  ejaculation.’ — Burke.  Persons  arc 
imperious  who  exercise  their  power  oppressively  ; 

Fear  not,  that  I shall  watch,  with  servile  shame, 

TIT  imperious  looks  of  some  proud  Grecian  datm 

Dryden. 

In  this  manner  underlings  in  office  are  imperious 
necessity  is  imperious  when  it  leaves  us  no  choice  in 
our  conduct.  Authoritative,  whSch  signifies  having  au- 
thority, or  in  the  way  of  authority,  is  mostly  applied  to 
persons  or  things  personal  in  the  good  sense  only  ; ma 
gistrates  are  called  upon  to  assume  an  authoritative 
air  when  they  meet  with  any  resistance  ; '■  Auihorita 
tive  instructions,  mandates  issued,  which  the  member 
(of  Parliament)  is  bound  blindly  and  implicitly  to  voto 
and  argue  for,  though  contrary  to  the  clearest  con 
viction  of  his  judgement  and  conscience;  these  are 
things  utterly  unknown  to  the  Jaws  of  this  land.*— 
Burke. 


IMPERIOUS,  LORDLY,  DOMINEERING, 
OVERBEARING. 

All  these  epithets  imply  an  unseemly  exercise  or  af 
fectation  of  power  or  superiority,  imperious,  fron 
impero  to  command,  characterizes  either  the  dispositiop 
to  command  without  adequate  authority,  or  to  convey 
one’s  commands  in  an  offensive  manner:  lordly,  signi 
fying  like  a lord,  characterizes  the  manner  of  acting  the 
lord : and  domineering,  from  aominus  a lord,  denotes 
the  manner  of  ruling  like  a lord,  or  rather  of  attempting 
to  rule:  hence  a person’s  temper  or  his  tone  is  deno- 
minated imperious;  his  air  or  deportment  is  lordly; 
his  tone  is  domineering.  A wmman  of  an  imperivin 
temper  commands  in  order  to  be  obeyed : shecommandr 
with  an  imperious  tone  in  order  to  enforce  obedience  ; 
‘ He  is  an  imperious  dictator  of  the  principles  of  vice, 
and  impatient  of  all  contradiction.’ — More.  A person 
assumes  a lordly  air  in  order  to  display  his  own  import 
ance  : he  gives  orders  in  a domineering  tone  in  order  tc 
make  others  feel  their  inferiority.  There  is  always 
something  offensive  in  imperiousness ; there  is  fre- 
quently something  ludicrous  in  that  which  is  lordly ; 
and  a mixture  of  the  ludicrous  and  offensive  in  tha' 
which  is  domineering : the  lordly  is  an  aflectation  of 
grandeur  where  there  are  the  fewest  pretensions ; 

Lords  are  lordliest  in  their  wine. — Milton. 

The  domirsering  is  an  affectation  of  authoVity  where 
it  least  exists;  ‘ He  who  has  sunk  so  far  below  himself 
as  to  have  given  up  his  assent  to  a domineering  errour 
is  fit  for  nothing  but  to  be  trampled  on.’— South 
Lordly  is  applied  even  to  the  brutes  who  set  themselves 
up  above  those  of  their  kind  ; domineering  is  applied  U' 
servants  and  ignorant  people,  who  have  the  opportu 
nity  of  commanding  without  knowing  how  to  com 
mand.  A turkey-cock  struts  aboutthe  yard  in  a lordly 
style;  an  upper  servant  domineers  over  all  that  are 
under  him. 

The  first  three  of  these  terms  are  employed  for  sucA 
as  are  invested  with  some  sort  of  power,  or  endowr^J 


186 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


« itii  some  sort  of  superiority,  however  trifling ; but 
overbearmg  is  employed  for  men  in  the  general  lela- 
tjcns  of  society,  whether  superiours  or  equals.  A man 
ot  an  impirious  temper  and  some  talent  will  frequently 
be  so  overbearing  in  the  assemblies  of  his  equals  as  to 
awe  tlie  rest  into  silence,  and  carry  every  measure  of 
his  own  without  contradiction  ; ‘ I reflected  within  my- 
self how  much  society  would  suffer  if  such  insolent 
overbearing  characters  as  Leontine  were  not  held  in 
restraint.’ — Cumberland.  As  the  petty  airs  of  supe- 
riority here  described  are  most  common  among  the  un- 
cultivated part  of  mankind,  we  may  say  that  the  impe- 
rious temper  shows  itself  peculiarly  in  the  domestick 
circle;  that  the  ZerdZy  air  shows  itself  in  publick;  that 
the  domineering  tone  is  most  remarkable  in  the  kitchen ; 
and  the  everbearing  behaviour  in  villages. 

TC  COMxMISSION,  AUTHORIZE,  EMPOWER. 

Commission^  from  commit,  signifies  the  act  of  com- 
mitting, or  putting  into  the  hands  of  another;  to  au- 
thorize signifies  to  give  authority ; to  empower,  to  put 
in  possession  oi  the  power  to  do  any  thing. 

The  idea  of  transferring  some  business  to  another  is 
common  to  these  terms;  the  circumstances  under 
which  this  is  performed  constitute  me  difference.  We 
commission  in  ordinary  cases ; we  authorize  and  em- 
power in  extraordinary  cases.  We  commission  in  mat- 
ters where  our  own  will  and  convenience  are  concerned ; 
we  authorize  in  matters  where  our  personal  authority 
is  requisite;  and  we  empower  iii  matters  where  the  au- 
thority of  the  law  is  required.  A commission  is  given 
by  the  bare  communication  of  one’s  wishes;  we  au- 
thorize by  a positive  and  formal  declaration  to  that 
intent ; we  empower  by  the  transfer  of  some  legal  docu- 
ment. A person  is  commissioned  to  make  a purchase ; 

Commission'd  in  alternate  watch  they  stand. 

The  sun’s  bright  portals  and  the  skies  command. 

Pope. 

One  is  authorized  to  communicate  what  has  been  in- 
trusted to  him  as  a secret,  or  people  are  authorhed  to 
act  any  given  part;  ‘A  more  decisive  proof  cannot  be 
given  of  the  full  conviction  of  the  British  nation  that 
the  principles  of  the  Revolution  did  not  authorize  them 
to  elect  kings  at  pleasure,  than  their  continuing  to  adopt 
a plan  of  hereditary  Protestant  succession  in  the  old 
line.’ — Burke.  One  is  empowered  to  receive  money  ; 

Empower'd  the  wrath  of  gods  and  men  to  tame. 

E’en  Jove  rever’d  the  venerable  dame. — Pope. 

When  comHu'ssmns  pass  between  equals,  the  perform- 
ance of  them  is  an  act  of  civility ; but  they  are  fre- 
quently given  by  sovereigns  to  their  subjects ; author- 
izing SL.i\d  empowering  uxe  as  often  directed  toinferiours, 
they  are  frequently  acts  of  justice  and  necessity.  Judges 
and  ambassadors  receive  commissions  from  their 
prince;  ‘Princes  do  not  use  to  send  their  viceroys  un- 
furnished with  patents  clearly  signifying  their  commis- 
sion.'— South.  Servants  and  subordinate  persons  are 
sometimes  authorized  to  act  in  the  name  of  their  em- 
ployers ; magistrates  empower  the  officers  of  justice  to 
apprehend  individuals  or  enter  houses.  We  are  com- 
missioned by  persons  only  ; we  are  authorized  some- 
times by  circumstances;  we  are  empowered  by  law. 


INFLUENCE,  AUTHORITY,  ASCEN  JANCY 
OR  ASCENDANT,  SWAY. 

Influence,  from  the  Latin  influo  to  flow  in  upon  or 
cause  to  flow  in  upon,  signifies  the  power  of  acting  on 
an  object  so  as  to  direct  or  move  it ; authority,  in  Latin 
auctoritas,  from  auctor  ‘he  author  or  prime  mover  of  a 
thing,  signifies  that  power  which  is  vested  in  the  prime 
mover ; ascendancy  or  ascendant,  from  ascend,  signifies 
having  the  upper  hand ; sway,  like  our  word  swing  and 
the  German  schweben,  comes  in  all  probability  from  the 
Hebrew  HM®  move,  signifying  also  ^he  power  to 
move  an  object. 

These  terms  imply  power,  under  different*  circum- 
etances  ; influence  is  altogether  unconnected  with  any 
Tight  to  direct ; authority  includes  the  idea  of  right  ne- 
cessarily ; superiority  of  rank,  talent,  or  property,  per- 
sonal attachment,  and  a varie'y  of  circumstances  give 
influence  ; it  commonly  acts  by  persuasion,  and  employs 
engaging  manners,  so  as  to  determine  in  favour  of 
what  is  proposed;  superiour  wisdom,  age,  office,  and 


relation,  give  authority;  it  determines  of  ilwlf,  ani 
requires  no  collateral  aid  : ascendancy  and  sway  are 
modes  of  influence,  differing  oidy  in  degree  ; they  both 
imply  an  excessive  and  improper  degree  of  influence 
over  the  mind,  independent  of  reason ; the  former  is, 
however,  more  gradual  in  its  process,  and  consequently 
more  confirmed  in  its  nature;  the  latter  may  be  only 
temporary,  but  may  be  more  violent.  A person  employs 
many  arts,  and  for  a length  of  time,  to  gain  the  ascend- 
ancy; but  he  exerts  a sway  by  a violent  stretch  ol 
power.  It  is  of  great  importance  for  those  who  have 
influence,  to  conduct  tliemselves  consistently  with  their 
rank  and  station ; ‘ The  influence  of  France  as  a repub 
lick  is  equal  to  a war  —Burke  Men  are  apt  to  regard 
the  warnings  and  admonitions  of  a true  friend  as  an 
odious  assumption  of  authority ; ‘ Without  the  force  of 
authority  the  power  of  soldiers  grows  pernicious  to 
their  master.’ — Temple.  Some  men  voluntarily  give 
themselves  up  to  the  ascendancy  which  a valet  or  a 
mistress  has  gained  over  them,  while  the  latter  exert 
the  most  unwarrantable  sway  to  serve  their  own  inter 
ested  and  vicious  purposes  ; ‘ By  the  ascendant  he  had 
in  his  understanding,  and  the  dexterity  of  his  nature, 
he  could  persuade  him  veiy  much.’ — Clarendon 
‘ France,  since  her  revolution,  is  under  the  sway  of  a 
sect  whose  leaders,  at  one  stroke,  have  demolished  the 
whole  body  of  jurisprudence.’ — Burke. 

Influence  and  ascendancy  are  said  likewise  of  things 
as  well  as  persons:  true  religion  will  have  an  influence 
not  only  on  the  outward  conduct  of  a man,  but  the 
inward  affections  of  his  heart ; ‘ Religion  hath  so  great 
an  influence  upon  the  felicity  of  man,  that  it  ought  to  be 
upheld,  not  only  out  of  a dread  of  divine  vengeance  in 
another  world,  but  out  of  regard  to  temporal  prosperity.’ 
— Tillotson.  That  man  is  truly  happy  in  whose 
mind  religion  has  the  ascendancy  over  every  other  prin- 
ciple; ‘If  you  allow  any  passion,  even  though  it  be 
esteemed  innocent,  to  acquire  an  absolute  ascendant, 
your  inward  peace  will  be  impaired.’ — Blair. 

POWER,  STRENGTH,  FORCE,  AUTHORITY, 
DOMINION. 

Power,  in  French  pouvoir,  comes  from  the  Latin 
possum  to  be  able ; strength  denotes  the  abstract  quality 
of  strong ; authority  signifies  the  sam6  as  in  the  pre- 
ceding article ; dominion,  from  dominus  a lord,  signifies 
the  power  of  a lord  or  the  exercise  of  that  power  ; force, 
from  the  Latin  fortis  strong,  signifies  the  abstract 
quality  of  strength. 

Power  is  the  generick  and  universal  term,  compre 
hendingin  it  that  simple  principle  of  naturewhich  exists 
in  all  subjects.  Strength  and  force  are  modes  of  power. 
These  terms  are  all  used  either  in  a physical  or  moral 
application.  Power  in  the  physical  sense  respects 
whatever  causes  motion  ; ‘ Observing  in  ourselves  that 
we  can  at  pleasure  move  several  parts  of  our  bodies 
which  were  at  rest ; the  effects  also  that  natural  bodies 
are  able  to  produce  in  one  another,  occurring  every 
moment  to  our  senses,  we  both  these  ways  get  the  idea 
of  power.' — Locke.  Strength  respects  that  species  of 
power  xhtii  lies  in  the  vital  and  muscular  parts  of  the 
body ; 

Not  founded  on  the  brittle  strength  of  bones. 

Milton 

Strength,  therefore,  is  internal,  and  depends  upon  the 
internal  organization  of  the  frame;  power,  on  the  ex- 
ternal circumstances.  A man  may  have  strength  to 
move,  but  not  the  power  if  he  be  bound  with  cords. 
Our  strength  is  proportioned  to  the  health  of  the  body, 
and  the  firmness  of  its  make;  onx  power  may  be  in- 
creased by  the  help  of  instruments. 

Power  may  be  exerted  or  otherwise;  force  \s power 
exerted,  or  active;  bodies  have  a power  of  resistance 
while  in  a state  of  rest,  but  they  are  moved  by  a certain 
force  from  other  bodies  ; 

A ship  which  hath  struck  sail,  doth  run, 

By  force  of  that  force  which  before  it  won. 

Donnb 

The  word  power  is  used  technically  for  the  moving 
force  ; ‘ By  understanding  the  true  difference  between 
the  weight  and  the  power,  a man  may  add  such  a fitting 
supplement  to  the  strength  of  the  power,  that  it  shall 
move  any  conceivable  weight,  though  it  should  never 
so  much  exceed  that /orce  which  the  power  naturally 
endowed  with.’ — Wilkins. 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  IH) 


111  a moral  acrcptation  power,  strength,  and  force, 
may  be  applied  to  the  same  objects  with  a similar  dis- 
•inction,  thus  we  may  speak  ot  the  power  of  language 
generally,  the  of  a person’s  expressions  to  con- 

vey the  state  of  his  own  mind;  and  the  force  of  terms 
as  to  their  extent  of  meaning  and  fitness  to  convey  the 
ideas  of  those  who  use  them.  In  this  case  it  is  evident 
that  strength  and  force  are  here  employed  as  particu'ai 
properties,  but  strength  is  the  power  actually  exerted, 
anA  force  i\\Q  power  which  may  be  exerted. 

Power  is  either  publick  or  private,  which  brings  it  in 
ftiliance  with  authority.  CivW  power  includes  in  it  all 
that  which  enables  us  to  have  any  influence  or  control 
over  the  actions,  persons,  property,  &c.  of  others  ; 

Hence  thou  shalt  prove  my  might,  and  curse  the  hour, 
Thou  stoodst  a rival  cf  imperial  pozo’r.— Pope. 

Authority  is  confined  to  that  species  of  power  which  is 
derived  from  some  legitimate  source  ; ‘ Power  arising 
from  strength  is  always  in  those  who  are  governed, 
who  are  many ; but  authority  arising  from  opinion  is 
in  those  who  govern,  who  are  few.’ — Temple.  Power 
exists  independently  of  all  right ; authority  is  founded 
only  on  right.  A king  has  often  the;;ower  to  be  cruel, 
but  he  has  never  tlie  authority  to  be  so.  Subjects 
have  sometimes  the  poioer  of  overturning  the  govern- 
ment, but  they  can  in  no  case  liave  the  authority. 
Power  may  be  abused ; authority  may  be  exceeded. 
A sovereign  abuses  his  power,  who  exercises  it  for  the 
misery  of  his  subjects ; he  exceeds  his  authority,  if 
he  deprive  them  of  any  right  from  mere  caprice  or 
humour. 

Power  may  be  seized  either  by  fraud  or  force ; 
authority  is  derived  from  some  present  law,  or  dele- 
gated by  a higher  power.  Despotism  is  an  assumed 
f oicer,  it  acknowledges  no  law  but  tlie  will  of  the 
individual ; it  is,  therefore,  exercised  by  no  authority: 
the  sovereign  holds  his  power  by  the  law  of  God  ; for 
God  is  the  source  of  all  authority,  which  is  commen- 
surate with  his  goodness,  his  power,  and  his  wisdom  : 
man,  therefore,  exercises  the  supreme  authority  over 
man,  as  the  minister  of  God’s  authority;  he  exceeds 
Jiat  authority  if  he  do  any  thing  contrary  to  God’s 
will.  Subje.cts  have  a delegated  autAoWty  which  they 
receive  from  a supenour;  if  they  act  for  themselves, 
without  respect  to  the  will  of  that  superiour,  they 
exert  a power  without  authority.  In  this  manner  a 
prime  minister  acts  by  the  authority  of  the  king,  to 
whom  he  is  responsible.  A minister  of  the  gospel 
performs  his  functions  by  the  authority  of  the  gospel, 
as  it  is  interpreted  and  administered  by  the  church  ; 
but  when  he  acts  by  an  individual  or  particular  inter- 
pretation, it  is  a self-assumed  power,  but  not  authority. 
Social  beings,  in  order  to  act  in  concert,  must  act  by 
laws  and  the  subordination  of  ranks,  whether  in  reli- 
gion or  politicks;  and  he  who  acts  solely  by  his  own 
will,  in  opposition  to  the  general  consent  of  compe- 
tent judges,  exerts  a power,  but  is  without  authority. 
Hence  those  who  officiate  in  England  as  ministers  of 
the  gospel,  otherwise  than  according  to  the  form  and 
discipline  of  the  Established  Church,  act  by  an  as- 
sumed power,  which,  though  not  punishable  by  the 
laws  of  man,  must,  like  other  sins,  be  answered  fbr  at 
the  bar  of  God. 

It  lies  properly  with  the  supreme  power  to  grant 
privileges,  or  take  them  away ; but  the  same  may  be 
lone  by  one  in  whom  the  authority  is  invested.  Au- 
thority \n  this  sense  is  applied  to  the  ordinary  concerns 
of  life,  where  the  line  of  distinction  is  always  drawn, 
between  what  we  can  and  what  we  ought  to  do. 
There  is  porcer  where  we  can  or  may  act;  there  is 
authority  only  where  we  ought  to  act.  In  all  our 
dealings  with  others,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  in 
every  thing,  not  what  we  have  the  power  of  doing,  but 
what  we  have  the  authority  to  do.  In  matters  of  in- 
diff'erence,  and  in  what  concerns  ourselves  only,  it  is 
sufficient  to  have  the  power  to  act,  but  in  all  important 
matters  we  must  have  the  authority  of  the  divine  law : 
a man  may  have  the  power  to  read  or  leave  it  alone  ; but 
he  cannot  dispose  of  his  person  in  all  respects,  witiiout 
authority.  In  what  concerns  others,  we  must  act  by 
their  authority,  if  we  wish  to  act  conscientiously; 
when  the  secrets  of  another  are  confided  to  us,  we 
have  the  power  to  divulge  them,  but  not  the  authority, 
unless  it  be  given  by  him  who  intrusted  them. 

Instructers  are  invested  by  parents  with  authority 
wer  their  children ; and  parents  receive  their  authority 


from  natuie,  that  .'s,  the  Jaw  of  Gcd ; this  pr  tenia' 
authority,  according  to  the  Christian  system,  extends 
to  the  education,  but  not  to  the  destruction,  of  theii 
offspring.  The  heathens,  however,  claimed  and  ex 
erted  a power  over  the  lives  of  their  children.  By  my 
superiour  strength  I may  be  enabled  to  exert  a power 
over  a man,  so  as  to  control  his  action;  of  his  own 
accord  he  gives  me  authority  to  dispose  of  his  pro 
perty;  so  in  literature,  men  of  established  reputation, 
of  classical  merit,  and  known  veracity,  are  quoted  a? 
authorities  in  support  of  any  position. 

Power  is  indefinite  as  to  degree ; one  may  have 
little  or  much  power : dominion  is  a positive  degree  of 
power.  A monarch’s  po2eer  may  be  limited  by  various 
circumstances;  a despot  exercises  domiriion  ove^  all 
his  subjects,  high  and  low.  One  is  not  said  to  get  a 
poioer  over  any  object,  but  to  get  an  object  into  one’s 
power:  on  the  other  hand,  we  get  a dominion  over  an 
object ; thus  some  men  have  a dominion  over  the  con 
sciences  of  others  ; 

And  each  of  these  must  will,  perceive,  design, 

And  draw  confus’diy  in  a diff’rent  line. 

Which  then  can  claim  dominion  o’er  the  rest. 

Or  stamp  the  ruling  passion  in  the  breast. 

Jknyns 


POWERFUL,  POTENT,  MIGHTY. 

Powerful,  or  full  of  power,  is  also  the  original  mean 
ing  of  potent  ; but  mighty  signifies  having  might 
Powerful  is  applicable  to  strength  as  well  as  power: 
a powerful  man  is  one  who  by  his  size  and  make  can 
easily  overpower  another:  and  a powerful  person  is 
one  who  has  much  in  his  power  ; ‘ It  is  certain  that  the 
senses  are  more  powerful  as  the  reason  is  weaker.’ — 
Johnson.  Potent  is  used  only  in  this  latter  sense,  in 
which  it  expresses  a larger  e.xtent  of  power  ; 

Now,  flaming  up  the  heavens,  the  potent  sun 
Melts  into  limpid  air  the  high-raised  clouds. 

Tho.mson 

A potent  monarch  is  much  more  than  a powerful 
prince ; mighty  expresses  a still  higher  degree  of 
power;  might  is  power  utdimited  by  any  considera 
tion  or  circumstance ; ‘ He  who  lives  by  a mighty  piin- 
ciple  within,  which  the  world  about  him  neither  .'«es 
nor  understands,  he  only  ought  to  pass  far  godly.  — 
South.  A giant  is  called  mighty  in  the  physical 
sense,  and  that  genius  is  said  lobe  mighty  which  takes 
every  thing  within  its  grasp ; tlie  Supreme  Being  is 
entitled  either  Omnipotent  or  Almighty ; but  the  latter 
term  seems  to  convey  the  idea  of  boundless  extent 
more  forcibly  than  the  former. 


• EMPIRE,  REIGN,  DOMINION. 

Empire  in  this  case  conveys  the  idea  of  power,*  or 
an  exercise  of  sovereignty ; in  this  sense  it  is  allied  to 
the  word  reign,  which,  from  the  verb  to  reign,  signifies 
the  act  of  reigning;  and  to  the  word  dominion,  which 
signifies  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  article. 

Empire  is  used  more  properly  for  people  or  nations  •, 
reign  for  the  individuals  who  hold  the  power : hence 
we  say  the  empire  of  the  Assyrians,  or  of  the  Turks  ; 
the  reign  of  the  Caisars  or  the  Paleologi.  The  most 
glorious  epoch  of  the  empire  of  the  Babylonians  is 
the  reign  of  Nebuchadnezzar  ; that  of  the  empire  of 
the  Persians  is  the  reign  of  Cyrus ; that  of  the  empire 
of  the  Greeks  is  the  reign  of  Alexander;  that  of  the 
Romans  is  the  reign  of  Augustus ; these  are  the  four 
great  empires  foretold  by  the  prophet  Daniel. 

All  the  epithets  applied  to  the  word  empire,  in  this 
sense,  belong  equally  to  reign;  but  all  which  are  ap- 
plied to  reign  are  not  suitable  in  application  to  empire. 
We  may  speak  of  a reign  as  long  and  glorious ; but 
not  of  an  empire  as  long  and  glorious,  unless  the  idea 
be  expressed  paraphrastically.  The  empire  of  the 
Romans  was  of  longer  duration  than  that  of  the 
Greeks;  but  the  glory  of  the  latter  was  more  brilliant, 
from  the  rapidity  of  its  conquests;  the  reign  of  King 
George  HI.  was  one  of  the  longest  and  most  eventful 
recorded  in  history. 

Empire  and  reign  are  both  applied  in  the  propeJ 
sense  to  the  exercise  of  publick  authority ; 

* Vide  Abbe  Girard:  “Empire,  r^gne. 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


*S<J 

The  sa^e  historick  muse 

Should  next  conduct  us  through  the  deeps  of  time, 
Show  us  how  empire  grew,  declin’d,  and  fell. 

Thomson. 

Dominion  applies  to  the  personal  act,  whether  of  a 
sovereign  or  a private  individual ; a sovereign  may 
have  dominion  over  many  nations  by  the  force  of 
arms,  but  he  holds  his  reign  over  one  nation  by  the 
force  of  law ; 

He  who,  like  a father,  held  his  reign, 

So  soon  forgot,  was  wise  and  just  in  vain. — Pope. 
Hence  the  word  dominion  may,  in  the  proper  sense, 
be  applied  to  the  power  which  man  exercises  over  the 
brutes,  over  inanimate  objects,  or  over  himself:  but  if 
empire  and  reign  be  applied  to  any  thing  but  civil 
government,  or  to  nations,  it  is  only  in  the  improper 
sense  : thus  a female  may  be  said  to  hold  her  empire 
among  her  admirers  ; or  fashions  may  be  said  to  have 
their  reign.  In  this  application  of  the  terms,  empire 
is  something  wide  and  all-commanding; 

Let  great  Achilles,  to  the  gods  resign’d. 

To  reason  yield  the  empire  of  his  mind. — Pope. 
Reign  is  that  which  is  steady  and  settled  ; 

The  frigid  zone, 

Where  for  relentless  months  continual  night 
Holds  o’er  the  glittering  waste  her  starry  reign. 

Thomson. 

Dominion  is  full  of  control  and  force ; ‘ By  timely  cau- 
tion those  desires  may  be  repressed  to  which  indulgence 
would  give  absolute  dominion.'— 3 ounson. 


PRINCE,  MONARCH,  SOVEREIGN, 
POTENTATE. 

Prince,  in  French  prince,  Latin  princcps,  from 
primus,  signifies  the  chief  or  the  first  person  in  the 
nation;  monarch,  from  the  Greek  n6vog  alone,  and 
apx^  government,  signifies  one  having  sole  authority  ; 
sovereign  is  probably  changed  frotti  superregnum ; 
potentate,  from  potens  powerful,  S'ignifies  one  having 
supreme  power. 

Prince  is  the  gmerick  term,  the  rest  are  specifick 
terms;  every  monarch,  sovereign,  and  potentate,  is  a 
prince  but  not  vice  versd.  The  term  prince  is  inde- 
finite t;s  to  the  degree  of  power  : a prince  may  have  a 
limited  or  despotick  power ; but  in  its  restricted  sense 
Ibis  title  denotes  a smaller  degree  of  power  than  any 
of  the  other  terms : the  term  monarch  does  not  define 
the  extent  of  the  power,  but  simply  that  it  is  undivided 
as  opposed  to  that  species  of  power  which  is  lodged  in 
the  hands  of  many:  sovereign  and  potentate  indicate 
the  highest  degree  of  power;  but  the  former  is  em- 
ployed only  as  respects  the  nation  that  is  governed, 
the  latter  respects  other  nations : a sovereign  is  su- 
preme over  his  subjects;  a potentate  is  powerful  by 
means  of  his  subjects.  Every  man  having  inde- 
pendent power  is  a prince,  let  his  territory  be  ever  so 
inconsiderable;  Germany  is  divided  into  a number  of 
small  states,  which  are  governed  by  petty  princes ; 

Of  all  the  princes  who  had  swayed  the  Mexican 
sceptre,  Montezuma  was  the  most  haughty.’ — Robert- 
son. Every  one  reigning  by  himself  in  a state  of  some 
considerable  magnitude,  and  having  an  independent 
authority  over  his  subjects  is  a monarch ; kings  and 
emperours  therefore  are  all  moaarcAs;  ‘The  Mexican 
people  were  warlike  and  enterprising,  the  authority 
*f  the  monarch  unbounded.’ — Robertson.  Every 
monarch  is  a sovereign,  whose  extent  of  dominion 
and  number  of  subjectjs  rises  above  the  ordinary  level; 
‘The  Peruvians  yielded  a blind  submission  to  their 
sovereigns.' — Robertson.  He  is  a potentate  if  his 
innuence  either  in  the  cabinet  or  the  field  extends 
very  considerably  over  the  affairs  of  other  nations ; 
‘How  mean  must  the  most  exalted  potentate  upon 
earth  appear  to  that  eye  which  takes  in  innumerable 
orders  of  spirits.’ — Addison.  Although  we  know  that 
princes  are  but  men,  yet  in  estimating  their  characters 
»ve  are  apt  to  expect  more  of  them  than  what  is  human. 
It  is  the  great  concern  of  every  monarch  who  wishes 
for  the  welfare  of  his  subjects  to  choose  good  coun- 
sellors' whoever  has  approved  himself  a faithful  sub- 
ject may  approach  his  sovereign  with  a steady  confi- 
dence in  having  done  his  duty:  the  potentates  of  the 
tarth  may  sometimes  be  intoxicated  with  their  power 


and  their  triumphs  btit  in  general  they  have  too  manv 
mementoes  of  their  common  infirmity,  to  forget  that 
they  are  but  mortal  men. 

ABSOLUTE,  DESPOTICK,  ARBITRARY, 
TYRANNICAL. 

Absolute  in  Latin  absolutus,  participle  of  absolvv. 
signifies  absolved  or  set  at  liberty  from  all  restraint  as 
it  regards  persons;  unconditional,  unlimited,  as  it  re- 
gards things ; despotick,  from  despot,  in  Greek  ieondTrn 
a master  or  lord,  implies  being  like  a lord,  uncon- 
trolled ; arbitrary,  in  French  arbitraire,  from  the  Latin 
arbitHum  will,  implies  belonging  to  the  will  of  one  in- 
dependent of  that  of  others ; tyrannical  signifies  being 
like  a tyrant. 

Absolute  power  is  independent  of  and  superiour  to 
all  other  power : an  absolute  monarch  is  uncontrolled 
not  only  by  men  but  things;  he  is  above  all  law  except 
what  emanates  from  himself ; 

Unerring  power  ! 

Supreme  and  absolute,  of  these  your  ways 

You  render  no  account: — Lyldo. 

When  absolute  power  is  assigned  to  any  one  according 
to  the  constitution  of  a government,  it  is  despotick 
Despotick  power  is  therefore  something  less  than  abso- 
lute power:  a prince  is  absolute  of  himself:  he  is 
despotick  by  the  consent  of  others. 

In  the  early  ages  of  society  monarchs  were  absolute., 
and  among  the  Eastern  nations  they  still  retain  the  ab 
solute  form  of  government,  though  much  limited  by  es- 
tablished usage.  In  the  more  civilized  stages  of  society 
the  power  of  despots  has  been  considerably  restricted  by 
prescribed  laws,  in  so  much  that  despotism  is  now 
classed  among  the  regular  forms  of  government;  ‘Such 
a history  as  that  of  Suetonius  is  to  me  an  unanswer- 
able argument  against  despotick  power.’ — Addison 
This  term  may  also  be  applied  figuratively  ; ‘ Whatever 
the  will  commands,  the  whole  man  must  do  ; the  em- 
pire of  the  will  over  all  the  faculties  being  absolutely 
overruling  and  despotick.' — South. 

Arbitrary  and  tyrannical  do  not  respect  the  power 
itself,  so  much  as  the  exercise  of  power:  Ihe  latter  is 
always  taken  in  a bad  sense,  the  former  sometimes  in 
an  indifferent  sense.  With  arbitrariness  is  associated 
the  idea  of  caprice  and  selfishness;  for  where  is  Uie  in 
dividual  whose  uncontrolled  will  may  not  oftener  be 
capricious  than  otherwise  1 With  tyranny  is  associ 
ated  the  idea  of  oppression  and  injustice.  Among  the 
Greeks  the  word  '■vpavvos  a tyrant,  implied  no  more 
than  what  we  now  understand  by  despot,  namely,  a 
possessor  of  unlimited  power:  but  from  the  natural 
abuse  of  such  power,  it  has  acquired  the  signification 
now  attached  to  it,  namely,  of  exercising  power  to  the 
injury  of  another ; 

Our  sects  a more  tyrannick  power  assume. 

And  would  for  scorpions  change  the  rod  of  Rome. 

Roscommon. 

Absolute  power  should  be  granted  to  no  one  man  or 
body  of  men ; since  there  is  no  security  that  it  will  not 
be  exercised  arbitrarily ; ‘ An  honest  private  man  often 
grows  cruel  and  abandoned,  when  converted  into  an 
absolute  prince.’ — Addison.  In  despotick  governments 
the  tyrannical  proceedings  of  the  subordinate  officers 
are  often  more  intolerable  than  those  of  the  Prince 

POSITIVE,  ABSOLUTE.  PEREMPTORY. 

Positive,  in  Latin  positivus,  from  pono  to  put  o^ 
place,  signifies  placed  or  fixed,  that  is,  fi.xed  or  esta- 
blished in  the  mind  ; absolute  {v.  Absolute)  signifies 
uncontrolled  by  any  external  circumstances ; perem-p- 
tory,  in  Latin  peremptorius,  from  peririo  to  take  away, 
signifies  removing  all  further  question. 

Positive  is  said  either  of  a man’s  convictions  or  tern 
per  of  mind,  or  of  his  proceedings ; absolute  is  said  of 
his  mode  of  proceeding,  or  his  relative  circumstances  , 
peremptory  is  said  of  his  proceeding.  Positive,  as  re 
spects  a man’s  conviction,  has  been  spoken  of  under 
the  article  of  confident  {v.  Confident) ; in  the  lattei 
sense  it  bears  the  closest  analogy  to  absolute  or  peremp 
tory  : a positive  mode  of  speech  depends  upon  a posi- 
tive state  of  mind  ; ‘The  diminution  or  ceasing  of  paia 
does  not  operate  like  positive  pleasure.’ — Burke.  An 
absolute  mode  of  speech  depends  upon  the  uncont/'al- 
lable  outlioAtv  of  the  speaker  ; ‘ 'I’hose  parts  of 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  189 


moral  world  which  hive  not  an  absolute^  may  yet  have  i 
a relative  beauty,  in  respect  of  some  other  parts  con-  | 
cealed  from  us.’ — Addison.  A peremptorij  mode  of 
speech  depends  upon  tlie  disposition  and  relative  cir- 
cumstances of  the  speaker;  ‘The  Highlander  gives  to 
every  quesiion  an  answer  so  prompt  and  peremptory, 
that  skepticism  is  dared  ini<j  silence.’ — Johnson.  A de- 
cision is  positive ; a command  absolute  or  peremptory : 
what  is  positive  excludes  all  question  ; what  is  abso- 
lute bars  all  resistance;  what  is  peremptory  removes 
all  hesitation  ; a positive  answer  can  be  given  only  by 
one  who  has  positive  information  ; an  absolute  decree 
can  issue  only  from  one  vested  with  absolute  authority  ; 
a peremptory  refusal  can  be  given  only  by  one  who  has 
the  will  and  the  power  of  deciding  it  without  any  con- 
troversy. 

As  adverbs,  positively,  absolutely,  and  peremptorily, 
have  an  equally  close  connexion  : a thing  is  said  to  be 
positively  known,  or  positively  determined  upon,  or 
positively  agreed  to ; it  is  said  to  be  absolutely  neces- 
sary, absolutely  true  or  false,  absolutely  required  ; it  is 
not  to  be  peremptorily  decided,  peremptorily  declared, 
peremptorily  refused. 

Positive  and  absolute  are  likewise  applied  to  moral 
objects  with  the  same  distinction  as  before  ; the  posi- 
tive expresses  what  is  fixed  in  distinction  from  the 
relative  that  may  vary  ; the  absolute  is  that  which  is 
independent  of  every  thing : thus,  pleasure  and  pains 
are  positive;  names  in  logic  are  absolute;  cases  in 
grammar  are  absolute. 

ROYAL,  REGAL,  KINGLY. 

Royal  and  regal  from  the  Latin  rez  a king,  though 
of  foreign  origin,  have  obtained  more  general  appli- 
cation than  the  corresponding  English  term  kingly. 
Royal  signifies  belonging  to  a king,  in  its  most  general 
sense ; regal  in  Latin  regalis,  signifies  appertaining  to 
a king,  in  its  particular  application;  kingly  signifies 
properly  like  a king.  A royal  carriage,  a royal  resi- 
dence, a royal  couple,  a royal  salute,  royal  authority, 
all  designate  the  genet  al  and  ordinary  appurtenances 
to  a king. 

He  died,  and  oh ! may  no  reflection  shed 
Its  pois’nous  venom  on  the  royal  dead. — Prior. 
Regal  government,  regal  state,  regal  power,  regal  dig- 
nity, denote  the  peculiar  properties  of  a king  ; 

Jerusalem  combined  must  see 
My  open  fault  and  regal  infamy. — Prior. 

Kingly  always  implies  what  is  becoming  a king,  or 
after  the  manner  of  a king;  a kingly  crown  is  such  as 
a king  ought  to  wear ; a kingly  mien,  that  which  is 
after  the  manner  of  a king ; 

Scipio,  you  know  how  Massanissa  bears 
His  kingly  post  at  more  than  ninety  years. 

Denham. 


EMPIRE,  KINGDOM. 

AiiTiough  these  two  words  obviously  refer  to  two  spe- 
cies of  states,  where  the  princes  assume  the  title  of 
either  emperour  or  king,  yet  the  difference  between  them 
is  not  limited  to  this  distinction. 

* The  word  empire  carries  with  it  the  idea  of  a state 
that  is  vast,  and  composed  of  many  different  people; 
that  of  kingdom  marks  a state  more  limited  in  extent, 
and  united  in  its  composition.  In  kingdoms  there  is  a 
uniformity  of  fundamental  laws;  the  difference  in  re- 
gard to  particular  laws  or  modes  of  jurisprudence  being 
merely  variations  from  custom,  which  do  not  affect  the 
unity  of  political  administration.  From  this  uni- 
formity, indeed,  in  the  functions  of  government,  we 
may  trace  the  origin  of  the  words  king  and  kingdom: 
since  there  is  but  one  prince  or  sovereign  ruler,  although 
there  may  be  many  employed  in  the  administration. 
With  empires  it  is  different ; one  part  is  sometimes  go- 
verned by  fundamental  laws,  very  different  from  those 
by  which  another  part  of  the  same  empire  is  governed  ; 
which  diversity  destroys  the  unity  of  government,  and 
makes  the  union  of  the  state  to  consist  in  the  submission 
of  certain  chiefs  to  the  commands  of  a superiour  ge- 
neral or  chief.  From  this  very  right  of  commanding, 
then,  it  is  evident  that  the  words  empire  and  emperour 

* Vide  Abbe  Bauzee ; “ Empire,  royaume.” 


derive  their  origin  ; and  hence  it  is  that  there  may  be 
many  princes  or  sovereigns,  and  kingdoms,  \n  the  same 
empire. 

As  a farther  illustration  of  these  terms,  we  need  only 
look  to  their  application  from  the  earliest  ages  in  widen 
they  were  used,  down  to  the  present  period.  The  word 
king  had  its  existence  long  prior  to  that  of  emperour, 
being  doubtless  derived,  through  the  channel  of  the 
northern  languages,  from  the  Hebrew  |nD  a priest, 
since  in  those  ages  of  primitive  simplicity,  before  the 
lust  of  dominion  had  led  to  the  extension  of  power  and 
conquest,  he  who  performed  the  sacerdotal  office  weir 
unanimously  regarded  as  the  fittest  person  to  discharge 
the  civil  functions  for  the  cemmunity.  So  in  like  man 
ner  among  the  Romans  the  corresponding  word  rex 
which  comes  from  rego,  and  the  Hebrew  to  feed 
signifies  a pastor  or  shepherd,  because  he  who  filled  tht 
office  of  king  acted  both  spiritually  and  civilly  as  theii 
guide.  Rome  therefore  was  first  a kingdom,  while  it 
was  formed  of  only  one  people : it  acquired  the  name 
of  empire  as  soon  as  other  nations  were  brought  into 
subjection  to  it,  and  became  members  of  it;  not  by 
losing  their  distinctive  character  as  nations,  but  by  sub- 
mitting themselves  to  the  supreme  command  of  their 
conquerors. 

For  the  same  reaaon  the  German  empire  was  so  de- 
nominated, because  it  consisted  of  several  states  inde- 
pendent of  each  other,  yet  all  subject  to  one  ruler  o. 
emperor  ; so  likewise  the  Russian  empire,  the  Ottomar 
empire,  and  the  Mogul  empire,  which  are  composed  of 
different  nations:  and  on  the  other  hand  the  kingdom 
of  Spain,  of  Portugal,  of  France,  and  of  England,  all 
of  which,  though  divided  into  different  provinces,  were 
nevertheless,  one  people,  having  but  one  ruler.  While 
France,  however,  included  many  distinct  countries 
within  its  jurisdiction,  it  properly  assumed  the  name  of 
an  empire;  and  England  having  by  a legislative  act 
united  to  itself  a country  distinct  both  in  its  laws  and 
customs,  has  likewise,  with  equal  propriety,  been  de- 
nominated the  British  empire. 

A kingdom  can  never  reach  to  the  extent  of  an  em 
^pire,  for  the  unity  of  government  and  administratioE 
which  constitutes  its  leading  feature  cannot  reach  so 
far,  and  at  the  same  time  requires  more  time  than  the 
simple  exercise  of  superiority,  and  the  right  of  receiv 
ing  certain  marks  of  homage,  which  suffice  to  form  ai; 
empire.  Although  a kingdom  may  not  be  free,  yet  an 
empire  can  scarcely  be  otherwise  than  despotick  in  its 
form  of  government.  Power,  when  extended  and  ra- 
mified, as  it  must  unavoidably  be  in  an  empire,  derives 
no  aid  from  the  personal  influence  of  the  sovereign, 
and  requires  therefore  to  be  dealt  out  in  portions  far 
too  great  to  be  consistent  with  the  happiness  of  the 
subject. 


TERRITORY,  DOMINION. 

Both  these  terms  respect  a portion  of  country  under 
a particular  government ; but  the  word  territory  brings 
to  our  minds  the  land  which  is  included ; dominion 
conveys  to  our  minds  the  power  which  is  exercised; 
territory  refers  to  that  which  is  in  its  nature  bounded ; 
dominion  may  be  said  of  that  which  is  boundless.  A 
petty  prince  has  his  territory  ; the  monarch  of  a great 
empire  has  dominions. 

It  is  the  ol^ect  of  every  ruler  to  guard  his  territory 
against  the  irruptions  of  an  enemy;  ‘ The  conquered 
territory  was  divided  among  the  Spanish  invaders, 
according  to  rules  which  custom  had  introduced.’ — 
Robertson.  Ambitious  monarchs  are  always  aiming 
to  extend  their  dominions  ; 

And  while  the  heroick  Pyrrhus  shines  in  arms. 

Our  wide  dominions  shall  the  world  e’errun. 

Trapp. 


STATE,  REALM,  COMMONWEALTH. 

The  state  is  that  consolidated  part  of  a nation  iR 
which  lies  its  power  and  greatness ; the  realm,  froru 
royaume  a kingdom,  is  any  state  whose  government  is 
monarchical ; the  commonwealth  is  the  grand  body  of 
a nation,  consisting  both  of  the  government  and  people, 
which  forms  the  commonwealth  or  commonweal  of  a 
nation. 

The  ruling  idea  in  the  sense  and  application  of  the 


« 


190 


ENGLISH  srNONYMP:S, 


word  state  is  that  of  government  in  its  most  abstract 
sense  ; affairs  of  state  may  either  respect  the  internal 
regulations  of  a country,  or  it  may  respect  the  arrange- 
ments of  different  states  with  each  other.  The  term 
reaha  is  employed  for  the  nation  at  large,  but  confined 
to  such  nations  as  are  monarchical  and  aristocratical ; 
peers  of  the  realm  sit  in  the  English  Parliament  by 
their  own  right.  The  term  commonwealth  refers  rather 
to  the  aggregate  body  of  ncen,  and  their  possessions, 
rather  than  to  the  government  of  a country  ; it  is  the 
business  of  the  minister  to  consult  the  interests  of  the 
commonwealth. 

The  term  state  is  indefinitely  applied  to  all  commu- 
nities. large  or  small,  living  under  any  form  of  govern- 
ment; a petty  principality  in  Germany,  and  the  whole 
German  or  Russian  empire,  are  alike  termed  states  ; 

‘ No  man  that  understands  the  state  of  Poland,  and  the 
United  ' Provinces,  will  be  able  to  range  them  under 
any  particular  names  of  government  that  have  been 
invented.’ — Temple.  Realm  is  a term  of  dignity  in 
regard  to  a nation ; France,  Germany,  England,  Russia, 
are,  therefore,  with  most  propriety  termed  realms., 
when  spoken  of  either  in  regard  to  themselves  or  in 
general  conne.xions ; 

Then  Saturn  came,  who  fled  the  power  of  Jove, 

Robb’d  of  his  realms,  and  banish’d  from  above. 

t,  Dryden. 

Commonwealth,  although  not  appropriately  applied  to 
any  nation,  is  most  fitted  for  republicks,  which  have 
hardly  fi.vedness  enough  in  themselves  to  deserve  the 
name  of  state; 

Civil  dissension  is  a viperous  worm. 

That  gnaws  the  bowels  of  the  commonwealth. 

Shakspe.\re. 

CREDIT,  FAVOUR,  INFLUENCE 

Credit,  from  the  Latin  creditus,  participle  of  credo 
to  believe  or  trust,  marks  the  state  of  being  believed 
or  trusted ; favour,  from  the  Latin  /areo,  and  probably 
favus  a honey  comb,  marks  an  agreeable  or  pleasant 
state  of  feeling;  influence  signifies  the  same  as  in  the 
preceding  article. 

These  terms  denote  the  state  we  stand  in  with  regard 
to  others  as  flowing  out  of  their  sentiments  towards 
ourselves  ; credit  arises  out  of  esteem  ; favour  out  of 
good-will  or  affection ; influence  out  of  either  credit 
or  favour:  credit  depends  most  on  personal  merit; 
favour  may  depend  on  the  caprice  of  him  who  be- 
stows it. 

The  credit  which  we  have  with  others  is  marked  by 
their  confidence  in  our  judgement ; by  their  disposition 
to  submit  to  our  decisions ; by  their  reliance  in  our 
veracity,  or  assent  to  our  opinions:  the  favour  we  have 
with  others  is  marked  by  their  readiness  to  comply 
with  our  wishes;  their  subserviency  to  our  views; 
attachment  to  our  society;  men  of  talent  are  ambi- 
tious to  gain  credit  with  their  sovereigns,  by  the  supe- 
riority of  their  counsel ; weak  men  or  men  of  ordinary 
powers  are  contented  with  being  the  favourites  of 
princes,  and  enjoying  their  patronage  and  protection. 
Credit  redounds  to  the  honour  of  the  individual,  and 
stimulates  him  to  noble  e.xertions ; it  is  beneficial  in  its 
results  to  all  mankind,  individually  or  collectively ; 
‘Truth  itself  shall  lose  its  credit,  if  delivered  by  a 
person  that  has  none.’ — South.  Favour  redounds  to 
the  personal  advantage,  the  selfish  gratification  of  the 
individual ; it  is  apt  to  inflame  pride,  and  provoke 
jealousy  ; ‘ Halifax,  thinking  this  a lucky  opportunity 
of  securing  immortality,  made  some  advances  of  fa- 
vour, and  some  overtures  of  advantage  to  Pope,  which 
he  seems  to  have  received  with  sullen  coldness.’— 
Johnson.  The  honest  exertion  of  our  abilities  is  all 
that  is  necessary  to  gain  credit ; there  will  always  be 
found  those  who  are  just  enough  to  give  credit  where 
credit  is  due  : favour,  whether  in  the  gaining  or  main- 
taining, requires  much  finesse  and  trick ; much  man- 
agement of  the  humours  of  others ; much  control  of 
one’s  own  humours ; what  is  thus  gamed  with  diffi- 
culty is  often  lost  in  a moment,  and  for  a trifle.  Credit, 
though  sometimes  obtained  by  falsehood,  is  never  got 
without  exertion ; but  favour,  whether  justly  or  un- 
\ustly  bestowed,  often  comes  by  little  or  no  effort  on 
the  part  of  the  receiver  ; a clergyman  gains  credit  with 
his  parishioners  by  the  consistency  of  his  conduct,  the 
gT-avitv  of  tiis  demeanour,  and  the  strictness  of  his 


life;  the  favour  of  the  populace  is  gained  by  arij 
which  men  of  upright  minds  would  disdain  to  employ 
Credit  and  favour  are  the  gifts  of  others ; influenct 
is  a possession  wluch  we  derive  from  circumstances ; 
there  will  always  be  influence  where  there  is  credit  or 
favour,  but  it  may  exist  independently  of  either:  wt 
have  ci-edit  and  f avour  for  ourselves;  we  e.xert  influ- 
ence over  others : credit  and  favour  serve  one’s  own 
purposes;  influence  is  employed  in  directing  others: 
weak  people  easily  give  credit,  or  bestow  their  jc^vRr, 
by  which  an  influence  is  gained  over  them  to  bend 
them  to  the  will  of  others ; the  influence  itself  may  be 
good  or  bad,  according  to  the  views  of  the  person  by 
whom  it  is  exerted;  ‘What  motive  could  induce 
Murray  to  murder  a prince  without  capacity,  without 
followers,  without  influence  over  the  nobles,  whom  the 
queen,  by  her  neglect,  had  reduced  to  the  lowest  state 
of  contempt.’ — Robertson. 


GRACE,  FAVOUR. 

Grace,  in  French  grace,  Latin  gratia,  comes  from 
gratus  kind,  because  a grace  results  from  pure  kind 
ness  independently  of  the  merit  of  the  receiver ; but 
favour  is  that  which  is  granted  voluntarily  and  with 
out  hope  of  recompense  independently  of  all  obli- 
gation. 

Grace  is  never  used  but  in  regard  to  those  who  have 
offended  and  made  themselves  liable  to  punishment ; 
favour  is  employed  for  actual  good.  An  act  of  grace 
is  a term  employed  to  denote  that  act  of  the  govern- 
ment by  which  insolvent  debtors  are  released ; but 
otherwise  the  term  is  in  most  frequent  use  among 
Christians  to  denote  that  merciful  influence  which  God 
exerts  over  his  most  unworthy  creatures  from  the  infi- 
nitegoodness of  his  Divine  nature;  it  is  to  his  special 
grace  that  we  attribute  every  good  feeling  by  which  we 
are  prevented  from  committing  sin; 

But  say  I could  repent  and  could  obtain, 

By  act  of  grace,  my  former  state,  how  soon 
Would  height  recall  high  thoughts. — Milton. 

The  term  favour  is  employed  indiscriminately  with 
regard  to  man  or  his  Maker ; those  who  are  in  po\ver 
have  the  greatest  opportunity  of  conferring  favours  ; 
‘ A bad  man  is  wholly  the  creature  of  the  world.  He 
hangs  upon  its  favour.' — Blair.  But  all  we  receive 
at  the  hands  of  our  Maker  must  be  acknowledged  as  a 
favour.  The  Divine  grace  is  absolutely  indispensable 
for  men  as  sinners ; the  Divine  favour  is  perpetually 
necessary  for  men  as  his  creatures  dependent  upon  him 
for  every  thing. 


FAVOURABLE,  PROPITIOUS,  AUSPICIOUS. 

Favourable,  disposed  to /auoMr,  or  after  the  mannei 
of  favour,  is  the  general  term ; propitious  and  auspi- 
cious are  species  of  the  favourable ; propitious,  in 
Latin  propitms,  comes  from  prope  near,  because  the 
heathens  solicited  their  deities  to  be  near  or  present  to 
give  them  aid  in  favour  of  their  designs  ; whence  pro- 
pitious signifies  favourable  as  \t  springs  from  the  de- 
sign of  an  agent : auspicious,  in  French  auspice,  Latin 
auspicium  and  auspex,  compounded  of  avis  and  spieia 
to  behold,  signifies  favourable  according  to  the  aus- 
pices ; what  is  propitious  or  auspicious,  therefore,  is 
aXways  favourable,  but  not  vice  versd  : the  favourable 
properly  characterizes  both  persons  and  things ; the 
propitious,  in  the  proper  sense,  characterizes  the  person 
only  ; auspicious  is  said  of  things  only : as  applied  to 
persons,  an  equal  may  be  favourable : a superiour 
only  IS  propitious  : the  one  may  he  favourable  only  in 
inclination  ; the  latter  is  favourable  also  in  granting 
timely  assLsfawce.  Cato  was  favourable  to  ?oin’pey, 
the  gods  were  propitious  to  the  Greeks  ; we  may  all 
wish  to  have  our  friends  favourable  to  our  projects; 

Famous  Plantagenet!  most  gracious  prince, 

Yiend  favourable  ear  to  our  requests. — Shakspeare. 
None  but  heathens  expect  to  have  a blind  destinypra- 
pitious.  In  the  improper  sense,  propitious  may  be 
applied  to  things  with  a similar  distinction ; whatever 
is  wel  disposed  to  us,  and  seconds  our  endeavours,  or 
servesuur  purpose,  is  favourable ; ‘You  have  indeed 
every  favourable  circumstance  for  your  advancement 
that  can  be  wished.’ — Mklmoth  [LeHersof  Cicery 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  191 


Whatever  efficaciously  protects  us,  speeds  our  exer- 
tions, and  decides  our  success,  \s  projiitious  to  us; 

But  ah  ! wliat  use  of  valour  can  be  made, 

When  propitious  powers  refuse  their  aid. 

Drxden. 

On  ordinary  occasions,  a wind  is  said  to  he  favourable 
which  carries  us  to  the  end  of  our  voyage  ; but  it  is 
said  to  be  propitious  if  tlie  rapidity  of  our  passage 
forwards  any  great  purpose  of  our  own.  Those  tilings 
are  auspicious  whicli  are  casual,  or  ciily  indicative  of 
good;  persons  arc  propitious  to  the  wishes  of  another 
who  listen  to  their  requests  and  contribute  to  their 
satisfaction.  A journey  is  undertaken  under  auspi- 
r^ious  circumstances,  where  every  thing  incidental, 
as  weather,  society,  and  the  like,  bid  fair  to  afford 
pleasure ; 

Still  follow  where  auspicious  fates  invite, 

Caress  the  happy,  and  the  wretched  slight 
Sooner  shall  jarring  elements  unite. 

Than  truth  with  gain,  than  interest  with  right. 

Lewis. 

A journey  is  undertaken  under  propitious  circum- 
stances when  every  thing  favours  tlie  attainment  of  the 
object  for  which  it  was  begun  ; 

Who  loves  a garden  loves  a greenhouse  too; 
Unconscious  of  a \css propitious  clime. 

There  blooms  exotic  beauty. — Cowper. 

Whoever  has  any  request  to  make  ought  to  seize  the 
auspicious  moment  when  the  person  of  whom  it  is 
asked  is  in  a pleasant  frame  of  mind  ; a poet  in  his 
invocation  requests  tlie  muse  to  be  propitious  to  him, 
or  the  lover  conjures  his  beloved  to  be  propitious  to  his 
vows. 


TO  LEAD,  CONDUCT,  GUIDE. 

Lead,  in  Saxon  Iddden,  laden,  Danish  lede,  Swedish 
Icda,  low  German  leiden,  high  German  leiten,  is  most 
probably  connected  with  the  obsolete  German  leit, 
leige,  a way  or  road,  Swedish  led,  Saxon  late,  &c. 
signifying  properly  to  show  or  direct  in  the  way ; con- 
duct, in  Latin  conductus,  participle  of  cojid«co,  signifies 
to  carry  a person  with  one,  or  to  make  a thing  go  ac- 
cording to  one’s  will ; guide,  in  French  guider,  Saxon 
witan  or  wisan,  German,  &c.  weisen  to  show,  Latin 
video  to  see  or  show,  signifies  properly  to  point  out  the 
way. 

These  terms  are  all  employed  to  denote  the  influence 
which  one  person  has  over  the  movements  or  actions 
of  another ; but  the  first  implies  nothing  more  than 
personal  presence  and  direction  or  going  before,  the 
last  two  convey  also  the  idea  of  superiour  intelligence  ; 
those  are  led  who  either  cannot  or  will  not  go  alone, 
those  are  conducted  and  guided  who  do  not  know  the 
road  ; in  the  literal  sense'  it  is  the  hand  that  leads,  the 
head  that  conducts,  and  the  eye  that  guides  ; one  leads 
an  infant;  conducts  a person  to  a given  spot;  and 
guides  a traveller , 

His  guide,  as  faithful  from  that  day 
As  Hesperus  that  leads  the  sun  his  way. 

Fairfax. 

‘We  waited  some  time  in  expectation  of  the  next 
worthy,  who  came  in  with  a great  retinue  of  histo- 
rians, whose  names  I could  not  learn,  most  of  them 
being  natives  of  Carthage.  The  person  thus  conduct- 
ed, who  was  Hannibal,  seemed  much  disturbed.’ 

Addison. 

Can  knowledge  have  no  bound,  but  must  advance 

So  far  to  make  us  wish  for  ignorance  7 

And  rather  in  the  dark  to  grope  our  way 

Than  led  by  a false  guide  to  err  by  day  1 — Denham. 

A general  leads  an  army,  inasmuch  as  he  goes  before 
t into  the  field  of  balde  ; he  conducts  an  army,  inas- 
much as  he  directs  its  movements  by  his  judgement 
and  skill;  he  is  himself  guided,  inasmuch  as  he  fol- 
lows the  guide  who  points  out  the  road.  The  coach- 
tian  leads  his  horses  in  or  out  of  the  stable  ; he  guides 
ihem  when  they  are  in  a carriage  ; the  pilot  conducts 
a vessel ; the  steersman  guides  it. 

These  words  bear  the  same  analogy  in  the  moral  or 
Igurative  applicalbn  ; the  personal  influence  of  ano- 


ther learZs;  the  understanding  conducts;  authority  oi 
law  guides.  Men  are  led  into  mistakes  by  listening  to 
evil  counsellors.  The  word  is  also  applied  in  the  same 
sense  to  circumstances  ; ‘Human  testimony  is  not  so 
proper  to  lead  us  into  the  knowledge  of  the  essence  of 
things,  as  to  acquaint  us  with  the  existence  of  things.’ 
— Watts.  But  sometimes  the  word  lead  is  taken  in 
the  sense  of  draw  or  move  into  action,  as  men  are  said 
to  be  led  by  their  passions  into  errours;  ‘ What  I say 
will  have  little  influence  on  those  whose  ends  lead 
them  to  wish  the  continuance  of  the  war.’— Swift, 
Conductiv g in  ihc  moral  sense  is  applied  mostly  tc 
things  ; one  conducts  a lawsuit  or  a business  ; ‘He  sc 
conducted  the  affairs  of  the  kingdom,  that  he  made  the 
reign  of  a prince  most  happy  to  the  English.’ — Lord 
Lvttleton.  Guiding,  which  comes  nearest  to  lead 
ing  in  this  application,  conveys  the  idea  of  serving  as 
a rule;  an  attentive  perusal  of  the  Scriptures  is  suffi 
cient  to  guide  us  in  the  way  of  salvation  ; ‘ The  brutei 
are  guided  by  instinct  and  know  no  sorrow  ; the  angels 
have  knowledge  and  they  are  happy.’ — Steele.  ‘Upon 
these,  or  such  like  secular  maxims,  when  nothing 
but  interest  guides  men,  they  many  times  conclude 
that  the  slightest  wrongs  are  not  to  be  put  up  with.’- 
Kettelwell. 


TO  CONDUCT,  MANAGE,  DIRECT. 

Conducting,  as  in  the  preceding  article,  requiies 
most  wisdom  and  knowledge : managing,  from  the 
French  menager  and  mener,  and  the  Latin  manus  a 
hand,  supposes  most  action  ; direction,  from  the  Latin 
directus,  participle  of  dirigo  or  di  and  rego,  signifies  to 
regulate  distinctly,  whicli  supposes  most  authority.  A 
lawyer  conducts  the  cause  intrusted  to  him ; a steward 
manages  the  mercantile  concerns  for  his  employer  ; a 
superintendent  directs  the  movements  of  all  the  subor 
dinate  agents. 

Conducting  is  alw'ays  applied  to  affairs  of  the  firs 
importance  ; ‘ The  general  purposes  of  men  in  the  con 
duct  of  their  lives,  I niean  with  relation  to  this  Hfc  only 
end  in  gaining  either  the  affection  or  esteem  of  thost 
with  whom  they  converse.’ — Steele.  Management 
is  a term  of  familiar  use  to  characterize  a familiar  em 
ployment;  ‘ Good  delivery  is  a graceful  mawa^cTHcrJ 
of  the  voice,  countenance,  and  gesture.’ — Steele.  ‘ I 
have  sometimes  amused  myself  with  considering  th€ 
several  methods  of  managing  a debate,  which  have 
olitained  in  the  world.’ — Addison.  Direction  makes 
up  in  authority  what  it  wants  in  importance ; it  falls 
but  little  short  of  the  word  conduct ; ‘ To  direct  a wan- 
derer in  the  right  way  is  to  light  another  man’s  candh 
by  one’s  own,  which  loses  none  of  its  light  by  wha, 
the  other  gains.’ — Grove.  A conductor  conceives  and 
plans  as  well  as  executes:  ‘If  he  did  not  entirely  pro- 
ject the  union  and  regency,  none  will  deny  him  to  have 
been  the  chief  conductor  in  both.’ — Addison.  A ma- 
nager, for  the  most  part  simply  acts  or  executes, 
except  in  a subordinate  capacity,  or  in  mean  concerns; 
‘ A skilful  manager  of  the  rabble,  so  long  as  they  have 
but  ears  to  hear,  need  never  inquire  whether  they 
have  understanding.’ — South.  A director  commands ; 
‘ Himself  stood  director  over  them,  with  nodding  or 
stamping,  showing  he  did  like  or  mislike  those  things 
he  did  not  understand.’ — Sidney.  It  is  necessary  to 
conduct  with  wisdom ; to  manage  with  diligence  and 
attention  ; to  direct  with  promptitude,  precision,  and 
clearness.  A minister  of  state  requires  peculiar  talents 
to  conduct,  with  success,  the  various  and  complicated 
concerns  which  are  connected  with  his  office : he  must 
exercise  much  skill  in  managing  the  various  charac- 
ters and  clashing  interests  with  which  he  becomes  con- 
nected : and  possess  much  influence  to  direct  the  mul 
tiplied  operations  by  which  the  grand  machine  ci  go 
vernment  is  kept  in  motion. 

When  a general  undertakes  to  conduct  a campaign 
he  will  intrust  the  management  of  minor  concerns  to 
persons  on  whom  he  can  rely  ; but  he  will  direct  in 
person  whatever  is  likely  to  have  any  serious  influence 
on  his  success. 


TO  DIRECT,  DISPOSE,  REGULATE 
We  direct  for  the  instruction  of  individuals  We 
regulate  for  the  good  order  or  convenieni  e of  jianv 
We  dispose  for  the  benefit  of  one  or  maruy 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


m 

To  direct  {v.  To  conduct)  is  personal,  it  supposes  au- 
thority ; to  regulate^  from  the  Latin  regula  a rule,  sig- 
nifying to  settle  according  to  a rule,  is  general,  it  sup- 
poses superiour  information.  An  officer  directs  the 
movements  of  his  men  in  military  operations ; 

Canst  thou  with  all  a monarch’s  cares  opprest ! 

Oh  Atreus’  son  ! canst  thou  indulge  thy  rest  ? 

Ill  fits  a chief,  who  mighty  nations  guides. 
Directs  in  council,  and  in  war  presides. — Pope. 

I'he  steward  or  master  of  the  ceremonies  regulatesthe 
whole  concerns  of  an  entertainment; 

Ev’n  goddesses  are  women  : and  no  wife 
lias  power  to  regulate  her  husband’s  life. 

Drvden. 

The  director  is  often  a man  in  power , the  regulator  is 
always  the  man  of  business;  the  latter  is  frequently 
smployed  to  act  under  the  former.  The  Bank  of  Eng- 
land has  its  directors,  who  only  take  part  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  whole  ; the  regulation  of  the  subor- 
dinate part,  and  of  the  details  of  business,  is  intrusted 
to  the  superiour  clerks. 

To  direct  is  mostly  used  with  regard  to  others ; to 
regulate^  frequently  with  regard  to  ourselves.  One 
person  directs  another  according  to  his  better  judge- 
ment ; he  regulates  his  own  conduct  by  principles  or 
circumstances;  ‘Strange  disorders  are  bred  in  the 
minds  of  those  men  whose  passions  are  not  regulated 
by  reason.’ — Addison.  But  sometimes  the  word 
direct  is  taken  in  the  sense  of  giving  a direction 
towards  an  object,  and  it  is  then  distinguished  from 
regulate,  which  signifies  to  determine  the  measure  and 
other  circumstances  ; ‘It  is  the  business  of  religion  and 
philosophy  not  so  much  to  extinguish  our  passions,  as 
to  regulate  and  direct  them  to  valuable,  well-chosen 
objects.’ — Addison. 

To  dispose,  from  dispono,  or  dis  and  pono,  signify- 
ing to  put  apart  for  a particular  use,  supposes  superiour 
power,  like  the  word  direct,  and  superiour  wisdom,  like 
that  of  regulate ; whence  the  term  has  been  applied 
to  the  Supreme  Being,  who  is  styled  the  Disposer  oi  all 
evtnt-3 ;’  and  in  the  same  sense,  it  is  used  by  the  poets 
li  ’•'Terence  to  the  heathen  gods ; 

Endure,  and  conquer ; Jove  will  soon  dispose 
To  future  good,  our  past  and  present  woes. 

Drydkn. 


BEHAVIOUR,  CONDUCT,  CARRIAGE,  DE- 
PORTMENT, DEMEANOUR. 

behaviour  comes  from  behave,  compounded  of  be  and 
have,  signifying  to  have  one’s  self,  or  have  self-posses- 
sion; conduct,  in  "LnXin  conductus,  participle  of  con- 
duce, compounded  of  con  or  cum  and  duco  to  lead  along, 
signifies  leading  one’s  self  along ; carriage,  the  abstract 
of  carry  {v.  To  bear,  carry),  signifies  the  act  of  carry- 
ing ones  body,  or  one’s  self;  deportment,  from  the  Latin 
deporto  to  carry ; and  demeanour,  from  the  French 
demener  to  lead,  have  the  same  original  sense  as  the 
preceding. 

Behaviour  respects  corporeal  or  mental  actions ; con- 
duct, mental  actions;  carriage,  deportment,  and  de- 
meanour, are  different  species  of  behaviour.  Be- 
haviour respects  all  actions  exposed  to  the  notice  of 
others : conduct  the  general  line  of  a person’s  moral 
proceedings : we  speak  of  a person’s  behaviour  at 
table,  or  in  company,  in  a ball  room,  in  the  street,  or  in 
publick  ; of  his  conduct  in  the  management  of  his  pri- 
vate concerns,  in  the  direction  of  his  family,  or  in  his 
different  relations  with  his  fellow-creatures.  Beha- 
viour applies  to  the  minor  morals  of  society;  conduct 
to  those  of  the  first  moment : in  our  intercourse  with 
others  we  may  adopt  a civil  or  polite,  a rude  or  boister- 
ous ieAucwur;  in  our  serious  transactions  we  may 
adopt  a peaceable,  discreet,  or  prudent,  a rash,  daii- 
gerous,  or  mischievous  conduct.  Our  behaviour  is 
good  or  bad ; our  conduct  is  wise  or  foolish  • by  our 
behaviour  we  may  render  ourselves  agreeable,  or  other- 
wise ; by  our  conduct  we  may  command  esteem,  or 
provoke  contempt : the  behaviour  of  yonng  people  in 
society  is  of  particular  importance ; it  should,  above 
all  things,  be  marked  with  propriety  in  the  preseiice  of 
taoeriours  and  elders  ; ‘The  circumstance  of  life  is  not 


that  which  gives  us  place,  but  car  behaviour  In  tliai 
circumstance  is  what  should  be  our  solid  distinction.’ 
—Steele.  The  youth  who  does  not  learn  betime«»  a 
seemly  behaviour  in  company,  will  scarcely  know  liovv 
to  conduct  himself  judiciously  on  any  future  occasion  ; 
' Wisdom  is  no  less  necessary  in  religious  and  moral 
than  in  civil  conduct.’— Blair. 

Carriage  respects  simply  the  manner  of  carrying 
the  body  ; deportment  includes  both  the  action  and  the 
carriage  of  the  body  in  performing  the  action ; dt 
meanour  respects  only  the  moral  character  or  tendenc) 
of  the  action  ; deportment  is  said  only  of  those  2xt''- 
riour  actions  that  have  an  immediate  reference  to 
others  ; demeanour,  of  the  general  behaviour  as  it  re 
lates  to  the  circumstances  and  situation  of  the  indivi 
dual : the  carriage  is  that  part  of  behaviour,  which  is 
of  the  first  importance  to  attend  to  in  young  persons. 
The  carriage  should  neither  be  haughty  norservi'e  ; to 
be  graceful,  it  ought  to  have  a due  mixture  of  dignity 
and  condescension  : the  deportment  of  a man  should 
he  suited  to  his  station  ; an  humble  dep  >rtment  is  be 
coming  in  inferiours;  a stately  and  forbidding  deport 
went  is  very  unbecoming  in  superiours;  the  demeanour 
of  a man  should  be  suited  to  his  situation  ; the  suita 
ble  demeanour  of  a judge  on  the  bench,  or  of  a clergy 
man  in  the  pulpit,  or  when  performing  his  clerical 
functions,  adds  much  to  the  dignity  and  solemnity  of 
the  office  itself. 

The  carriage  marks  the  birth  and  education  : an 
awkward  carriage  stamps  a man  as  vulgar ; a grace- 
ful carriage  evinces  refinement  and  culture  ; ‘ He  that 
w'ill  look  back  upon  all  the  acquaintances  he  lias  had 
in  his  whole  life,  will  find  he  has  seen  more  men  ca- 
pable of  the  greatest  employments  and  performances, 
than  such  as  could  in  the  general  bent  of  their  car 
riage  act  otherwise  than  according  to  their  own  com 
plexion  and  humour.’ — Steele.  The  deportment 

marks  the  existing  temper  of  the  mind ; whoever  is 
really  impressed  with  the  solemnity  and  importance  of 
publick  worship  will  evince  his'impressions  by  a gravity 
of  deportment ; females  should  guard  against  a light 
deportment,  as  highly  prejudicial  to  their  reputation 
‘The  mild  demeanour,  the  modest  deportment,  arc 
valued  not  only  as  they  denote  internal  purity  and  in- 
nocence, but  as  forming  in  themselves  the  most  amiable 
and  engaging  part  of  the  female  character.’ — Macken- 
zie. The  demeanour  marks  the  habitual  temper  of 
the  mind,  or  in  fact  the  real  character ; we  are  often 
led  to  judge  favourably  of  an  individual  from  the  first 
glance,  whose  demeanour  on  close  examination  does 
not  leave  such  favourable  impressions ; ‘ I have  been 
told  the  same  even  of  Mahometans,  with  relation  to 
the  propriety  of  their  demeanour  in  the  conventions  of 
their  erroneous  worship.’ — Steele. 


CARRIAGE,  GAIT,  WALK. 

Carriage,  from  the  verb  to  carry  (v.  To  bear,  carry), 
signifies  the  act  of  carrying  in  general,  but  here  that 
of  carrying  the  body;  gait,  from  go,  signifies  the 
manner  of  going  with  the  body  ; walk  signifies  the 
manner  of  walking. 

Carriage  is  liere  tlie  most  general  term  ; it  respects 
the  manner  of  carrying  the  body,  whether  in  a state 
of  jDOtion  or  rest;  gait  is  the  mode  of  carrying  the 
limbs  and  body  whenever  we  move:  walk  is  the 
manner  of  carrying  the  body  when  we  move  forward 
to  walk. 

A person’s  carriage  is  somewhat  natural  to  him  ; it 
is  often  an  indication  of  character,  but  admits  of 
great  change  by  education  ; we  may  alwaysdistinguish 
a man  as  high  or  low,  either  in  mind  or  station,  by  his 
carriage;  ‘Upon  her  nearer  approach  to  Hercules, 
she  stepped  before  the  other  lady,  who  came  forward 
with  a regular  composed  carriage^ — AoDtsoN.  Gait 
is  artificial;  we  may  contract  a certain  gait  by  habit; 
the  gait  is  therefore  often  taken  for  a bad  habit  of 
going,  as  when  a person  has  a limping  gait,  or  an 
unsteady  gait ; 

Lifeless  her  gait,  and  slow,  with  seeming  pa  Ji, 
She  dragg’d  her  loit’ring  limbs  along  the  plain. 

Shenstons. 

Walk  is  less  definite  than  either,  as  it  is  applicable  to 
the  ordinary  movements  of  men:  there  is  a good,  a 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


193 


oad,  or  an  indilferent  walk ; but  it  is  not  a matter  of 
ndltference  which  of  these  kinds  of  ^caZ^•  we  have ; it 
is  the  great  art  of  the  dancing-master  to  give  a good 
walk  ; 

In  length  of  train  descends  her  sweeping  gown, 

And  by  her  graceful  walk,  the  queen  of  love  is  known. 

Dryden. 


MANNERS,  MORALS. 

Manners  (v.  Air,  manner)  respect  the  minor  forms 
cf  acting  with  others  and  towards  others  ; morals  in- 
ciude  the  important  duties  of  life  : manners  have, 
therefore,  been  denominated  minor  morals.  By  an 
attention  to  good  manners  we  vender  ourselves  good 
companions ; by  an  observance  of  good  morals  we 
become  good  members  of  society:  the  former  gains  the 
good  will  of  others,  the  latter  their  esteem.  The  man- 
ners of  a child  are  of  more  or  less^Kiportance,  accord- 
ing to  his  station  in  life;  his  morals  cannot  be  at- 
tended to  too  early,  let  his  station  be  what  it  may  ; ‘ In 
the  present  corrupted  state  of  human  manners,  always 
lo  assent  and  to  comply,  is  the  very  worst  maxim  we 
can  adopt.  It  is  impossible  to  support  the  purity  and 
dignity  of  Christian  morals,  without  opi)Osing  the 
world  on  various  occasions.’ — Blair. 


AIR,  MANNER. 

Air,  in  Latin  aer,  Greek  d>jp,  comes  from  the  He- 
brew “lIXi  because  it  is  the  vehicle  of  light;  hence  in 
the  figurative  sense,  in  which  it  is  here  taken,  it  de- 
notes an  appearance:  manner,  in  French  maniire, 
comes  probably  from  mener  to  lead  or  direct,  signify- 
ing the  direction  of  one’s  movements. 

An  air  is  inherent  in  the  whole  person  ; a manner  is 
confined  to  the  action  or  the  movement  of  a single  limb. 
A man  has  the  air  of  a common  person ; it  discovers 
itself  in  all  his  manners.  An  air  has  something  su- 
perficial in  its  nature ; it  strikes  at  the  first  glance ; 
‘ The  air  she  gave  herself  was  that  of  a romping  girl.’ 
— Steele.  Manner  has  something  more  solid  in  it ; it 
developes  itself  on  closer  observation;  ‘The  boy  is 
well  fashioned,  and  will  easily  fall  into  a graceful 
wajwvJT-.’ — Steele.  Some  people  have  an  air  about 
them  which  displeases ; but  their  manners  afterward 
win  upon  those  who  have  a farther  intercourse  with 
them.  Nothing  is  more  cwmmon  than  to  suffer  our- 
selves to  be  prejudiced  by  a person’s  air,  either  in  his 
favour  or  otherwise  : the  manners  of  a man  will  often 
contribute  to  his  advancement  in  life,  more  than  his 
real  met  its 

An  air  is  indicative  of  a state  of  mind  ; it  may  re 
suit  either  from  a natural  or  habitual  mode  of  think- 
ing: a manner  is  indicative  of  the  education  ; it  is 
produced  by  external  circumstances.  An  air  is  noble 
or  simple,  it  marks  an  elevation  or  simplicity  of  cha- 
racter: a manner  is  rude,  rustic,  or  awkward,  for 
want  of  culture,  good  society,  and  good  example. 
We  assume  an  air,  and  affect  a manner.  An  assumed 
air  of  importance  exposes  the  littleness  of.the  assumer. 
Which  might  otherwise  pass  unnoticed : the  same  man- 
ners which  are  becoming  when  natural,  render  a per- 
son ridiculous  when  they  are  affected.  A prepossess- 
ing air  and  engaging  manners  have  more  influence  on 
the  heart  than  the  solid  qualities  of  the  mind. 


AIR,  MIEN,  LOOK. 

Air  signifies  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  article; 
mien,  in  German  micne,  comes,  as  Adelung  supposes, 
from  mahnen  to  move  or  draw,  because  the  lines  of  the 
face,  which  constitute  the  mien  in  the  German  sense, 
are  drawn  together:  look  signifies  properly  a mode  of 
looking  or  appearing. 

The  exteriour  of  a person  is  comprehended  in  the 
sense  of  all  these  words.  Air  depends  not  only  on  the 
countenance,  but  the  stature,  carriage,  and  action: 
mien  respects  the  whole  outward  appearance,  not  ex- 
cepting the  dress : Zoo/£  depends  altogether  on  the  face 
and  its  chanaes.  Air  marks  any  particular  state  of 
the  mind ; ‘ The  truth  of  it  is,  the  air  is  generally  no- 
thing else  blit  the  inward  disposition  of  the  mind  made 
visible.’ — Addison.  Mien  denotes  any  state  of  the 
outward  circumstances ; 


How  sleek  their  looks,  hovt  goodly  is  mun, 
When  big  they  strut  behind  a double  chin. 

Dryden. 

Look  denotes  any  individual  movement  of  the  mind ; 
How  in  the  looks  does  conscious  guilt  appear 
Addison 

We  may  judge  by  a person’s  air,  that  he  has  a confl 
dent  and  fearless  mind : we  may  judge  by  his  sorrow 
ful  mien,  that  he  has  substantial  cause  for  sc  now ; and 
by  sorrowful  looks,  that  he  has  some  partial  or  tempo- 
rary cause  for  sorrow. 

We  talk  of  doing  any  thing  with  a particular  azr, 
of  having  a mien;  of  giving  a look.  An  innocent  man 
will  answer  his  accusers  with  an  air  of  composure  ; a 
person’s  whole  mien  sometimes  bespeaks  his  wretched 
condition  ; a look  is  sometimes  given  to  one  who  acts 
in  concert,  by  way  of  intimation. 


TO  ADMONISH,  ADVISE. 

Admonish,  in  Latin  admoneo,  is  compounded  oi 
the  intensive  ad  and  moneo  to  advise,  signifying  to  put 
seriously  in  mind  ; advise  compounded  of  the  Latin 
ad  and  visus,  participle  of  video  to  see,  signifies  tc 
make  to  see,  or  to  show. 

Admonish  mostly  regards  the  past;  advise  respects 
the  future.  We  admonish  a person  on  the  errours  he 
has  committed,  by  representing  to  him  the  extent  and 
consequences  of  his  offence ; we  advise  a person  as  to 
his  future  conduct,  by  giving  him  rules  and  inslruc 
tions.  Those  who  are  most  liable  to  transgress  require 
to  be  admonished ; 

He  of  their  wicked  ways 
Shall  them  admonish,  and  before  them  set 
The  paths  of  righteousness. — Milton. 

Those  who  are  most  inexperienced  require  to  be  ad 
vised;  ‘My  worthy  friend,  the  clergyman,  told  us 
that  he  wondered  any  order  of  persons  should  think 
themselves  too  considerable  to  be  advised.’ — Addison. 
Admonition  serves  to  put  people  on  their  guard  against 
evil ; advice  to  direct  them  in  the  choice  of  good. 


ADMONITION,  WARNING,  CAUTION. 

Admonition  signifies  the  act  of  admonishing,  or  (hat 
by  which  one  admonishes : warning,  in  Saxon  warnien, 
German  warnen,  probably  from  wahren  to  perceive, 
signifies  making  to  see ; caution,  from  caveo  to  beware, 
signifies  the  making  beware. 

A guarding  against  evil  is  common  to  these  terms ; 
but  admonition  expresses  more  than  warning,  and 
that  more  than  caution. 

An  admonition  respects  the  moral  conduct;  it  com 
prehends  reasoning  and  remonstrance:  warning  and 
caution  respect  the  personal  interest  or  safety  ; the 
former  comprehends  a strong  forcible  representation  of 
the  evil  to  he  dreaded;  the  latter  a simple  apprisal  of 
a future  contingency.  Admonition  may  therefore  fre- 
quently comprehend  warning;  and  warning  may 
comprehend  caution,  Wiongh  not  vies  versa.  We  ad 
monish  a person  against  the  commission  of  any  offence; 
we  warn  him  against  danger ; we  caution  him  against 
any  misfortune. 

Admonitions  and  warnings  are  given  by  those  who 
are  superiour  in  age  and  station  ; cautions  by  any  who 
are  previously  in  possession  of  information.  Parents 
give  admonitions;  ministeis  of  the  gospel  give  warn- 
ings : indifferent  persons  give  cautions.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  admonish  those  who  have  once  offended  to 
abstain  from  a similar  offence;  ‘At  the  same  time 
that  I am  talking  of  the  cruelty  of  urging  people’s 
faults  with  severity,  I cannot  but  bewail  some  which 
men  are  guilty  of  for  want  of  admonition.’ — Steele. 
It  is  nece.ssary  to  warn  those  of  the  consequences  of 
sin  who  seem  determined  to  persevere  in  a wicked 
course ; 

Not  e’en  Philander  had  bespoke  his  shroud. 

Nor  had  he  cause — a warning  was  denied. 

You.sg. 

It  is  necessary  to  caution  *i/ose  against  any  'alse  stij" 
who  are  going  in  a strange  path ; 

You  caution'd  me  against  their  charms, 

But  never  nave  me  equal  arms ; 


13 


i94 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


Your  lessons  found  the  weakest  part, 

Aim’d  at  the  head,  but  reach’d  the  heart. — Swift. 

Admonitiov-s  are  given  by  persons  only;  warnings 
and  cautions  are  given  by  things.  The  young  are 
admonished  by  the  old : the  deatli  of  friends  or  rela- 
tives serves  as  a warning  to  the  survivors ; the  unfor- 
tunate accidents  of  the  careless  serve  as  a caution  to 
others  to  avoid  the  like  errour.  Admonitions  should 
be  given  with  mildness  and  gravity ; warnings  with 
impressive  force  and  warmth ; cautions  with  clearness 
and  precision.  The  young  require  frequent  admo- 
nitions; the  ignorant  and  self-deluded  solemn  warn- 
ings; the  inexperienced  timely  caution.?. 

Admonitions  ought  to  be  listened  to  with  sorrowful 
•ittention  ; warnings  should  make  a deep  and  lasting 
impression;  cautions  should  be  borne  in  mind : but 
admonitions  are  too  often  rejected,  warnings  despised, 
and  cautions  slighted. 


ADVICE,  COUNSEL,  INSTRUCTION. 

Advice  signifies  that  which  is  advised  (n.  Advice) ; 
counsel^  in  French  conseil,  Latin  consilium,  comes  from 
consilio,  compounded  of  con  and  salio  to  leap  together, 
signifying  to  run  or  act  in  accordance;  and  in  an  ex- 
tended sense  implies  deliberation,  or  the  thing  delibe- 
rated upon,  determined,  and  prescribed  ; instruction^ 
in  French  instruction^  Latin  instruction  comes  from  in 
and  struo  to  dispose  or  regulate,  signifying  the  thing 
laid  down. 

The  end  of  all  the  actions  implied  by  these  words  is 
the  communication  of  knowledge,  and  all  of  them  in- 
clude the  accessary  idea  of  superiority,  either  of  age, 
station,  knowledge,  or  talent.  Advice  flows  from  supe- 
riour  professional  knowledge,  or  an  acquaintance  with 
things  in  general ; counsel  regards  superiour  wisdom, 
or  a superiour  acquaintance  with  moral  principles  and 
practice;  instruction  respects  superiour  local  know- 
ledge in  particular  transactions.  A medical  man  gives 
advice  to  his  patient;  a father  gives  counsel  to  his 
children  ; a counsellor  gives  advice  to  his  client  in  points 
of  law ; he  receives  instructions  from  him  in  matters 
of  fact. 

Advice  should  be  prudent  and  cautious ; counsel,  sage 
and  deliberative  ; iHsti-actions,  clear  and  positive.  Ad- 
vice is  given  on  all  the  concerns  of  life,  important  or 
otherwise;  ‘In  what  manner  can  one  give  advice  to  a 
youth  in  the  pursuit  and  possession  of  pleasuie?’— 
Steele.  Counsel  is  employed  for  grave  and  weiuhty 
matters;  ‘Young  persons  are  commonly  inclined  to 
slight  the  remarks  and  counsels  of  their  elders.’ — John- 
son. Instruction  is  used  on  official  occasions  ; 

To  serve  by  way  of  guide  or  direction 

See  this  despatch’d  with  all  the  haste  thou  canst ; 

Anon  I’ll  give  thee  more  instruction. 

Shakspeare. 

Men  of  business  are  best  able  to  give  advice  in  mercan- 
tile transactions.  In  all  measures  that  involve  our  fu- 
ture happiness,  it  is  prudent  to  take  the  counsel  of  those 
who  are  more  experienced  than  ourselves.  An  ambas- 
sador must  not  act  without  instructions  from  his  court. 

A wise  king  will  not  act  without  the  advice  of  his 
ministers.  A considerate  youth  will  not  take  any  seri- 
ous step  without  the  counsel  of  his  better  informed 
friends.  All  diplomatick  persons  are  guided  by  par- 
ticular instructions  in  carrying  on  negotiations. 

Advice  and  counsel  are  often  given  unasked  and  un- 
desired, but  instructions  are  always  required  for  the 
regulation  of  a person’s  conduct  in  an  official  capacity. 
The  term  instruction  may  however  be  also  applied 
morally  and  figuratively  for  that  which  serves  to  guide 
one  in  his  course  of  life; 

On  ev’ry  thorn  delightful  wisdom  grows. 

In  ev’ry  stream  a sweet  instruction  flows. — Young. 


TO  INFORM,  INSTRUCT,  TEACH. 

The  communication  of  knowledge  in  general  is  the 
common  idea  by  which  these  words  are  connected  with 
each  other.  Inform  is  the  general  term  ; the  other  two 
are  specifick.  To  info-m  is  the  act  of  persons  in  all 
conditions  ; to  instruct  and  teach  are  the  acts  of  supe- 
riours,  either  on  one  ground  or  another : one  informs  by 
virtue  of  an  accidental  superiority  or  priority  of  know- 


ledge; one  instructs  by  riitue  of  saperiour  knowledge 
or  superiour  station  : one  teaches  by  virtue  of  superiour 
knowledge,  rather  than  of  station  ; diplomatick  agents 
inform  their  governments  of  the  political  transactions 
in  which  they  have  been  concerned ; government 
instructs  its  different  functionaries  and  officers  in  re- 
gard to  their  mode  of  proceeding  ; professors  and  pre- 
ceptors teach  those  who  attend  a publick  school  to  learn 

To  inform  is  applicable  to  matters  of  general  if.teresi; 
we  may  inform  ourselves  or  others  on  every  thing  wliicl 
is  a subject  of  inquiry  or  curiosity  ; and  the  information 
serves  either  to  amuse  or  to  improve  the  mind;  ‘While 
we  only  desire  to  have  our  ignorance  informed,  we  are 
most  delighted  with  the  plainest  diction.’— Johnson 
To  instruct  is  applicable  to  matters  of  serious  concern, 
or  that  which  is  practically  useful  ; it  serves  to  set  us 
right  in  the  path  of  life.  A parent  instructs  his  child 
in  the  course  of  conduct  he  should  pursue  ; a good  child 
profits  by  the  instruction  of  agood  parent  to  make  him 
wiser  and  better  fwr  the  time  to  come ; 

Not  Thracian  Orpheus  should  transcend  my  lays. 

Nor  Linus,  crown’d  with  never  fading  bays; 

Though  each  his  heav’nly  parent  should  inspire. 

The  Muse  instruct  the  voice,  and  Phoebus  tune  the  lyre. 

Dryden. 

To  teach  respects  matters  of  art  and  science  ; the 
learner  depends  upon  the  teacher  for  the  formation  of 
his  mind,  and  the  establishment  of  his  principles  ; ‘He 
that  teaches  us  any  thing  which  wa  knew  not  before  is 
undoubtedly  to  be  reverenced  as  a master.’ — Johnson. 
Every  one  ought  to  be  properly  iw/oriried  before  he  pre- 
tends to  give  an  opinion  ; the  young  and  inexperienced 
must  be  instructed  before  they  can  act;  the  ignorant 
must  be  taught,  in  order  to  guard  them  against  errour. 
Truth  and  sincerity  are  all  that  is  necessary  for  an 
informant ; general  experience  and  a perfect  know 
ledge  of  the  subject  in  question  are  requisite  for  the 
insiructer ; fundamental  knowledge  is  requisite  for  a 
teacher.  Those  who  give  information  upon  the  au"* 
thority  of  others  are  lirrhle  to  mislead  ; those  who  in- 
struct others  in  doing  that  which  is  bad,  scandalously 
abuse  the  authority  that  is  reposed  in  them  ; these  who 
pretend  to  teach  what  they  themselves  do  not  under 
stand,  mostly  betray  their  ignorance  sooner  or  later. 

To  inform  and  to  teach  are  enrploycd  for  things  os 
well  as  persons;  to  instruct  only  for  jicrsons:  book* 
and  reading  inform  the  mind;  history  or  experience 
teaches  mankind;  ‘The  long  speeches  rather  con- 
founuled  than  informed  his  understanding.’ — Cl.aren- 
DON.  ‘ Nature  is  no  sufficient  teacher  what  we  should 
do  that  we  may  attain  unto  life  everlasting.’ — Hooker 


TO  INFORM,  IMAKE  KNOWN,  ACQUAINT, 
APPRIZE. 

The  idea  of  bringing  to  the  knowledge  of  one  or  mort 
persons  is  common  to  all  these  terms.  Inform,  from 
the  I.atin  ivformo  to  fashion  the  mind,  comprehends 
this  general  idea  only,  without  the  addition  of  any  col- 
lateral idea  ; it  is  therefore  the  generick  term,  arid  the 
rest  specifick  : to  inform  is  to  communicate  what  has 
lately  happened,  or  the  contrary;  but  to  make  known  is 
to  bring  to  light  what  has  long  been  known  <md  pur 
posely  concealed  : to  inform  is  to  communicate  directly 
or  indirectly  to  one  or  many  ; 

Our  ruin,  by  thee  inform'd,  I learn.— Milton. 

To  make  known  is  mostly  to  communicate  indirectly  to 
many  : one  informs  the  publick  of  ojie’s  intentions  by 
means  of  an  advertisement  in  one’s  own  name*  one 
makes  known  a fact  through  a circuitous  channel,  and 
without  any  name ; 

But  fools,  to  talking  ever  prone, 

Are  sure  to  make,  their  follies  IiulWii. — Gay. 

To  inform  may  bo  either  a personal  address  or  other 
wise;  to  acquaint  and  apprize  are  immediate  and  per 
sonal  cornmunicalions.  One  informs  the  government, 
or  any  publick  body,  or  one  informs  one’s  friends ; one 
acquaints  or  apprizes  oidy  one’s  friend.?,  or  particular 
individuals : one  is  ivforzned  of  that  which  either  con- 
cerns the  informant,  or  the  person  informed;  one  ac- 
quaints a person  with,  or  apprizes  him  of  surh  thing* 
as  peculiarly  concern  himself,  but  the  lattei  in  more 
specifick  circumstances  than  the  former:  one  inf  arms 
a correspondent  by  letter  of  the  day  on  which  he  ma*- 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


expect  to  receive  his  order,  or  of  one’s  own  wishes  with 
regard  to  an  order ; 

I have  this  present  evening  from  my  sister, 

Been  well  informed  of  them,  and  with  cautions. 

Shakspeare. 

One  acquaints  a father  with  all  the  circumstances  that 
respect  his  son’s  conduct;  ‘If  any  man  lives  under  a 
minister  that  doth  not  ajct  according  to  ilie  rules  of  the 
gospel,  it  is  his  own  fault  in  that  he  doth  not  acquaint 
the  bishop  with  it.’ — Beveridge.  One  appiizes  a 
friend  of  a bequest  that  has  been  made  to  him  ; ‘ Y>ou 
know,  without  my  telling  you,  with  what  zeal  I have 
recommended  you  to  Caisar,  although  you  may  not  be 
apprized  that  1 have  frequently  written  to  him  upon 
that  subject.’ — Mklmoth  {Letters  of  Cicero).  One 
informs  the  magistrate  of  any  irregularity  that  passes  ; 
one  acquaints  the  master  of  a family  with  the  miscon- 
duct of  his  servants;  one  apprizes  a person  of  the  time 
when  he  will  be  obliged  to  ai)pear.  Inform  is  used 
figuratively,  but  the  other  terms  mostly  in  the  proper 
jense ; ‘ Religion  informs  us  that  misery  and  sin  were 
oroduced  together.’ — Johnson. 


INFORMANT,  INFORMER. 

These  two  epithets,  from  the  verb  to  inform,  have 
acquired  by  tlreir  application  an  important  distinction. 
The  informant  being  he  who  informs  for  the  benefit  of 
others,  and  the  informer  to  the  molestation  of  others. 
What  the  informant  communicates  is  for  the  benefit 
of  the  individual,  and  what  the  rn/ormer  communicates 
is  for  the  benefit  of  the  whole.  The  informant  is 
thanked  for  his  civility  in  making  the  comm  inicaiion  ; 
the  informer  undergoes  a great  deal  of  odium,  but  is 
thankeu  by  notone,  not  even  by  those  who  employ  him. 
We  may  all  be  informants  in  our  turn,  if  we  know  of 
anything  of  which  another  may  be  informed;  ‘Aye 
(says  our  Artist’s  informant),  but  at  the  same  time  he 
declared  you  (Hogarth)  were  as  good  a portrait  painter 
as  Vandyke.’ — Pilkington.  None  are  informers  who 
do  not  inform  against  the  transgressors  of  any  law  ; 
‘ Every  member  of  society  feels  and  acknowledges  the 
necessity  of  detecting  crimes,  yet  scarce  any  degree  of 
virtue  or  reputation  is  able  to  secure  an  informer  from 
publick  hatred.’ — Johnson. 


INFORMATION,  INTELLIGENCE,  NOTICE, 
ADVICE. 

Information  (v.  To  inform)  signifies  the  tiling  of 
•vhich  one  is  informed;  Intelligence,  from  the  Latin 
mtelligo  to  understand,  signifies  that  by  which  one  is 
nad.j  to  understand;  notice,  from  the  Latin  notitia,  is 
'.hat  which  brings  a circumstance  to  our  knowledge ; 
.’Jarce  (a.  Advice)  signifies  that  which  is  made  known. 
These  terms  come  very  near  to  each  other  in  significa- 
tion, hut  difler  in  application;  information  is  the  most 
general  and  indefinite  of  all ; the  three  others  are  but 
modes  of  information.  Whatever  is  communicated  to 
us  iti  information,  be  it  publick  or  private,  open  or  con- 
cealed ; 

There,  centring  in  a focus  round  and  neat. 

Lei  all  your  rays  of  information  meet. — Cowper. 

J^otice,  intelligence,  and  arfarce,  are  mostly  publick,  but 
particularly  the  former.  Information  and  notice  may 
De  communicated  ’oy  word  of  mouth  or  by  writing; 
intelligence  is  mostly  communicated  by  writing  or 
printing;  advices  are  mostly  sent  by  letter : information 
is  mostly  an  informal  mode  of  communication  ; notice, 
intelligence,  and  advice,  are  mostly  formal  communi- 
cations. A servant  gives  his  master  information,  or 
one  friend  sends  anotlier  information  from  the  country ; 
magistrates  or  officers  give  notice  of  such  things  as  it 
concerns  the  publick  to  know  and  to  observe ; stiies 
give  intelligence  ol  all  that  passes  under  their  notice ; 
or  intelligence  is  given  in  the  publick  prints  of  all  that 
passes  worthy  of  notice  ; 1 IMy  lion,  whose  jaws  are  at 
all  hours  open  to  intelligence,  informs  me  that  there  are 
a few  enormous  weapons  still  in  being.’ — Steele.  A 
military  commander  sends  advice  to  his  government  of 
the  operations  which  are  going  forward  under  his  di- 
lection  ; or  one  merchant  gives  advice  to  another  of 
the  state  of  the  market ; ‘ As  he  was  dictating  to  his 
hearers  with  great  authority,  there  came  in  a gentleman 
from  (larrawav’s,  who  told  us  tliat  there  were  several 

13* 


19J 

letters  from  France  just  come  in,  with  advice  that  the 
king  was  in  good  health.’— Addison. 

Information,  as  calculated  to  influence  men’s  ac- 
tions, ought  to  be  correct;  those  who  are  too  eager  to 
know  what  is  pa.ssing,  are  often  misled  by  false 
mation.  Notice,  as  it  serves  either  to  warn  or  direct, 
ouglrt  to  be  timely ; 

At  his  years 

Death  gives  short  notice. — Thomson. 

No  law  of  general  interest  is  earned  into  effect  withou. 
timely  notice  being  given.  Intelligence,  as  the  first 
intimation  of  an  interesting  event,  ought  to  iie  early, 
advices,  as  entering  into  details,  ought  to  be  clear  and 
particular ; official  advices  often  arrive  to  contradict 
non-official  intelligence. 

Information  and  intelligence,  when  applied  as  cha 
racteristick'S  of  men,  have  a farther  distinction ; the 
man  of  information  is  so  denominated  only  on  account 
of  his  knowledge;  but  a man  of  intelligence  is  so 
denominated  on  account  of  his  understanding  as  well 
as  experience  and  information.  It  is  not  possible  to  be 
intelligent  without  information ; but  we  may  be  well 
informed  without  being  remarkable  for  intelligence : 
a man  of  information  may  be  an  agreeable  companion, 
and  fitted  to  maintain  conversation  ; but  an  intelligent 
man  will  be  an  instructive  companion,  and  most  fitted 
for  conducting  business. 


ACQUAINTANCE,  FAMILIARITY, 

INTIMACY.  * 

Acquaintance  comes  from  acquaint,  w’hich  is  Coin 
pounded  of  the  intensive  syllable  ac  or  ad  and  quaint, 
in  old  French  coint,  Teut.  gekannl  known,  signifying 
known  to  one;  familiarity  comes  from  familiar,  in 
Lalnx  familiaris  and/a/ni7ia,  signifying  known  as  one 
of  the  family ; intimacy,  from  intimate,  in  Latin  inti 
matus,  participle  of  intimo  to  love  entirely,  from  in- 
timus  innermost,  signifies  known  to  the  innermest  re- 
cesses of  the  heart. 

These  terms  mark  different  degrees  of  closeness  in 
the  social  intercourse ; acquaintance  expressing  less 
than  familiarity ; and  that  less  than  intimacy;  ‘A 
slight  knowledge  of  any  one  constitutes  an  acquaint 
ance  ; to  be  familiar  requires  an  acquaintance  of  some 
standing;  intimacy  supposes  such  an  acquaintance  as 
is  supported  by  friendship.’ — Trusler. 

Acquaintance  springs  from  occasional  intercourse; 
familiarity  is  produced  by  a daily  intercourse,  which 
wears  ofl’  all  constraint,  and  banishes  all  ceremony ; 
intimacy  arises  not  merely  from  frequent  intercourse, 
but  unreserved  communication.  An  acquaintance  will 
be  occasionally  a guest;  ‘An  acquaintance  is  a being 
who  meets  us  with  a smile  and  salute,  who  tells  us 
with  the  same  breath  that  he  is  glad  and  sorry  for  the 
most  trivial  good  and  ill  that  befalls  us.’ — Hawkes- 
w'ORTH.  One  that  is  on  terms  of  familiarity  has  easy 
access  to  our  table ; ‘ His  familiars  were  his  entire 
friends,  and  could  have  no  interested  views  in  courting 
his  acquaintance.' — Steele.  An  intimate  lays  claim 
to  a share  at  least  of  our  confidence;  ‘At  an  enter- 
tainment given  by  Pisistratus  to  some  of  his  intimates, 
Thrasippus  took  some  occasion,  not  recorded,  to  break 
out  into  the  most  violent  abuse.’ — Cumberland.  An- 
acquaintance  wWn  a person  affords  but  little  opportu- 
nity for  knowing  his  character ; familiarity  puts  us  in 
the  way  of  seeing  his  foibles,  rather  than  liis  virtues ; 
but  intimacy  enables  us  to  appreciate  his  worth; 
‘Those  who  are  apt  to  be  familiar  on  a slight  ac- 
quaintance, will  never  acquire  any  degree  of  intimacy.' 
— 'Prusler. 

A simple  acquaintance  is  the  most  desirable  footing 
on  which  to  stand  with  all  persons,  however  deserving 

Acquaintance  grew,  th’  they  improve 

To  friendship  ; friendship  ripen’d  into  love. 

Eusdkn. 

If  it  have  not  the  pleasures  of  familiarity  or  intimacy, 
it  can  claim  the  privilege  of  being  e.xempied  from  their 
pains.  “ Too  much  familiarity,"  according  to  the 
old  proverb,  “ breeds  contempt.”  The  unlicensed 
freedom  which  commonly  attends  familiarity  affords 
hut  too  ample  scope  for  the  indulgence  of  the  selfish 
and  unamiable  passions;  ‘ That produces 
neglect  has  been  long  observed.’ — Johnson.  Inti- 
mitcies  begun  in  love  often  end  in  hatred,  as  ill  chosen 
friends  ciimmonly  become  the  bitterest  enemies,  i 


196 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


man  may  have  a thousand  acquaintance,  and  not  one 
whom  he  should  make  his  intimate ; ‘ Tiie  intimacy 
between  the  father  of  Eugenio  and  Agrestis  produced 
a tender  friendship  between  his  sister  and  Amelia.’ — 
Hawkesw’orth. 

These  terms  may  be  applied  to  things  as  well  as 
persons,  in  which  case  they  bear  a similar  analogy. 
An  acquaintance  with  a subject  is  opposed  to  entire 
ignorance  upon  it ; familiarity  with  it  is  the  conse- 
quence of  frequent  repetition ; and  intimacy  of  a 
steady  and  thorough  research ; ‘ With  Homer’s  heroes 
we  have  more  than  historical  acquaintance : we  are 
made  intimate  with  their  habits  and  manners.’ — 
Cumberland.  ‘ The  frequency  of  envy  makes  it  so 
familiar^  that  it  escapes  our  notice.’ — Johnson.  In 
our  intercourse  with  the  world  we  become  daily  ac- 
quainted with  fresh  subjects  to  engage  our  attention. 
Some  men  have  by  extraordinary  diligence  acquired  a 
considerable  familiarity  with  more  than  one  language 
and  science  ; but  few,  if  any,  can  boast  of  having 
possessed  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  all  the  parti- 
culars of  even  one  language  or  science.  When  we 
can  translate  the  authors  of  any  foreign  language,  we 
may  claim  an  acquaintance  with  it;  when  we  can 
speak,  or  write  it  freely,  we  may  be  said  to  be  familiar 
with  it ; but  an  intimate  acquaintance  comprehends  a 
thorough  critical  intimacy  with  all  the  niceties  and 
.subtleties  of  its  structure. 


TO  KNOW,  BE  ACaUAINTED  WITH. 

'*  To  know  is  a general  term;  to  be  acquainted  with  is 
particular  (v.  Jicquaintance).  We  may  know  things 
or  persons  in  various  ways ; we  may  know  them  by 
name  only;  or  we  may  know  their  internal  properties 
or  characters ; or  we  may  simply  know  their  figure ; 
we  may  know  them  by  report;  or  we  may  know  them 
by  a direct  intercourse  : one  is  acquainted  with  either 
a person  or  a thing,  only  in  a direct  manner,  and  by 
an  immediate  intercourse  in  one’s  own  person.  We 
know  a man  to  be  good  or  bad,  virtuous  or  vicious,  by 
being  a witness  to  his  actions ; 

Is  there  no  temp’rate  region  can  be  known, 
Between  their  frigid  and  our  torrid  zone  I 
Could  we  not  wake  from  that  lethargick  dream. 
But  to  be  restless  in  a worse  extreme. — Denham. 
W e beer  me  acquainted  with  a person  by  frequently 
being  in  his  company;  ‘But  how  shall  I express  my 
anguish  far  my  little  boy,  who  became  acquainted 
with  sorri'w  as  soon  as  he  was  capable  of  refiection.’ 

Melmoth  (^Letters  of  Cicero). 


KNOWLEDGE,  SCIENCE,  LEARNING, 
ERUDITION. 

Knowledge,  from  know,  in  all  probability  comes 
fi  am  the  Latin  nosco,  and  the  Greek  yircjaxw  ; science. 
In  Latin  scientia,  from  scio,  Greek  layyi  to  know,  and 
nDsy  to  see  or  perceive ; learning,  from  learn,  signi- 
fies the  thing  learned;  erudition,  in  Latin  eruditio, 
comes  from  erudio  to  bring  out  of  a state  of  rudeness 
or  ignorance. 

Knowledge  is  a general  term  which  simply  implies 
the  thing  known : science,  learning,  and  erudition,  are 
modes  of  knowledge  qualified  by  some  collateral  idea  ; 
science  is  a systematick  species  of  knowledge  which 
consists  of  rule  and  order ; learning  is  that  species  of 
knowledge  which  one  derives  from  schools,  or  through 
the  medium  of  personal  instruction ; erudition  is 
scholastick  knowledge  obtained  by  profound  research  • 
knowledge  admits  of  every  possible  degree,  and  is  ex- 
pressly opposel  to  i2nor^.nce;  science,  learning,  and 
erudition,  are  pcsit’veiy  nigh  degrees  of  knowledge. 

The  attainment  of  knowledge  is,  of  itself,  a plea- 
sure, independent  of  the  many  extrinsick  advantages 
which  it  brings  to  every  individual,  according  to  the 
station  ot  life  in  which  he  is  placed;  the  pursuits  of 
science  have  a peculiar  interest  for  men  of  a peculiar 
turn:  those  who  thirst  after  general  knowledge  may 
not  have  a reach  of  intellect  to  take  the  comprehensive 
survey  of  nature,  which  is  requisite  for  a scientifick 
man.  Learning  is  less  dependent  on  the  genius,  than 
on  the  will  of  the  individual ; men  of  moderate  talents 
have  overcome  the  deficiencies  of  nature,  by  labour 
and  perseverance,  and  have  acquired  such  stores  of 
learning  as  liave  raised  them  to  a respectable  station 


in  the  republick  of  letters.  Profound  erudition  ts  oh 
tained  but  by  few ; a retentive  memory,  patient  in 
dustry,  and  deep  penetration,  are  requisites  for  one 
who  aspires  to  the  title  of  an  erudite  man. 

Knowledge,  in  the  unqualified  and  universal  sense,  ia 
nof  always  a good : Pope  says,  “A  little  knowledge  ia 
a dangerous  thing it  is  certain  we  may  have  a 
knoioledge  of  evil  as  well  as  good,  and  as  our  passt-sns 
are  ever  ready  to  serve  us  an  ill  turn,  they  will  call  in 
our  imperfect  or  superficial  knowledge  to  their  aid ; 
Can  knowledge  have  no  bound,  but  must  advance 
So  far,  to  make  us  wish  for  ignorance. — Denham. 
Science  is  more  exempt  from  this  danger;  but  the 
scientifick  man  who  forgets  to  make  experience  his 
guide,  as  many  are  apt  to  do  in  the  present  day,  will 
wander  in  the  regions  of  idle  speculation,  and  sink  in 
the  quicksands  of  skepticism ; 

O sacred  poesy,  thou  spirit  of  Roman  arts. 

The  soul  of  science,  and  the  queen  of  souls. 

B. JONSON. 

Learning  is  more  generally  and  practically  useful  to 
the  morals  of  men  than  science;  while  it  makes  us 
acquainted  with  the  language,  the  sentiments,  and 
manners  of  former  ages  ; it  serves  to  purify  the  senti- 
ments, to  enlarge  the  understanding,  and  exert  the 
powers  ; but  the  pursuit  of  that  learning  which  con 
sists  merely  in  the  knowledge  of  words  or  in  the  study 
of  editions,  is  even  worse  than  a useless  employment 
of  the  time;  ‘As  learning  advanced,  new  works  were 
adopted  into  our  language,  but  I think  with  little  im 
provementof  the  art  of  translation.’ — Johnson.  Eru- 
dition is  always  good,  it  does  not  merely  serve  to 
ennoble  the  possessor,  but  it  adds  to  the  stock  of  im- 
portant knowledge;  it  serves  the  cause  of  religion  and 
morality,  and  elevates  the  views  of  men  to  the  grandest 
objects  of  inquiry ; ‘ Two  of  the  French  clergy  with 
whom  I passed  my  evenings  were  men  of  deep  erudi 
tion.’— Burke. 


LETTER,  EPISTLE. 

According  to  the  origin  of  these  words,  letter.  In 
Latin  litera,  signifies  any  document  composed  of 
written  letters;  and  epistle,  in  Greek  im^-oh^  from 
fmj-AXa)  to  send,  signifies  a letter  sent  or  addressed  to 
any  one ; consequently  the  former  is  the  generick,  the 
latter  the  specifick  term.  Letter  is  a term  altogether 
familiar,  it  may  be  used  for  whatever  is  written  by  one 
friend  to  another  in  domestick  life,  or  for  the  publick 
documents  of  this  description,  which  have  emanated 
from  the  pen  of  writers,  as  the  letters  of  Madame  de 
Savigny,  the  letters  of  Pope  or  of  Swift,  and  even 
those  which  were  written  by  the  ancients,  as  the  letters 
of  Cicero,  Pliny,  and  Seneca:  but  in  strict  propriety 
those  are  entitled  epistles,  as  a term  most  adapted  to 
whatever  has  received  the  sanction  of  ages,  and  by  the 
same  rule,  likewise,  whatever  is  pecularly  solemn  in 
its  contents  has  acquired  the  same  epithet,  as  the 
epwtZes  of  St.Paul,  St.  Peter,  St.  John,  St.  Jude;  and 
by  an  analogous  rule,  whatever  poetry  is  written  in 
the  epistolary  form  is  denominated  an  epistle  rather 
than  a letter,  whether  of  ancient  or  modern  date,  as 
the  epistles  of  Horace,  or  the  epistles  of  Boiletm  ; ant. 
finally,  whatever  is  addressed  by  way  of  dedication 
is  denominated  a dedicatory  epistle.  Ease  and  a 
friendly  familiarity  should  characterize  the  letter:  sen- 
timent and  instruction  are 'always  conveyed  by  an 
epistle. 

LETTERS,  LITERATURE,  LEARNING. 

Ijetters  and  literature  signify  knowledge,  derived 
through  the  medium  of  w^ritten  letters  or  books,  that 
is,  information : learning  {v.  Knowledge)  is  confined  to 
that  which  is  communicated,  that  is,  scholastick  know 
ledge.  The  term  men  of  letters,  or  the  republick  of 
letters,  comprehends  all  who  devote  themselves  to  the 
cultivation  of  their  minds;  ‘To  the  greater  part  of 
mankind  the  duties  of  life  are  inconsistent  with  much 
study;  and  the  hours  which  they  would  spend  npoo 
letters  must  be  stolen  from  their  occupations  and  fami 
lies.’ — Johnson.  Lz'terary  societies  have  for  their  ob 
ject  the  ditfusion  of  general  information  : learned  socie- 
ties propose  to  themselves  the  higher  object  of  extend- 
ing the  bounds  of  science,  and  inc. easing  the  sum  of 
human  knowledge.  Men  of  letters  havR  a passport 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  19 , 


for  admittance  into  ihe  higher  circles ; literary  men  can 
always  find  resources  for  themselves  in  their  own  soci- 
ety : learned  men,  or  men  of  learning,  are  more  the 
objects  of  respect  and  admiration  than  of  imitation  ; 

He  that  recalls  the  attention  of  mankind  to  any  part 
of  learning  which  time  has  left  behind  it,  may  be  truly 
said  to  advance  the  literature  of  his  own  age.’ — John- 
son. 


CHARACTER,  LETTER. 

Character  comes  from  the  Greek  ^apa/err/p,  signifying 
an  impression  or  mark,  from  to  imprint  or 

stamp:  letter  in  French  lettre,  Latin  liter  a,  is  probably 
contracted  from  legitera,  signifying  what  is  legible. 

Character  is  to  letter  as  the  genus  to  the  species: 
every  letter  is  a character;  but  every  character  is  not 
a letter.  Character  is  any  printed  mark  that  serves  to 
designate  something  ; a letter  is  a species  of  character 
which  is  the  constituted  part  of  a word.  Shorthand 
and  hierogiyphicks  consist  of  characters,  but  not  of  let- 
ters. 

Character  is  employed  figuratively,  but  letter  is  not. 
A grateful  person  has  the  favours  which  are  conferred 
upon  him  written  in  indelible  characters  upon  his 
heart ; ‘ A disdainful,  a subtle,  and  a suspicious  temper, 
is  displayed  in  characters  that  are  almost  universally 
understood.’— Hawkesworth. 


SCHOLAR,  DISCIPLE,  PUPIL. 

Scholar  and  disciple  are  both  applied  to  such  as  learn 
from  others  : but  the  former  is  said  only  of  those  who 
learn  the  rudiments  of  knowledge;  the  latter  of  one 
who  acquires  any  art  or  science  from  ilie  instruction  of 
another  ; the  scholar  is  opposed  to  the  teacher,  the  dis- 
ciple to  the  master:  children  are  always  scAoiars;  adult 
persons  may  be  disciples. 

Scholars  chiefly  employ  themselves  in  the  study  of 
words;  disciples,  as  the  disciples  of  our  Saviour,  in 
the  study  of  things:  we  are  the  scholars  oi  anyone 
under  whose  care  we  are  placed,  or  from  whom  we 
learn  any  thing,  good  or  bad  ; ‘ The  Romans  confessed 
themselves  the  scholars  of  the  Greeks.’ — Johnson. 
We  are  the  disci;oles  only  of  distinguished  persons  or 
such  as  communicate  either  knowledge  or  opinions, 
useful  or  otherwh;e ; ‘ We  are  not  the  disciples  of  Vol- 
taire.’— Burke.  Children  are  sometimes  too  apt  scho- 
lars in  learning  evil  from  one  another. 

A pupil  is  asfiecies  of  scAolar  who  is  under  the  im- 
mediate and  personal  superintendance  of  the  person 
from  whom  he  receives  his  instruction.  The  Latin  word 
pupillus  signifies  a fatherless  child,  or  a man  child  under 
age  and  in  ward,  in  which  sense  it  is  also  sometimes  used 
for  the  term  ward ; but  in  the  ordinary  acceptation  of 
the  term  it  now  comprehends  the  idea  of  instruction 
more  than  that  of  wardship  and  superintendence  ; 

My  master  sues  to  her,  and  she  hath  taught  her  suitor, 

He  being  her  pupil,  to  become  her  tutor. 

Shakspeare. 


SCHOOL,  ACADEMY. 

The  Latin  term  schola  signifies  a loitering  place,  a 
place  for  desultory  conversation  or  instruction,  from 
the  Greek  (T%oX>7  leisure;  hence  it  has  been  e.vtended 
to  any  place  where  instruction  is  given,  particularly 
that  wl"ch  is  communicated  to  youth,  which  being  an 
easy  task  to  one  who  is  familiar  with  this  subject  is  con- 
sidered as  a relaxation  rather  than  a labour;  academy 
derives  its  name  from  the  Greek  aKaSnyia  the  name  of 
a pubiick  place  in  Athens,  where  the  philosopher  Plato 
first  gave  his  lectures,  which  afterward  became  a place 
of  resort  for  learned  men;  hence  societies  of  learned 
men  have  since  been  termed  academies. 

The  leading  idea  in  the  word  school  is  that  of  in- 
struction given  and  doctrine  received : in  the  word  aca- 
demy is  that  of  association  among  those  who  have  al- 
ready learned:  hence  we  speak  in  the  literal  sen.se  of 
the  school  where  young  persons  meet  to  be  taught,  or  in 
the  extended  and  moral  senseof  the  old  and  new  school, 
the  Pythagorean  school,  the  philosophical  school,  and 
the  like;  ‘The  world  is  a great  school  where  deceit,  in 
all  its  forms,  is  one  of  the  lessons  that  is  first  learned.’ — 
Blair.  But  the  academy  of  arts  or  sciences,  the  French 
Tcademy,  being  members  of  any  academy,  and  the  like  ; 

As  for  other  academies  such  as  those  for  painting. 


sculpture,  or  architecture,  we  havenot  so  much  as  hear# 
the  proposal.’ — Shaftesbury. 


EDUCATION,  INSTRUCTION,  BREEDING. 

Instruction  and  breeding  are  to  education  as  parts  tc 
a whole;  instruction  respects  the  communication  of 
knowledge,  and  breeding  the  manners  or  outward  coif 
duct;  but  education  comprehends  not  only  both  these 
but  the  formation  of  the  mind,  the  regulation  of  the  heart 
and  the  establishment  of  the  principles:  good  ins  tructior 
makes  one  wiser ; good  breeding  makes  one  more  po- 
lished and  agreeable;  good  education  makes  one  really 
good.  A want  of  education  will  always  be  to  the  injury 
if  not  to  the  ruin  of  the  sufterer : a want  of  instruction 
is  of  more  or  less  inconvenience,  according  to  circum 
stances  : a want  of  breeding  on\y  unfits  a man  for  the  so- 
ciety of  the  cultivated.  Education  belongs  to  the  period 
of  childhood  and  youth ; ‘ A mother  tells  her  infant  that 
two  and  two  make  four,  the  child  remembers  the  pro- 
position, and  is  able  to  count  four  for  all  the  purposes 
of  lifa^  till  the  courseof  his  education  brings  him  among 
philosophers,  who  fright  him  from  his  former  knowledge, 
by  telling  him  that  four  is  a certain  aggregate  of  units.’ 
— Johnson.  Instruction  may  be  given  at  different 
ages:  ‘To  illustrate  one  thing  by  its  resemblance  to 
another,  has  been  always  the  most  popular  and  effica- 
cious art  of  instruction.' — Johnson.  Good  breeding 
is  best  learned  in  the  early  part  of  life;  ‘My  breeding 
abroad  hath  shown  me  more  of  the  world  than  yours 
has  done.’ — Wentworth. 


IGNORANT,  ILLITERATE,  UNLEARNED, 
UNLETTERED. 

Ignorant,  in  Latin  ignorans,  from  the  privative  tg 
or  in  and  noro,  or  the  Greek  yivuxTKU),  signifies  no 
knowing  things  in  general,  or  not  knowing  any  parti 
cular  circumstance  ; unlearned,  illiterate,  and  unlet- 
tered, are  compared  with  ignorant  in  the  general  sense 
Ignorant  is  a comprehensive  term  , it  includes  wan* 
of  knowledge  to  any  degree  from  the  highest  to  the 
lowest,  and  consequently  includes  the  other  terms,  illi- 
terate, unlearned,  and  unlettered,  which  express  differ 
ent  forms  of  ignorance  ; 

He  said,  and  sent  Cyllenius  with  command 
To  free  the  ports  and  ope  the  Punic  land 
To  Trojan  guests ; lest,  ignorant  of  fate, 

The  queen  might  force  them  from  her  town  and  stale. 

Drvden. 

Ignorance  is  not  always  to  one’s  disgrace,  rince  it  is 
not  always  one’s  fault;  the  term  is  not  therefore  di 
rectly  reproachful : the  poor  i^gnoraat  savage  is  an  ob 
ject  of  pity,  rather  than  condemnation ; but  when  igno 
ranee  is  coupled  with  self-conceit  and  presumption,  il 
is  a perfect  deformity : hence  the  word  illiterate,  which 
is  used  only  in  such  cases  as  to  become  a term  of  re- 
proach: an  ignorant  man  who  sets  up  to  teach  others, 
is  termed  an  illiterate  preacher;  and  quacks,  whether  in 
religion  or  medicine,  from  the  very  nature  of  their  call- 
ing, are  altogether  an  illiterate  race  of  men.  The 
words  unlearned  and  unlettered  are  exempt  from  such 
unfavourable  associations.  A modest  man,  who  makes 
no  pretensions  to  learning,  may  suitably  apologize  for 
his  supposed  deficiencies  by  saying  he  is  an  unlearned 
or  unlettered  man ; the  former  is,  however,  a term  of 
mqre  familiar  use  than  the  latter.  A man  may  be  de 
scribed  either  as  generally  unlearned,  or  as  unlearned  in 
particular  sciences  or  arts;  as  unlearned  in  history; 
unlearned  in  philosophy  ; ‘ Because  this  doctrine  may 
have  appeared  to  the  unlearned  light  and  whimsical,  I 
must  take  leave  to  unfold  the  wisdom  and  antiquity  of 
my  first  proposition  in  these  my  essays,  to  wit,  that 
“ every  worthless  man  is  a dead  man.”  ’ — Addison. 
We  say  of  a person  that  he  is  unlearned  in  the  ways  of 
the  world  : and  a poet  may  describe  his  muse  as  unlet- 
tered; ‘ Ajax,  the  haughty  chief,  the  unlettered  soldier, 
had  no  way  of  making  his  anger  known,  but  by  gloomy 
sullenness.’ — Johnson. 


TO  ILLUMINATE,  ILLUMINE,  ENLIGHTEN. 

Illuminate,  in  Latin,  illuminatus,  participle  of  illu- 
mino,  and  enlighten,  from  the  noun  light,  botl  denote 
the  communication  of  light;  the  former  in  the  natural, 
the  latter  in  the  moral  sen.se.  We  illuminate  fcv  means 


198 


ENGLISH  S\  NON YMES. 


of  artificial  lif^hts;  the  sun  illuminates  the  world  by  its 
own  light ; 

Reason  our  guide,  what  can  she  more  reply, 

Than  that  the  sun  illuminates  the  sky  1— Prior. 
Pleaching  and  instruction  enlighten  the  minds  of  men ; 
'But  if  neither  you  nor  I can  gather  so  much  from 
these  places,  they  will  tell  us  it  is  because  we  are  not  in- 
wardly enlightened'—  South.  Illumine  is  but  a poetick 
variation  of  illuminate;  as,  the  Sun  of  Righteousness 
illumined  the  benighted  world; 

What  in  me  is  dark 
Illumine;  what  is  low,  raise  and  support. 

Wilton. 

Illuminations  are  employed  as  publick  demonstrations 
of  joy ; no  nation  is  now  termed  enlightened  but  such 
as  have  received  the  light  of  the  Gospel; 


CULTIVATION,  CULTURE,  CIVILIZATION, 
REFINEMENT. 

Cultivation,  from  the  Latin  cwZtMS,  denotes  the  act  of 
cultivating,  or  state  of  being  cultivated ; culture  signi- 
fies the  state  only  of  being  cultivated;  civilization  sig- 
nifies the  act  of  civilizing,  or  state  of  being  civilized; 
refinement  denotes  the  act  of  refining,  or  the  state  of 
being  refined. 

Cultivation  is  with  more  propriety  applied  to  the 
thing  that  grows ; culture  to  that  in  which  it  grows. 
The  cultivation  of  flowers  will  not  repay  the  labour 
unless  the  soil  be  prepared  by  proper  culture.  In  the 
same  manner,  when  speaking  figuratively,  we  say  the 
cultivation  of  any  art  or  science ; the  cultivation  of 
one’s  taste  or  inclination,  may  be  said  to  contribute  to 
one’s  own  skill,  or  the  perfection  of  the  thing  itself; 
but  the  mind  requires  culture  previously  to  this  parti- 
cular exertion  of  the  powers  ; ‘ Notwithstanding  this 
faculty  (of  taste)  must  be  in  some  measure  born  with 
us,  there  are  several  methods  of  cultivating  and  im- 
proving it.’— Addison. 

But  tho’  Heav’n 

In  every  breath  has  sown  these  early  seeds 
Of  love  and  admiration,  yet  in  vain 
Without  fair  culture's  kind  parental  aid. 

Akenside. 

Civilization  is  the  first  stage  of  cultivation  ; refine- 
ment is  the  last : we  civilize  savages  by  divesting  them 
of  their  rudeness,  and  giving  them  a knowledge  of 
such  arts  as  are  requisite  for  civil  society;  we  culti- 
vate people  in  general  by  calling  forth  their  powers  into 
action  and  independent  e.xertion  ; we  refine  them  by 
the  introduction  of  the  liberal  arts. 

The  introduction  of  Christianity  has  been  the  best 
means  of  civilizing  the  rudest  nations.  The  cultiva- 
tion of  the  mind  in  serious  pursuits  tends  to  refine  the 
sentiments  without  debilitating  the  character;  but  the 
cultivation  of  the  liberal  arts  may  be  pursued  to  a vi- 
cious extent,  so  as  to  introduce  an  excessive  refinement 
of  feeling  that  is  incompatible  with  real  manliness; 

To  civilize  the  rude  unpolish’d  world 
And  lay  it  under  the  restraint  of  laws, 

To  make  man  mild  and  sociable  to  man. 

To  cultivate  the  wild  licentious  savage 
With  wisdom,  discipline,  and  lib’ral  arts, 

Th’ embellishments  of  life!  Virtues  like  these 
Make  human  nature  shine. — Addison. 

Poetry  inaKes  a principal  amusement  among  unpo- 
lished nations,  but  in  a country  verging  to  the  extremes 
of  refinement,  painting  and  musickconie  in  fora  share.’ 
Goldsmith. 

Cultivation  is  applied  either  to  p Tsons  or  things ; ci- 
vilization is  applied  to  men  collectively,  refinement  to 
men  individually ; we  mv.y  cultivate  the  mind  or  any 
of  its  operations ; or  we  may  cultivate  the  ground  or 
any  thing  that  grows  upon  the  ground  ; we  civilize  na- 
tif  ns  ; we  refine  the  mind  or  the  manners. 


SUAVITY,  URBANITY. 

Suavity  is  literally  sweetness  ; and  urbanity  the  re- 
finement of  the  city,  in  distinction  with  the  country  : 
inasmuch,  therefore,  as  a polite  education  tends  to 
soften  the  mind  and  the  manners,  it  produces  suavity  ; 
but  suavity  may  sometimes  arise  from  natural  temper, 
and  exist  therefore  without  urbanity  ; although  there 


cannot  be  urbanity  without  suavity.  By  the  suavity 
of  our  manners  we  gain  the  love  of  those  around  us  ; 
by  the  urbanity  of  our  manners  we  render  ourselves 
agreeable  eonijianions  ; ‘ The  virtue  called  urbanity  by 
the  moralists,  or  a courtly  behaviour,  consists  in  a de- 
sire to  please  the  company.’ — Pope.  Hence  also  arises 
another  distinction  that  the  term  suavity  may  be  ap- 
plied to  other  things,  as  the  voice,  or  the  style  ; ‘ The 
suavity  of  Menander’s  style  might  be  more  to  Plu- 
tarch’s taste  than  the  irregular  sublimity  of  Aris- 
tophanes.’— Cumberland.  Urbanity  ir  applied  t© 
manners  only. 

CIVIL,  POLITE. 

Civil,  in  French-  civile,  Latin  civilis , from  civis,  j 
citizen,  signifies  belonging  to  or  becoming  a citizen  ; 
folite,  in  French  poli,  Latin  politus,  participle  of  polio 
to  polish,  signifies  literally  polished. 

These  two  epithets  are  employed  to  denote  different 
modes  of  acting  in  social  intercourse  ; polite  expresses 
more  than  civil ; it  is  possible  to  be  civil  without  be- 
ing polite  : politeness  supposes  civility  and  something 
in  addition. 

Civility  is  confined  to  no  rank,  age,  condition,  or 
country;  all  have  an  opportunity  with  equal  propriety  of 
being  civil,  but  it  is  not  so  with  politeness;  this  requires 
a certain  degree  of  equality,  at  least  the  equality  of 
education ; it  would  be  contradictory  for  masters  and 
■ervants,  rich  and  poor,  learned  and  unlearned,  to  be 
folite  to  each  other.  Civility  is  a Christian  duty  ; 
there  are  times  when  every  man  ought  to  be  civil  tc 
his  neighbour  : politeness  is  rather  a voluntary  devo- 
tion of  ourselves  to  others  ; among  the  inferiour  orders 
civility  is  indispensable  ; an  uncivil  person  in  a sub- 
ordinate station  is  an  obnoxious  member  of  society  ; 

He  has  good  nature, 

And  I have  good  manners. 

His  sons  too  are  civil  to  me,  because 
I do  not  pretend  to  be  wiser  than  they. — Otwat 
Among  the  higher  orders,  politeness  is  often  a substi- 
tnte ; and  where  the  form  and  spirit  are  combined  it 
supersedes  the  necessity  of  civility  : politeness  is  ina 
sweetener  of  human  society  ; it  g'lves  a charm  to  every 
thing  that  is  said  and  done  ; ‘ The  true  effect  of  genuine 
politeness  seems  to  be  rather  ease  than  pleasure.’— 
Johnson. 

Civility  is  contented  with  pleasing  when  the  occa- 
sion offers  ; politeness  seeks  tlie  opportunity  to  please, 
it  prevents  the  necessity  of  asking  by  anticipating  the 
wishes  ; it  is  full  of  delicate  attentions,  and  is  an  ac- 
tive benevolence  in  the  minor  concerns  of  life. 

Civility  i§  anxious  not  to  offend,  but  it  often  gives 
pain  from  ignorance  orerrour  : politeness  studies  all  the 
circumstances  and  situations  of  men  ; it  enters  into  their 
characters,  suits  itself  to  their  humours,  and  even  yields 
indulgently  to  their  weaknesses  ; its  object  is  no  less  to 
avoid  giving  pain  than  to  study  to  afford  pleasure. 

Civility  is  dictated  by  the  desire  of  serving, 
by  that  of  pleasing  : civility  often  confines  itself  to  tho 
bare  intention  of  serving  ; politeness  looks  to  the  action 
and  its  consequences  : when  a peasant  is  civil  he  often 
does  the  reverse  of  what  would  be  desired  of  him  ; he 
takes  no  heed  of  the  wants  and  necessities  of  others  : 
politeness  considers  what  is  due  to  others  and  from 
others ; it  does  nothing  superfluously  ; men  of  good 
breeding  think  before  they  speak,  and  move  before  they 
act.  It  is  necessary  to  be  civil  without  being  trouble 
some,  unA  polite  without  being  affected. 

Civility  requires  nothing  but  goodness  of  intention  ; 
it  may  be  associated  with  the  coarsest  manners,  the 
grossest  ignorance,  and  the  total  want  of  all  culture  : po- 
liteness requires  peculiar  properties  of  the  head  and  the 
heart,  natural  and  artificial  ; much  goodness  and  gen- 
tleness of  character,  an  even  current  of  feeling,  quick- 
ness and  refined  delicacy  of  sentiment,  a command  of 
temper,  a general  insight  into  men  and  manners,  and  s 
thorough  acquaintance  with  the  forms  of  society. 

Civility  is  not  incompatible  with  the  harshest  ex- 
pressions of  one’s  feelings ; it  allows  the  utterance  of 
all  a man  thinks  without  regard  to  person,  time,  or  sea- 
son ; it  lays  no  restraint  upon  the  angry  passions : 
politeness  enjoins  upon  us  to  say  nothing  to  another 
which  we  would  not  wish  to  be  said  to  ourselves : it 
lays  at  least  a temporary  constraint  on  all  the  angry 
passions,  and  prevents  all  turbulent  commolior.s. 

Civility  is  always  the  same  ; whatever  is  once  tivu 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


>99 


ts  arWJk/i  « - And  acknowledged  as  sucli  by  all  persons  ; 
hence  the  term  civil  may  be  applied  figuratively  in  tiie 
same  sense : 

1 heard  a mermaid  on  a dolphin’s  back, 

Uttering  such  dulcet  and  harmonious  sounds, 
That  the  rude  sea  grew  civil  at  her  song. 

Shakspkark. 

Politeness  varies  with  the  fashions  and  times ; what  is 
polite  in  one  age  or  in  one  country  may  be  unpolite  in 
another;  ‘ A pyfite  country  squire  shall  make  you  as 
many  bows  in  half  an  hour  as  would  serve  a courtier 
for  a week.’ — Addison. 

U civilitij  be  not  a splendid  virtue,  it  has  at  least  the 
recommendationof  being  genuine  and  harmless,  having 
nothing  artificial  in  it:  it  admits  of  no  gloss,  and  will 
never  deceive ; it  is  the  true  expression  of  good  will, 
the  companion  of  respect  in  inferiours,  of  condescen- 
sion in  superiours,  of  humanity  and  kindness  in  equals : 
voliteness  springs  from  education,  is  the  offspring  of 
refinement,  and  consists  much  in  theexteriour:  it  often 
rests  contented  with  the  bare  imitation  of  virtue,  and  is 
distinguished  into  true  and  false;  in  the  latter  case  it 
may  be  abused  for  the  worst  of  purposes,  and  serve  as  a 
mask  to  conceal  malignant  passions  under  the  appear- 
ance of  kindness;  hence  it  is  possible  to  be  polite  in 
form  without  being  civil,  on  any  thing  else  that  is  good. 


CIVIL,  OBLIGING,  COMPLAISANT. 

Civil(v.  Civil, polite) ; obliging,  from  oblige,  signifies 
either  doing  what  obliges,  or  ready  to  oblige;  com- 
plaisant, in  French  complaisant,  comes  from  complaire 
to  please,  signifying  ready  to  please. 

Civil  is  more  general  than  obliging : one  is  always 
civil  when  one  is  obliging,  but  one  is  not  always 
obliging  when  one  is  civil ; complaisance  is  more  than 
either,  it  refines  upon  both ; it  is  a branch  of  politeness 
(w.  Civil,  polite). 

Civil  regards  the  manner  as  well  as  the  action, 
obliging  respects  the  action,  complaisant  includes  all 
the  circumstances  of  the  action  : to  be  civil  is  to  please 
by  any  word  or  action  ; ‘ Pride  is  never  more  offensive 
than  when  it  condescends  to  be  civil.^ — Cumberland. 
To  be  obliging  is  to  perform  some  actual  service  ; 

The  shepherd  home 

Hies  merry-hearted,  and  by  turns  relieves 
The  ruddy  milkmaid  of  her  brimming  pail, 

The  beauty  whom  perhaps  his  witless  heart 
Sincerely  loves,  by  that  best  language  shown 
Of  cordial  glances,  and  obliging  deeds. 

Thomson. 

'I  n be  complaisant  is  to  do  a service  in  the  time  and 
manner  that  is  most  suitable  and  agreeable;  ‘ I seem’d 
so  pleased  with  what  every  one  said,  and  smiled  with 
so  much  complaisance  at  all  their  pretty  fancies,  that 
though  I did  not  put  one  word  into  their  discourse,  I 
have  the  vanity  to  think  they  looked  upon  me  as  very 
agreeable  company.’ — Addison.  Cm«7/£y  requires  no 
effort;  to  be  obliging  always  costs  the  agent  some 
trouble  ; complaisance  requires  attention  and  observa- 
tion ; a person  is  civil  in  his  reply,  obliging  in  lending 
assistance,  complaisant  in  his  attentions  to  his  friends. 

One  is  habitually  civil ; obliging  from  disposition  ; 
complaisant  from  education  and  disposition : it  is 
necessary  to  be  civil  without  being  free,  to  be  obliging 
without  being  officious,  to  be  complaisant  without  being 
servile. 


COURTEOUS,  COMPLAISANT,  COURTLY. 

Courteous,  from  court,  denotes  properly  belonging  to  a 
court,  and  by  a natural  extension  of  the  si  nse,  suitable 
to  a court  ; complaisant  {v.  Complaisance). 

Courteous  in  one  respect  comprehends  in  it  more  than 
complaisant ; it  includes  the  manner  as  well  as  the 
action  ; it  is,  properly  speaking,  polished  complaisance  : 
on  the  other  hand,  complaisance  includes  more  of  the 
disposition  in  it  than  courtrousness ; it  has  less  of  the 
polish,  but  more  of  the  reality  of  kindness. 

Courteousness  displays  itself  in  the  address  and  the 
manners; 

And  then  T stole  all  courtesy  from  Heav’n, 

And  dress'd  myself  in  such  humility. 

That  I did  pluck  allegiance  from  men’s  hearts. 

Shakspeare 


Complaisance  displays  itself  in  direct  good  othees,  par- 
ticularly in  complying  with  the  wishes  of  others;  ‘ To 
comply  with  the  notions  of  mankind  is  in  some  degree 
the  duty  of  a social  being;  because  by  comiiliance  only 
he  can  please,  and  by  pleasing  only  he  can  become 
useful ; but  as  the  end  is  not  to  be  lost  for  the  sake  of 
the  means,  we  are  not  to  give  up  virtue  for  complai 
sance' — Johnson.  Courteousness  is  most  suitable  for 
strangers ; complaisance  for  friends  or  the  nearest  rela- 
tives : among  well-bred  men,  and  men  of  rank,  it  is  an 
invariable  rule  to  address  each  other  courteously  on  all 
occasions  whenever  they  meet,  whether  acquainted  or 
otherwi.se  ; there  is  a degree  of  complaisance  due  be- 
tween husbands  and  wives,  brothers  and  sisters,  and 
members  of  the  same  family,  which  cannot  be  neglected 
without  endangering  the  harmony  of  their  intercourse 
Courtly,  though  derived  from  the  same  word  as 
courteous,  is  in  some  degree  opposed  -o  it  in  point  of 
sense;  it  denotes  a likeness  to  a court,  but  not  a like- 
ness which  is  favourable;  courtly  is  to  courteous  a$ 
the  form  to  the  reality ; the  courtly  consists  of  the  ex- 
leriour  only,  the  latter  of  the  exteriour  combined  with 
the  spirit ; the  former  therefore  seems  to  convey  the 
idea  of  insincerity  when  contra.sted  with  the  latter, 
which  mustnecessarily  suppose  the  contrary:  acourily 
demeanour,  or  a courtier-hke  demeanour  may  be  suit 
able  on  certain  occasions  ; but  a courteous  demeanour 
is  always  desirable  ; 

In  our  own  time  (excuse  some  courtly  strains) 

No  whiter  page  than  Addison’s  remains. — Pope. 
Courtly  may  likewise  be  employed  in  relation  to 
things;  bni  courteous  has  always  respect  to  persons; 
we  may  speak  of  a courtly  style,  or  courtly  grandeur ; 
but  we  always  speak  of  courteous  behaviour,  cour 
teous  language,  and  the  like. 

Yes,  I know 

He  had  a troublesome  old-fashion’d  way 
Of  shocking  courtly  cars  with  horrid  truth. 

Thomssh 


POLITE,  POLISHED,  REFINED,  GENTEEL 

Polite  {v.  Civil)  denotes  a quality  ; polished,  astate  . 
he  who  is  polite  is  so  arcoidingto  the  rules  of  polite- 
' ness ; he  who  is  polished  is  polished  by  the  force  of 
art:  a polite  man  is,  in  regard  to  his  behaviour,  a 
finished  gentleman.  A rude  person  may  be  more  or 
less  polished,  or  freed  from  rudeness  ; ‘ In  rude  nations 
the  dependence  of  children  on  their  parents  is  of 
shorter  continuance  than  in  polished  societies.’- 
Robkrtson.  Refined  rises  in  sense,  both  in  regard  to 
polite  and  polished:  a man  is  indebted  to  nature, 
rather  than  to  art,  for  his  refinement;  but  his  polite- 
ness, or  his  polish,  are  entirely  the  fruit  of  education. 
Politeness  and  polish  do  not  e.xtend  to  any  thing  but 
externals;  refinement  applies  as  much  to  the  mind  as 
the  body : rules  of  conduct,  and  good  society,  will 
make  a man  polite ; ‘ A pedant  among  men  of  learn- 
ing and  sense  is  like  an  ignorant  servant  uiving  an 
account  of  ;)oZ/£e  conversation.’ — Steele.  Lessons  in 
dancing  will  serve  to  give  a polish;  refined  manners  or 
principles  will  naturally  arise  out  of  refinement  of 
mind  and  temper;  ‘ VVhat  is  honour  but  the  height 
an^l  flower  of  morality,  and  the  utmost  refinement  of 
conversation  P — South. 

As  polish  extends  only  to  the  exteriour,  it  is  le.=s  lia 
ble  to  excess  than  refinement : when  the  language,  the 
walk,  and  deportment  of  a man  is  polished,  he  is  di- 
vested of  all  that  can  make  him  offensive  in  social 
intercourse;  but  if  the  temper  of  a man  be  refined  be- 
yond a certain  boundary,  he  loses  the  nerve  of  cha 
racter  which  is  essential  for  maintaining  his  dignity 
against  the  rude  shocks  of  human  life. 

Genteel,  in  French  gentil,  Latin  gentilis,  signified 
literally  one  belonging  to  the  same  gens  or  family,  the 
next  akin  to  whom  the  estate  would  fall,  if  there  were 
no  children  ; hence  by  an  extended  application  it  de- 
noted to  be  of  a good  family,  and  the  term  gentility 
now  respects  rank  in  life;  in  distinction  from  poZZte- 
ness,  which  res[)ects  the  refinement  of  tlie  mind  and 
outward  behaviour,  a genteel  educaticn  is  suited  to  the 
station  of  a gentleman  ; ‘ A lady  of  genius  will  give  a 
genteel  air  to  her  whole  dress  by  a well-fancied  suit  of 
knots,  as  a judicious  writer  gives  a spirit  to  a whole 
sentence  by  a single  expression.'— Gay.  ApolU 


200 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


education  fits  for  polislied  society  and  conversation,  and 
raises  the  individual  among  his  equals ; 

In  this  isle  remote, 

Our  painted  ancestors  were  slow  to  learn. 

To  arms  devote,  in  the  politer  arts, 

Nor  skilled,  nor  studious. — Somerville. 

There  may  be  gentility  without  politeness;  and 
vice  versa.  A person  may  have  genteel  manners,  a 
genteel  carriage,  a genteel  mode  of  living  as  far  as  re- 
spects his  general  relation  with  society  ; but  a polite 
b«havinur  and  a polite  address,  which  qualify  him  for 
every  relation  in  society,  and  enable  him  to  shine  in 
conne.xion  with  all  orders  of  men,  is  independent  of 
cither  birth  or  wealth ; it  is  in  part  a gift  of  nature, 
although  it  is  to  be  acquired  by  art. 

A person’s  equipage,  servants,  house,  and  furniture, 
may  be  such  as  to  entitle  a man  to  the  name  of  genteel., 
although  he  is  wanting  in  all  the  forms  of  real  good- 
breeding. Fortune  may  sometimes  frown  upon  the 
polished  gentleman,  whose  politeness  is  a recommen- 
dation to  him  wherever  he  goes. 

AFFABLE,  COURTEOUS. 

Affable,  in  French  affable,  Latin  affabilis,  from  af 
or  ad,  and/or  to  speak,  signifies  a readiness  to  speak 
to  any  otie;  courteous,  in  French  courtois,  from  the 
word  court,  signifies  after  the  refined  manner  of  a 
court. 

VVe  are  affable  by  a mild  and  easy  address  towards 
all,  without  distinction  of  rank,  who  have  occasion  to 
speak  to  us ; we  are  courteous  by  a refined  and  en- 
gaging air  to  our  equals  or  superiours  who  address 
themselves  to  us. 

The  affable  man  invites  to  inquiry,  and  is  ready  to 
gratify  curiosity  ; ‘ It  is  impossible  for  a publick  minister 
to  be  so  open  and  easy  to  all  his  old  friends  as  he  was 
in  his  private  condition  ; but  this  may  be  helped  out 
by  an  affability  of  address.’ — L’Estrange.  The 
courteous  man  encourages  to  a communication  of  our 
wants,  and  discovers  in  his  manners  a willingness  to 
relieve  them ; 

Whereat  the  Elfin  knight  with  speeches  gent 

Him  first  saluted,  who,  well  as  he  might. 

Him  fair  salutes  again,  as  seemeth  courteous  knight. 

West. 

Affability  results  from  good  nature,  and  courteousness 
from  fine  feeling  ; it  is  necessary  to  be  affable  without 
familiarity,  and  courteous  without  officiousness. 


COMPLAISANCE,  DEFERENCE,  CONDE- 
SCENSION. 

Complaisance,  from  com  and  plaire  to  please,  signi- 
fies the  act  of  complying  with,  or  pleasing  others;  de- 
ference,  in  French  deference,  from  the  Latin  defero  to 
bear  down,  marks  the  inclination  to  defer,  or  acquiesce 
in  the  sentiments  of  another  in  preference  to  one’s 
own  ; condescension  marks  the  act  of  condescending 
from  one’s  own  height  to  yield  to  the  satisfaction  of 
others,  rather  than  rigourously  to  exact  one’s  rights. 

The  necessities,  the  conveniences,  the  accommoda- 
tions and  allurements  of  society,  of  familiarity,  and 
of  intimacy,  lead  to  complaisance ; it  makes  sacrifices 
to  the  wishes,  tastes,  comforts,  enjoyments,  and  per- 
sonal feelings  of  others ; ‘ Complaisance  renders  a su- 
periour  amiable,  an  equal  agreeable,  and  an  inferiour 
acceptable.’ — Addison.  Age,  rank,  dignity,  and  per- 
sonal merit,  call  for  deference  : it  enjoins  compliance 
with  respect  to  our  opinions,  judgements,  pretensions, 
and  designs;  ‘Tom  Courtly  never  fails  of  paying  his 
obeisance  to  every  man  he  sees,  who  has  title  or  office 
to  make  him  conspicuous;  but  his  deference  is  wholly 
given  to  outward  consideration.’ — Steele.  The  in- 
firmities, the  wants,  the  defects  and  foibles  of  others, 
call  for  condescension  ; it  relaxes  the  rigour  of  autho- 
rity, and  removes  the  distinction  of  rank  or  station ; 
‘ The  same  noble  condescension  which  never  dwells 
but  in  truly  great  minds,  and  such  as  Homer  would  re- 
present that  of  Ulysses  to  have  been,  discovers  itself 
likewise  in  the  speech  which  he  made  to  the  ghost  of 
Ajax.’ — Addison. 

Complaisance  is  properly  the  act  of  an  equal ; defer- 
ence that  of  an  inferiour;  condescension  oi  a sii- 
periour.  Comvlaisance  is  due  from  one  well-bred  (ter- 


son  to  another ; deference  is  dut  to  all  superiours  in 
age,  knowledge,  or  station,  whim  one  approaches; 
condescension  is  due  from  all  superiours  to  such  as  are 
dependent  on  them  for  comfort  and  enjoyment. 

All  these  qualities  spring  from  a refinement  of  hu 
inanity  ; but  complaisance  has  most  of  genuine  kind- 
ness in  its  nature ; deference  most  of  respectful  sub 
mission;  corrdesceMsiW mostof  easy  indulgence.  Com- 
plaisance has  unalloyed  pleasure  for  its  companion , 
it  is  pleased  with  doing;  it  is  pleased  with  seeing  that 
it  has  pleased ; it  is  pleasure  to  the  giver  and  pleasure 
to  the  receiver.  Deference  is  not  unmixed  with  pain; 
it  fears  to  offend,  or  to  fail  in  the  part  it  has  to  perform  , 
it  is  mingled  with  a consciousness  of  inferiority,  and  a 
fear  of  appearing  lower  than  it  deserves  to  be  thought. 
Condescension  is  not  without  its  alloy;  it  is  accompa- 
nied with  the  painful  sentiment  of  witnessing  infe- 
riority, and  the  no  less  painful  apprehension  of  not 
maintaining  its  own  dignity. 

Complaisance  is  busied  in  anticipating  and  meeting 
the  wishes  of  others ; it  seeks  to  amalgamate  one’s 
own  will  with  that  of  another : deference  is  busied  in 
yielding  submission,  doing  homage,  and  marking  one’s 
sense  of  another’s  superiority  : condescension  employs 
itself  in  not  opposing  the  will  of  others ; in  yielding 
to  their  gratification,  and  laying  aside  unnecessary  dis- 
tinctions of  superiority.  Complaisance  among  strangers 
is  often  the  forerunner  of  the  most  friendly  inter- 
course: it  is  the  characteristick  of  self-conceit  to  pay 
deference  to  no  one,  because  it  considers  no  one  as 
having  superiour  worth  ; it  is  the  common  character- 
istick of  ignorant  and  low  persons  when  placed  in  a 
state  of  elevation,  to  think  themselves  degraded  Iw 
any  act  of  condescension. 

IMPERTINENT,  RUDE,  SAUCY,  IMPUDENT, 
INSOLENT. 

Impertinent,  in  Latin  in  and  pertinens  not  beloiJging 
to  one,  signifies  being  or  wanting  to  do  what  it  does 
not  belong  to  one  to  be  or  do ; rude,  in  Latin  rudis 
rude,  and  raudus  a ragged  stone,  in  the  Greek  pd/jjoj 
a rough  stick,  signifies  literally  unpolished  ; and  in  an 
extended  sense,  wanting  all  culture  ; saucy  comes  from 
sauce,  and  the  Latin  salsus,  signifying  literally  salt ; 
and  in  an  extended  sense,  stinging  like  salt ; impudent 
(/;.  Assurance) ; insolent,  from  the  Latin  in  and  soluns, 
contrary  to  custom,  signifies  being  or  wanting  to  be 
contrary  to  custom. 

Impertinent  is  allied  to  rude,  as  respects  one’s  general 
relations  in  society,  without  regard  to  station ; it  is 
allied  to  saucy,  impudent,  and  insolent,  as  respects  the 
conduct  of  inferiours. 

He  who  does  not  respect  the  laws  of  civil  society  in 
his  intercourse  with  individuals,  and  wants  to  assume 
to  himself  what  belongs  to  another,  is  impertinent : ii 
he  carry  bhis  impertinence  so  far  as  to  commit  any  vio 
lent  breach  of  decorum  in  his  behaviour,  he  is  rude. 
Impertinence  seems  to  spring  from  a too  high  regard 
of  one’s  self : rudeness  from  an  ignorance  of  what  is 
due  to  others.  An  impertinent  man  will  ask  questions 
for  the  mere  gratification  of  curiosity ; a rude  man  will 
stare  in  one’s  face  in  order  to  please  himself.  An  im- 
pertinent man  will  take  possession  of  the  best  seat 
without  regard  to  the  right  or  convenience  of  an- 
other; a rude  man  will  burst  into  the  room  of  an- 
other, or  push  against  his  person,  in  violation  of  all 
ceremony. 

Impertinent,  in  comparison  with  the  other  terms, 
saucy,  impudent,  and  insolent,  is  the  most  general  and 
indefinite  : whatever  one  does  or  says  that  is  not  com- 
patible with  our  station  is  impertinent ; saucy  is  a 
sharp  kind  of  impertinence;  impudent  an  unblushing 
kind  of  impertinence ; insolence  is  an  outrageous  kind 
of  impertinence,  it  runs  counter  to  all  established  or- 
der: thus,  the  terms  seem  to  rise  in  sense.  A person 
may  be  impertinent  in  words  or  actions : he  is  saucy 
in  words  or  looks : he  is  impudent  or  insolent  in  words, 
tones,  gesture,  looks,  and  every  species  of  action.  A 
person’s  impertinence  discovers  itself  in  not  giving  the 
respect  which  is  due  to  his  superiours  in  general, 
strangers,  or  otherwise  ; as  when  a common  person  sits 
down  in  the  presence  of  a man  of  rank;  sauciness 
discovers  itself  towards  particular  individuals,  in  cer 
tain  relations;  as  in  the  case  of  servants  who  are 
saucy  to  their  masters,  or  children  who  are  sa-acy 
to  th-p’r  teachers:  impudence  and  insolence  are  th* 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMLS. 


20i 


strorgest  degree  of  impertinence ; but  the  former  is  more 
particularly  said  of  such  things  as  reflect  disgrace  upon 
the  offender,  and  spring  from  a low  depravity  of  mind, 
such  as  the  abuse  of  one’s  superiours,  and  a vulgar 
defiance  of  tiiose  to  whom  one  owes  obedience  and 
respect:  insolence,  on  the  contrary,  originates  from  a 
haughtiness  of  spirit,  and  a misplaced  pride,  which 
breaks  out  into  a contemptuous  disregard  of  the  sta- 
tion of  those  by  whom  one  is  offended  ; as  in  the  case 
of  a servant  who  should  offer  to  strike  his  master,  or 
of  a criminal  who  sets  a magistrate  at  defiance  ; ‘ It  is 
publickly  whispered  as  a piece  of  impertinent  pride  in 
me,  that  I have  hitherto  been  saucily  civil  to  every 
body,  as  if  I thought  nobody  good  enough  to  quarrel 
with.’ — Lady  M.  W.  Montagu. 

My  house  should  no  such  rude  disorders  know, 

As  from  high  drinking  consequently  flow. 

Fomfret. 

Whether  he  knew  the  thing  or  no. 

His  tongue  externally  would  go ; . , 

For  he  had  impudence  at  will. — Gay. 

He  claims  the  bull  with  lawless  rnsolence. 

And  having  seiz’d  his  horns,  accosts  the  prince. 

Dryden. 

Self-conceit  is  the  grand  source  of  impertinence,  it 
makes  persons  forget  themselves;  the  young  thereby 
forget  their  youth  ; the  servant  forgets  his  relationship 
to  his  master ; the  poor  and  ignorant  man  forgets  the 
distance  between  himself  and  those  who  are  elevated 
by  education,  rank,  power,  or  wealth ; impertinent 
persons,  therefore,  act  towards  their  equals  as  if  they 
were  inferiours,  and  towards  their  superiours  as  if  they 
were  their  equals;  an  angry  pride  that  is  offended  with 
reproof  commonly  provokes  sauciness  : an  insensibility 
to  shame,  or  an  unconsciousness  of  what  is  honourable 
either  in  one’s  self  or  others,  gives  birth  to  impudence  : 
uncontrolled  passions,  and  bloated  pride,  are  the  ordi- 
nary e'fimulants  to  insolence. 


ABRUPT,  RUGGED,  ROUGH. 

.Abrupt,  in  Latin  abruptus,  participle  of  ahrumpo, 
to  break  off,  signifies  the  state  of  being  broken  oft’; 
rugged,  in  Saxon  hragge,  comes  from  the  Latin  ru- 
osus  ful’l  of  wrinkles;  rough  is  in  Saxon  reoh,  high 
erman  rank,  low  German  rug,  Dutch  ruig,  in  Latin 
rudis  uneven. 

These  words  mark  different  degrees  of  unevenness. 
What  is  abrupt  has  greater  cavities  and  protuberances 
than  what  is  rugged;  what  is  rugged  has  greater  irre- 
gularities than  what  is  rough.  In  the  natural  sense 
abrupt  is  opposed  to  what  is  unbroken,  rugged  to  what 
is  even,  and  rough  to  what  is  smooth.  A precipice  is 
abrupt,  a path  is  rugged,  a plank  is  rough; 

The  precipice  abrupt. 

Projecting  horrour  on  the  blackened  flood. 

Softens  at  thy  return. — Thomson’s  Summer. 

‘ The  evils  of  this  life  appear  like  rocks  and  precipices) 
rugged  and  barren  at  a distance ; but  at  our  nearer 
approach  we  find  them  little  fruitful  spots.’ — Spec- 
tator. 

Not  the  rough  whirlwind,  that  deforms 
Adria’s  black  gulf,  and  vexes  it  with  storms, 

The  stubborn  virtue  of  his  soul  can  move. 

Francis. 

The  abruptness  of  a body  is  generally  occasioned  by 
A violent  concussion  and  separation  of  its  parts;  rug- 
gedness arises  from  natural,  but  less  violent  causes; 
roughness  is  mostly  a natural  property,  although  some- 
times produced  by  friction. 

In  the  figurative  sense  the  distinction  is  equally  clear. 
Words  and  manners  are  abrupt  when  they  are  siidden 
and  unconnected ; the  temper  is  rugged  which  is  ex- 
posed to  frequent  ebullitions  of  angry  humoHr  ; actions 
are  rough  when  performed  with  violence  and  in- 
caution. 

An  abrupt  behaviour  is  the  consequence  of  m agi- 
tated mind  • 

My  lady  craves 

To  know  the  cause  of  your  abrupt  departure, 
Shakspeare. 

A rugged  disposition  is  inherent  in  the  character; 
The  greatest  favours  to  such  a one  neither  soften  nor 


win  upon  him;  neither  melt  noi  endear  him,  but  leave 
him  as  hard,  rugged,  and  unconcerned  as  ever.’ — 
South.  A rough  deportment  arises  from  an  undisci- 
plined state  of  teeling  ; ‘ Kind  words  prevent  a good 
deal  of  that  perverseness,  which  rough  and  imperious 
usage  often  produces  in  generous  minds.’ — Louke. 

An  habitual  steadiness  and  coolness  of  reflection  is 
best  fitted  to  prevent  or  correct  any  abruptness  of 
manners;  a cultivation  of  the  Christian  temper  cannot 
fail  of  smoothing  down  all  ruggedness  of  humour;  an 
intercourse  with  polished  society  will  inevitably  refine 
down  all  roughness  of  behaviour. 


COARSE,  ROUGH,  RUDE. 

Coarse,  probably  from  the  Gothick  kaurids  heav}, 
answering  to  our  word  gross,  and  the  Latin  gravis; 
rough,  in  Saxon  hruh,  German  rauh,  roh,  &.c.  is  pro- 
bably a variation  of  rude  (w.  Impertinent). 

These  epithets  are  equally  applied  to  what  is  not 
polished  by  art.  In  the  proper  sense  coarse  refers  to 
the  composition  and  materials  of  bodies,  as  coarse 
bread,  coarse  meat,  coarse  cloth ; rough  respects  the 
surface  of  bodies,  as  rough  w'ood  and  rough  skin ; 
rude  respects  the  make  or  fashion  of  things,  as  a rude 
bark,  a rude  utensil.  Coarse  is  opposed  to  fine,  rough 
to  smooth,  rude  to  polished. 

In  the  figaralivc  application  they  are  distinguished 
in  a similar  manner  : coarse  language  is  used  by  per- 
sons of  naturally  coarse  feeling ; ‘ The  fineness  and 
delicacy  of  perception  which  the  man  of  taste  requires 
may  be  more  liable  to  irritation  than  the  coarser  feel 
ings  of  minds  less  cultivated.’ — Craig.  Rough  Ian 
guage  is  used  by  those  whose  tempers  are  either  natu> 
rally  or  occasionally  rough; 

This  is  some  fellow. 

Who,  having  been  prais’d  for  bluntness,  doth  affect 

A saucy  roughness. — Shakspeare. 

Rude  language  is  used  bv  those  who  are  ignorant  of 
any  better;  ‘Is  it  in  destioying  and  pulling  down 
that  skill  is  displayed!  the  shallowest  understanding, 
the  rudest  hand,  is  more  than  equal  to  that  task.’— 
Burke. 


GROSS,  COARSE. 

Gross  derives  its  meaning  in  this  application  from 
the  Latin  crassus  thick  from  fat,  or  that  which  is  of 
common  materials;  coarse  (v.  Coarse.) 

These  terms  are  synonymous  in  the  moral  applica 
tion.  Grossness  of  habit  is  opposed  to  delicacy, 
coarseness  to  softness  and  refinement.  A person  be- 
comes gross  by  an  unrestrained  indulgence  of  his 
sensual  appetites ; particularly  in  eating  and  drinking; 
he  is  coarse  from  the  want  of  polish  either  as  to  his 
mind  or  manners.  A gross  sensualist  approximates 
very  nearly  to  the  brute  ; he  sets  aside  all  moral  con 
siderations;  he  indulges  himself  in  the  open  face  of 
day  in  defiance  of  all  decency : a coarse  person  ap- 
proaches nearest  to  the  savage,  whose  roughness  of 
humour  and  Inclination  have  not  been  refined  down  by 
habits  of  restraining  his  own  will,  and  complying  w'ith 
the  will  of  another.  A gross  expression  conveys  the 
idea  of  that  which  should  be  kept  from  the  view  of  the 
mind,  which  shocks  the  moral  feeling,  a coarse  ex- 
pression conveys  thoidea  of  an  unseemly  sentiment  in 
the  mind  of  the  speaker.  The  representation  of  the 
Deity  by  any  sensible  image  is  gross,  because  it  gives 
us  a lov/  and  grovelling  idea  of  the  Supreme;  the  doing 
a kindness,  and  making  the  receiver  at  the  same  time 
sensible  of  your  superiority  and  his  dependence,  indi- 
cates great  coarseness  in  the  character  of  the  person 
granting  the  favour ; ‘A  certain  preparation  is  requi 
site  for  the  enjoyment  of  devotion  in  its  whole  extent; 
not  only  must  the  life  be  reformed  from  gross  enor- 
mities, but  the  heart  must  have  undergone  that  change 
which  the  Gospel  demands.’ — Blair.  ‘ The  refined 
pleasures  of  a pious  mind  are,  in  many  respects,  supe- 
riourto  the  coarse  gratifications  of  sense.’ — Blair 


TO  AMEND,  CORRECT,  REFORM,  RECTIFY, 
EMEND,  IMPROVE,  MEND,  BETTER. 
Amend,  in  Latin  emendo,  from  menda  a fault  in 
transcribing,  signifies  to  remove  this  fault;  correct, 
in  Latin  correcius,  participle  of  corrigo,  compounded 


i02 


EJNGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


of  con  -Ad  rego,  signifies  to  set  ^ order,  to  set  to 
riglits;  reform,  compounded  of  re  and  form,  signifies 
to  reform  afresh,  or  put  into  a new  form ; rectify,  in 
Latin  rectifico,  compounded  of  rectus  and  facio,  sig- 
nifies to  make  or  put  right;  emend  is  the  immediate 
derivative  of  the  Latin  emendo ; improve  comes  from 
tlie  Latin  in  and  probo  to  prove  or  try,  signifying  to 
make  any  thing  good,  or  better  than  it  was,  by  trials 
or  after  experiments;  wend  is  a contraction  of  emend; 
better  is  properly  to  make  better. 

To  amend,  correct,  rectify,  and  emend,  imply  the 
lessening  of  evil;  to  improve,  reform,  and  better,  the 
increase  of  good.  We  amend  the  moral  conduct, 
correct  errors,  reform  the  life,  rectify  mistakes,  emend 
the  readings  of  an  author,  improve  the  mind,  mend  or 
better  the  condition.  What  is  amended  is  mostly  tliat 
which  IS  wrong  in  ourselves:  what  is  reformed  or 
corrected  is  that  which  is  faulty  in  ourselves  or  in 
others  ; what  is  rectified  is  mostly  wrong  in  that  which 
has  been  done;  that  which  is  improved  may  relate 
either  to  an  individual  or  to  indifferent  objects. 

To  mend  and  better  are  common  terms,  employed 
only  oh  familiar  occasions,  corresponding  to  the  terms 
amend  and  improve.  Whatever  is  wrong  must  be 
amended;  whatever  is  faulty  must  be  corrected ; what- 
ever is  altogether  insufficient  for  the  purpose  must  be 
reformed;  whatever  errour  escapes  by  an  oversight 
must  be  rectified;  whatever  is  obscure  or  incorrect 
must  be  amended. 

What  has  been  torn  may  be  mended; 

The  wise  for  cure  on  exercise  depend, 

God  never  made  his  work  for  man  to  mend. 

Drydkn. 

What  admits  of  change  may  be  improved  or  bettered; 
‘I  then  bettered  my  condition  a little,  and  lived  a 
whole  summer  in  the  shape  of  a bee.’ — Addison. 
When  a person’s  conduct  is  any  way  culpable,  it  ought 
io  he  amended;  ‘'J'he  interest  which  the  corrupt  part 
of  mankind  have  in  haidening  themselves  against  every 
motive  to  amendment,  has  disposed  them  to  give  to 
contradictions,  when  they  can  be  produced  against  the 
cause  of  virtue,  that  weight  which  they  will  not  allow 
them  in  any  other  c.ase.’ — Johnson.  When  a person’s 
habits  and  principles  are  vicious,  his  character  ought 
to  be  reformed;  ‘Indolence  is  one  of  the  vices  from 
which  those  whom  it  once  infects  are  seldom  reformed.' 
—Johnson.  When  a man  has  any  particular  faulty 
habit,  it  ought  to  be  corrected;  ‘Presumption  will  be 
easily  corrected;  but  timidity  is  a disease  of  the  mind 
more  obstinate  and  fatal.’ — Johnson.  When  we  com- 
mit mistakes  we  should  not  object  to  have  them  rec- 
tified; ‘That  sorrow  which  dictates  no  caution,  that 
fear  wdiich  does  not  quicken  our  escape,  tliat  austerity 
which  fails  to  rectify  our  affections,  are  vain  and  un- 
availing.’— Johnson.  ‘ Some  had  read  the  manuscript, 
and  rectified  hs  inaccuracies.’ — Johnson.  The  emenda- 
tions of  criticks  frequently  involve  an  author  in  still 
greater  obscurity  ; ‘ That  useful  part  of  learning  which 
consists  in  emendations,  knowledge  of  different  read- 
ings, and  the  like,  is  what  in  all  ages  persons  extremely 
wise  and  learned  have  had  in  great  veneration.’ — 
Addison.  Whoever  wishes  to  advance  himself  in  life 
must  endeavour  to  improve  ins  time  and  talents. 
‘ While  a man,  infatuated  with  the  promises  of  great- 
ness, wastes  his  hours  and  days  in  attendance  and  soli- 
citation, the  honest  opportunities  of  improving  his 
condition  pass  by  without  his  notice.’ — Addison. 

The  first  step  to  amendment  is  a consciousness  of 
errour  in  ourselves;  busy  politicians  are  ever  ready  to 
propose  a reform  in  the  constitution  of  their  country, 
but  they  forget  the  reformation  which  is  requisite  in 
themselves  ; the  correction  of  the  temper  is  of  the  first 
moment,  in  order  to  live  in  harmony  with  others;  in 
order  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  rectifying  what  has  been 
done  amiss,  we  must  strive  to  do  every  thing  with  care ; 
criticks  emend  the  productions  of  the  pen,  and  ingenious 
artists  improve  the  inventions  of  art. 

Correct  respects  ourselves  or  others ; rectify  has 
regard  to  one’s  self  only ; correct  is  either  an  act  of  au- 
thority or  discretion ; rectify  is  an  act  of  discretion  only. 
What  is  corrected  may  vary  in  its  magnitude  or  import- 
ance, and  consequently  may  require  more  or  less  trou- 
ble ; what  is  rectified  is  always  of  a nature  to  be  altered 
without  great  injury  or  effort.  Habitual  or  individual 
taults  are  corrected ; ‘ Desire  is  corrected  when  there  is 
a tenderness  or  admiration  expressed  whicli  partakes  of 


the  pcassion.  Licentious  language  has  something  bruta 
in  it  which  disgraces  humanity.’ — Steele.  Individua. 
mistakes  are  rectified;  ‘ A man  has  Irequent  opportu- 
nities of  mitigating  the  fierceness  of  a party  ; of  soft- 
ening the  envious,  quieting  the  angry,  and  rectifying 
the  prejudiced.’ — Addison.  A person  corrects  himself 
or  another  of  a bad  habit  in  speaking  or  pronouncing  , 
lie  rectifies  any  errour  in  his  accounts.  Mistakes  in 
writing  must  be  corrected  for  the  advantage  of  the 
scholar;  mistakes  in  pecuniary  transactions  cannot  be 
too  soon  rectified  for  the  satisfaction  of  all  parties. 

Reform  like  rectify  is  used  only  for  one’s  self  when 
it  respects  personal  actions  ; butr^orm  and  correct  are. 
likewise  employed  for  matters  of  general  interest.  Cor- 
rect in  neither  case  amounts  to  the  same  as  reform.  A 
person  corrects  himself  of  particular  habits ; hnreforms 
his  whole  life ; what  is  corrected  undergoes  a change, 
more  or  less  slight;  what  is  reformed  assumes  a new 
form  and  becomes  a new  thing.  Correction  is  always 
advisable:  it  is  the  removal  of  an  evil;  reform  is 
equally  so  as  it  respects  a man’s  own  conduct ; but  as 
it  respects  publick  matters,  it  is  altogether  of  a ques- 
tionable nature  ; a man  cannot  begin  too  soon  to  reform 
himself,  nor  too  late  to  attempt  the  constitu- 

tions of  society.  The  abuses  of  government  may  always 
be  advantageously  corrected  by  the  judicious  hand  of  a 
wise  minister;  reforms  in  a state  are  always  attended 
with  a certain  evil,  and  promise  but  an  uncertain  good ; 
they  are  never  recommended  but  by  the  young,  the 
thoughtless,  the  bus}',  or  the  interested.  The.reforma- 
tion  of  laws  is  the  peculiar  province  of  the  prince  ; 
Edward  and  Henry,  now  the  boast  of  fame. 

And  virtuous  Alfred,  a more  sacred  name, 

After  a life  of  generous  toils  endur’d. 

The  Gauls  subdu’d,  or  property  secur’d. 

Ambition  humbled,  mighty  cities  storm’d. 

Or  laws  establish’d,  and  the  world  reformed. 

Pope. 


CORRECT,  ACCURATE. 

Correct  is  equivalent  to  corrected  {v.  To  Jimend,)  or 
set  to  rights.  Accurate  {v.  Accurate)  implies  properly 
done  with  care,  or  by  the  application  of  care.  Correct 
is  negative  in  its  sense ; accurate  is  positive  ; it  is  suffi- 
cient to  be  free  from  fault  to  be  correct ; it  must  contain 
every  minute  particular  to  be  accurate.  Information  is 
correct  which  contains  nothing  but  facts  ; ‘Sallust  the 
most  elegant  and  correct  of  all  the  Latin  Jiistorians, 
observes,  that  in  his  time  when  the  most  formidable 
states  of  the  world  were  subdued  by  the  Romans,  the 
republick  sunk  into  those  two  opposite  vices  of  a quite 
different  nature,  luxury  and  avarice.’ — Addison.  In- 
formation is  accurate  when  it  contains  a vast  number 
of  details  ; ‘ Those  ancients  who  were  the  most  accu 
rate  in  their  remarks  on  the  genius  and  temper  of  man- 
kind, have  with  great  exactness  allotted  inclinations 
and  objects  of  desire  to  every  stage  of  life.’ — Steele. 

What  is  incorrect  is  allied  to  falsehood ; what  is  inac 
curate  is  generai  and  indefinite. 

According  to  the  dialect  of  modern  times,  in  which 
gross  vices  are  varnished  over  with  smooth  names,  a 
liar  is  said  to  speak  incorrectly ; this  is  however  not 
only  an  inaccurate  but  an  incorrect  mode  of  speech,  for 
a lie  is  a direct  violation  of  truth,  and  the  incorrect  is 
only  a deviation  from  it  to  greater  or  less  extent 


JUSTNESS,  CORRECTNESS. 

Justness,  from  jus  law  {v.  .Justice),  the  conformity 
to  established  principle:  correctness,  from  rectas  right 
or  straight  (v.  Correct),  is  the  conformity  to  a certain 
mark  or  line:  the  former  is  used  in  the  moral  or  im- 
proper sense  only  ; the  latter  is  used  either  in  the  proper 
or  improper  sense.  We  estimate  the  value  of  reirarks 
by  their  justness,  that  is,  their  accordance  to  certain 
admitted  principles;  ‘ Few  men,  possessed  of  the  most 
perfect  sight,  can  describe  visual  objects  with  more 
spirit  and  jMstness  than  Mr.  Blacklock  the  poet,  born 
blind.’ — Burke.  Correctness  of  outiine  is  of  the  first 
importance  in  drawing  ; correctness  of  dates  enhances 
the  value  of  a history  ; ‘I  do  not  mean  the  popular  elo- 
quence which  cannot  be  tolerated  at  the  bar,  but  1 hat  cor- 
rectness of  style  and  elegance  of  method  which  at  once 
pleases  and  persuades  the  hearer.’ — Sir  Wm.  Jones  It 
has  been  justly  observed  by  the  moralists  of  antiquity, 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


203 


*r*at  money  is  the  lOOt  of  all  evil ; partisans  seldom 
«ate  correctly  what  they  see  and  hear. 

ACCURATE,  EXACT,  PRECISE. 

^Iccurate,  in  French  accurate,  Laiur  accuratus,  par- 
ticiple of  accwro,  compounded  of  the  intensive  ac  or  ad, 
and  euro,  to  take  care  of,  signifies  done  with  great  care  ; 
exact,  in  French  exactc,  Latin  exactus,  participle  of 
exigo,  to  finish  or  complete,  denotes  the  quality  of  com- 
pleteness, the  absence  of  defect ; precise,  in  French 
vrecis,  Latin  praicisus,  participle  of  prcecido,  to  cut 
by  rule,  signifies  the  quality  of  doing  by  rule. 

A man  is  accurate  when  he  avoids  faults ; exact, 
when  he  attends  to  every  minutia,  and  leaves  nothing 
undone  ; precise,  when  he  does  it  according  to  a certain 
measure.  These  epithets,  therefore,  bear  a comparative 
relation  to  eich  other ; exact  expresses  more  than  accu- 
rate, and  precise  more  than  exact.  An  account  is  accu- 
rate in  wnich  there  is  no  misrepresentation  ; it  is  exact 
when  nothing  essential  is  omitted ; it  is  precise  when  it 
contains  particular  details  of  time,  place,  and  circum- 
stance 

Accuracy  is  indispensable  in  all  our  concerns,  be  they 
ever  go  ordinary  ; ‘ An  eminent  artist  who  wrought  up 
liis  pictures  with  the  greatest  accuracy,  and  gave  them 
all  those  delicate  touches  which  are  apt  to  please  the 
nicest  eye,  is  represented  as  tuning  a theorbo.’ — Addi- 
son. Exactness  is  of  peculiar  importance  in  matters 
of  economy  and  taste  ; ‘ This  lady  is  the  most  exact 
economist,  without  appearing  busy.’ — Congreve.  In 
some  cases,  where  great  results  flow  from  trifling 
causes,  the  graddHst  precision  becomes  requisite:  we 
may,  however,  be  too ;»recrse  when  we  dwell  on  unim- 
portant particulars;  but  we  never  can  be  too  accurate 
or  exact.  Hence  the  epithet  precise  is  sometimes  taken 
in  the  unfavourable  sense  for  affectedly  exact;  ‘An 
apparent  desire  of  admiration,  a reflection  upon  their 
own  merit,  and  a precise  behaviour  in  their  general 
conduct,  are  almost  inseparable  accidents  in  beauties.’ 
— Hughes.  An  accurate  man  will  save  himself  much 
trouble  ; an  exact  man  will  gain  himself  much  credit ; 
and  a.  precise  man  will  take  much  pains  only  to  render 
himself  lidiculous.  Young  people  should  strive  to  do 
ever.y  thing  accurately,  which  they  think  worth  doing 
at  ^11,  and  thus  they  will  learn  to  be  exact  or  precise,  as 
occasion  may  require. 

Accuracy,  moreover,  concerns  our  mechanical  la- 
bours, and  the  operations  of  our  senses  and  under 
standings;  ‘An  aptness  to  jumble  things  together, 
wherein  can  be  found  any  likeness,  hinders  the  mind 
from  accarate  conceptions  of  them.’ — Locke.  Exact- 
ness respects  our  dealings  with  others,  or  our  views  of 
things;  ‘ Angels  and  spirits,  in  their  several  degrees  of 
elevation  above  us,  may  be  endowed  with  more  com- 
prehensive faculties;  and  some  of  them,  perhaps,  have 
perfect  and  exact  views  of  all  finite  beings  that  come 
under  their  consideration.’ — Locke.  Precision  is  ap- 
plied to  our  habits  and  manners  in  society,  or  to  out 
representations  of  things  ; ‘ A definition  is  the  only  wa}' 
whereby  the  precise  meaning  of  moral  words  can  be 
known.’ — Locke.  We  write,  we  see,  we  think,  we 
judge  accurately ; we  are  exact  in  our  payments ; we 
are  precise  in  our  modes  of  dress.  Some  men  are  very 
accurate  in  their  particular  line  of  business,  who  are 
not  very  exact  in  fulfilling  their  engagements,  nor  very 
\recise  in  the  hours  which  they  keep. 

EXACT,  NICE,  PARTICULAR,  PUNCTUAL. 

Exact  [v.  Accurate);  nice,  in  Saxon  nise,  comes  in 
all  probability  from  the  German  g^en?essew,&c.  to  enjoy, 
signifying  a quick  and  discriminating  taste  ; particular 
signifies  here  directed  to  a particular  point ; punctual, 
from  the  Latin  punctual  a point,  signifies  keeping  to  a 
point. 

Exact  and  nice  are  to  be  compared  in  their  applica 
tion,  either  to  persons  or  things ; particular  and  punc- 
tual only  in  application  to  persons.  To  be  exact,  is  to 
arrive  at  perfection;  to  be  nice,  is  to  be  free  from 
faults ; to  be  particular,  is  to  be  nice  in  certain  particu- 
lars; to  be  punctual,  is  to  be  exact  in  certain  points. 
We  are  exact  in  our  conduct  or  in  what  we  do  ; nice 
and  particular  in  our  mode  of  doing  it;  punctual  as  to 
the  time  and  season  for  doing  it.  It  is  necessary  to  be 
exact  in  our  accounts ; to  be  nice  as  an  artist  in  the 
choice  and  distribuf  on  of  colours;  to  be  particular  as 


a man  of  business,  in  the  number  and  ihe  details  ol 
merchandises  that  are  to  be  delivered  out ; to  be  punc- 
tual in  observing  the  hour  or  the  day  tb;  t has  been 
fixed  upon  for  keeping  appointments. 

Exac'ness  and  punctuality  are  always  taken  in  a 
good  seiise  ; they  designfite  an  attention  to  that  which 
cannot  be  dispensed  v/im  ; they  form  a part  of  one’s 
duty  ; nicencss  awA  particularity  are  not  always  taken 
in  the  best  sense  ; they  designate  an  excessive  attention 
to  things  of  inferiour  importance  ; to  matters  of  taste 
and  choice.  Early  habits  of  method  and  regularity  will 
make  a man  very  exact  in  the  performance  of  all  his 
duties,  and  particularly  punctual  in  his  payments: 
‘ What  if  you  and  I inquire  how  money  matters  stand 
between  us  ? With  all  my  heart,  I love  exact  dealing  ; 
and  let  Hocus  audit.’ — Arbuthnot.  ‘The  trading 
part  of  mankind  suffer  by  the  want  of  punctuality  in 
the  dealings  of  persons  above  them.’ — Steele.  An 
over  niceness  in  the  observance  of  mechanical  rule* 
often  supplies  the  w'ant  ot  genius;  or  a niccness  in 
regard  to  one’s  diet  is  the  mark  of  an  epicure; 

Nor  be  so  nice  in  taste  myself  to  know, 

If  what  I swallow,  be  a thrush  or  no. — Dryden 
Thus  criticks,  of  less  judgement  than  caprice 
Curious,  not  knowing,  not  exact,  but  nice. --Pope. 

It  is  the  mark  of  a contracted  mind  to  amuse  itself  with 
partrcuZari^res  about  the  dress,  the  person,  the  furni- 
ture, and  the  like.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  desirable 
for  a person  to  be  particular  in  the  account  he  is  called 
upon  to  give  of  any  transaction : ‘ I have  been  the  more 
particular  in  this  inquiry,  because  I hear  there  is  scarce 
a village  in  England  that  has  not  a Moll  While  in  it.’ — 
Addison. 

When  exact  and  nice  are  applied  to  things,  the  for- 
mer expresses  more  than  the  latter;  we  speak  of  an 
exact  resemblance,  andia  nice  distinction.  Tlie  exact 
point  is  that  which  we  wish  to  reach  ; ‘ We  know  not 
so  much  as  the  true  names  of  either  Homer  or  Virgil, 
with  any  exactness.' — Walsh.  The  nice  point  is  that 
which  it  is  difficult  to  keep  ; ‘ Every  age  a man  passes 
through,  and  way  of  life  he  engages  in,  has  some  par 
ticular  vice  or  imperfection  naturally  cleavitig  to  it 
which  it  will^equire  his  nicest  care  to  avoid.’ — Bud 

GBLL. 


REFORM,  REFORMATION. 

Reform  has  a general,  and  reformation  a particiilar 
application  : whatever  undergoes  such  a ciiange  as  tc 
give  a new  form  to  an  object  occasions  a reform ; when 
such  a change  is  produced  in  the  moral  character,  it  is 
termed  a reformation : the  concerns  of  a state  require 
occasional  reform ; which,  when  administered  with 
discretion,  may  be  of  great  benefit,  otherwise  of  great 
injury;  ‘He  was  anxious  to  keep  the  distemper  of 
France  from  the  least  countenance  in  England,  wliere 
lie  was  sure  some  wicked  persons  had  shown  a strong 
disposition  to  recommend  an  imitation  of  the  FrencL 
spirit  of  reform.' — Burke.  The  concerns  of  an  indi- 
vidual require  reformation ; ‘Examples  are  pictures, 
and  strike  the  senses,  nay,  raise  the  passions,  and  call  in 
those  (the  strongest  and  most  general  of  all  motives)  to 
the  aid  of  reformation.' — Pope.  When  reform  and 
reformation  are  applied  to  the  moral  character,  the 
former  has  a more  extensive  signification  than  the 
latter:  the  term  reform  conveying  the  idea  of  a com- 
plete amendment;  reformation  implying  only  the  pro- 
cess of  amending  or  improving. 

A reform  in  oiie’s  life  and  conversation  will  always 
be  accompanied  with  a corresponding  increase  of  hap 
piness  to  the  individual:  when  we  observe  any  ap 
proaches  to  reformation,  we  may  cease  to  despair  of 
the  individual  who  gives  the  happy  indications. 

TO  RECLAIM,  REFORM. 

Reclaim,  from  clamo  to  call,  signifies  to  call  back  to 
its  right  place  that  which  has  gone  astiav  ; reform  sig- 
nifies the  same  as  in  the  preceding  article. 

A man  is  reclaimed  from  his  vicious  courses  jy  the 
force  of  advice  or  exhortation  ; he  may  be  reformed  by 
various  means,  external  or  internal.  • 

A parent  endeavours  to  reclaim  a child,  hut  too  often 
in  vain;  ‘ Scotland  had  nothing  to  dread  from  a prin 
cess  of  Mary’s  character,  who  was  wholly  occupied  in 
endeavouring  to  reclaim  her  heretical  subjects.'— Ro 


204 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMILts. 


BKRTSDN.  A hardened  offen  ler  is  seldom  ref  armed, nox 
s a corrupi  state  easy  to  oe reformed 

A mor.Key,  to  reform  the  times, 

Resolv’d  to  visit  foreign  climes. — Gay. 

PROGRESS,  PROFICIENCY,  IMPROVEMENT 
Progress  (v.  Proceeding)  is  a generick  term,  the  rest 
are  specifick;  proficiency,  from  the  Latin  proficio,  com- 
pounded of  pro  and  facto,  signifies  a profited  state,  that 
is  to  say,  a progress  already  made ; and  improvement, 
from  the  verb  improved,  signifies  an  improved  condition, 
that  is,  progress  in  that  which  improves.  The  pro- 
gress here,  as  in  tke  former  paragraph,  marks  the  step 
or  motion  onward,  and  the  two  others  the  point  already 
readied ; but  the  term  progress  is  applied  either  in  the 
proper  or  improper  sense,  that  is,  either  to  those  tra- 
velling forward,  or  to  those  going  on  stepwise  in  any 
work  ; proficiency  is  applied  in  the  proper  sense,  to  the 
ground  gained  in  an  art,  and  improvement  to  what  is 
gained  in  science  or  arts;  when  idle  people  set  out 
about  any  work,  it  is  difticult  to  perceive  that  they 
make  any  progress  in  it  from  time  to  time; 

Solon,  the  sage,  his  progress  never  ceas’d, 

Butstill  his  learning  with  his  days  increas’d. 

Denham. 

Those  who  have  a thorough  taste  for  either  musick  or 
drawing  will  make  a proficiency  in  it  which  is  astonish- 
ing to  those  who  are  unacquainted  with  the  circum- 
stances ; ‘ When  the  lad  was  about  nineteen,  his  uncle 
desired  to  see  him,  that  he  might  know  what  profi- 
ciency he  had  made.’ — Hawkesworth.  The  improve- 
ment of  the  mind  can  never  be  so  effectually  and  easily 
obtained  as  in  the  period  of  childhood ; ‘ The  metrical 
part  of  our  poetry,  in  the  time  of  Chaucer,  was  capable 
of  more  improvement.' — Tyrvyhitt. 

PROGRESS,  PROGRESSION,  ADVANCE, 
ADVANCEMENT. 

A forward  motion  is  designated  by  these  terms:  but 
progress  and  progression  simply  imply  this  sort  of 
motion ; advance  and  advancement  alsiaiinply  an  ap- 
pro.ximation  to  some  object:  we  may  niafe  a progress 
in  that  which  has  no  specifick  termination,  as  a pro- 
gress in  learning,  which  may  cease  only  with  life  ; ‘I 
wish  it  were  in  my  power  to  give  a regular  history  of 
iha' progress  which  our  ancestors  have  made  in  this 
species  of  versification.’ — Tyrwhitt.  The  advance 
is  only  made  to  some  limited  point  or  object  in  view  ; 
as  an  advance  in  wealth  or  honour,  which  may  find  a 
termination  within  the  life ; ‘ The  most  successful  stu- 
dents make  their  advances  in  knowledge  by  short  flights.’ 
-Johnson. 

Progress  and  advance  are  said  of  that  which  has 
been  passed  over;  but  progression  and  advancement 
may  be  said  of  that  which  one  is  passing ; the  progress 
is  made,  or  a person  is  in  advance ; he  is  in  the  act  of 
nrogression  or  advancement : a child  makes  a pro- 
foess  in  learning  by  daily  attention ; the  progression 
from  one  stage  of  learning  to  another  is  not  always  per- 
ceptible ; 

And  better  thence  again,  and  better  still, 

In  infinite  progression. — Thomson. 

It  is  not  always  possible  to  overtake  one  who  is  in  ad- 
vance; sometimes  a person’s  advancement  is  retarded 
by  circumstances  that  are  altogether  contingent ; ‘ I 
have  lived  to  see  the  fierce  advancement,  the  sudden 
turn,  and  the  abrupt  period,  of  three  or  four  enormous 
friendships.’ — Pope.  The  fiist  step  in  any  destructive 
course  still  prepares  for  the  second,  and  the  second  for 
he  third,  after  which  there  is  no  stop,  but  the  progress 
infinite. 


CORRECTION,  DISCIPLINE,  PUNISHMENT. 

As  correction  and  discipline  have  commonly  required 
punishment  to  render  them  efRcacious,  custom  has  af- 
fixed to  them  a strong  resemblance  in  their  application, 
although  they  are  distinguished  from  each  other  by  ob- 
vious iribrks  of  difference.  The  prominent  idea  in  cor- 
rection {v.  To  correct),  is  that  of  making  right  what  has 
been  wrong.  In  discipUn,:,  from  the  Latin  disciplhia  i 
and  disco  to  irarn,  the  leading  idea  is  that  of  instructing  I 
or  regt’  'ating  In  punishmmti  .from  the  Latin  punio,  I 


and  the  Greek  nuvrj  pain,  the  leading  idea  is  that  of  la 
flicting  pain. 

Children  are  the  peculiar  subjects  of  correction; 
discipline  and  punishment  are  confined  to  no  age.  A 
wise  parent  corrects  his  child  ; 

Wilt  thou,  pupil-like, 

Take  ihy  correction  mildly,  kiss  the  rod  1 

Shakspkark. 

A master  maintains  discipline  in  his  school;  a general 
preserves  discipline  in  his  army;  ‘The  imaginations 
of  young  men  are  of  a roving  nature,  and  their  passions 
under  no  discipline  or  restraint.’ — Addison.  Who- 
ever commits  a fault  is  liable  to  be  punished  by  those 
who  have  authority  over  him ; if  he  commits  a crime 
he  subjects  himself  to  be  punished  by  law. 

Correction  and  discipline  are  mostly  exercised  by 
means  of  chastisement,  for  which  they  are  often  em- 
ployed as  a substitute  ; punishment  is  inflicted  in  any 
way  that  gives  pain.  Correction  and  discipline  are  both 
of  them  personal  acts  of  authority  exercised  by  superi 
ours  over  inferiours,  but  the  former  is  mostly  employed 
by  oneindividual  overanother:  the  latter  has  regard  to 
a number  who  are  the  subjects  of  it  directly  or  indi- 
rectly : punishment  has  no  relation  whatever  to  the 
agent  by  which  the  action  is  performed  ; it  may  pro- 
ceed alike  from  persons  or  things.  A parent  who 
spares  the  due  correction  of  his  child,  or  a master  who 
does  not  use  a proper  discipline  in  his  school,  will  alike 
he  punished  by  the  insubordination  and  irregularities  ol 
those  over  whom  they  have  a control ; 

When  by  just  vengeance  impious  morhals  perish. 

The  gods  behold  their  punishment  with  pleasure 

Addisom 

TO  CHASTEN,  TO  CHASTISE. 

Chasten,  chastise,  both  come  through  the  Frencn 
chdtier,  from  the  Latin  castigo,  which  is  compounded 
of  castus  and  ago  to  make  pure. 

Chasten  has  most  regard  to  the  end,  chatise  to  the 
means;  the  former  is  an  act  of  the  Deity,  the  latter  s 
human  action:  God  chastens  his  faithful  people  tc 
cleanse  them  from  their  transgressions ; parents  chastis  . 
their  children  to  prevent  the  repetition  of  fauks:  afflic- 
tions are  the  means  which  the  Almighty  adopts  for 
chastening  those  whom  he  wishes  to  m ike  more  obe- 
dient to  his  will ; 

I follow  thee,  safe  guide!  the  path 

Thou  leadst  me;  and  to  the  hand  of  Heaven  submit, 

However  chastening. — Milton. 

Stripes  are  the  means  by  which  offenders  are  chastised; 
‘ Bad  characters  are  dispersed  abroad  with  profusion  ; I 
hope  for  example’s  sake,  and  (as  punishments  are  de- 
signed by  the  civil  power)  more  for  the  delivering  of  the 
innocent,  than  the  chastising  of  the  guilty.’ — Hughes. 
To  chasten  is  also  sometimes  taken  in  the  sense  ol 
making  chaste  by  a course  of  discipline,  either  moral, 
literary,  or  religious,  as  to  chasten  the  fancy,  or  to 
chasten  the  style  ; ‘ By  repairing  sometimes  to  the  house 
of  mourning,  you  would  chasten  the  looseness  of  fancy. 
— Blair. 


STRICT,  SEVERE. 

Strict,  from  strictus,  bound  or  confined,  characterizes 
the  thing  which  binds  or  keeps  in  control : severe  (v. 
Austere)  characterizes  in  the  proper  sense  the  disposi- 
tion of  the  person  to  inflict  pain,  and  in  an  extended 
application  the  thing  which  inflicts  pain.  The  term 
strict  is,  therefore,  taken  always  in  the  good  sense  ; se- 
vere is  good  or  bad,  according  to  circumstances : he  who 
has  authority  over  others  must  be  strict  in  enforcing 
obedience,  in  keeping  good  order,  and  a proper  attention 
to  their  duties;  but  it  is  possible  to  be  very  seuet-e  in 
punishing  those  who  are  under  us,  and  yet  very  lax  in 
all  matters  that  our  duty  demands  of  us  ; 

Lycurgus  then,  who  bow’d  beneath  the  force 
Of  strictest  discipline,  severely  wise, 

All  human  passions. — Thomson.  i 


FINE,  MULCT,  PENALl'Y,  FORFEITURE. 
Fine,  from  the  Latin  finis  tlie  end  or  purpose,  signifies, 
by  an  extended  application,  satisfaction  by  way  of 
amends  for  an  oflence;  mulct,  in  Latin  mulcta  cornea 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  205 


nom  mulgco  to  diaw  or  wipe,  because  an  offence  is 
wiped  oft' by  money;  penalty^\n  Latin  panalitus,  from 
fmna  a pain,  signifies  what  gives  pain  by  way  of  pun- 
ishment; forfeiture,  from  forfeit,  in  French  forfait, 
from  forfaire,  signifies  to  do  away  or  lose  by  doing 
wrong. 

The^ree  and  mulct  are  always  pecuniary;  a penalty 
may  be  pecuniary;  a forfeiture  applies  to  any  loss  of 
personal  property ; the  fine  and  mulct  are  imposed ; 
the  penalty  is  inflicted  or  incurred;  the  forfeiture  is 
incurred. 

The  violation  of  a rule  or  law  is  attended  with  a 
fine  or  mulct,  but  the  former  is  a term  of  general  use ; 
the  latter  is  rather  a technical  term  in  law : a criminal 
offence  incurs  a penalty : negligence  of  duty  occasions 
the  forfeiture. 

A fine  or  mulct  serves  either  as  punishment  to  the 
offender,  or  as  an  amends  for  the  offence  ; 

Too  dear  a fine,  ah  much  lamented  maid  ! 

For  warring  with  the  Trojans  thou  hast  paid. 

Dryden. 

For  to  prohibit  and  dispense. 

To  find  out  or  to  make  offence. 

To  set  what  characters  they  please. 

And  mulcts  on  sin,  or  godliness. 

Must  prove  a pretty  thriving  trade.— Butler. 

A penalty  always  inflicts  some  kind  of  pain  as  a 
punishment  on  the  offender ; ‘ It  must  be  confessed, 
that  as  for  the  laws  of  men,  gratitude  is  not  enjoined 
by  the  sanction  of  penalties.' — South.  A forfeiture 
is  attended  with  loss  as  a punishment  to  the  delin- 
quent; ‘The  Earl  of  Hereford,  being  tried  secundum 
leges  Normannorum,  could  only  be  punished  by  a for- 
feiture  of  his  inheritance.’ — Tyrwhitt.  ‘In  the 
Roman  law,  if  a lord  manumits  his  slave,  gross  in- 
gratitude in  the  person  so  made  free  forfeits  his  free- 
dom.’— South.  Among  the  Chinese,  all  offences  are 
punished  with  or  flogging;  the  Roman  Catholicks 
were  formerly  subject  to  penalties  if  detected  in  the 
performance  of  their  religious  worship:  societies  sub- 
ject their  membei's  to  forfeitures  for  the  violation  of 
fb«ir  laws. 


TO  BANISH,  EXILE,  EXPEL. 

Banish^  in  French  bannir,  German  bannen,  signi- 
fied to  put  out  of  a community  by  a ban  or  civil  inter- 
dict, which  was  formerly  either  ecclesiastical  or  civil; 
exile,  in  French  exiler,  from  the  Latin  exilium  banish- 
ment, and  exul  an  exile,  compounded  of  extra  and 
solum  the  soil,  signifies  to  put  away  from  one’s  native 
soil  or  country;  expel,  in  Latin  ex/jeZZo,  compounded 
of  ex  and  pello  to  drive,  signifies  to  drive  out. 

The  idea  of  exclusion,  or  of  a coercive  removal  from 
a place,  is  common  to  these  terms  ; banishment  in- 
cludes the  removal  from  any  place,  or  the  prohibition 
of  access  to  anyplace,  where  one  has  been,  or  whither 
one  is  in  the  habit  of  going;  exile  signifies  the  re- 
moval from  one’s  home  : to  exile,  therefore,  is  to 
banish,  but  to  banish,  is  not  always  to  exile:*  the 
Tarqu i ns  w’ere  6 anfsAecZ  from  Rome;  Coriolanus  was 
exiled. 

Banishment  foWows  from  a decree  of  justice;  exile 
either  by  the  necessity  of  circumstances  or  an  order  of 
authority:  banishment  is  a disgraceful  punishment  in- 
flicted by  tribunals  upon  delinquents;  exile  is  a dis- 
grace incurred  without  dishonour;  exile  removes  us 
from  our  country : banishment  L]rives  us  from  it  igno- 
miniously:  it  is  the  custom  in  Russia  to  banish  of- 
fenders to  Siberia;  Ovid  was  exiled  by  an  order  of 
Augustus. 

Banishment  is  an  action,  a compulsory  exercise  of 
power  over  another,  which  must  be  submitted  to ; 

O banishment  I Eternal  banishment! 

Ne’er  to  return ! Must  we  ne’er  meet  again  ! 

My  heart  will  break.— Otway. 

ExZZe  is  a state  into  which  we  may  go  voluntarily; 
many  Romans  chose  to  go  into  exile  rather  than  await 
the  judgement  of  the  people,  by  whom  they  might 
have  been  banished; 

* Vide  Roubaud ; “ Exiler,  bannir.” 


Arms,  and  the  man  I sing,  who  forc’d  by  fate, ' 

And  haughty  Juno’s  unrelenting  hate, 

Expell'd  and  exil'd,  left  the  Trojan  shore.— Drypen 
Banishment  and  expulsion  holh  mark  a disgraceful 
and  coercive  exclusion,  but  banishment  is  authorita 
tive;  it  is  a puhlick  act  of  government:  expulsion  ij 
simply  coercive , it  is  the  act  of  a private  individual,  oi 
a small  community;  ‘The  expulsion  and  escape  of 
Hippias  at  length  set  Athens  free.’— Cumberland 
Banishment  always  supposes  a removal  to  a distant 
spot,  to  another  land ; expulsion  never  reaches  beyond 
a particular  house  or  society : expulsion  from  the  uni 
versity,  or  any  publick  school,  is  the  necessary  conse- 
quence of  discovering  a refractory  temper,  or  a pro- 
pensity to  insubordination. 

Banishment  and  expulsion  are  likewise  U93d  in  a 
figurative  sense,  although  exile  is  not;  in  this  sense, 
banishment  marks  a distant  and  entire  removal;  expul- 
sion a violent  removal : we  banish  that  which  it  is  not 
prudent  to  retain;  we  expel  that  which  is  noxious. 
Slopes  are  banished  from  the  mind  when  every  prospect 
of  success  has  disappeared ; fears  are  banished  when 
tliey  are  altogether  groundless; 

If  sweet  content  is  banish'd  from  my  soul, 

Life  grows  a burden  and  a weight  of  wo. 

Gentleman. 

Envy,  hatred,  and  every  evil  passion,  should  be  ex 
pelled  from  the  mind  as  distuibers  of  its  peace:  har- 
mony and  good  humour  are  best  promoted  by  banish- 
ing from  conversation  all  subjects  of  difference  in  re- 
ligion and  politicks;  good  morals  require  that  every 
unseemly  word  should  be  expelled  from  conversation; 
‘In  alt  the  tottering  imbecility  of  a new  government, 
and  with  a parliament  totally  unmanageable,  his 
Majesty  (King  William  III.)  persevered.  He  perse- 
vered to  expel  the  fears  of  his  people  by  his  fortitude; 
to  steady  their  fickleness  by  his  constancy.’— Burke. 


PREVAILING,  PREVALENT,  RULING, 
OVERRULING,  PREDOMINANT. 
Prevailing  and  prevalent  both  come  from  the  Latin 
prevaleo  to  be  strong  above  others ; ruling,  overruling 
and  predominant  (from  dominor  to  rule),  signify  ruling 
or  bearing  greater  sway  than  others. 

Prevailing  expresses  the  actual  state  or  quality  of  a 
particular  object : prevalent  marks  the  quality  of  pre 
vailing,  as  it  aft'ects  objects  jn  general.  The  same 
distinction  exists  between  overruling  and  predomi- 
nant. A person  has  a prevailing  sense  of  religion ; 

‘ The  evils  naturally  consequent  upon  a prevailing 
temptation  are  intolerable.’— South.  Religious  feel- 
ing is  prevalent  in  a country  or  in  a community.  The 
prevailing  idea  at  present  is  in  favour  of  the  legitimate 
rights  of  sovereigns:  a contrary  principle  has  been 
very  prevalent  for  many  years ; ‘ The  conduct  of  a 
peculiar  providence  made  the  instruments  ot  that  great 
design  prevalent  and  victorious,  and  all  those  moun 
tains  of  opposition  to  become  plains.’— South.  Pre- 
vailing and  prevalent  mark  simply  the  existing  state 
of  superiority ; ruling  and  predominant  express  this 
state,  in  relation  to  some  ether  which  it  has  superseded 
or  reduced  to  a state  of  inferiority.  An  opinion  is 
said  to  be  prevailing  as  respects  the  number  of  persons 
by  whom  it  is  maintained : a principle  is  said  to  be 
rilling  as  respects  the  superiour  influence  which  it  has 
over  the  conduct  of  men  more  than  any  other  ; 
Whate’er  thou  shalt  ordain,  thou  ruling  pow’r, 
Unknown  and  sudden  be  the  dreadful  hour. 

Rowe. 

An  argument  is  overruling  that  bears  down  every 
other,  and  Providence  is  said  to  be  overruling  when  it 
determines  things  contrary  to  the  natural  course  of 
events;  ‘Nor  can  a man  independently  of  the  over 
ruling  influence  of  God’s  blessins  and  care,  call  him 
self  one  penny  richer.’— South.  Particular  disorders 
are  prevalent  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  when  they 
affect  the  generality  of  persons : a particular  taste  or 
fashion  is  predominant  which  supersedes  ah- other 
tastes  or  fashions.  Excessive  drinking  is  too  prevalent 
a practice  in  England : virtue  is  certainly  predominant 
over  vice  in  this  country,  if  it  be  in  any  country; 
‘ The  doctrine  of  not  owning  a foreigner  to  be  a king 
was  held  and  taught  by  the  Pharisees,  a predominani 
sect  of  the  Jews.’— Pridkaux. 


90b 


ENGLISH  SYNONYM ES. 


TO  OVERBALANCE,  OUTWEIGH, 
PREPONDERATE. 

To  overbalance  is  to  throw  the  balance  over  on  one 
side’,  to  outweigh  is  to  exceed  in  weight;  to  prepon- 
derate, fi\jm  prw  before,  and  pondus  a weight,  signifies 
also  to  exceed  in  weight 

Although  these  terms  approach  so  near  to  each  other 
In  their  original  meaning,  yet  they  have  now  a different 
application  : in  the  proper  sense,  a person  overbalances 
himself  who  loses  his  balance  and  goes  on  one  side ; a 
heavy  body  outweighs  one  that  is  light,  when  they  are 
put  into  the  same  pair  of  scales.  Overbalance  and 
ouitceigh  are  likewise  used  in  the  improper  appfica- 
ticn ; preponderate  is  never  used  otherwise : things  are 
said  to  overbalance  which  are  supposed  to  turn  the 
scale  to  one  side  or  the  other ; they  are  said  to  out- 
weigh when  they  are  to  be  weighed  against  each  other ; 
they  are  sa!o  to  preponderate  whon  one  weighs  every 
thing  else  nown : the  evils  which  arise  from  inno- 
vations in  society  commonly  overbalance  the  good ; 

‘ Whatever  any  man  may  have  written  or  done,  hi^ 
precepts  or  his  vaour  will  scarcely  overbalance  the 
unimportant  unifoimity  which  runs  through  his  time.’ 
— JoHNSo.v.  The  will  of  a parent  should  outweigh 
every  personal  consideration  in  the  mind  of  a child; 

If  endless  ages  can  outweigh  an  hour. 

Let  not  the  laurel  but  the  palm  inspire. — Young. 
Children  can  never  be  unmindful  of  their  duty  to  their 
parents  where  the  power  of  religion  preponder  ales  in 
the  heart;  ‘Looks  which  do  not  correspond  with  the 
heart  cannot  be  assumed  without  labour,  nor  continued 
without  pain ; the  motive  to  relinquish  them  must, 
therefore,  soon  preponderate' — Hawkeswof.th. 


TO  OVERRULE,  SUPERSEDE. 

To  overrule  is  literally  to  get  the  superiority  of  rule; 
and  to  supersede  is  to  get  the  upper  or  superiour  seat ; 
but  the  former  is  employed  only  as  the  act  of  persons 
or  things  personified  ; the  latter  is  also  applied  to  things 
as  the  agents:  a man  maybe  overruled  in  his  do- 
inestick  government,  or  he  may  be  overruled  in  a 
publick  assembly,  or  he  may  be  overruled  in  the 
cabinet ; ‘ When  fancy  begins  to  be  overruled  by  rea- 
son, and  corrected  by  experience,  the  most  artful  tale 
raises  but  little  curiosity.’ — Johnson.  Large  works  in 
general  supersede  the  necessity  of  smaller  ones,  by 
containing  that  which  is  superiour  both  in  quantity  and 
quality;  cr  one  person  supersedes  another  in  an  office; 

Christoval  received  a commission  empowering  him  to 
supersede  Cortes.’ — Robertson. 

CHIEF,  CHIEFTAIN,  LEADER,  HEAD. 

Chief  and  chieftain  signify  he  who  is  chief;  leader, 
from  to  lead,  and  head,  from  the  head,  sufficiently 
designate  their  own  signification. 

C/trV/ respects  precedency  in  civil  matters;  leader 
regards  the  direction  of  enterprises:  chieftain  is  em- 
ployed for  the  superiour  in  military  rank  : and  head  for 
the  superiour  in  general  concerns. 

Among  savages  the  chief  of  every  tribe  is  a despotick 
prince  within  his  own  district.  Factions  and  parties 
in  a state,  like  savase  tribes,  must  have  their  leaders, 
to  whom  they  are  blindly  devoted,  and  by  whom  they 
are  instigated  to  every  desperate  proceeding.  Rob- 
bers have  their  chieftains,  who  plan  and  direct  every 
thing,  having  an  unlimited  power  over  the  band. 
The  heads  of  families  were,  in  the  primitive  ages,  the 
chiefs,  who  In  conjunction  regulated  the  affairs  of 
state. 

Chiefs  have  a permanent  power,  which  may  descend 
by  inheritance  to  branches  of  the  same  families; 

No  chief  like  thee,  Menestheus,  Greece  could  yield. 

To  marshal  armies  in  the  dusty  field.—PoPE. 

Leaders  and  chieftains  have  a deputed  power  with 
which  they  are  invested,  as  the  time  and  occasion 
require;  ‘Their  constant  emulation  in  military  re- 
nown dissolved  not  that  inviolable  friendship  which 
the  ancient  Saxons  professed  to  their  chieftain  and  to 
each  ether.’— Hume.  ‘ Savage  alleged  that  he  was 
then  dependent  np.yn  the  Lord  Tyrconnel,  who  was 
an  implicit  follower  ff  the  ministry;  and,  being  en- 
joined by  him,  lo  without  menaces,  to  write  in  praise 
nf  his  leader,  he  had  not  sufficient  resolution  to  sacri- 


fice the  pleasure  of  affluence  to  that  of  integrity. 
Johnson.  Heads  have  a natural  power  springing  out 
of  the  nature  of  their  birth,  rank,  talents,  and  situa- 
tion ; it  is  not  hereditary,  but  it  may  be  successive,  .as 
the  father  is  the  head  of  his  family,  and  may  be  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  ; a head  is  also  sometimes  temporary 
and  partial,  ns  the  head  of  a party ; ‘ As  each  is 
more  able  to  distinguish  himself  as  iha  head  of  a patty, 
he  will  less  readily  be  made  a follower  or  associate.’ — 
Johnson. 

Chiefs  ought  to  have  superiority  of  birth  CGimbined 
with  talents  for  ruling;  leaders  and  chieftains  require 
a bold  and  enterprising  spirit ; heads  should  have  talent! 
for  directing. 


CHIEF,  PRINCIPAL,  MAIN. 

Chief,  in  French  chef,  from  the  Latin  caput  the  head, 
signifies  belonging  to  the  uppermost  part;  principal, 
in  French  principal,  Latin  principalis,  comes  from 
princeps  a chief  or  prince,  signifying  belonging  to  a 
prince;  main,  from  the  Latin  magnus,  signifies  in  a 
great  degree. 

Chief  respects  order  and  rank;  principal  has  regard 
to  importance  and  respectability;  main  to  degree  or 
quantity.  We  speak  of  a chief  clerk ; a commander 
in  chief : the  chief  person  in  a city:  but  the  principal 
people  in  a city  ; the  principal  circumstances  in  a nar 
rative,  and  the  main  object. 

The  chief  cities,  as  mentioned  by  geographers,  are 
those  which  are  classed  in  the  first  rank ; 

What  is  man, 

If  his  chief  good  and  market  of  his  time 
Be  but  to  sleep  and  feed  1 A beast,  no  more ! 

Shakspeare 

The  principal  cities  generally  include  those  which 
are  the  most  considerable  for  wealth  and  population 
these,  however,  are  not  always  technically  compre- 
hended under  the  name  of  chief  cities;  ‘The  right 
which  one  man  has  to  the  actions  of  another  is  gene- 
rally borrowed,  or  derived  from  one  or  both  of  these 
two  great  originals,  production  or  possession,  which  two 
are  certainly  the  principal  and  most  undoubted  rights 
that  take  place  in  the  world.’ — South.  The  main  end 
of  man’s  exertions  is  the  acquirement  of  wealth  ; ‘To 
the  accidental  or  adventitious  parts  of  Paradise  Lost, 
some  slight  exceptions  may  be  made ; but  the  main 
fabrick  is  immoveably  supported.’ — Johnson. 


ESPECIALLY,  PARTICULARLY,  PRINCI- 
PALLY, CHIEFLY. 

Especially  and  particularly  are  exclusive  or  super 
lative  in  their  import ; they  refer  to  one  object  out  ol 
many  that  is  superiour  to  all:  principally  and  chiefly 
are  comparative  in  their  import;  they  designate  in 
general  the  superiority  of  some  objects  over  othens 
Especially  is  a term  of  stronger  import  than  particu- 
larly, and  principally  expresses  something  .ess  gene- 
ral than  chiefly  : we  ought  to  have  God  oefore  our 
eyes  at  all  times,  but  especially  in  thosr.  moments 
when  we  present  ourselves  before  him  in  prayer  ; ‘ All 
love  has  something  of  blindness  in  it,  but  the  love  of 
money  especially.'— Qoinn.  The  Ireat  is  very  op 
pressive  in  all  countries  under  tne  torrid  zone,  but 
particularly 'm  the  deserts  of  Arabia,  where  there  is 
a want  of  shade  and  moisture ; ‘ Particularly  let  a 
man  dread  every  gross  act  of  sin.’ — South.  It  prin- 
cipally among  the  higher  and  lower  orders  of  society 
that  we  find  vices  of  every  description  to  be  prevalent; 
‘Neither  Pythagoras  nor  any  of  his  disciples  were, 
properly  speaking,  practitioners  of  physick,  since  they 
applied  themselves  prmciTraWy  to  the  theory.’ — James 
Patriots  who  declaim  so  loudly  against  the  measures 
of  government  do  it  chiefly  (may  I not  say  solely?' 
with  a view  to  their  own  interest;  ‘The  reformer? 
gained  credit  chiefly  among  persons  in  the  lower  and 
middle  classes.’ — Robertson. 


TO  GOVERN,  RULE,  REGULATE. 
Govern,  in  French  gouverner,  comes  from  tht 
Latin  guberno,  Greek  Kv/Sepidu),  which  properly  sig 
nify  to  govern  a ship,  and  are  in  all  probability  deriv^ 
from  the  Hebrew  *^3;!  to  prevail  or  1/e  Vtong:  ruu 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMEs.  20 


and  regulate  signify  to  bring  under  a rwZe,  or  make 
by  rule. 

Tlie  exercise  of  authority  enters  more  or  less  into  the 
signification  of  these  terms  ; but  .o  govern  implies  the 
exercise  likewise  of  judgement  and  knowledge. 

To  rule  implies  rather  the  unqualified  exercise  of 
power,  the  making  the  will  the  rule;  a king  governs 
his  people  by  means  of  wise  laws  and  an  upright  ad- 
ministration : a despot  rules  over  a nation  according 
to  his  arbitrary  decision ; if  he  have  no  principle  his 
rule  becomes  an  oppressive  tyranny : of  Robespierre 
it  has  been  said,  that  if  lie  did  not  know  how  to  govern, 
he  aimed  at  least  at  ruling. 

TJiese  terms  are  applied  either  to  persons  or  things: 
persons  govern  or  rule  others ; or  they  govern,  rule,  or 
regulate  things. 

In  regard  to  persons,  govern  is  always  in  a good 
sense,  but  rule  is  sometimes  taken  in  a bad  sense ; it 
is  naturally  associated  with  an  abuse  of  power:  to 
govern  is  so  perfectly  discretionary,  that  we  speak  of 
governing  ourselves ; but  we  speak  only  of  ruling 
others:  nothing  can  be  more  lamentable  than  to  be 
ruled  by  one  who  does  not  know  how  to  govern  him- 
self ; 

Slaves  to  our  passions  we  become,  and  then 
It  becomes  impossible  to  governmen. — Waller. 

It  is  the  business  of  a man  to  rule  his  house  by  keeping 
all  its  members  in  due  subjection  to  his  authority ; it  is 
the  duty  of  a person  to  rule  those  who  are  under  him 
in  all  matters  wherein  they  are  incompetent  to  govern 
themselves ; 

Marg’ret  shall  now  be  queen,  and  rule  the  king. 
But  I will  rule  both  her,  the  king,  and  realm. 

Shakspeare. 

To  govern,  necessarily  supposes  the  adoption  of  ju- 
dicious means;  but  ruling  is  confined  to  no  means  but 
such  as  will  obtain  the  >ud  of  subjecting  the  will  of 
one  to  that  of  another ; a woman  is  said  to  rule  by 
obeying;  an  artful  and  imperious  woman  will  have 
recourse  to  various  stratagems  to  elude  the  power  to 
w'hich  she  ought  to  submit,  and  render  it  subservient  to 
her  own  purposes. 

In  application  to  things,  govern  and  rxile  admit  of 
a similar  distinction  : a minister  governs  the  state,  and 
a pilot  governs  the  vessel ; the  movements  of  the  ma- 
chine are  in  both  cases  directed  by  the  exercise  of  the 
judgement ; 

Whence  can  this  very  motion  take  its  birth. 

Not  sure  from  matter,  from  dull  clods  of  earth? 

But  from  a living  spirit  lodg’d  within. 

Which  governs  all  the  bodily  machine. — Jenvns. 

A person  rules  the  times,  seasons,  fashions,  and  the 
like ; it  is  an  act  of  the  individual  will ; 

When  I behold  a factious  band  agree. 

To  call  it  freedom  when  themselves  are  free; 

Each  wanton  judge  new  penal  statutes  dratv ’; 

Laws  grind  the  poor,  and  rich  men  rule  the  law  ; 

I fly  from  petty  tyrants  to  the  throne.— Goldsmith. 

Regulate  is  a species  of  governing  simply  by  judge- 
nent ; the  word  is  applicable  to  things  of  minor  mo- 
ment, vvhere  the  force  of  authority  is  not  so  requisite  : 
one  governs  the  affairs  of  a nation,  or  a large  body 
where  great  interests  are  involved ; we  regulate  the 
concerns  of  an  individual,  or  we  regulate  in  cases 
where  good  order  or  convenience  only  is  consulted  ; 
Regulate  the  patient  in  his  manner  of  living.’ — Wise- 
man. So  likewise  in  regard  to  ourselves,  we  govern 
our  passions,  but  we  regulate  our  affections. 

These  terms  are  all  properly  used  to  denote  the  acts 
of  conscious  ageiits,  but  by  a figure  of  personification 
they  may  be  applied  to  inanimate  or  moral  objects:  the 
price  of  one  market  governs,W\e  price  of  another,  or 
governs  the  seller  in  his  demand;  ‘The  chief  point 
which  he  is  to  carry  always  in  his  eye,  and  by  which 
he  is  to  govern  all  his  counsels,  designs,  and  actions.’ 
— Atterburv.  Fashion  and  caprice  rule  the  majority, 
or  particular  fashions  rule ; 

Distracting  thoughts  by  turns  his  bosom  rul'd, 

Now  fir’d  by  wrath,  and  now  by  reason  cool’d. 

Pope. 

One  clock  may  regulate  many  others;  ‘Though  a 
•enso  of  moral  gooti  and  ev  il  be  deeply  impressed  on 


the  heart  of  man,  it  is  not  of  sufficient  power  to  reg% 
late  his  life.’ — Blair. 


GOVERNMENT,  ADMINISTRATION. 

Both  these  terms  may  be  employed  either  to  desig 
nate  the  act  of  governing  and  administering,  or  the 
persons  governing  and  administering.  In  both  cases 
government  has  a more  extensive  meaning  than  admi- 
nistration : the  government  includes  every  exercise  of 
authority ; the  administration  implies  only  that  exer 
else  of  authority,  which  consists  in  putting  the  laws 
or  will  of  another  in  force  : hence,  when  we  speak  of 
the  government,  as  it  respects  the  persons,  it  implies 
the  whole  body  of  constituted  authorities;  and  the 
administration,  only  that  part  which  puts  in  execu- 
tion the  intentions  of  the  whole  : the  government  of  a 
country,  therefore,  may  remain  unaltered,  while  the 
administration  undergoes  many  changes;  '•Govern 
ment  is  an  art  above  the  attainment  of  an  ordinary 
genius.’ — South.  It  is  the  business  of  the  government 
to  make  treaties  of  peace  and  war;  and  without  a go- 
vernment it  is  impossible  for  any  people  to  negociate; 
‘What  are  we  to  do  if  the  government  and  the  whole 
community  are  of  the  same  description?’ — Burke. 
It  is  the  business  of  the  administration  to  administer 
justice,  to  regulate  the  finances,  and  to  direct  all  the 
complicated  concerns  of  a nation ; withon.t  an  admi- 
nistration all  piiblick  business  would  be  at  a stand; 
‘ In  treating  of  an  invisible  world,  and  the  adminis- 
tration of  government  there  carried  on  by  the  Father 
of  spirits,  particulars  oequr  which  appear  incompre 
hensible.’ — Blair. 


GOVERNMENT,  CONSTITUTION. 

Government  is  here  as  in  the  former  article  {v.  Go 
vernment)  the  generick  term  ; constitution  thespecifick. 
Government  implies  generally  the  act  of  governing  or 
exercising  authority  under  any  form  whatever;  con- 
stitution implies  any  constituted  or  fixed  form  of 
government:  we  may  have  a government  without  a 
constitution;  we  cannot  have  a constitution  witlioui 
a government.  In  the  first  formation  of  society  go 
vernment  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  individuals  who 
exercised  authority  according  to  discretion  rather  than 
any  fixed  rule  or  law:  here  then  was  governmevJ. 
without  a constitution  : as  time  and  experience  prove«3 
the  necessity  of  some  established  form,  and  the  wisdom 
of  enlightened  men  discovered  the  advantages  and 
disadvantages  of  different  forms,  government  in  every 
country  assumed  a more  definite  shape,  and  became 
the  constitution  of  the  country ; hence  then  the  union 
of  government  and  constitution.  Governments  are 
divided  by  political  writers  info  three  classes,  monar- 
chical, aristocratick,  and  republican  : but  these  three 
general  forms  have  been  adopted  with  such  variations 
and  modifications  as  to  render  the  constitution  of  every 
country  something  peculiar  to  itself;  ‘Free  govern- 
ments have  committed  more  flagrant  acts  of  tyranny 
than  the  most  perfect  despotick  governments  which  we 
have  ever  known.’ — Burke.  ‘ The  physician  of  the 
state  who,  not  satisfied  with  the  cure  of  distempers, 
undertakes  to  regenerate  constitutions,  ought  to  show 
uncommon  powers.’ — Burke. 

Political  squabblers  have  alvv'ays  chosen  to  consider 
government  in  its  limited  sense  as  including  only  the 
supreme  or  executive  authority,  and  the  constitution 
as  that  vyhich  is  set  up  by  the  authority  of  the  people 
but  this  is  only  a forced  application  of  a general  term 
to  serve  the  putposesof  party.  Constitution,  aecotA 
ing  to  its  real  signification,  does  not  convey  the  idea 
of  the  source  of  power  any  more  than  government] 
the  constitution  may  with  as  much  propriety  be  formed 
or  constituted  by  the  monarch  as  government  is  exer 
cised  by  the  monarch  ; and  of  this  we  may  be  assured, 
that  what  is  to  be  formed  specifically  by  any  person  oi 
persons  so  as  to  become  constituted  must  be  framed  by 
something  more  authoritative  than  a rabble.  The 
constitution  may,  as  I have  before  observed,  be  the 
work  of  time,  for  most  of  the  constitutions  in  Europe, 
whether  republican  or  monarchical,  are  indebted  to 
time  and  the  natural  course  of  events  for  their  esta- 
blishment ; but  in  our  own  country  the  case  has  been 
so  far  different  that  by  the  wisdom  and  humanity  of 
those  in  government  or  power,  a constitution  has  been 
express’y  Ibrrned,  which  distiuguishes  the  English 


2U8 


ENGLISH  SYN0NYME3. 


nation  from  all  others  Hence  tlie  word  constitution  is 
applied  by  distinction  to  the  English  form  of  govern- 
vient ; and  since  this  constitution  has  happily  secured 
the  rights  and  liberties  of  the  people  by  salutary  Jaws, 
n vulgar  errour  has  arisen  that  the  constitution  is  the 
work  of  the  people,  and  by  a natural  consequence  it  is 
maintained  that  the  people,  if  they  are  not  satisfied 
with  their  constitution,  have  tlie  right  of  introducing 
changes ; a dangerous  errour  which  cannot  be  com- 
bated with  too  much  steadfastness.  It  must  be  obvious 
to  all  who  reflect  on  this  subject  that  the  constitution, 
as  far  as  it  is  assignable  to  the  efforts  of  any  man  or 
set  of  men,  was  never  the  work  of  the  people ; but 
of  the  government  or  those  who  held  the  supreme 
power. 

This  view  of  the  matter  is  calculated  to  lessen  the 
jealousies  of  the  people  towards  their  government,  and 
to  abate  that  overweening  complacency  w'ith  which 
they  are  apt  to  look  upon  themselves,  and  their  own 
imaginary  w'ork;  for  it  is  impossible  but  that  they 
must  regard  with  a more  dispassionate  eye  the  pos- 
sesosrs  of  power,  when  they  see  themselves  indebted  to 
those  in  power  for  the  most  admirable  constitution 
ever  framed. 

The  constitution  is  in  danger,  is  the  watchword  of 
a party  who  want  to  increase  the  power  of  the  people; 
but  every  one  who  is  acquainted  with  history,  and  re- 
members that  before  the  constitution  was  fully  formed 
it  was  the  people  who  overturned  the  government,  will 
perceive  that  much  more  is  to  be  apprehended  by 
throwing  any  w'eiglit  into  the  scale  of  the  popular  side 
of  government,  than  by  strengthening  the  hands  of  the 
executive  government.  The  constitution  of  England 
has  arrived  at  the  acme  of  human  perfection ; it  en- 
sures to  every  man  as  much  os  he  can  wish  ; it  de- 
prives no  man  of  what  he  can  consistently  with  the 
publick  peace  expect;  it  has  within  itself  adequate 
powers  for  correcting  every  evil  and  abuse  as  it  may 
arise,  and  is  fully  competent  to  make  such  modifica- 
tions of  its  own  powers  as  the  circumstances  may  re- 
quire. Every  good  citizen  therefore  will  be  contented 
to  leave  the  government  of  the  country  in  the  hands 
of  those  constituted  authorities  as  they  at  present  exist, 
tully  assured  that  if  they  have  not  the  wisdom  and 
the  power  to  meet  every  exigency,  the  evil  will  not  be 
diminished  by  making  the  people  our  legislators. 


UNRULY,  UNGOVERNABLE,  REFRACTORY. 

Unruly  marks  the  want  of  disposition  to  be  ruled : 
ungovernable,  an  absolute  incapacity  to  be  governed: 
the  former  is  a temporary  or  partial  errour,  the  latter 
is  an  habitual  defect  in  the  temper : a volatile  child 
will  be  Cicoasionally  unruly  ; any  child  of  strong  pas- 
sions will  become  ungovernable  by  excessive  indul- 
gence ; we  say  that  our  wills  are  unruly,  and  our 
tempers  are  ungovernable ; ‘ How  hardly  is  the  restive 
unruly  will  of  man  first  tamed  and  broke  to  duty.’ — 
South. 

Heav’ns,  how  unlike  their  Belgic  sires  of  old; 

Rough,  poor,  content,  ungovernably  bold. 

Goldsmith. 

The  unruly  respects  that  which  is  to  be  ruled  or  turned 
at  the  hisfant,  and  is  applicable  therefore  to  the  ma- 
nagement of  children : ungovernable  respects  that 
which  is  to  be  put  into  a regular  course,  and  is  appli- 
cable therefore  either  to  the  management  of  children 
or  the  direction  of  those  who  are  above  the  state  of 
childhood;  a child  is  MaraZy  in  his  actions,  and  ungo- 
vernable in  his  conduct.  Refractory,  which  from  the 
Latin  refringo  to  break  open,  marks  the  disposition  to 
break  every  thing  down  before  it,  is  the  excess  of  the 
unruly  with  regard  to  children : the  unruly  is  however 
negative ; but  the  refractory  is  positive : an  unruly 
child  objects  to  be  ruled  , a refractory  child  sets  up  a 
positive  resistance  to  all  rule  : an  unruly  child  may  be 
altogether  silent  and  passive  ; arefractory  ehWA  always 
cominits  hs.mself  by  some  actof  intemperance  in  word 
or  deed  : he  is  unruly  if  in  any  degree  he  gives  trouble 
in  the  ruling ; he  is  refractory  if  he  refuses  altoge- 
ther to  be  ruled.  This  term  refractory  may  also  be 
applied  to  the  brutes;  ‘ I conceive  (replied  Nicholas) 
I stand  here  before  you,  my  most  equitable  judges,  for 
DO  worse  a crime  than  c udgelling  my  refractory  mules. 

Cumberland. 


TIMULTUOUS,  TLRBULENl,  SEDITIOUS 
MUTINOUS. 

Tumultuous  describes  the  disposition  to  make  a 
noise  ; those  who  attend  the  play-houses,  particularly 
the  lower  orders,  are  frequently  tumultuous  ; ‘ Many 
civil  broils  and  tumultuous  rebellions,  they  fairly  over- 
came, by  reason  of  the  continual  jrresence  of  their 
king,  whose  only  presence  oftentimes  constrains  the 
unruly  people  from  a thousand  evil  occasions.’ — 
Spenser  yon  Ireland).  Turbulent  marks  a hostile 
spirit  of  resistance  to  authority ; when  prisoners  are 
dissatisfied  they  are  frequently  turbulent;  ‘ Men  of 
ambitious  and  turbulent  spirits,  that  were  dissatisfied 
with  privacy,  were  allowed  to  engage  in  matters  of 
state.’ — Bentley.  Seditious  marks  a spirit  of  resist 
ance  to  government;  during  the  French  revolution  the 
people  were  often  disposed  to  be  seditious ; ‘ Very 
many  of  the  nobility  in  Edinburgh,  at  that  time,  did 
not  appear  yet  in  this  seditious  behaviour.’— Claren- 
don.— Mutinous  marks  a spirit  of  resistance  against 
officers  either  in  the  army  or  navy  ; a general  will  not 
fail  d)  quell  the  first  risings  of  a mutinous  spirit ; 

Lend  me  your  guards,  that  if  persuasion  fail, 

Force  may  against  the  mutinous  prevail.  —Waller 
Electioneering  mobs  are  always  tumultuous ; the 
young  and  the  ignorant  are  so  averse  to  control  that 
they  are  easily  led  by  the  example  of  an  itidividual  to 
be  turbulent ; among  the  Romans  the  people  were  in 
the  habit  of  holding  seditious  meetings,  and  some 
times  the  soldiery  would  be  mutinous. 

TUMULTUOUS,  TUMULTUARY 
Tumultuous  signifies  having  tumult;  tumultuary 
disposed  for  tumult:  the  former  is  applied  to  object, 
in  general ; the  latter  to  persons  only:  in  tumultuous 
meetings  the  voice  of  reason  is  the  last  thing  that  it 
heard ; 

But,  O ! beyond  description  happiest  he 
Who  ne’er  must  roll  on  life’s  Uimultuous  sea 

Prior 

It  is  the  natural  tendency  of  laige  and  promiscuous 
assemblies  to  become  tumultuary;  ‘With  tumul- 
tuary, but  irresistible  violence,  the  Scotch  insurgents 
fell  upon  the  churches  in  that  city  (Perth).’ — Robert- 
son. 


INSURRECTION,  SEDITION  lEBELLION, 
REVOLT. 

Insurrection,  from  surgo  to  rise  up,  signifies  rising 
up . gainst  any  power  that  is ; sedition,  in  Latin  seditio 
compound’d  of  se  and  itio,  signifies  a going  apart,  that 
is,  the  people  going  apart  from  the  government;  rebel- 
lion, in  Latin  rebcllio,  from  rcbcllo,  signifies  turning 
upon  or  against  in  a hostile  manner ; revolt,  in  French 
revoltcr,  is  most  probably  compounded  of  re  and  volter, 
from  Volvo  to  roll,  signifying  to  roll  or  turn  back  from, 
to  turn  against. 

The  term  insurrection  is  general ; it  is  used  in  a 
good  or  bad  sense,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
power  against  which  one  rises  up ; sedition  and  re- 
bellion are  more  specifick ; they  are  always  taken  in  the 
bad  sense  of  unallowed  opposition  to  lawful  authority 
There  may  be  an  insurrection  against  usurped  power 
which  is  always  justifiable  ; but  sedition  and  rebellion 
are  levelled  against  power  universally  acknowledged 
to  be  legitimate.  Insurrection  is  always  oiieii ; it  is  a 
rising  up  of  many  in  a mass ; but  it  does  not  imply 
any  concerted,  or  any  specifically  active  measure;  a 
united  spirit  of  opposition,  as  the  moving  cause,  is  all 
that  is  comprehended  in  the  meaning  of  the  term  ; 
‘ Elizabeth  enjoyed  a w'onderful  calm  (excepting  some 
short  gusts  of  insurrection  at  the  beginning)  for  near 
upon  forty-five  years  together.’— Howell.  SeditLn  in 
either  secret  or  open,  according  to  circumstances,  iu 
popular  governments  it  will  be  open  and  determined, 
in  monarchical  governments  it  is  secretly  organized  ; 
‘ When  the  Roman  people  began  to  bring  in  plebeians 
to  the  office  of  chiefest  pow'er  and  dignity,  then  began 
those  seditions  which  so  long  distempered,  and  at, 
length  ruined,  the  state.’— Temple.  Rebellion  is  thc 
consummation  of  sedition ; the  scheme  of  opposition 
which  has  been  digested  in  secrecy  b-eaks  out  in'x 
open  hostilities,  and  becomes  rebellion  ■ 


ENGLISH  SraONYMES 


209 


If  that  rebellion 
Came  like  itself,  in  base  and  abject  routs, 

You  reverend  father,  and  these  noble  lords, 

Had  not  been  here  to  dress  the  ugly  forms 
Of  base  and  bloody  insurrection. — Shakspeare. 
file  insurrection  which  was  headed  by  Wat  Tyler,  in 
ihe  time  of  Richard  If.  was  an  unhappy  instance  of 
widely  extended  delusion  among  the  common  people  ; 
the  insurrection  in  Madrid,  in  the  year  1808.  against 
the  infamous  usurpation  of  Buonaparte,  has  led  to  the 
most  important  results  that  ever  sprung  from  any  com- 
motion. Rome  was  the  grand  theatre  of  seditions, 
which  were  set  on  foot  by  the  Tribunes  ; England  has 
been  disgraced  by  one  rebellion,  which  ended  in  the 
death  of  its  king. 

Sedition  is  common  to  all  forms  of  government,  but 
flourishes  most  in  republicks,  since  there  it  can  scarcely 
be  regarded  as  a political  or  moral  offence : rebellion 
exists  properly  in  none  but  monarchical  stales ; in 
which  the  allegiance  that  men  owe  to  their  sovereign 
requires  to  be  broken  with  the  utmost  violence,  in  order 
to  be  shaken  off.  Insurrections  may  be  made  by  nations 
against  a foreign  dominion,  or  by  subjects  against  their 
government ; sedition  and  rebellion  are  carried  on  by 
subjects  . only  against  their  government : is  car- 

ried on  only  by  nations  against  a foreign  dominion ; 
upon  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great  most  of  his 
conquered  countries  revolted  from  his  successors; 
‘ He  was  greatly  strengthened,  and  the  enemy  as  much 
enfeebled  by  daily  revolts.' — Raleigh. 

Revolt  is  also  applied  to  moral  objects  in  the  same 
sense;  ‘Our  self-love  is  ever  ready  to  revolt  from 
our  better  judgement,  and  join  the  enemy  within.’ — 
Steele. 


FACTION,  PARTY 

These  two  words  equally  suppose  the  union  of 
many  persons,  and  their  opposition  to  certain  views 
different  from  their  own.  But  faction,  from  factio 
making,  denotes  an  activity  and  secret  machination 
against  those  whose  views  are  opposed ; and  party, 
from  the  verb  to  part  or  split,  expresses  only  a division 
of  opinion. 

The  term  party  has  of  itself  nothing  odious,  that 
of  faction  is  always  so.  Any  man,  without  distinction 
of  rank,  may  have  a party  either  at  court  or  in  the 
army,  in  the  city  or  in  literature,  without  being  himself 
immediately  implicated  in  raising  it;  but /actryws  are 
always  the  result  of  active  efforts ; one  m^v  have  a 
party  for  one’s  merit  from  the  number  and  ardour  of 
one’s  friends;  but  a faction  is  raised  by  busy  and  tur- 
bulent spirits  for  their  own  purposes.  Rome  was  torn  i 
by  the  hitestine  factions  of  Cssar  and  Pompey ; 
France,  from  the  commencement  of  the  revolution  to 
the  period  of  Buonaparte’s  usurpation,  was  succes- 
sively governed  by  some  ruling  faction  which  raised 
itself  upon  the  ruins  pf  that  which  it  had  destroyed. 
Factions  are  not  so  prevalent  in  England  as  parties, 
owing  to  the  peculiar  excellence  of  the  constitution  ; 
but  there  are  not  wanting /act/ows  spirits  who,  if  they 
could  overturn  the  present  balance  of  power  which 
has  been  so  happily  obtained,  would  have  an  opportu- 
nity of  practising  their  arts  alternately  on  the  high  and 
low,  and  carrying  on  their  schemes  by  the  aid  of  both. 
Faction  is  the  demon  of  discord,  armed  with  the  power 
to  do  endless  mischief,  and  intent  alone  on  destroying 
whatever  ojiposes  its  progress.  Wo  to  that  state  into 
which  it  has  found  an  entrance  ; ‘ It  is  the  restless  am- 
bition of  a few  artful  men  that  thus  breaks  a people 
into /actions,  and  draws  several  w'ell-meaning  persons 
to  their  interest  by  a specious  concern  for  their  coun- 
try.’— Addison.  Party  spirit  may  show  itself  in  noisy 
debate , but  while  it  keeps  w/ithin  the  legitimate  bounds 
of  opf)osition,  it  is  an  evil  that  must  be  endured  ; ‘ As 
men  formerly  became  eminent  in  learned  societies  by 
their  parts  and  acquisitions,  they  now  distinguish 
themselves  by  the  warmth  and  violence  with  which 
they  espouse  their  respective  ^a?-tics.’ — Addison. 

FACTIOUS,  SEDITIOUS. 

Factious,  in  Latin  factiosus  from /aero  to  do,  sig- 
alfles  the  same  as  busy  or  intermeddling;  ready  to 

* Vid"  Beauz<ic : “ Faction,  narti.” 

14 


take  an  active  part  in  matters  of  one' sown  immediate 
concern  ; seditious,  in  Latin  seditiosus,  signifies  prone 
to  .sedition  {v.  Insurrection). 

Factious  is  an  epithet  to  characterize  the  tempers  of 
men;  seditious  characterizes  their  conduct ; the  fae 
tious  man  attempts  to  raise  himself  into  importance, 
lie  aims  at  authority,  and  seeks  to  interfere  in  the  mea- 
sures of  government;  the  seditious  man  attempts  to 
excite  others,  and  to  provoke  their  resistance  to  esta- 
blished authority:  the  first  wants  to  be  a law-giver; 
the  second  do.es  not  hesitate  to  be  a law-breaker:  the 
first  wants  to  direct  the  state  ; the  second  to  overturn 
it:  the  factious  man  is  mostly  in  possession  of  either 
power,  rank,  or  fortune  ; the  seditious  man  is  seldom 
elevated  in  station  or  circumstances  above  the  mass 
of  the  people.  The  Roman  tribunes  were  in  genera 
little  better  than  factious  demaeogiies;  such,  in  fact, 
as  abound  in  all  republicks:  Wat  Tyler  was  a sed*' 
tious  disturber  of  the  peace.  Factious  is  mostly  ao- 
plied  to  individuals ; 

He  is  a traitor,  let  him  to  the  Tower, 

And  crop  away  that  factious  pate  of  his. 

Shakspeare 

Seditious  is  employed  for  bodies  of  men : hence  we 
speak  of  a factious  nobleman,  a seditious  multitude; 
‘France  is  considered  (by  the  ministry)  as  merely  a 
foreign  power,  and  the  seditious  English  only  as  a 
domestick  faction.’— Burke. 


OBSTINATE,  CONTUMACIOUS,  STUBBORiN, 
HEADSTRONG,  HEADY 
Obstinate,  in  Latin  obstinatus,  participle  of  obstino, 
from  ob  and  stino,  sto  or  sisto,  signifies  standing  in  the 
way  of  another;  contumacious,  prone  to  contumacy 
(v.  Contumacy) ; stubborn,  or  stoutborn,  stiff  or  im- 
moveable by  nature ; headstrong,  strong  in  the  head  or 
the  mind  ; and  heady,  full  of  one’s  own  head. 

Obstinacy  is  a habit  of  the  mind  ; contumacy  is 
either  a particular  state  of  feeling  or  a mode  of  action ; 
obstinacy  consists  in  an  attachment  to  one’s  own  mode 
of  acting  ; contamacy  consists  in  a swelling  contempt 
of  others : the  obstinate  man  adheres  tenaciously  to 
his  own  ways,  and  opposes  reason  to  reason  : the  con- 
tumacious man  disputes  the  right  of  another  to  control 
his  actions,  and  opposes  force  to  force.  Obstinacy 
interferes  with  a man’s  private  conduct,  and  makes 
him  blind  to  right  reason  ; contumacy  is  a crime  against 
lawful  authority ; the  contumacious  man  sets  himself 
against  his  superiours:  when  young  people  are 
nate  they  are  bad  subjects  of  education  ; 

But  man  we  find  the  only  creature 
Who,  led  by  folly,  combats  nature; 

Who,  when  she  loudly  cries,  forbear 
With  obstinacy  fixes  there.— Swift. 

When  people  are  contumacious  they  are  troublesome 
subjects  to  the  king;  ‘When  an  ofiender  is  cited  tc 
appear  in  any  ecclesiastical  court,  and  he  neglects  to  do 
it,  he  is  pronounced  contumacious.’ — Beveridge. 

The  stubborn  and  the  headstrong  are  species  of  the 
obstinate:  the  former  lies  altogether  in  the  perversion 
of  the  will;  the  latter  in  the  perversion  of  the  judge- 
ment: the  stufiftorw  person  wills  what  he  wills;  the 
headstrong  person  thinks  what  he  thinks.  Stubborn- 
ness is  mostly  inherent  in  .he  nature:  a headstrong 
temper  is  commonly  associated  with  violence  and  im- 
petuosity of  character.  Obstinacy  discovers  itself  in 
persons  of  all  ages  and  stations ; a stubborn  and  head- 
strong disposition  betray  themselves  mostly  in  those 
who  are  'oound  to  conform  to  the  will  of  another. 

The  obstinate  keep  the  opinions  which  they  have 
once  embraced  in  spite  of  all  proof ; but  they  are  not 
hasty  in  forming  their  opinions,  nor  adopt  them  with 
out^  choice : the  headstrong  seize  the  first  opinion 
that  offer,  and  act  upon  them  in  spite  of  all  remon 
strance ; 

We,  blindly  by  our  headstrong  passions  led. 

Are  hot  for  action. — Dryden. 

■The  stubborn  follow  the  ruling  will  or  bent  of  th 
mind,  without  regard  to  any  opinions  ; they  are  not  U 
be  turned  by  force  or  persuasion ; 

From  whence  he  brought  them  to  these  salvage  part? 
And  with  science  mollified  their  stubborn  hearts. 

Spenser. 


210 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMEP 


If  an  obsthiate  child  be  treated  with  some  degree  of 
indulgence,  there  may  be  hopes  of  correcting  his  fail- 
ng ; but  a stubborn  and  a headstrong  child  are  trou- 
blesome subjects  of  education,  who  will  baffle  the  ut- 
most skill  and  patience  ; the  former  is  insensible  to  all 
reason  ; the  latter  has  blinded  the  little  reason  which 
ne  possesses  ; the  former  is  unconscious  of  every  thing, 
but  the  simple  will  and  determination  to  do  what  he 
does ; the  latter  is  so  preoccupied  with  his  own  favour- 
ite ideas  as  to  set  every  other  at  nought : force  serves 
mostly  to  confirm  both  in  their  perverse  resolution  of 
persistance.  Heady  is  applied  as  an  epithet  to  the 
thing  rather  than  the  person  ; ‘ Heady  confidence  pro- 
mises victory  without  contest.’ — Johnson. 

CONTUMACY,  REBELLION. 

Contumacy^  from  the  Latin  contumax,  compounded 
i f contra  and  tumeo  to  swell,  signifies  the  swelling 
I lie’s  self  by  way  of  resistance;  rebellion,  m Latin 
rebellio,  from  rebello,  or  re  and  bello  to  war  in  return, 
signifies  carrying  on  war  against  those  to  whom  we 
owe,  and  have  before  paid,  a lawful  subjection. 

Resistance  to  lawful  authority  is  the  common  idea 
included  in  the  signification  of  both  these  terms,  but 
contumacy  does  not  express  so  much  as  rebellion : the 
contumacious  resist  only  occasionally;  the  rebel  resists 
systematically ; the  contumacious  stand  only  on  certain 
points,  and  oppose  the  individual;  the  rebels&is  him 
self  up  against  the  authority  itself;  the  contumacious 
thwart  and  contradict,  they  never  resort  to  open  vio- 
lence ; t\\G  rebel  acts  only  by  main  force;  contumacy 
shelters  itself  under  the  plea  of  equity  and  justice; 

The  censor  told  the  criminal  that  he  spoke  in  con- 
tempt of  the  court,  and  that  he  should  be  proceeded 
against  for  contumacy.' — Addison.  Rebellion  sets  all 
law  and  order  at  defiance;  ‘The  mother  of  Waller 
was  the  daughter  of  John  Hampden  of  Hampden,  in 
tlie  same  comity,  and  sister  to  Hampden  «he  zealot  of 
rebellion.' — Johnson. 


DISAFFECTION,  DISLOYALTY. 

Disaffection  is  general ; disloyalty  is  particular, 
being  a species  of  disaffection.  Men  are  disaffected 
to  the  government ; disloyal  to  their  prince. 

Disaffection  may  be  said  with  regard  to  any  form 
of  government ; disloyalty  only  with  regard  to  a mo- 
narchy. Although  both  terms  are  commonly  employed 
in  a bad  sense,  yet  the  former  does  not  always  convey 
the  unfavourable  meaning  which  is  attached  to  the 
latter.  A man  may  have  reasons  to  think  himself 
Hstified  in  disaffection;  but  he  will  never  attempt  to 
offer  any  thing  in  justification  of  disloyalty.  A usurped 
government  will  have  many  disaffected  subjects  with 
whom  it  must  deal  leniently; 

Yet,  I protest,  it  is  no  salt  desire 
Of  seeing  countries  shifting  for  a religion  ! 

Nor  any  disaffection  to  the  state 
Where  I was  bred,  and  unto  which  I owe 
My  dearest  plots,  hath  brought  me  out. 

Ben  Jonson. 

The  best  king  may  have  disloyal  s\ih]ccts,  upon  whom 
he  must  exercise  the  rigour  of  the  law  ; ‘ Milton  being 
cleared  from  the  effects  of  his  disloyalty,  had  nothing 
required  from  him  but  the  common  duty  of  living 
in  quiet.’ — Johnson.  Many  were  disaffected  to  the 
usurpation  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  because  they  would 
not  be  disloyal  to  their  king. 

GUIDE,  RULE. 

Guide,  signifies  either  the  person  that  guides,  or  the 
thing  that  guides ; rule  is  only  the  thing  that  rules  or 
regulates  ; guide  is  to  rule  as  the  genus  to  the  speeies ; 
every  rule  is  a guide  to  a certain  extent ; but  the  guide 
is  often  that  which  e.xceeds  the  rule.  The  guide,  in 
the  moral  sense,  as  in  the  proper  sense,  goes  with  us, 
and  points  out  the  exact  path ; it  does  not  permit  us  to 
err  either  to  the  right  or  left;  the  rule  marks  out  a 
.ine,  beyond  which  we  may  not  go  ; but  it  leaves  us  to 
trace  the  line,  a-ff  consequently  to  fail  either  on  the 
one  side  or  other. 

The  Bible  is  our  best  guide  for  moral  practice; 
' You  must  first  apply  to  religion  as  the  guide  of  life, 
before  you  can  have  recourse  to  '<  as  the  refuge  of 


soriow.' — Bdair.  Its  doctrines  as  interpreted  in  tn€ 
articles  of  the  established  thurch  are  the  best  rule  ol 
faith  for  every  Christian  ; ‘ There  is  something  so  wild 
and  yet  so  solemn,  in  Shakspeare’s  speeches  of  his 
ghosts  and  fairies,  and  the  like  imaginary  persons,  that 
we  cannot  forbear  thinking  them  natural,  though  wc 
have  no  rule  by  which  to  judge  them  ’ — Addison. 


AXIOM,  MAXIM,  APHORISM,  APOPHTHEGM, 

SAYING,  ADAGE,  PROVERB,  BV  WORD 

SAW. 

Jlxiom,  in  French  axiome,  Latin  axioma,  comet 
from  the  Greek  a^/ow  to  think  worthy,  signifying  the 
thing  valued ; maxim,  in  French  mo.xime,  in  Latin 
maximus  the  greatest,  signifies  that  which  is  most  im 
portant;  aphorism,  from  the  Greek  acpopiayds  a short 
sentence,  and  aepopi^ta  to  distinguish,  signities  that 
which  is  set  apart ; apophthegm,  in  Greek  aredepOty pa, 
from  dnocpQiyyopai  to  speak  pointedly,  signifies  a 
pointed  saying  ; saying  signifies  literally  what  is  said, 
that  is,  said  habitually  ; adage,  in  Latin  adagium,  pro- 
bably compounded  of  ad  and  ago,  signifies  that  which 
is  fit  to  be  acted  upon ; proverb,  in  French  j^roverbe, 
Latin  proverbium,  compounded  of  pro  and^  verbum, 
signifies  that  expression  which  stands  for  something 
particular ; by-word  signifies  a Word  by  the  by,  or  by 
the  way,  in  the  course  of  conversation ; saw  is  but  a 
variation  of  say,  put  for  saying. 

A given  sentiment  conveyed  in  a specific  k sentence, 
or  form  of  expression,  is  the  common  idea  included 
in  the  signification  of  these  terms.  The  axiom  is  a 
truth  of  the  first  value ; a self-evident  proposition 
which  is  the  basis  of  other  truths.  A maxim  is  a 
truth  of  the  first  moral  importance  for  all  practical 
purposes.  An  aphorism  is  a truth  set  apart  for  its 
pointedness  and  e.xcellence.  Apophthegm  is,  in  re 
spect  to  the  ancients,  what  saying  is  in  regard  to  the 
moderns;  it  is  a pointeu  sentiment  pronounced  by  ar 
individual,  and  adopted  by  others.  Adage  and  proverb 
are  vulgar  sayings,  the  former  among  the  ancients,  the 
latter  among  the  moderns.  A by-word  is  a casual 
saying,  originating  in  some  local  circumstance.  'J’he 
saw,  which  is  a barbarous  corruption  of  saying,  is  a 
saying  formerly  current  among  the  ignorant. 

Axioms  are  in  science  what  maxims  are  in  morals, 
self-evidence  is  an  essential  characteristick  in  both;  the 
axiom  presents  itself  in  so  simple  and  ur  deniable  a 
form  to  the  understanding  as  to  exclude  doubt,  and 
the  necessity  for  reasoning.  The  maxim,  though  not 
so  definite  in  its  expression  as  the  axiom,  is  at  the 
same  time  equally  parallel  to  the  mind  of  man,  and  of 
such  general  application,  that  it  is  acknowledged  by 
all  moral  agents  who  are  susceptible  of  moral  truth ; 
it  comes  home  to  the  common  sense  of  all  mankind. 
* “ Things  that  are  equal  to  one  and  the  same  thing 
are  equal  to  each  other,” — “Two  bodies  cannot  oc 
cupy  the  same  space  at  the  same  time,”  are  axioms 
in  mathernaticks  and  metaph/sicks.  “Virtue  is  the 
true  source  of  happiness,” — “ The  happiness  of  man 
is  the  end  of  civil  government,”  are  axioms  in  ethicks 
and  politicks.  “ To  err  is  human,  to  forgive  divine,”— 
“ When  our  vices  leave  us,  we  flatter  ourselves  that 
we  leave  them,”  are  among  the  number  of  maxims 
Between  axioms  and  maxims  there  is  this  obvious 
difference  to  be  observed;  that  the  axiom  is  unchange- 
able both  in  matter  and  manner,  and  admits  of  little 
or  no  increase  in  number  ; the  maxim  may  vary  with 
the  circumstances  of  human  life,  and  admit  of  con- 
siderable extension  ; ‘ Those  authors  are  to  be  read  at 
schools,  that  supply  most  axioms  of  prudence,  most 
principles  of  moral  truth.’ — Johnson.  It  was  my 
grandfather’s  maxim,  that  a young  man  seldom  makes 
much  money,  who  is  out  of  his  time  before  two  and 
troemtj/.’-^JoHNsoN. 

Aphorism  is  a speculative  principle,  either  in  science 
or  morals,  which  is  presented  in  a few  words  to  the 
understanding ; it  is  the  substance  of  a doctrine,  and 
many  aphorisms  may  contain  the  abstract  of  a science. 
Of  this  description  are  Ihe  aphorisms  of  Hippocrates^ 
and  those  of  Lavater  in  physiognomy  ; ‘ As  this  one 
aphorism,  Jesus  Christ  is  the  Son  of  God,  is  virtually 
and  eminently  the  whole  Gospel ; so  to  confess  or  deny 

* Vide  Roubaud ; “ Axiome,  maxime,  apoiil  ithigmc 
aphorisrne.” 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


211 


It  IS  virtually  to  embrace  or  reject  the  whole  round  and 
series  of  Gospel  truths.’ — South. 

Sayings  and  apophthegms  differ  from  the  preceding, 
In  as  much  as  they  always  carry  the  mind  back  to  the 
person  speaking ; there  is  always  one  who  says  when 
there  is  a'saying  or  an  apophthegm,  and  both  acquire 
a value  as  much  from  the  person  w'ho  utters  them,  as 
from  the  thing  that  is  uttered:  when  Leonidas  was 
asked  why  brave  men  prefer  honour  to  life,  his  answer 
became  an  apophthegm ; namely,  that  they  hold  life 
by  fortune,  and  honour  by  virtue ; ‘ It  is  remarkable 
that  so  near  his  time  so  much  should  be  known  of 
what  Pope  has  written,  and  so  little  of  what  he  has 
said.  One  apophthegm  only  stands  upon  record. 
When  an  objection  raised  against  his  inscription 
for  Shakspeare  was  defended  by  the  authority  of  Pa- 
trick, he  replied,  that  he  would  allow  the  publisher  of  a 
dictionary  to  know  the  meaning  of  a single  word,  but 
not  of  two  words  together.’ — Johnson.  Of  this  de- 
scription also  are  the  apophthegms  comprised  by  Plu- 
tarch ; so  likewise  in  modern  times,  the  sayings  of 
Franklin’s  Old  Richard,  or  those  of  Dr.  Johnson:  these 
are  happy  effusions  of  the  mind  which  men  are  fond  of 
treasuring;  ‘ The  little  and  short  sayings  oi  wise  and 
e.xcellent  men  are  of  great  value,  like  the  dust  of  gold, 
or  the  least  sparks  of  diamonds.’-  Pillotson. 

The  adage  and  proverb  are  habitual,  as  well  as  ge- 
neral sayings,  not  repeated  as  the  sayings  of  one,  but 
of  all ; not  adopted  for  the  sake  of  the  person,  but  for 
the  sake  of  the  thing ; and  they  have  been  used  in  all 
ages  for  the  purpose  of  conveying  the  sense  of  man- 
kind on  ordinary  subjects.  The  adage  of  former  limes 
is  the  proverb  of  the  present  times;  if  there  be  any 
difference  between  them,  it  lies  in  this,  that  the  former 
are  the  fruit  of  knowledge  and  long  experience,  the 
latter  of  vulgar  observations ; the  adage  is  therefore 
more  refined  than  the  proverb.  Adversity  is  our  best 
teacher,  according  to  the  Greek  adage,  “ What  hurts 
us  instructs  us,” — “ Old  birds  are  not  to  be  caught  with 
chaff,”  is  a vulgar yroverd ; ‘It  is  in  praise  and  com- 
mendation of  men,  as  it  is  in  gettings  and  gains;  the 
proverb  is  true  that  light  gains  make  heavy  purses:  for 
light  gains  come  thick,  whereas  great  come  now  and 
then.’ — Bacon. 

Quoth  Hudibras,  thou offer’st  much, 

But  art  not  able  to  keep  touch, 

Mira  de  lente,  as ’t  is  I,  the  adage. 

Id  est,  to  make  a leek  a cabbage. — Butler. 

By-words  rarely  contain  any  important  sentiment ; 
they  mostly  consist  of  familiar  similes,  nick-names, 
and  the  like,  as  the  Cambridge  by-word  of  Hobson’s 
choice,  signifying  that  or  none:  the  name  of  Naza- 
rene  was  a by-word  among  the  Jews,  for  a Christian  ; 

I knew  a pretty  young  girl  in  a country  village,  who, 
overfond  of  her  own  praise,  became  a property  to  a 
poor  rogue  in  the  parish,  who  was  ignorant  of  all 
things  but  fawning.— Thus  Isaac  extols  her  out  of  a 
quartern  of  cut  and  dry  every  day  she  lives,  and 
though  the  young  woman  is  really  handsome,  she  and 
her  beauty  are  become  a by-word,  and  all  the  country 
round,  she  is  called  nothing  but  Isaac's  best  Virginia.' 
— Arbuthnot.  a saw  is  vulgar  in  form,  and  vulgar 
in  matter:  it  is  the  partial  saying  of  particular  neigh- 
bourhoods, originating  in  ignorance  and  superstition : 
of  this  description  are  the  sayings  which  attribute  par- 
ticular properties  to  animals  or  to  plants,  termed  old 
women’s  saws;  ‘If  we  meet  this  dreadful  and  por- 
tentous energy  with  poor  commonplace  proceedings, 
with  trivial  maxims,  paltry  old  saws,  with  doubts, 
fears,  and  suspicions ; down  we  go  to  the  bottom  of 
the  abyss,  and  nothing  short  of  omnipotence  can  save 
us.' — Burke. 


MAXIM,  PRECEPT,  RULE,  LAW. 

Maxim  (v.  Axiom), amoral  truth  that  carries  its 
own  weight  with  itself;  precept  {v.  Command),  rule 
(w.  Guide),  and  law,  from  lex  and  lego,  signifying  the 
thing  specially  chosen  or  marked  out,  all  borrow  their 
weight  from  some  external  circumstance : the  precept 
derives  its  authority  from  the  individual  delivering  it ; 
n this  manner  the  precepts  of  onr  Saviour  have  a 
weight  which  gives  them  a decided  superiority  over 
every  thing  else : the  rule  acquires  a worth  from  its 
fitness  for  guiding  us  in  our  proceeding : the  law, 
which  is  a species  of  rule,  derives  its  weight  from  fhe 


sanction  of  power.  Maxims  are  often  precepts  inas 
much  as  they  are  communicated  to  us  by  our  parents, 
they  are  rules  inasmuch  as  they  serve  a?  a rule  foj 
our  conduct;  they  are  laws  inasmuch  as  they  have 
the  sanction  of  conscience.  We  respect  the  maximt 
of  antiquity  as  containing  the  essence  of  human  wis< 
dom;  ‘1  think  I may  lay  it  down  as  a maxim,  thsti 
every  man  of  good  common  sense  may,  if  he  pleases 
most  certainly  be  rich.’ — Budgell.  We  reverence  the 
precepts  of  religion  as  the  foundation  of  all  happiness ; 
‘ Philosophy  has  accumulated  precept  upon  precept 
to  warn  us  against  the  anticipation  of  future  calami 
ties.’ — Johnson.  We  regard  the  rules  of  prudence  as 
preserving  us  from  errours  and  misfortunes;  ‘ I know 
not  whether  any  rule  has  yet  been  fixed  by  which  it 
may  be  decided  when  poetry  can  properly  be  called 
easy.’— Johnson.  We  respect  the  laws  as  they  are  the 
basis  of  civil  society ; 

God  is  thy  law,  thou  mine.— Milton 


LAWFUL,  LEGAL,  LEGITIMATE,  LICIT 

Lawf  ul,  from  law,  and  theFience  Zei,  comes  from 
the  Latin  lex,  in  the  same  manner  as  legal  or  legiti 
mate,  all  signifying  in  the  proper  sense  belonging  to 
law.  They  differ  therefore  according  to  the  sense  of 
the  word  law  ; lawful  respects  the  law  in  general, 
defined  or  undefined  ; legal  respects  only  civil  law, 
which  is  defined  ; and  legitimate  respects  the  laws  or 
rules  of  science  as  well  as  civil  matters  in  general 
Licit,  from  the  Latin  licet  to  be  allowed,  is  used  only 
to  characterize  the  moral  quality  of  actions;  the 
lawful  property  implies  conformable  to  or  enjoined  by 
law  ; the  legal  what  is  in  the  form  or  after  the  manner 
of  law,  or  binding  by  law  : it  is  not  lawful  to  coin 
money  with  the  king’s  stamp ; a marriage  is  not  legal 
in  England  which  is  not  solemnized  according  to  the 
rites  of  the  established  church ; men’s  passions  impel 
them  to  do  many  things  which  are  unlawf  ul  or  illicit  ; 
their  ignorance  leads  them  into  many  things  which  are 
illegal  or  illegitimate.  As  a good  citizen  and  a true 
Christian,  every  man  will  be  anxious  to  avoid  every 
thing  which  is  unlawful : it  is  the  business  of  the 
lawyer  to  define  what  is  legal  or  illegal:  it  is  the 
business  of  the  critick  to  define  what  is  legitimatcver^e 
in  poetry ; it  is  the  business  of  the  linguist  to  define 
the  legitimate  use  of  words;  it  is  the  business  of  the 
moralist  to  point  out  what  is Zici't  or  illicit.  As  usurpers 
have  no  lawful  authority,  no  one  is  under  any  obliga- 
tion to  obey  them  ; ‘ According  to  this  spiritual  doctor 
of  politicks,  if  his  Majesty  does  not  owe  his  crown  to 
the  choice  of  his  people,  he  is  no  lawful  king.’ — Burke 
When  a claim  to  property  cannot  be  made  out  accord 
ing  to  the  established  laws  of  the  country  it  is  not 
legal;  ‘Swift’s  mental  powers  declined  till  (1741)  it 
was  found  necessary  that  legal  guardians  should  be 
appointed  to  his  person  and  fortune.’— Johnson.  The 
cause  of  legitimate  sovereigns  is  at  length  brought  to 
a happy  issue ; it  is  to  be  hoped  that  men  will  never 
be  so  unwise  as  ever  to  revive  the  question ; ‘ Upon 
the  whole  I have  sent  this  my  offspring  into  the  world 
in  as  decent  a dress  as  I was  able ; a legitimate  one,  I 
am  sure  it  is.’— Moore.  The  first  inclination  to  an 
illicit  indulgence  should  be  carefully  suppressed; 
‘The  King  of  Prussia  charged  some  of  the  officers, 
his  prisoners,  with  maintaining  an  illicit  correspond 
ence.’ — Smollett. 

JUDGE,  UMPIRE,  ARBITER,  ARBITRATOR. 

.Judge,  in  Latin  judico  and  judex,  from  jus  right, 
signifies  one  pronouncing  the  law  or  determining  right; 
umpire  is  most  probably  a corruption  from  empire,  sig 
nifyingone  who  has  authority ; arbiter  and  arbitrator, 
from  arbitror  to  think  or  determine,  signifying  one  who 
decides. 

Judge  is  the  generick  term,  the  others  are  specifick 
terms.  The  judge  determines  in  all  matters  disputed 
or  undisputed  ; he  pronounces,whatisZaz4)  now  as  well 
as  what  will  be' law  for  the  future;  the  umpire  and 
arbiter  are  only  judges  in  particular  cases  that  admit 
of  dispute:  there  may  be  judges  in  literature,  in  arts 
and  civil  matters ; 

Palacmon  shall  be  judge  how  ill  you  rhyme. 

Drydkn, 

Umpires  and  arbiters  are  only  judges  in  civil  or  pr< 


212 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


rale  /natters.  Tlie  judge  pronounces,  in  matters  of 
dispute,  according  to  a written  law  or  a prescribed  rule ; 
‘ I am  not  out  of  the  reach  of  people  who  oblige  me  to 
act  as  their  judge  or  their  ori»itrator.’— Melmoth 
{Letters  of  Pliny).  The  Mrnpire  decides  in  all  matters 
of  contest ; and  the  arbiter  or  arbitrator  in  all  matters 
of  litigation,  according  to  his  own  judgement.  The 
judge  acts  under  the  appointment  of  government ; the 
umpire  and  arbitrator  are  appointed  by  individuals : 
the  former  is  chosen  for  his  skill ; he  adjudges  the 
palm  to  the  victor  according  to  the  merits  of  the  case  ; 
the  latter  is  chosen  for  his  impartiality ; he  consults  the 
interests  of  both  by  equalizing  their  claims. 

The  office  of  an  English  judge  is  one  of  the  most 
honourable  in  the  state;  he  is  the  voice  of  the  legislator, 
and  the  organ  for  dispensing  justice;  he  holds  the  ba- 
lance between  the  king  and  the  subject : the  characters 
of  those  who  have  filled  this  office  have  been  every  way 
fitted  to  raise  it  in  the  estimation  of  all  the  world.  An 
umpire  has  no  particular  moral  duty  to  discharge,  nor 
important  office ; but  he  is  of  use  in  deciding  the  con- 
tested merits  of  individuals ; among  the  Romans  and 
Greeks,  the  umpire  at  their  games  was  held  in  high 
estimation ; but  the  term  may  be  used  in  poetry  in  a 
higher  sense ; 

To  pray’r,  repentance,  and  obedience  due. 

Mine  ear  shall  not  be  slow,  mine  eye  not  shut. 

And  I will  place  within  them  as  a guide, 

My  umpire  conscience. — Milton. 

The  office  of  an  arbiter.,  although  not  so  elevated  as 
that  of  a judge  in  its  literal  sense,  has  often  the  im- 
portant duty  of  a Christian  peace  maker  ; and  as  the 
determinations  of  an  arbiter  are  controlled  by  no  ex- 
ternal circumstances,  the  term  is  applied  to  monarchs, 
and  even  to  the  Creator  as  the  sovereign  Arbiter  of  the 
world ; 

You  once  have  known  me 
Twixt  warring  monarchs  and  contending  states, 

The  glorious  arbiter. — Lewis. 


JUSTICE,  EQUITY. 

Justice,  from  jus  right,  is  founded  on  the  laws  of 
society : equity,  from  cequitas  fairness,  rightness,  and 
equality,  is  founded  on  the  laws  of  nature. 

Justice  is  a written  or  prescribed  law,  to  which  one 
is  bound  to  conform  and  make  it  the  rule  of  one’s  de- 
cisions: equity  is  a law  in  our  hearts;  it  conforms  to 
no  rule  but  to  circumstances,  and  decides  by  the  con- 
sciousness of  right  and  wrong.  The  proper  object  of 
justice  is  to  secure  property  ; the  proper  object  oi  equity 
is  to  secure  the  rights  of  humanity.  Justice  is  ex- 
clusive, it  assigns  to  every  one  his  own ; it  preserves  the 
subsisting  inequality  between  men : equity  is  communi- 
cative ; it  seeks  to  equalize  the  condition  of  men  by  a 
fair  distribution. 

Justice  forbids  us  doing  wrong  to  any  one ; and  re- 
quires us  to  repair  the  wrongs  we  have  done  to  others : 
equity  forbids  us  doing  to  others  what  we  would  not 
have  them  do  to  us  ; it  requires  us  to  do  to  others  what 
in  similar  circumstances  we  would  expect  from  them. 

The  obligations  to  justice  are  imperative;  the  obser- 
vance of  its  laws  is  enforced  by  the  civil  power,  and 
the  breach  of  them  is  exposed  to  punishment:  the  obli- 
gations to  equity  are  altogether  moral ; we  are  impelled 
to  it  by  the  dictates  of  conscience;  we  cannot  violate 
it  without  exposing  ourselves  to  the  Divine  displeasure. 
Justice  is  inflexible,  it  follows  one  invariable  rule, 
which  can  seldom  be  deviated  from  consistently  with 
the  general  good ; equity,  on  the  other  hand,  varies  with 
the  circumstances  of  the  case,  and  is  guided  by  discre- 
tion; justice  may,  therefore,  sometimes  run  counter  to 
equity,  when  the  interests  of  the  individual  must  be 
sacrificed  to  those  of  the  community ; and  equity  some- 
times tempers  the  rigour  of  justice,  by  admitting  of  rea- 
sonable deviations  from  the  literal  interpretations  of  its 
laws;  ‘ We  see  in  contracts,  and  other  dealings,  which 
daily  pass  between  man  and  man,  that,  to  the  utter  un- 
doing of  some,  many  things  by  strictness  of  law  may 
be  done,  which  equity  and  honest  meaning  forbiddeth. 
Not  that  the  law  is  unjust,  but  imperfect,  nor  equity 
against  but  above  law ; binding  men’s  consciences  in 
things  which  law  cannot  reach  unto.’ — Hooker.  The 

* Vid.;  Roubaud:  ‘Justice  equity.’ 


tranquillity  of  society,  and  the  security  of  the  indivi 
dual,  are  ensured  by  justice ; the  harmony  and  good 
will  of  one  man  towards  another  are  cherished  b> 
equity : when  justice  requires  any  sacrifices  which  are 
not  absolutely  necessary  for  the  preservation  of  this 
tranquillity  and  security,  it  is  a useless  breach  of  equity : 
on  the  other  hand,  when  a regard  to  equity  leads  to  the 
direct  violation  of  any  law,  it  ceases  to  be  either  equity 
or  justice.  The  rights  of  property  are  alike  to  be  pre 
served  by  both  justice  and  equity : but  the  former  re 
spects  only  those  general  and  fundamental  principles 
which  are  universally  admitted  in  the  social  compact 
and  comprehended  under  the  laws;  the  latter  resp»  ct* 
those  particular  principles  which  belong  to  the  case  of 
individuals:  justice  is,  therefore,  properly  a virtue  be 
longing  only  to  a large  and  organized  society : equity 
must  exist  wherever  two  individuals  come  in  connexion 
with  each  other.  When  a father  disinherits  his  son, 
he  does  not  violate  justice,  although  he  does  not  ac> 
consistently  with  equity ; the  disposal  of  his  property 
is  a right  which  is  guaranteed  to  him  by  the  established 
laws  of  civil  society  ; but  the  claims  which  a child  has 
by  nature  over  the  property  of  his  parent  become  the 
claims  of  equity,  which  the  latter  is  not  at  liberty  to  set 
at  nought  without  the  most  substantial  reasons.  On 
the  other  hand,  when  Cyrus  adjudged  the  coat  to  each 
boy  as  it  fitted  him,  without  regard  to  the  will  of  the 
younger  from  whom  the  large  coat  had  been  taken,  it 
is  evident  that  he  committed  an  act  of  injustice,  without 
performing  an  act  of  equity ; since  all  violence  isposi 
lively  unjust,  and  what  is  positively  unjust,  can  never 
be  equitable : whence  it  is  clear  that  justice,  w'hich 
respects  the  absolute  and  unalienable  rights  of  man 
kind,  can  at  no  time  be  superseded  by  what  is  supf)dsed 
to  be  equity ; although  equity  may  be  conveniently 
made  to  interpose  where  the  laws  of  justice  are  either 
too  severe  or  altogether  silent.  On  this  ground,  sup- 
posing I have  received  an  injury,  justice  demands  re- 
paration ; it  listens  to  no  palliation,  excuse,  or  excep 
tion:  but  supposing  the  reparation  which  I have  a 
right  to  demand  involves  the  ruin  of  him  who  is  more 
unfortunate  than  guilty,  can  I in  equity  insist  on  the 
demand  ? Justice  is  that  which  publick  law  requires  . 
equity  is  that  which  private  law  or  the  law  of  every 
man’s  conscience  requires;  ‘They  who  supplicate  fo’t 
mercy  from  others,  can  never  hope  for  justice  throu, 
themselves.’ — Burke. 

Ev’ry  rule  of  equity  demands 
That  vice  and  virtue  from  the  Almighty’s  hands 
Should  due  rewards  and  punishments  receive 

Jentk* 


INJUSTICE,  INJURY,  WRONG- 

JryMstfee,  signifying  the  abstract  quality  of  unju'»,, 
injury,  from  injuria,  or  in  privative,  and ytts  right,  sig 
nifying  any  act  tliat  is  contrary  to  right;  and  w^ong, 
signifying  the  thing  that  is  wrong,  are  all  opposed  to  V 
right;  but  the  lies  in  the  principle,  the  injury 

in  the  action  that  injures.  There  may,  therefore,  be 
injustice  where  there  is  no  specifick  injury ; and,  on  the 
other  hand,  there  may  be  injury  where  there  is  no  in- 
justice. When  we  think  worse  of  a person  than  we 
ought  to  think,  we  do  him  an  act  of  injustice;  but  we 
do  not,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  wordj  do  him  an  in 
jury : on  the  other  hand,  if  we  say  any  thing  to  the 
discredit  of  another,  it  will  be  an  injury  to  Iris  reputa- 
tion if  it  be  believed ; but  it  may  not  be  an  injustice,  if 
it  be  strictly  conformable  to  truth,  and  that  which  one 
is  compelled  to  say. 

The  violation  of  justice,  or  a breach  of  the  rule  of 
right,  constitutes  the  injustice;  but  the  quantum  of  Hi 
which  falls  on  the  person  constitutes  the  injury.  Some- 
times a fierson  is  dispossessed  of  his  property  by  fraud 
or  violence,  this  is  an  act  of  injustice ; but  it  is  not  an 
injury,  if,  in  consequence  of  this  act,  he  obtains  friends 
who  make  it  good  to  him  beyond  what  he  has  lost : on 
the  other  hand,  a person  suffers  very  much  through  the 
inadvertence  of  another,  which  to  him  is  a serious  in 
jury,  although  the  offender  has  not  been  guilty  of  in- 
justice; ‘ A lie  is  properly  a species  of  injustice,  and  a 
violation  of  the  right  of  that  person  to  whom  the  false 
speech  is  directed.’ — South. 

Law  suits  I’d  shun  with  as  much  studious  care. 

As  I would  dens  where  hungry  lions  are ; 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


213 


And  rather  put  up  injuries  than  be 
A plague  to  him  who’d  be  a plague  to  me. 

PoMFRET. 

A wrong  partakes  both  of  injustice  and  injury ; it 
is  in  fact  an  injury  done  by  one  person  to  another,  in 
express  violation  of  justice.  . The  man  who  seduces  a 
woman  from  the  path  of  virtue  does  her  the  greatest  of 
all  wrongs.  One  repents  of  injustice,  repairs  injuries 
and  redr«ssea  wrongs ; 

The  humble  man  when  he  receives  a wrong, 
Refers  revenge  to  whom  it  doth  belong. — Waller. 

PRINCIPLE,  MOTIVE. 

The  vrinciple  {v.  Doctrine)  may  sometimes  be  the 
motiv%  but  often  there  is  a principle  where  there  is  no 
motive  and  there  is  a motive  where  there  is  no  prin- 
ciple. The  principle  lies  in  conscious  and  unconscious 
agents,  the  motive  on\y  in  conscious  agents:  all  nature 
is  guided  by  certain  principles  ; its  movements  go  for- 
ward by  certain  principles ; man  is  put  into  action  by 
certain  motives;  the  principle  is  the  prime  moving 
cause  of  every  thing  that  is  set  in  motion  ; the  motive 
is  the  prime  cause  that  sets  the  human  machine 

into  action.  The  principle  in  its  restricted  sense  comes 
still  nearer  to  the  motive,  when  it  refers  to  the  opinions 
which  we  form : the  principle  in  this  case  is  that  idea 
which  we  form  of  things,  so  as  to  regulate  our  conduct ; 
‘ The  best  legislators  have  been  satisfied  with  the  es- 
tablishment of  some  sure,  solid,  and  ruling  principle  in 
government.’ — Burke.  The  motive  is  that  idea  which 
simply  impels  to  action ; ‘ The  danger  of  betraying  our 
weakness  to  our  servants,  and  the  impossibility  of  con- 
cealing it  from  them,  may  be  justly  considered  as  one 
motive  to  a regular  life.’ — Johnson.  'I'he  former  is 
therefore  something  permapent,  and  grounded  upon  the 
exercise  of  our  reasoning  powers;  the  latter  is  mo- 
mentary, and  arises  simply  from  our  capacity  of  think- 
ing : bad  principles  lead  a man  into  a bad  course  of  life ; 
bad  lead  him  to  the  commission  of  actions  bad 

’r  good. 

DIRECTION,  ORDER. 

Direction  (r.  To  direct)  contains  most  of  instruction 
in  it:  order  {v.  To  command)  most  of  authority.  Di- 
rections should  be  followed;  orders  obeyed.  It  is  ne- 
cessary to  direct  those  who  are  unable  to  act  for  them- 
selves : it  is  necessary  to  order  tliose  who.se  business  it 
is  to  execute  the  orders.  To  servants  and  children  the 
directions  must  be  clear,  simple,  and  precise  ; 

Then  meet  me  forthwith  at  the  notary’s. 

Give  him  direction  for  this  merry  bond. 

Shakspeare. 

To  tradespeople  the  orders  may  be  particular  or  gene- 
ral; ‘To  e.xecute  laws  is  a royal  office:  to  execute 
orders  is  not  to  be  a king.’— Burke. 

Directions  extend  to  the  moral  conduct  of  others,  as 
well  as  the  ordinary  concerns  of  life ; ‘ A general 
direction  for  scholastick  disputers  is  never  to  dispute 
upon  mere  trifles.’ — Watts.  Orders  are  confined  to 
the  personal  convenience  of  the  individual ; 

Give  order  to  my  servants,  that  they  take 
No  note  of  our  being  absent. — Shakspeare. 

A parent  directs  a child  as  to  his  behaviour  in  com- 
pany, or  as  to  his  conduct  when  he  enters  life;  a 
teacher  directs  his  pupil  in  the  choice  of  books,  or  in 
the  distribution  of  his  studies:  the  master  gives  orders 
to  his  attendants  to  be  in  waiting  for  him  at  a certain 
hour;  or  he  gives  orders  to  his  tradesmen  to  provide 
what  is  necessary 

DIRECTION,  ADDRESS,  SUPERSCRIPTION. 

Direction  marks  that  which  directs;  address  is  that 
which  addresses;  superscription,  from  super  and 
scribe,  signifies  that  which  is  written  over  something 
else. 

Although  theseterms  maybe  used  promiscuously  for 
each  other,  yet  they  have  a peculiarity  of  sigtiification 
by  which  their  pi  oper  use  is  defined  ; the  direction  may 
serve  to  direct  ti  places  as  well  as  to  [lersons:  the 
address  is  never  used  but  indirect  a()plication  to  the 
, person : the  superscription  has  more  respect  to  the  thing 
Jian  the  person.  The  Hrection  may  I'p  written  or 


verbal ; the  address  in  this  sense  is  always  written  ; the 
superscription  must  not  only  be  written,  but  either  on 
or  over  some  other  thing:  a direction  is  given  to  such 
as  go  in  search  of  persons  and  places,  it  ought  to  be 
clear  and  particular;  ‘There  could  not  be  a greater 
chance  than  that  which  brought  to  light  the  powder 
treason,  when  Providence,  as  it  were,  snatched  a king 
and  a kingdom  out  of  the  very  jaws  of  death  only  by 
the  mistake  of  a word  in  the  direction  of  a letter.’ — 
South.  An  address  is  put  either  on  a card,  and  a 
letter,  or  in  a book ; it  ought  to  be  suitable  to  the  station 
and  situation  of  the  person  addressed;  ‘We  think  you 
may  be  able  to  point  out  to  him  the  evil  of  succeeding; 
if  it  be  solicitation,  you  will  tell  him  where  to  aadress 
it.’ — Lord  Chesterfield.  A superscription  is  placed 
at  the  head  of  other  writings,  or  over  tombs  and  pillars , 
it  ought  to  be  appropriate ; ‘ Deceit  and  hypocrisy  carry 
in  them  more  of  the  express  image  and  superscription 
of  the  devil  than  any  bodily  sins  whatsoever.’ — South 

INSIGHT,  INSPECTION. 

The  insight  is  what  we  receive;  the  inspection  is 
what  we  give : one  gets  a view  into  a thing  by  the 
insight;  one  takes  a view  over  a thing  by  an  inspection. 
Theinsight  serves  to  increase  our  own  knowledge ; the 
inspection  enables  us  to  instruct  others.  An  inquisitive 
traveller  tries  to  get  an  insight  into  the  manners,  cus- 
toms, laws,  and  government  of  the  countries  which  he 
visits;  ‘Angels  both  good  and  bad  have  a full 
into  the  activity  and  force  of  natural  causes.’— South. 
By  inspection  a master  discovers  the  errours  which 
are  committed  by  his  scholars,  and  sets  them  right, 
‘ Something  no  doubt  is  designed;  but  what  that  is,  I 
will  not  presume  to  determine  from  an  inspection  of 
men’s  hearts.’ — South. 


INSPECTION,  SUPERINTENDENCY,  OVER 
SIGHT. 

The  office  of  looking  into  the  conduct  of  others  is 
expressed  by  all  these  terms;  but  the  former  comprfe 
hends  little  more  than  the  preservation  of  good  order, 
the  two  latter  include  the  arrangement  of  the  whole. 

The  monitor  of  a school  has  the  inspection  of  the 
conduct  of  his  schoolfellows,  but  the  master  has  the 
superintendence  of  the  school.  The  officers  of  an  army 
inspect  the  men,  to  see  that  they  observe  all  the  rules 
that  have  been  laid  down  to  them  ; ‘ This  author  pro- 
poses that  there  should  be  examiners  appointed  tc 
inspect  the  genius  of  every  particular  boy.’ — Budgrll. 
A general  or  superiour  officer  has  the  superintendence 
of  any  military  operation  ; ‘ When  female  minds  are  im 
bittered  by  age  or  solitude,  their  malignity  is  generally 
exerted  by  a spiteful  superintendence  o\'  trifles  ’ — John 
SON.  Fidelity  is  peculiarly  wanted  in  an  inspector, 
judgement  and  experience  in  a superintendent.  Inspec 
tion  is  said  of  things  as  well  as  persons ; oversight  ov\\y 
of  persons : one  has  tiie  inspection  of  books  in  order  to 
ascertain  their  accuracy : one  has  the  oversight  of  per- 
sons to  prevent  irregularity : there  are  inspectors  of  the 
customs,  and  overseers  of  the  poor. 


TO  INSTITUTE,  ESTABLISH,  FOUND,  ERECT 

Institute,  in  Latin  institutus,  participle  of  instituo, 
from  in  and  statuo  to  place  or  appoint,  sonifies  to 
dispose  or  fix  a specifick  end  ; establish  {v.  To  fix); 
found  (u  To  found)  ; erect  {v.  To  build). 

To  institute  is  to  form  according  to  a certain  plan 
to  establish  is  to  fix  in  a certain  position  what  has  been 
formed;  io  found  is  to  lay  the  foundation;  to  erect  \s 
to  make  erect.  Laws,  communities,  and  particular 
orders,  are  instituted,  schools,  colleges,  and  various 
societies,  are  established ; in  the  former  case  something 
new  is  supposed  to  be  framed  ; in  the  latter  case  it  is 
supposed  only  to  have  a certain  situation  asaigned  to  it 
The  order  of  the  Jesuits  was  instituted  by  Ignatius  de 
Loyola:  schools  were  esfaiZ/.s/ied  by  Alfred  the  Great 
in  various  parts  of  his  dominions.  The  act  of  insti- 
tuting comprehends  design  and  method  ; that  of  estab- 
lishing includes  the  idea  of  authority.  The  inquisition 
was  instituted  in  the  time  of  Ferdinand;  the  Church 
of  England  is  established  by  authority.  To  institute  ia 
always  tlie  immediate  act  of  some  agent;  to  estallish 
is  sometimes  the  effect  of  circumstances  Men  c < pub 


2i4 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


lick  spirit  institute  that  which  is  for  the  publick  good ; 
a communication  or  trade  between  certain  places 
becomes  established  in  course  of  time  An  institution 
is  properly  of  a publick  nature,  but  esiahlishments  are 
as  often  private  : there  are  charitable  and  literary  in- 
stitutions, but  domestick  establishments  ; ‘ The  leap 
years  were  fixed  to  their  due  times  according  to  Julius 
Ctesar’s  institution.' — Pridkaux.  ‘ The  French  have 
outdone  us  in  these  particulars  by  the  establishment  of 
a society  for  the  invention  of  proper  inscriptions  (for 
their  medals).’ — Addison.  To  found  is  a species  of 
instituting  which  borrows  its  figurative  metwiing  from 
the  nature  of  buildings,  and  is  applicable  to  that  which 
IS  formed  after  the  manner  of  a building : a publick 
school  is  founded  when  its  pecuniary  resources  are 
formed  into  a fund  or  foundation ; * After  the  flood 
which  depopulated  Attica,  it  is  generally  supposed  no 
king  reigned  over  it  till  the  timeofCecrops,  the  foundei- 
of  Athens.’ — Cumberland.  To  erect  is  a species  of 
founding,  for  it  expresses  in  fact  a leading  particular  in 
t\\e  uzloi  founding ; ‘ Princes  as  well  as  private  per- 
sons have  erected  colleges,  and  assigned  liberal  endow- 
ments to  students  and  professors.’ — Berkeley.  No- 
thing can  be/ounded  without  being  erected;  although 
some  things  may  be  erected  without  being  expressly 
founded  in  the  natural  sense  ; a house  is  both  founded 
and  erected;  a monument  is  erected  but  not /ownded ; 
so  in  the  figurative  sense,  a college  is  founded  and  con- 
sequently erected:  but  a tribunal  is  erected,  but  not 
founded. 


TO  CONSTITUTE,  APPOINT,  DEPUTE. 

To  constitute,  in  Latin  constztutus,  participle  of  con- 
.\ituo,  that  is  con  and  statuo  to  place  together,  signifies 
here  to  put  or  place  for  a specifick  purpose,  in  which 
sense  it  is  allied  to  appoint  as  explained  under  the  head 
of  allot,  and  also  depute,  which  from  the  French 
deputer,  Latin  deputo,  compounded  of  de  and  puto  to 
esteem  or  assign,  signifies  to  assign  a certain  office  to  a 
person. 

The  act  of  choosing  some  person  or  persons  for  an 
office,  is  comprehended  under  all  these  terms:  to  con- 
stitute is  a more  solemn  act  than  appoint,  and  this 
than  depute.  To  constitute  is  the  act  of  a body;  to 
appoint  and  depute,  either  of  a body  or  an  individual : 
a community  constitutes  any  one  their  leader ; a 
monarch  appoints  his  ministers,  an  assembly  deputes 
some  of  its  members. 

To  constitute  implies  the  act  of  making  as  well  as 
choosing;  the  office  as  well  as  the  person  is  new:  in 
appointing,  the  person  but  not  the  office  is  new.  A 
person  may  be  constituted  arbiter  or  judge  as  circum- 
stances may  require  ; a successor  is  appointed  but  not 
constituted. 

Whoever  is  constituted  is  invested  with  supreme 
authority  derived  from  the  highest  sources  of  humjn 
power;  ‘Where  there  is  no  constituted  judge,  as  be- 
tween independent  states  there  is  not,  the  vicinage 
itself  is  the  natural  judge.’ — Burke.  Whoever  is  ap- 
pointed derives  his  authority  from  the  authority  of 
others,  and  has  consequently  but  limited  power  : no 
individual  can  appoint  another  with  authority  equal  to 
his  own;  ‘The  accusations  against  Columbus  gained 
such  credit  in  a jealous  court,  that  a commissioner  was 
appointed  to  repair  to  Hispaniola,  and  to  inspect  into 
his  conduct.’ — Robertson.  Whoever  is  deputed  has 
private  and  not  publick  authority  ; his  office  is  partial, 
often  confined  to  the  particular  transaction  of  an  indi- 
vidual, or  a body  of  individuals  ; ‘ If  the  Commons  dis- 
agree to  the  amendments,  a conference  usually  follows 
between  members  deputed  from  each  house.’ — Black- 
stone.  According  to  the  Romish  religion,  the  Pope  is 
constituted  supreme  head  of  the  Christian  church 
throughout  the  whole  world ; governours  are  appointed 
to  distant  provinces,  persons  are  deputed  to  present 
petitions  or  make  representations  to  government. 

It  has  been  the  fashion  of  the  present  day  to  speak 
contemptuously  of  all  constituted  authorities:  the  ap- 
pointments made  by  government  are  a fruitful  source 
of  discontent  for  those  who  follow  the  trade  of  oppo- 
sition: a busy  multitude,  when  agitated  by  political 
discussions,  are  ever  ready  to  form  societies  and  send 
deputations,  in  order  to  communicate  their  wishes  to 
Ui.ii  rulers. 


AMBASSADOR,  ENVOY,  PLENIPOTLNTIARt 
DEPUTY. 

Ambassador  is  supposed  to  come  from  the  low  Latin 
ambasciator  a waiter,  although  this  does  not  accord 
with  the  high  station  which  ambassadors  have  always 
held  ; envoy,  from  the  French  envoyer  to  send,  signifies 
one  sent ; plenipotentiary,  from  the  Latin  plenus  and 
potens,  signifies  one  invested  with  full  powers ; deputy 
signifies  one  deputed. 

Ambassadors,  envoys,  and  plenipotentiaries,  speak 
and  act  in  the  name  of  their  sovereigns,  with  this  dif- 
ference, that  the  first  are  invested  with  the  highest  au- 
thority, acting  in  all  cases  as  Iheir  representatives ; the 
second  appear  only  as  simple  authorized  ministers 
acting  for  another,  but  not  always  representing  him; 
the  third  are  a species  of  envoy  used  by  courts  only  on 
the  occasion  of  concluding  peace  or  making  treaties ; 
deputies  are  not  deputed  by  sovereigns,  although  they 
may  be  deputed  to  sovereigns ; they  have  no  power  to 
act  or  speak,  but  in  the  name  of  some  subordinate  com- 
munity, or  particular  body.  The  functions  of  the  first 
three  belong  to  the  minister,  those  of  the  latter  to  the 
agent. 

An  ambassador  is  a resident  in  a country  during  a 
state  of  peace;  he  must  maintain  the  dignity  of  his 
court  by  a suitable  degree  of  splendour;  ‘Prior  con- 
tinued to  act  without  a title  till  the  Duke  of  Shrewsbury 
returned  next  year  to  England,  and  then  he  assumed 
the  style  and  dignity  of  an  ambassador.' — Johnson 
An  envoy  may  be  a resident,  but  he  is  more  commonly 
employed  on  particular  occasions;  address  in  nego- 
tiating forms  an  essential  in  his  character;  ‘We  hear 
from  Rome,  by  letters  dated  the  20th  of  April,  that  the 
<;ount  de  Mellos,  envoy  from  the  king  of  Portugal,  had 
made  his  publick  entry  into  that  city  with  much  state 
and  magnificence.’ — Steele.  A plenipotentiary  is  not 
so  much  connected  with  the  court  immediately,  as  with 
persons  in  the  same  capacity  with  himself;  he  requires 
to  have  integrity,  coolness,  penetration,  loyalty,  and 
patriotism  ; ‘The  conferences  began  at  Utrecht  on  the 
1st  of  January,  1711-12,  and  the  Fnglish /ftenipotcnt/a- 
ries  arrived  on  the  fifteenth.’ — Johnson.  A deputy  has 
little  or  no  responsibility ; and  still  less  intercourse  with 
those  to  whom  he  is  deputed;  he  needs  no  more  talent 
than  is  sufficient  to  maintain  the  respectability  of  his 
own  character,  and  that  of  the  body  to  which  he  be- 
longs ; ‘ They  add  that  the  deputies  of  the  Swiss  cantons 
weiereturnedfrom  Soleure,  where  they  were  assembled 
at  the  instance  of  the  French  ambassador.' — Steele. 


DELEGATE,  DEPUTY. 

Delegate,-  in  Latin  delegatus,  from  delego,  signifies 
one  commissioned ; deputy,  in  Latin  deputatus,  from 
deputo,  signifies  one  to  whom  a business  is  assigned. 

A delegate  has  a more  active  office  than  a deputy  ; he 
is  appointed  to  execute  some  positive  commission,  and 
officiates  in  the  place  of  another; 

Elect  by  Jove,  his  delegate  of  sway. 

With  joyous  pride  the  summons  I’d  obey. — Pope. 

A deputy  may  often  serve  only  to  supply  the  place  or  an- 
swer in  the  name  of  one  who  is  absent ; ‘ Every  member 
(of  parliament),  though  chosen  by  onepai  Kculardistrict, 
when  elected  and  returned  serves  for  the  whole  realm  ; 
and  therefore  he  is  not  bound,  like  a deputy  in  the  U nited 
Provinces,  to  consult  with  his  constituents  on  any  par- 
ticular point.’ — Blackstone.  Delegates  are  mostly 
appointed  in  publick  transactions  ; deputies  are  chosen 
either  in  publick  or  private  matters:  delegates  are 
chosen  by  particular  bodies  for  purposes  of  negotia- 
tion either  in  regard  tocivil  or  political  affairs  ; deputies 
are  chosen  either  by  individuals  or  small  communities 
to  officiate  on  certain  occasions  of  a purely  civil  natu  vc : 
the  Hans  towns  in  Germany  used  formerly  to  gcr.d 
delegates  to  the  Diet  at  Ratisbon ; 

Let  chosen  delegates  this  hour  be  sent. 

Myself  will  name  them,  to  Pelides’  tent. — Pope. 
When  Calais  was  going  to  surrender  to  Edward  III. 
King  of  Ensland,  deputies  v.  ere  sent  from  the  towns- 
men to  implore  his  mercy:  ‘The  assembling  of  person* 
deputed  from  people  at  great  distances  is  a trouble  to 
them  that  are  sent  and  a charge  to  them  that  send.’ — 
Temple.  Delegate  is  sometimes  also  used  figuratively 
in  the  same  sense ; 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


21 


But  this 

And  all  t’le  lauch  transported  muse  can  sing, 

Are  to  thy  beauty,  dignity,  and  use. 

Unequal  far,  great  delegated  source 
Of  light,  and  life,  and  grace,  and  joy  below. 

Thomson. 

Deputy  is  also  extended  in  its  application  to  other  ob- 
jects; ‘ He  exerciseth  dominion  over  them  as  the  vice- 
gerent ind  deputy  of  Almighty  God.’— Halk. 


TO  NEGOTIATE,  TREAT  FOR  OR  ABOUT, 
TRANSACT. 

The  idea  of  conducting  business  with  others  is  in- 
cluded in  the  signification  of  alt  these  terms ; but  they 
differ  in  the  mode  of  conducting  it,  and  the  nature  of 
the  business  to  be  conducted.  JYegotiate,  in  the  Latin 
negotiatus,  participle  of  ncgotior,  from  negotium,  is 
applied  in  the  original  mostly  to  merchandise  or  traffick, 
but  it  is  now  more  commonly  employed  in  the  compli- 
cated concerns  of  governments  and  nations.  Treat, 
from  the  Latin  tracto,  frequentative  of  traho  to  draw, 
signifies  to  turn  over  and  over  or  set  forth  in  all  ways  ; 
these  two  verbs,  therefore,  suppose  deliberation : but 
transact,  from  transactus,  participle  of  transago,  to 
carry. forward  or  bring  to  an  end,  supposes  more  direct 
agency  than  consultation  or  deliberation ; this  latter  is 
therefore  adapted  to  the  more  ordinary  and  less  entan- 
gled concerns  of  commerce.  ^Negotiations  are  corn- 
ducted  by  many  parties,  and  involve  questions  of  peace 
or  war,  dominions,  territories,  rights  of  nations,  and 
the  like;  ‘ Ido  not  love  to  mingle  speech  with  any  about 
news  or  worldly  negotiations  in  God’s  holy  house.’ — 
Howkl.  Treaties  are  often  a part  of  negotiations: 
they  are  seldom  conducted  by  more  than  two  parties, 
and  involve  only  partial  questions,  as  in  treaties  about 
peace,  about  commerce,  about  the  boundaries  of  any 
particular  state,  or  between  families  about  domestick 
concerns;  ‘You  have  a great  work  in  hand,  for  you 
write  to  me  that  you  are  upon  a treaty  of  marriage.’ — 
Howel.  a congress  carries  on  negotiations  for  the 
establishment  of  good  order  among  the  ruling  powers 
af Europe;  individual  states  treat  with  each  other,  to 
settle  their  particular  differences.  To  negotiate  mostly 
respects  political  concerns,  except  in  the  case  of  nego- 
tiating bills:  to  treat,  as  well  as  transact,  is  said  of 
domestick  and  private  concerns : we  treat  with  a person 
about  the  purchase  of  a house  ; we  transact  business 
with  a person  either  by  paying  or  receiving  money, 
or  in  any  matter  of  mutual  interest;  ‘ We  are  permitted 
to  know  nothing  of  what  is  transacting  in  the  regions 
above  us.’ — Blair. 

As  nouns,  negotiation  expresses  rather  the  act  of  de- 
liberating than  the  thing  deliberated:  treaty  includes 
the  ideas  of  the  terms  proposed,  and  the  arrangement 
of  those  terms  ; transaction  expressesthe  idea  of  some- 
thing actually  done  and  linished,  and  in  that  sense  may 
often  be  the  result  of  a negotiation  or  treaty  ; ‘ It  is  not 
the  purpose  of  this  discourse  to  set  down  the  particular 
transactions  of  this  treaty.' — Clarendon.  JNegotia- 
tions  are  sometimes  very  long  pending  before  the  pre- 
liminary terms  are  even  proposed,  or  any  basis  is  de- 
fined ; treaties  of  commerce  are  entered  into  by  all 
civilized  countries,  in  order  to  obviate  misunderstand- 
ngs,  and  enable  them  to  preserve  an  amicable  inter- 
iourt  e ; the  transactions  which  daily  pass  in  a great 
meti  apolis,  like  that  of  London,  are  of  so  multifarious 
a nature,  and  so  infinitely  numerous,  that  the  bare  con- 
iemplation  of  them  fills  the  mind  with  astonishment. 
JNegotiations  are  long  or  short;  treaties  are  advan- 
tageous or  the  contrary ; transactions  are  honourable 
nr  dishonourable. 


MISSION,  MESSAGE,  ERRAND. 

Message,  from  the  Latin  missus,  participle  of  mitto 
to  send,  signifies  the  thing  for  which  one  is  sent ; mis- 
sion, signifies  the  state  of  being  sent,  or  thing  for  which 
one  is  sent;  errand,  from  erro  to  wander,  or  go  to  a 
distance,  signifies  the  thing  for  which  one  goes  to  a 
distance. 

Letween  mission  and  message  the  difference  consists 
as  much  in  the  application  as  the  sense.  The  mission 
is  always  a subject  of  importance,  and  the  situation  one 
of  trust  and  authority,  whence  it  is  with  propriety  ap- 
olicd  to  our  Saviour ; 


Her  son  tracing  the  desert  wild. 

All  his  great  work  to  come  before  him  set. 

How  to  begin,  how  to  accomplish  best. 

His  end  of  being  on  earth,  and  mission  high 

Milt  3N. 

The  subject  of  a message  is  of  inferiour  importance, 
and  is  commonly  intrusted  to  inferiour  persons. 

The  message  is  properly  any  communication  which  is 
conveyed ; the  errand  sent  from  one  person  to  another 
is  that  which  causes  one  to  go : servants  are  the  bearers 
of  messages,  and  are  sent  on  varic..s  errands.  The 
message  may  be  either  verbal  or  written;  the  errand 
is  limited  to  no  form,  and  to  no  circumstance  : one 
delivers  the  message,  and  goes  the  errand.  Sometimee 
the  message  may  be  the  errand,  and  the  errand  may 
include  the  message : when  that  which  is  sent  consists 
of  a notice  or  intimation  to  another,  it  is  a message; 
and  if  that  causes  any  one  to  go  to  a place,  it  is  an 
errand:  thus  it  is  that  the  greater  part  of  errands  con- 
sist of  sending  messages  from  one  person  to  another. 
Both  the  terms  message  and  errand  are  employed  by  the 
poets  in  reference  to  higher  objects,  but  they  preserve 
the  same  distinction ; 

The  scenes  where  ancient  bards  th’  inspiring  breath 

Ecsiatick  felt,  and,  from  this  world  retir’d. 

Convers’d  with  angels  and  immortal  forms, 

On  gracious  errands  bent. — Thomson. 

Sometimes,  from  lier  eyes, 

I did  receive  fair  speechless  messages. 

Shakspearb 

MINISTER,  AGENT. 

Minister  comes  from  minus  less,  as  magister  comes 
from  magis  more ; the  one  being  less,  and  the  other 
greater,  than  others;  the  minister,  therefore,  is  literally 
one  that  acts  in  a subordinate  capacity ; and  the  agent 
from  ago  to  act,  is  the  one  that  takes  the  acting  part . 
they  both  perform  the  will  of  another,  but  the  minister 
performs  a higher  part  than  the  agent:  the  minister 
gives  his  counsel,  and  exerts  his  intellectual  powers  in 
the  service  of  another;  but  the  agent  executes  the 
orders  or  commission  given  him : a minister  is  em- 
ployed by  government  in  political  affairs;  an  agent  is 
employed  by  individuals  in  commercial  and  pecuniary 
affairs,  or  by  government  in  subordinate  matters ; a 
minister  is  received  at  court,  and  serves  as  a represent- 
ative for  his  government;  an  generally  acts  undei 
the  directions  of  the  minister  or  some  officer  of  govern- 
ment: ambassadors  or  plenipotentiaries,  or  the  first 
officers  of  the  state,  are  ministers  ; but  those  who  regu 
late  the  affairs  respecting  prisoners,  the  police,  and  the 
like,  are  termed  agents. 

FORERUNNER,  PRECURSOR,  MESSENGER, 
HARBINGER. 

Forerunner  and  precursor  signify  literally  the  same 
thing,  namely,  one  running  before ; but  the  term  fore- 
runner is  properly  applied  only  to  one  who  runs  before 
to  any  spot  to  communicate  intelligence  ; and  it  is  figu- 
ratively applied  to  things  which  in  their  nature,  or  from 
a natural  connexion,  precede  others  ; precursor  is  only 
employed  in  this  figurative  sense  : thus  imprudent  spe 
dilations  are  said  to  be  the  forerunners  of  a man’s 
ruin  ; ‘ Loss  of  sicht  is  the  misery  of  life,  and  usually 
the  forerunner  of  death.’— South.  The  ferment  which 
took  place  in  men’s  minds  was  the  precursor  of  the 
French  revolution ; ‘ Gospeller  was  a name  of  contempt 
given  by  the  papists  to  the  Lollards,  the  puritans  of 
early  times,  and  the  precursors  of  protestantism.’— 
Johnson. 

Messenger  signifies  literally  one  bearing  messages . 
and  harbinger,  from  theTeutonick  signifies 

a provider  of  a korbege  or  inn  for  (irinces. 

Both  terms  are  employed  for  persons ; but  the  mes- 
senger slates  what  has  been  or  is;  the  harbinger  an- 
nounces what  is  to  be.  Our  Saviour  was  the  messenger 
of  glad  tidings  to  all  mankind  ; the  jirophets  were  the 
harbingers  of  the  Messiah.  A messenger  may  be  em- 
ployed on  different  offices ; a h'arbinger  is  a messenger 
who  acts  in  a specifick  office.  The  angeLs  are  repre 
seated  as  messengers  on  difierent  occasions  ; 

His  words  are  bonds,  his  oaths  areoracles. 

His  tears  pure  messengers  sent  from  his  heart 
Shakspeare 


216 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


John  the  Bajitist  was  the  harbinger  of  our  Saviour, 
who  prepared  the  way  of  the  Lori; 

Sin,  and  her  shadow  death  ; and  misery, 

Death’s  harbinger. — Milton. 


TO  INIERCEDE,  INTERPOSE,  MEDIATE,  IN- 
TERFERE, INTERMEDDLE. 

Intercede  signifies  literally  going  between ; inter- 
pose, placing  one’s  self  between ; mediate.,  coming  in 
the  middle  ; interfere,  setting  one’s  self  between  ; and 
intermeddle,  meddling  or  mixing  among. 

One  intercedes  between  parties  that  are  unequal ; 
one  interposes  between  parties  that  are  equal ; one  in- 
tercedes in  favour  of  that  party  which  is  threatened 
with  punishment;  one  interposes  between  parties  that 
inreaten  each  other  with  evil : we  intercede  with  the 
parent  in  favour  of  the  child  who  has  offended,  in 
order  to  obtain  pardon  for  him ; one  interposes  between 
two  friends  who  are  disputing,  to  prevent  them  from 
going  to  extremities.  One  intercedes  by  means  of 
persuasion  ; it  is  an  act  of  courtesy  or  kindness  in  the 
interceded  party  to  comply:  one  interposes  by  an  ex- 
ercise of  authority ; it  is  a matter  of  propriety  or 
necessity  in  the  parties  to  conform.  The  favourite  of 
a monarch  intercedes  in  behalf  of  some  criminal,  that 
his  punishment  may  be  mitigated;  ‘Virgil  recovered 
his  estate  by  Mtecenas’s  intercession.' — Dryden.  The 
magistrates  interpose  with  their  authority,  to  prevent 
the  broils  of  tlie  disorderly  from  coming  to  serious  acts 
of  violence ; 

Those  few  you  see  escap’d  the  storm,  and  fear. 

Unless  you  interpose,  a shipwreck  here. — Dryden. 

To  mediate  and  intercede  are  both  conciliatory  acts; 
the  intercessor  and  mediator  are  equals  or  even  infe- 
riours ; to  interpose  is  an  act  of  authority,  and  belongs 
most  commonly  to  a superiour  : one  intercedes  or  inter- 
poses for  the  removal  of  evil ; one  mediates  for  the 
attainment  of  good:  Christ  is  our  Intercessor,  to  avert 
from  us  the  consequences  of  our  guilt , he  is  our 
Mediator,  to  obtain  for  us  tlie  blessings  of  grace  and 
salvation.  An  intercessor  only  pleads : a mediator 
guarantees;  he  takes  upon  himself  a responsibility. 
Christ  is  our  Intercessor,  by  virtue  of  his  relationship 
with  the  Father : he  is  our  Mediator,  by  virtue  of  his 
atonement ; by  which  act  he  takes  upon  himself  the 
sins  of  all  who  are  truly  penitent. 

To  intercede  and  interpose  are  employed  on  the 
highest  and  lowest  occasions ; to  mediate  is  never  em- 
ployed but  in  matters  of  the  greatest  moment.  As 
earthly  offenders  we  require  the  intercession  of  a fellow 
mortal ; as  offenders  against  the  God  of  Heaven,  we 
require  the  intercession  of  a Divine  Being:  without 
the  timely  interposition  of  a superiour,  trifling  disputes 
may  grow  into  bloody  quarrels;  without  the  inter- 
position of  Divine  Providence,  we  cannot  conceive  of 
any  thing  important  as  taking  place ; to  settle  the  affairs 
of  nations,  mediators  may  afford  a salutary  assistance; 
‘ It  is  generally  better  (in  negotiating)  to  deal  by  speech 
than  by  letter,  and  by  the  mediation  of  a third  than 
by  a man’s  self.’ — Bacon.  To  bring  about  the  re- 
demption of  a lost  world,  the  Son  of  God  condescended 
to  be  Mediator. 

All  these  acts  are  performed  for  the  good  of  others : 
hut  interfere  and  intermeddle  ate  of  a different  de- 
scription : one  may  interfere  for  the  good  of  others,  or 
to  gratify  one’s  self;  one  never  intermeddles  but  for 
selfish  purposes : the  first  three  terms  are,  therefore, 
always  used  in  a good  sense  ; the  fourth  in  a good  or 
bad  sense,  according  to  circumstances;  the  last  always 
in  a bad  sense. 

To  interfere  has  nothing  conciliating  in  it  like 
intercede,  nothing  authoritative  in  it  like  interpose, 
nothing  responsible  in  it  like  mediate  ; it  may  be  useful, 
or  it  may  be  injurious  ; it  may  be  authorized  or  unau- 
thorized ; it  may  be  necessary,  or  altogether  imper- 
tinent: when  we  interfere  so  as  to  make  peace  be- 
tween men,  it  is  useful ; but  when  we  interfere  unrea- 
sonably, it  often  occasions  differences  rather  than 
removes  them ; ‘ Religion  interferes  not  with  any 
rational  pleasure.’— South. 

Intercede,  and  the  other  terms,  are  used  in  cases 
where  two  or  more  parties  are  concerned;  hwiinterfere 
and  intermeddl'  are  said  of  what  concerns  only  one 
individual;  one  interferes  and  intermeddles  rather  in 
the  concern,  than  between  the  persons ; and,  on  that 


account,  it  becomes  a question  viif  some  impoi  lance  U 
decide  when  we  ought  to  interfere  in  the  affairs  of 
another  : with  regard  to  intermeddle,  it  always  is  the 
unauthorized  act  of  one  who  is  busy  in  things  that 
ought  not  to  concern  him  ; ‘ The  sight  intermeddles  rql 
with  that  which  affects  the  smell.’ — South. 


INTERMEDIATE,  INTERVENING. 

Intermediate  signifies  being  in  the  midst,  between 
two  objects;  intervening  signifies  coming  between, 
the  former  is  applicable  to  space  and  time ; the  lattef 
either  to  time  or  circumstances. 

The  intermediate  time  between  the  commencemenf 
and  the  termination  of  a truce  is  occupied  with  pre- 
parations for  the  renewal  of  hostilities ; ‘ A right 
opinion  is  that  which  connects  truth  by  the  shortest 
train  of  intermediate  propositions.’ — Johnson.  Inter- 
vening circumstances  sometimes  change  the  views  of 
the  belligerent  parties,  and  dispose  their  minds  to 
peace;  ‘Hardly  would  any  transient  gleams  of  inter- 
vening joy  be  able  to  force  its  way  through  the  clouds, 
if  the  successive  scenes  of  distress  through  which  we 
are  to  pass  were  laid  before  our  view.’— Blair 

INTERVENTION,  INTERPOSITION. 

The  intervention,  from  inter  between,  and  verao  to 
come,  is  said  of  inanimate  objects ; the  interposition, 
from  inter  between,  and  pono  to  place,  is  said  only 
of  rational  agents.  The  light  of  the  moon  is  obstructed 
by  the  intervention  of  the  clouds;  the  life  of  an  indi 
vidual  is  preserved  by  theinterposition  of  a superiour : 
human  life  is  so  full  of  contingencies,  that  when  we 
have  formed  our  projects  we  can  never  say  what  may 
intervene  to  prevent  their  execution  ; ‘ Reflect  also  on 
the  calamitous  intervention  of  picture-cleaners  (to 
originals).’— Barry.  When  a man  is  engaged  in  an 
unequal  combat,  he  has  no  chance  of  escaping  but 
by  the  timely  interposition  of  one  who  is  able  to  rescue 
him ; 

Death  ready  stands  to  interpose  his  dart.’ — Milton 

TO  BIND,  OBLIGE,  ENGAGE 

Bind,  through  the  medium  of  the  northern  lats 
guages,  comes  from  the  Latin  vincio,  and  the  Greek 
aejii'/yta ; to  oblige,  in  French  obliger,  Latin  obligo 
compounded  of  ob  and  ligo,  signifies  to  lie  up  ; engage, 
in  French  engager,  compounded  of  en  or  in  and  gags 
a pledge,  signifies  to  bind  by  means  of  a pledge. 

Bind  is  more  forcible  and  coercive  than  obliges; 
oblige  than  engage.  We  are  hound  by  an  oath, 
obliged  by  circumstances,  and  engaged  by  promises. 

Conscience  binds,  prudence  or  necessity  obliges, 
honour  and  principle  engage.  A parent  is  bound  no 
less  by  the  law  of  his  conscience,  than  by  those  of  the 
community  to  which  he  belongs,  to  provide  for  his 
helpless  offspring.  Politeness  obliges  men  of  the  world 
to  preserve  a friendly  exteriour  towardsthose  for  whom 
they  have  no  regard.  When  we  are  engaged  in  the 
service  of  our  king  and  country,  we  cannot  shrink  from 
oiir  duty  without  exposing  ourselves  to  the  infamy  oi 
all  the  world. 

We  bind  a man  by  fear  of  what  may  befall  him  ; we 
oblige  him  by  some  immediately  urgent  motive;  we 
engage  him  by  alluring  offers,  and  the  prospect  of 
pin.  A debtor  is  bound  to  pay  by  virtue  of  a written 
instrument  in  law ; 

Who  c!Vi  be  hound  by  any  solemn  vow, 

To  do  a murd’rous  deed  1 — Shakspeare. 

He  is  obliged  to  pay  in  consequence  of  the  importu 
nate  demands  of  the  creditor ; ‘ No  man  is  commandetl 
or  obliged  to  obey  beyond  his  power.’ — South.  He  ip 
ensnged  to  pay  in  v;onscquence  of  a promise  given ; 

‘ While  the  Israelites  were  appearing  in  God’s  houss’ 
God  himself  engages  to  keep  and  defend  tiieirs,’— 
South.  A bond  is  the  strictest  deed  in  law;  an  obit 
gation  binds  under  pain  of  a pecuniaiy  Io3';  an 
engagement  is  mostly  verbal,  and  rests  entlit'ij  on  thi 
rectitude  of  the  parties. 

TO  BIND,  TIE. 

Bind,  in  Saxon  binden,  German,  blnu'x,  come* 
from  the  Latin  vincio,  Greek  c^h  vo/,  evi  \ i .'lur  icte' 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


with  the  word  wind  : tie,  in  Saxon  tian,  is  very  pro- 
Dably  connected  with  the  low  German  teficn,  liigh 
German  ziehen  to  draw,  the  English  tug  or  tow,  and  the 
Latin  duco  to  draw. 

The  species  of  fastening  denoted  by  these  two  words 
differ  both  in  manner  and  degree  Binding  is  per- 
formed by  circumvolution  round  a body;  tying,  by 
involution  within  itself  Somebodies  are  bound  with- 
out being  tied;  others  are  tied  without  being  bound: 
a wounded  leg  is  bound  but  not  tied  ; 

Now  are  our  brows  bound  with  victorious  wreaths, 

Our  stern  alarms  are  chang’d  to  merry  meetings. 

Shakspeark. 

A string  is  tied  but  not  bound  ; 

A fluttering  dove  upon  the  top  they  tie, 

The  living  mark  at  which  their  arrows  fly 

Dryden. 

A riband  may  sometimes  be  hound  round  the  head, 
and  tied  under  the  chin.  Binding  therefore  serves  to 
keep  several  things  in  a compact  form  together ; tying 
may  serve  to  prevent  one  single  body  separating  from 
another ; a criminal  is  bound  hand  and  foot ; he  is 
tied  to  a stake. 

Binding  and  tying  likewise  differ  in  degree ; bind- 
ing serves  to  produce  adhesion  in  all  the  parts  of  a 
body  ; tying  only  to  produce  contact  in  a single  part; 
thus  when  the  hair  is  bound,  it  is  almost  enclosed  in 
an  envelope : when  it  is  tied  with  a string,  the  ends  are 
left  to  hang  loose. 

A similar  distinction  is  preserved  in  the  figurative 
use  of  the  terms.  A bond  of  union  is  applicable  to  a 
large  body  with  many  component  parts;  a tie  of  affec- 
tion marks  an  adhesion  between  individual  minds; 

As  nature’s  ties  decay  ; 

As  duty,  love,  and  honour  fail  to  sway  ; 

Fictitious  bonds,  the  bonds  of  wealth  and  law. 

Still  gather  strength,  and  force  unwilling  awe. 

Goldsmith. 


CHAIN,  FETTER,  BAND,  SHACKLE. 

Chain,  in  French  chaine,  Latin  catena,  probably 
contracted  frim  captena,  comes  from  capio,  signifying 
that  which  takes  or  holds ; fetter,  in  German  fessel, 
comes  from  fasscn  to  lay  hold  of ; band,  from  bind,  sig- 
nifies that  which  binds  ; shackle,  in  Saxon  scacul,  from 
shake,  signifies  that  wliich  makes  a creature  shake  or 
move  irregularly  by  confining  the  legs. 

All  these  terms  designate  the  instrument  by  which 
animals  or  men  are  confined.  Chain  is  general  and 
indefinite ; all  the  rest  are  species  of  chains : but 
there  are  many  chains  which  do  not  come  under  the 
other  names;  a chain  is  indefinite  as  to  its  make;  it 
is  made  generally  of  iron  rings,  but  of  different  sizes 
and  shapes : fetters  are  larger,  they  consist  of  many 
stout  chains : bands  are  in  general  any  thing  which 
confines  the  body  or  the  limbs;  they  maybe  either 
chains  or  even  cords;  shackle  is  that  species  of  chain 
which  goes  on  the  legs  to  confine  them;  malefactors 
of  the  worst  order  have  fetters  on  different  parts  of 
their  bodies,  and  shackles  on  their  legs. 

These  terms  may  all  be  used  figuratively.  The 
substantive  chain  is  applied  to  whatever  hangs  toge- 
ther like  a cf^ain,  as  a chain  of  events  ; but  the  verb 
to  chain  signifies  to  confine  as  with  a chain  : thus  the 
mind  is  chained  to  rules,  according  to  the  opinions  of 
the  free  thinkers,  when  men  adhere  strictly  to  rule 
and  order  ; and  to  represent  the  slavery  of  conforming 
to  the  establishment,  they  tell  us  we  are  fettered  by 
systems ; 

Almighty  wisdom  never  acts  in  vain. 

Nor  shall  the  soul,  on  which  it  has  bestow’d 
Such  powers,  e’er  perish  like  an  earthly  clod  ; 

But  fiurg’d  at  length  from  foul  corruption’s  stain. 
Freed  from  her  prison,  and  unbound  her  chain. 

She  shall  her  native  strength  and  native  skies  regain. 

Jenyns. 

‘Legislators  have  no  rule  to  bind  them  but  the  great 
principles  of  justice  and  equity.  These  they  are 
hound  to  obey  and  follow ; and  rather  to  enlarge  and 
enlighten  law  by  the  liberality  of  legislative  reason 
than  to  fetter  their  higher  capacity  by  the  narrow  con- 
»tructions  of  subordinate  artificial  justice.’ — Burke. 
Batd  in  the  figurative  sense  is  applied,  particularly  in  | 


poetry,  to  every  tlAng  which  is  supposed  to  serve  the 
purpose  of  a band ; thus  love  is  said  to  have  its  silken 
bands ; 

Break  his  bands  of  sleep  asunder. 

And  rouse  him  like  a rattling  peal  of  thunder 

Dryden. 

Shackle,  whether  as  a substantive  or  a verb,  retains 
the  idea  of  controlling  the  movements  of  the  person, 
not  in  his  body  only,  but  also  in  his  mind  and  m his 
moral  conduct ; thus,  a man  who  commences  life  with 
a borrowed  capital  is  shackled  in  his  commercial  con 
cerns  by  the  interest  he  has  to  pay,  and  tlu  obligations 
he  has  to  discharge ; ‘ It  is  the  freedom  of  the  spirit 
that  gives  worth  and  life  to  the  performance.  But  a 
servant  commonly  is  less  free  in  mind  than  in  coiidition ; 
his  very  will  seems  to  be  in  bonds  and  shackles.’— 
South. 


DEBT,  DEE. 

Debt  and  due  are  both  derived  from  the  same  veio 
Debt  comes  from  debitus,  participle  of  the  Latin  verb 
debeo : and  due,  in  French  du,  p-rticiple  of  devoir 
comes  likewise  from  debeo  to  owe. 

Debt  is  used  always  as  a substantive;  due,  either  as 
a substantive  or  an  adjective.  A person  contracts 
debts,  and  receives  his  due.  The  debt  is  both  obli- 
gatory and  compulsory;  it  is  a return  for  something 
equivalent  in  value,  and  cannot  be  dispensed  wifli ; 
what  is  due  is  obligatory,  but  not  always  compulsory. 
A debtor  may  be  compelled  to  discharge  his  debts ; but 
it  is  not  always  in  the  power  of  a man  even  to  claim 
that  which  is  his  due.  Debt  is  generally  used  in  a 
mercantile  sense;  d«e  either  in  a mercantile  or  moral 
sense.  A debt  is  determined  by  law ; what  is  due  is 
fixed  often  by  principles  of  equity  and  honour.  He 
who  receives  the  stipulated  price  of  his  gornls  receives 
his  debt;  he  who  receives  praise  and  honour,  as  a re- 
ward of  good  actions,  receives  his  due: 

The  ghosts  rejected  are  th’  unhappy  crew, 
Depriv’d  of  sepulchres  and  fun’ral  due. 

Dryden. 

Debt  may  sometimes  be  used  figuratively,  a?,  to  pay 
the  debt  of  nature;  ‘Though  Christ  was  as  pure  and 
undefiled,  without  the  least  spot  of  sin,  as  purity  ant 
innocence  itself ; yet  he  was  pleased  to  make  himselt 
the  greatest  sinner  in  the  world  by  imputation,  and 
render  himself  a surety  responsible  for  our  debts  ■ 
South. 


PROMISE,  ENGAGEMENT,  WORD. 

Promise,  in  Latin  promissus,  from  promitto,  com 
pounded  of  pro  before,  and  mitto  to  set  or  fix,  that  is, 
to  fix  beforehand  ; engagement  is  that  which  engages 
a person,  or  places  him  under  an  engagement;  word, 
that  is,  the  word  given. 

The  promise  is  specifick,  and  consequently  more 
binding  than  the  engagement:  we  promise  a thing  in 
a set  form  of  words,  that  are  clearly  and  strictly  under- 
stood ; we  engage  in  general  terms,  thar  may  admit  of 
alteration:  a promise  is  mostly  unconditional;  an  en 
gagement  is  frequently  conditional.  In  promises  the 
faith  of  an  individual  is  admitted  upon  his  word,  and 
built  upon  as  if  it  were  a deed  ; in  engagements  the 
intentions  of  an  individual  for  the  future  are  all  that 
are  either  implied  or  understood  : on  the  fulfilment  of 
promises  often  depend  the  most  important  interests  of 
individuals ; ‘ An  acre  of  performance  is  worth  the 
whole  world  of  promise.’— Powi:!..  An  attention  to 
engagements  is  a matter  of  mutual  convenience  in  the 
ordinary  concerns  of  life;  ‘ The  engagements  I had  to 
Dr.  Swift  were  such  as  the  actual  services  he  had 
done  me,  in  relation  to  the  subscription  for  Homer, 
obliged  me  to.’ — Pope.  A man  makes  a promise  of 
payment,  and  upon  his  promise  it  may  happen  that 
many  others  depend  upon  the  fulfilment  of  their  pro 
mises ; when  engagements  are  made  to  visit  or  meet 
others,  an  inattention  to  such  engagements  causes 
great  trouble.  As  a. promise  and  engagement  can  be 
made  only  by  words,  the  word  is  often  [lut  for  either 
or  for  both,  as  the  case  requires:  he  who  breaks  his 
iBord  in  stnall  matters  cannot  be  trusted  when  he  giveg 
his  word  in  matters  of  coiiseauence ; 


818 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


iEneas  was  our  prince,  a juster  lord, 

Or  nobler  warriour,  never  drew  a sword  ; 
Observant  of  the  r^ht,  religious  of  his  word. 

Drvden. 


TO  IMPLICATE,  INVOLVE. 

Implicate,  from  plico  to  fold,  denotes  to  fold  into  a 
thing ; and  involve,  from  volvo  to  roll,  signifies  to  roll 
nto  a thing:  by  which  explanation  we  perceive,  that 
lo  implicate  marks  something  less  entangled  than  to 
Involve : for  that  which  is  folded  may  be  folded  only 
once,  but  that  which  is  rolled,  is  rolled  many  times. 
In  application  therefore  to  human  affairs,  people  are 
said  to  be  implicated  who  have  taken  ever  so  small  a 
share  in  a transaction  ; but  they  are  involved  only 
when  they  are  deeply  concerned : the  former  is  like- 
wise especially  applied  to  criminal  transactions,  the 
latter  to  those  things  which  are  in  themselves  trouble- 
some ; thus  a man  is  implicated  in  the  guilt  of  robbery, 
who  should  stand  by  and  see  it  done,  without  inter- 
fering for  its  prevention ; as  law-suits  are  of  all  things 
the  most  intricate  and  harassing,  he  who  is  engaged  in 
one  is  said  to  be  involved  in  it,  or  he  who  is  in  debt  in 
every  direction  is  strictly  said  to  be  involved  in  debt ; 
‘Those  who  cultivate  the  memory  of  our  Revolution, 
will  take  care  how  they  are  involved  with  persons  who, 
under  pretext  of  zeal  towards  the  Revolution  and  con- 
stitution, frequently  wander  from  their  true  princi- 
ples.’— Burke.  When  implication  is  derived  from 
the  verb  impUj,  signifying  the  act  of  implying,  it  de- 
parts altogether  from  the  meaning  of  involve;  ‘ I'hat 
which  can  exalt  a wife  only  by  degrading  a husband, 
will  appear  on  the  whole  not  worth  the  acquisition, 
even  though  it  could  be  made  without  provoking 
jealousy  by  the  implication  of  contempt.’ — Hawkes- 
WORTH. 


TO  DISENGAGE,  DISENTANGLE, 
EXTRICATE. 

To  disengage  is  to  make  free  from  an  engagement  ; 
disentangle  to  get  rid  of  an  entanglement ; extricate, 
in  Latin  extricatus,  from  ex  and  tnea  a hair,  or  noose, 
signifies  to  get  as  it  were  out  of  a noose.  As  to  en- 
gage signifies  simply  to  bind,  and  entangle  signifies  to 
bind  in  an  involved  manner;  \o  disentangle  is  natu- 
rally applied  to  matters  of  greater  difficulty  and  per- 
plexity than  to  disengage : and  as  the  term  extricate 
includes  the  idea  of  that  which  would  hold  fast  and 
keep  within  a tight  involvement,  it  is  employed  with  re- 
spect to  matters  of  the  greatest  possible  embarrassment 
and  intricacy.  We  may  be  disengaged  from  an  oath ; 
disentangled  from  pecuniary  difficulties  ; extricated 
from  a suit  at  law : it  is  not  right  to  expect  to  bo  dis- 
engaged frotn  all  the  duties  which  attach  to  men  as 
members  of  society;  ‘In  old  age  the  voice  of  nature 
calls  you  to  leave  to  others  the  bustle  and  contest  of 
the  world,  and  gradually  to  disengage  yourself  from 
a burden  which  begins  to  exceed  your  strength.’ — 
Blair.  He  who  enters  into  disputes  about  contested 
property  must  not  expect  to  be  soon  disentangled  from 
the  law  ; ‘ Savage  seldom  a, opeared  to  be  melancholy 
but  when  some  sudden  misfortune  had  fallen  upon 
him,  and  even  then  in  a few  moments  he  would 
disentangle  himself  from  his  perplexity.’ — Johnson. 
When  a general  has  committed  himself  by  coming 
into  too  close  a contact  with  a very  superiour  force,  he 
may  think  himself  fortunate  if  he  can  extricate  him- 
self from  his  awkward  situation  with  the  loss  of  half 
his  army;  ‘ Nature  felt  its  inability  to  extricate  itself 
from  the  consequences  of  guilt ; the  Gospel  reveals 
the  plan  of  Divine  interposition  and  aid.’ — Blair. 

TO  UNFOLD,  UNRAVEL,  DEVELOPE. 

To  unfold  is  to  open  that  which  has  been  folded ; 
to  unravel  is  to  open  that  which  has  been  ravelled  or 
tangled ; to  develope  is  to  open  that  which  has  been 
wrapped  in  an  envelope.  The  application  of  these  terms 
therefore  to  moral  objects  is  obvious:  what  has  been 
folded  atid  kept  secret  is  unfolded;  in  this  manner  a 
bidden  transaction  is  unjolded,  by  being  related  cir- 
cumstantially; 

And  tc  the  sage-instructing  eye  unfold 

Ihf  various  (wine  of  light.— Thomson. 


What  has  been  entangled  in  any  mystery  or  conlusloh 
is  unravelled : in  this  manner  a n ysterious  transaction 
is  unravelled,  if  every  circumstance  is  fully  accounted 
for ; ‘ You  must  be  sure  to  unravel  all  your  designs  to 
a jealous  man.’ — Addison.  What  has  been  wrapped 
up  so  as  to  be  entirely  shut  out  from  vievt  is  developed  , 
in  this  manner  the  plot  of  a play  or  novel,  or  the  cha- 
racter and  talent  of  a person,  are  developed  ; ‘ The  cha 
racter  of  Tiberius  is  extremely  difficult  to  develone 
Cumberland. 


COMPLEXITY,  COMPLICATION, 
INTRICACY. 

Complexity  and  complication,  in  French  comphea 
tion,  Latin  complicatio  and  complico,  compounded  of 
com  and  plico,  signifies  a folding  one  within  another, 
intricacy,  in  Latin  intricatio  and  intrico,  compounded 
of  in  and  trico  or  trices,  the  small  hairs  which  are  used 
to  ensnare  birds,  signifies  a state  of  entanglement  by 
means  of  many  involutions. 

Complexity  expresses  the  abstract  quality  or  state . 
complication  the  act:  they  both  convey  less  than  intri 
cacy ; intricate  is  that  which  is  very  complicated. 

Complexity  arises  from  a multitude  of  objects,  and 
the  nature  of  these  objects ; complication  from  an  in 
volvement  of  objects ; and  intricacy  from  a winding 
and  confused  involution.  What  is  complex  must  be 
decomposed  ; what  is  complicated  must  be  developed ; 
what  is  intricate  must  be  unravelled.  A proposition 
is  complex;  affairs  are  complicated;  the  law  is  tnfn- 
cate. 

Complexity  puzzles ; complication  confounds  ; intri- 
cacy bewilders.  A clear  head  is  requisite  for  under- 
standing the  complex ; keenness  and  penetration  are 
required  to  lay  open  that  which  is  complicated;  a 
comprehensive  mind,  coupled  with  coolness  and  per- 
severance of  research,  are  essential  to  disentangle  the 
intricate.  A copmlex  system  may  have  every  perfec- 
tion but  the  one  that  is  requisite,  namely,  a fitness  to  be 
reduced  to  practice.  Complicated  schemes  of  villany 
commonly  frustrate  themselves.  They  require  unity 
of  design  among  too  many  individuals  of  ditferent  sta- 
tions, interests,  and  vices,  to  allow  of  frequent  success 
with  such  heterogeneous  combinations.  T\\g  intricacy 
of  the  law  is  but  the  natural  attendant  on  human 
affairs  ; every  question  admits  of  difierent  illustrations 
as  to  their  causes,  consequences,  analogies,  and  bear 
ings ; it  is  likewise  dependent  on  so  many  cases  infi 
nitely  ramified  as  to  impede  the  exercise  of  the  judge- 
ment in  the  act  of  deciding. 

The  complexity  of  the  subject  often  deters  young 
persons  from  application  to  their  business  ; 

Through  the  disclosing  deep 
Light  my  blind  way  ; the  mineral  strata  there 
Thrust  blooming,  thence  the  vegetable  world; 

O’er  that  the  rising  system  more  complex 
Of  animals,  and  higher  still  the  mind. 

Thomson. 

There  is  nothing  embarrasses  a physician  more  than  a 
complication  of  disorders,  where  the  remedy  for  one 
impedes  the  cure  for  the  other ; ‘ Every  living  creature, 
considered  in  itself,  has  many  very  complicated  parts 
that  are  exact  copies  of  some  other  parts  which  it  pos- 
sesses, and  which  axe  complicated  mihessftwG  manner.’ 
—Addison.  Some  affairs  are  involved  in  such  a de- 
gree of  intricacy,  as  to  exhaust  the  patience  and  perse- 
verance of  the  most  laborious;  ‘ When  the  mind,  by 
insensible  degrees,  has  brought  itself  to  atte^nion  and 
close  thinking,  it  will  be  able  to  cope  with  difficulties. 
Every  abstruse  problem,  every  intricate  question,  will 
not  baffle  or  break  it.’ — Locke. 


COMPOUND,  COMPLEX. 

Compound  comes  from  the  present  of  compono,  aa 
compose  (v.  To  compose)  comes  from  composui  the  pre- 
terite of  the  same  verb;  complex  {v.  Complexity). 

The  compound  consist  of  similar  and  whole  bodies 
put  together ; the  complex  consists  of  various  parts 
linked  together : adhesion  is  sufficient  to  constitute  a 
compound;  involution  is  requisite  for  the  complex 
We  distinguish  the  wholes  that  form  the  compound ; 
we  separate  the  parts  that  form  the  complex  What  is 
compound  may  consist  only  of  two;  what  is  comvlex 
consists  always  of  several. 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  2iS 


Compound  and  complex  are  both  commonly  opposed 
to  the  simple ; but  the  former  may  be  opposed  to  the 
single,  and  the  latter  to  the  simple.  Words  are  com- 
pound, seiitetices  are  complex ; ‘ Inasmuch  as  man  is  a 
compound  and  a mixture  of  flesh  as  well  as  spirit,  tlie 
soul  during  its  abode  in  the  body  does  all  things  by  the 
mediation  of  these  passions,  and  inferiour  affections.’ — 
Sooth. 

With  such  perfection  fram’d, 

Is  this  complex  stupendous  scheme  of  things. 

Thomson. 

TO  COMPOUND,  COMPOSE. 

Compound  (v.  Compound)  is  used  in  the  physical 
sense  only ; compose  in  the  proper  or  the  moral  sense. 
Words  are  compounded  by  making  two  or  more  into 
one;  sentences  decomposed  by  putting  words  together 
so  as  to  make  sense.  A medicine  is  compounded  of 
many  ingredients;  society  is  composed  of  various 
classes;  ‘The  simple  beauties  of  nature,  if  they  can- 
not be  multiplied,  may  be  compounded.' — Bathurst. 

‘ The  heathens,  ignorant  of  the  true  source  of  moral 
evil,  generally  charged  it  on  the  obliquity  of  matter. 
This  notion,  as  most  others  of  theirs,  is  a composition 
of  truth  and  errour.’— Grove. 


TO  COMPEL,  FORCE,  OBLIGE,  NECESSITATE. 

Compel,  Latin  compello  or  pello  to  drive,  signifies  to 
drive  for  a specifick  purpose  or  to  a point;  for\i,  in 
French /orce,  comes  from  the  Latin /wrtrs  strong;/orce 
being  nothing  but  the  exertion  of  strength  ; oblige,  in 
French  obliger,  Latin  obligo,  compounded  of  ob  and 
ligo,  signifies  to  bind  down.  These  three  terms  mark 
an  external  action  on  the  will,  but  compel  expresses 
more  than  oblige,  and  less  than  force.  ^Necessitate  is 
to  make  necessary. 

Compel  and  force  act  much  more  directly  and  posi- 
tively than  or  necessitate;  and  the  latter  indi- 

cates more  of  physical  strength  than  the  former.  We 
are  compelled  by  outward  or  inward  motives;  we  are 
obliged  more  by  motives  than  any  thing  else ; we  are 
forced  sometimes  by  circumstances,  though  oftener  by 
plain  strength ; we  are  necessitated  solely  by  circum- 
stances. An  adversary  is  compelled  to  yield  who  re- 
signs from  despair  of  victory;  he  is  forced  to  yield  if 
he  stand  in  fear  of  his  life ; he  is  obliged  to  yield  if  he 
cannot  withstand  the  entreaties  of  his  friends ; he  is 
necessitated  to  yield  if  he  want  the  strength  to  continue 
the  contest. 

An  obstinate  person  must  be  compelled  to  give  up  his 
point ; 

You  will  compel  me  then  to  read  the  will. 

Shakspeare. 

A turbulent  and  disorderly  man  must  be  forced  to  go 
where  the  officers  of  justice  choose  to  lead  him  ; 

With  fates  averse,  the  rout  in  arms  resort 

To  force  their  monarch,  and  insult  the  court. 

Dryden. 

An  unreasonable  person  must  be  obliged  to  satisfy  a 
ust  demand  ; ‘ He  that  once  owes  more  than  he  can 
pay  is  often  obliged  to  bribe  his  creditors  to  patience, 
by  increasing  his  debt.’ — Johnsun.  We  are  all  occa- 
sionally necessitated  to  do  that  which  is  not  agreeable 
to  us  ; ‘I  have  sometimes  fancied  that  women  have  not 
a retentive  power,  or  the  faculty  of  suppressing  their 
thoughts,  but  that  they  are  necessitated  to  speak  every 
thing  they  think.’ — Addison. 

Pecuniary  want  compels  men  to  do  many  things  in- 
consistent with  their  station; 

He  would  the  ghosts  of  slaughter’d  soldiers  call. 
These  his  dread  wands  did  to  short  life  compel. 

And  forc'd  the  fate  of  battles  to  foretell. — Dryden.' 
Honour  and  religion  oblige  men  scrupulously  to  observe 
their  word  one  to  another;  ‘The  church  hath  been 
thought  fit  to  be  called  Catholick,  in  reference  to  the 
universal  obedience  which  it  prescribeth ; both  in  re- 
spect of  the  persons  obliging  men  of  all  conditions ; and 
in  relation  to  the  precepts  requiring  the  performance  of 
all  the  evangelical  commands.’ — Pearson.  Hunger 
forces  men  to  eat  that  which  is  most  loathsome  to  the 
palate.  The  fear  of  a loss  necessitates  a man  to  give 
up  a favourite  project.  « 


FORCE,  VIOLENCE. 

Force  signifies  here  the  exertion  of  strength  in  a pai 
ticular  manner,  which  brings  it  very  near  to  the  mean- 
ing of  violence,  which,  from  the  Latin  violentia  and  vis 
force,  comes  from  the  Greek  ftca  strength. 

Force,  which  expresses  a much  less  degree  of  exer 
tion  than  violence,  is  ordinarily  employed  to  supply  the 
want  of  a proper  w'lW,  violence  is  used  to  counterdci  an 
opposing  will.  The  arm  of  justice  must  exercise  force 
in  order  to  bring  offenders  to  a proper  account;  one 
nation  exercises  violence  against  another  in  the  act  of 
carrying  on  war.  Force  is  mostly  conformable  to 
reason  and  equity,  or  employed  in  self  defence ; 

Our  host  expell’d,  what  farther  force  can  stay 
The  victor  troops  from  universal  sway  1 

Dryden 

Violence  is  always  resorted  to  for  the  attainment  of 
that  which  is  unattainable  by  law;  ‘He  sees  his  dis 
tress  to  be  the  immediate  effect  of  human  violence  or 
oirpression ; and  is  obliged  at  the  same  time  to  consider 
it  as  a Divine  judgement.’ — Blair.  All  who  are  in- 
vested with  authority  have  occasion  to  use  force  at 
certain  times  to  subdue  the  unruly  will  of  those  who 
should  submit:  violence  and  rapine  are  inseparable 
companions : a robber  could  not  subsist  by  the  latter 
without  exercising  the  former.. 

In  an  extended  and  figurative  appheation  to  things, 
these  terms  convey  the  same  general  idea  of  exerting 
strengtlL  That  is  said  to  have  force  that  acts  with 
force  ; and  that  to  have  violence  that  acts  with  vio- 
lence. A word,  an  expression,  or  a remark,  has  force 
or  is  forcible;  a disorder,  a passion,  a sentiment,  has 
violence  or  is  violent.  Force  is  always  something  de- 
sirable ; violence  is  always  something  hurtful.  We 
ought  to  listen  to  arguments  which  have  force  in  them  ; 
we  endeavour  to  correct  the  violence  of  all  angry  pas 
sions. 


VIOLENT,  FURIOUS,  BOISTEROUS,  VEHE 
MENT,  IMPETUOUS. 

Violent  signifies  having  force  ; furious  having /wry, 
boisterous  in  all  probability  comes  from  bestir,  signi- 
fying ready  to  bestir  or  come  into  motion  ; vehement., 
in  Latin  ?jeAe7news,  compounded  of  veho  and  mens,  sig- 
nifies carried  away  by  the  mind  or  the  force  of  passion  ; 
impetuous,  that  is,  having  animpetus. 

Violent  is  here  the  most  general  term,  including  the 
idea  of  force  or  violence,  which  is  common  to  them  all  • 
it  is  as  general  in  its  application  as  in  its  meaning. 
When  violent  and  furious  are  applied  to  the  same 
objects,  the  latter  expresses  a higher  degree  of  the 
former  : thus  a furious  temper  is  violent,  to  an  exces- 
sive degree:  a furious  whirlwind  is  violent  beyond 
measure ; 

The  furious  pard. 

Cow’d  and  subdu’d,  flies  from  the  face  of  man. 

Somerville. 

Violent  and  boisterous  are  likewise  applied  to  the  same 
objects;  but  the  boisterous  refers  only  to  the  violence 
of  the  motion  or  noise:  hence  we  say  that  a wind  is 
violent,  inasmuch  as  it  acts  with  great  force  u|)on  all 
bodies  ; it  is  boisterous,  inasmuch  as  it  causes  the  great 
motion  of  bodies:  a violent  person  deals  in  violence  of 
every  kind;  a boisterous  person  is  full  of  violent  ac 
tion  ; 

Ye  too,  ye  winds!  that  now  begin  to  blow 
With  boisterous  sweep,  I raise  my  voice  to  you. 

Thomson. 

Violent,  vehement,  and  impetuous,  are  all  applied  tc 
persons,  or  that  which  is  personal ; a man  is  violent  in 
his  opinions,  violent  in  his  measures,  violent  in  his  re- 
sentments ; ‘This  gentleman  (Mr.  Steele;  among  a 
thousand  others,  is  a great  instance  of  the  fate  of  all 
who  are  carried  away  by  party  spirit  of  any  side ; I 
wish  all  violence  may  succeed  as  ill.’— Pope  He  is 
vehement  in  his  afTections  or  passions,  vehement  in  ove, 
vehement  in  zeal,  vehement  in  pursuing  an  object,  ve- 
hement in  expressirn  ; ‘If  there  be  any  use  of  gesticu 
lation,  it  must  be  applied  to  the  ignorant  and  rude,  who 
will  be  more  affected  by  vehemence  than  delighted  bv 
propriety.’ — Johnson.  Violence  transfers  itself  to  some 
external  object  on  which  it  acts  with  force ; but  vehe- 
mence respects  that  species  of  violence  which  is  con 


220 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMEs 


fined  to  the  person  nimself : we  may  dread  violence, 
because  it  is  always  liable  to  do  mischief ; we  ought  to 
suppress  our  vehemence,  because  it  is  injurious  to  our- 
selves : a violent  partisan  renders  himself  obnoxious  to 
others ; a man  who  is  vehement  in  any  cause  puts  it 
out  of  his  own  power  to  be  of  use.  Impetuosity  is 
rather  the  extreme  of  violence  or  vehemence:  anm- 
petuous  attack  is  an  excessively  violent  attack : an  im- 
petuous character  is  an  excessively  vehement  cha- 
racter ; 

The  central  waters  round  impetuous  rush’d. 

I'homson. 


BUSTLE,  TUMULT,  UPROAR. 

Bustle  is  probably  a frequentative  of  busy ; tumult, 
in  French  tumulte,  Latin  tumultus,  compounded  pro- 
bably of  tumor  multus,  signifies  much  swelling  and  per- 
turbation ; M;>roar,  compounded  of  up  and  roar,  marks 
the  act  of  setting  up  a roar  or  clamour,  or  the  state  of 
its  being  so  set  up. 

Bustle  has  most  of  hurry  in  it ; tumult  most  of  dis- 
order and  confusion  ; uproar  most  of  noise. 

The  hurried  movements  of  one,  or  many,  cause  a 
bustle;  disorderly  struggles  of  many  constitute  a tu- 
mult ; the  loud  elevation  of  many  opposing  voices  pro- 
duces an  uproar. 

Bustle  is  frequenfty  not  the  effect  of  design,  but  the 
natural  consequence  of  many  persons  coming  together ; 

' They  who  live  in  the  bustle  of  the  world  are  not,  per- 
haps, the  most  accurate  observers  of  the  progressive 
change  of  manners  in  that  society  in  which  they  pass 
their  time.' — Abercromby.  Tumult  commonly  arises 
from  a general  effervescence  in  the  minds  of  a multi- 
tude ; 

Outlaws  of  nature  ! yet  the  great  must  use  ’em 

Sometimes  as  necessary  tools  of  tumult. — Drvden. 
Uproar  is  the  consequence  either  of  general  anger  or 
mirth ; ‘ Amid  the  uproar  of  other  bad  passions, 
conscience  acts  as  a restraining  power.’ — Blair. 

A crowded  street  will  always  be  in  a bustle.  Con- 
tested elections  are  always  accompanied  with  great 
tumult.  Drinking  parties  make  a considerable  uproar, 
la  the  indulgence  of  their  intemperate  mirth. 

TO  COERCE,  RESTRAIN. 

Cezrce,  in  Latin  coerceo,  that  is,  con  and  arceo,  sig- 
nifies to  drive  into  conformity  with  any  person  or 
thing;  restrain,  in  Imimrestringo,  i.e.  re  and  sti’ingo, 
signifies  to  bind  hard. 

Coercion  is  a species  of  restraint ; we  always  re- 
strain or  intend  to  restrain  when  we  coerce;  but  we 
do  not  always  coerce  when  we  restrain  : coercion 
always  comprehends  the  idea  of  force,  restraint  that 
of  simply  keeping  under  or  back  : coercion  is  always 
an  external  aiiplication  ; restraint  either  external  or 
internal ; a person  is  coerced  by  others  only  ; he  may 
be  restrained  by  himself  as  well  as  others. 

Coercion  acts  by  a direct  application,  it  opposes  force 
to  resistance ; restraint  acts  indirectly  to  the  preven- 
tion of  an  act : the  law  restrains  all  men  in  their 
actions  more  or  less  ; it  coerces  those  who  attempt  to 
violate  it;  the  unruly  will  is  coerced;  the  improper 
will  is  restrained : coercion  is  exercised  ; restraint  is 
imposed:  punishment,  threats,  or  any  actual  exercise 
of  authority,  coerces ; ‘ Without  coercive  power  ail 
government  is  but  toothless  and  precarious,  and  does 
not  so  much  command  as  beg  obedience.’ — South. 
Fear,  shame,  or  a remonstrance  from  others,  restrains  ; 
‘The  enmity  of  some  men  against  goodness  is  so  vio- 
lent and  implacable,  that  no  innocency,  no  excellence 
of  goodness,  how  great  soever,  can  restrain  their  ma- 
lice.’— Tillotson.  The  innovators  of  the  present 
age  are  for  having  all  coercion  laid  aside  in  the  manage- 
ment of  children,  in  lieu  of  which  a system  of  reason- 
ing is  to  be  adopted  ; could  they  persuade  the  world 
to  adopt  their  fanciful  scheme,  we  may  next  expect  to 
hear  that  all  restraint  on  the  inclinations  ounht  to  be 
laid  aside  as  an  infringement  of  personal  liberty. 

COGENT,  FORCIBLE,  STRONG. 

Cogent,  from  the  Latin  cogo  to  compel  ; and  forcible, . 
from  the  verb  to  force,  have  equally  the  sense  of 
Mtingby  force;  strong  is  here  figuratively  employed  1 


for  that  species  of  strength  which  is  connected  witi 
the  mind. 

Cogency  applies  to  reasons  individually  considered; 
force  and  strength  to  modes  ot  reasoning  or  expres- 
sion : cogent  reasons  impel  to  decisive  conduct;  strong 
conviction  is  produced  by /orcifcle  reasoning  conveyed 
in  strong  language : changes  of  any  kind  are  so  seldom 
attended  with  benefit  to  society,  that  a legislator  will 
be  cautious  not  to  adopt  them  without  the  most  cogent 
reasons;  ‘Upon  men  intent  only  upon  truth,  the  art 
of  an  orator  has  little  power ; a credible  testimony,  or 
a cogent  argument,  will  overcome  all  the  art  of  modu 
lation  and  all  the  violence  of  contortion. — Johnson 
The  important  truths  of  Christianity  cannot  be  pre 
sented  from  the  pulpit  too  forcibly  to  the  minds  of 
men;  ‘The  ingenious  author  just  mentioned,  assured 
me  that  the  Turkish  satires  of  Ruhi  Bag-dadi  were 
very  forcible.' — Sir  Wm.  Jones. 

Accuracy  and  strength  are  seldom  associated  in  the 
same  mind  ; those  whoacemstom  themselves  io  strong 
language  are  not  very  scrupulous  about  the  correctness 
of  their  assertions  ; ‘ Such  is  the  censure  of  Dennis. 
There  is,  as  Dryden  expresses  it,  perhaps  “ too  much 
horse-play  in  his  raillery;”  but  if  his  jests  are  coarse 
his  arguments  are  strong.' — Johnson. 


CONSTRAINT,  COMPULSION. 

Constraint,  from  constrain,  Latin  constrivgo,  com 
pounded  of  con  and  stringo,  signifies  the  act  of  strain- 
ing or  tying  together ; compulsion  signifies  the  act  of 
compelling.  * 

There  is  much  of  binding  in  constraint ; of  vio 
lence  in  compulsion  : constraint  prevents  from  acting 
agreeably  to  the  will : comptilsion  forces  to  act  con 
trary  to  the  will : a soldier  in  the  ranks  iiioves  with 
much  constraint,  and  is  often  subject  to  much  com- 
pulsion, to  make  him  move  as  is  de.^ired.  Constraint 
may  arise  from  outward  circumstances  ; compulsion  is 
always  produced  by  some  active  agent : the  forms  of 
civil  society  lay  a proper  constraint  upon  the  beha- 
viour of  men  so  as  to  render  them  agreeable  to  each 
other ; 

Commands  are  no  constraints.  If  I obey  them 

I do  it  freely. — Milton. 

The  arm  of  the  civil  power  must  ever  be  ready  tc 
compel  those  who  will  not  submit  without  compulsion  . 
‘ Savage  declared  that  it  was  not  his  design  to  fly  from 
justice ; that  he  intended  to  have  appeared  (to  appear^ 
at  the  bar  without  compulsion.' — Johnson.  In  the 
moments  of  lelaxation,  the  actions  of  children  should 
be  as  free  from  constraint  as  possible,  which  is  one 
means  of  lessening  the  necessity  for  compulsion  when 
they  are  called  to  the  performance  of  their  duty. 


CONSTRAINT,  RESTRAINT,  RESTRICTION 

The  meaning  of  constraint  is  given  in  the  preceding 
article;  that  of  restraint  as  given  under  To  coerce, 
restrain;  restriction  is  but  a variation  of  restraint. 

Constraint  respects  the  movements  of  the  body 
only ; restraint  those  of  the  mind  and  the  outward 
actions  : when  they  both  refer  fo  the  outward  actions, 
we  say  a person’s  behaviour  is  constrained ; his  feel 
ings  are  restrained : he  is  constrained  to  act  or  not  to 
act,  or  to  act  in  a certain  manner ; he  is  restrained 
from  acting  at  all,  if  not  from  feeling;  the  conduct  is 
constrained  by  certain  prescribed  rules,  by  discipline 
and  order ; it  is  restrained  by  particular  motives  ' 
whoever  learns  a mechanical  exercise  is  constrained  to 
move  his  body  in  a certain  direction  ; the  fear  of  de- 
tection often  restrains  persons  from  the  commission  of 
vices  more  than  any  sense  of  their  enormity. 

The  behaviour  of  children  must  be  more  constrained 
in  the  presence  of  their  superiours  than  when  they  are 
by  themselves-  the  angry  passions  should  at  all  times 
be  restrained.  A person  who  is  in  the  slightest  degree 
constrained  to  Io  a good  action,  does  good  only  by 
halves;  ‘When  from  constraint  only  the  offices  of 
seeming  kindness  are  performed,  little  dependence  can 
be  placed  on  them  ’ — Blair.  The  inordinate  passions 
and  propensities  of  men  are  restrained  by  nothing  so 
effectually  as  religion;  ‘What  restraints  do  they  lie 
under  who  have  no  regards  beyond  th<e  grave?’ — 
Berkeley.  Whoever  is  restrained  by  shame  onl# 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


221 


may  seek  gratification  under  the  shelter  of  conceal- 
ment. 

Restrain  and  restrict,  though  but  variations  from  the 
same  verb,  have  acquired  a distinct  acceptation  : the 
former  applies  to  the  desires,  as  well  as  the  outward 
conduct;  the  latter  only  to  the  outward  conduct.  A 
person  restrains  his  inordinate  appetite;  or  he  is 
restrained  by  others  from  doing  mischief;  he  is  re- 
stricted in  the  use  of  his  money.  Restrain  is  an  act 
of  power  ; but  restrict  is  an  act  of  authority  or  law  ; 
the  will  or  the  actions  of  a child  are  restrained  by  the 
parent ; 

Tully,  whose  powerful  eloquence  awhile 
Restrain'd  the  rapid  fate  of  rushing  Rome. 

Thomson. 

A patient  is  restricted  in  his  diet  by  a physician,  or 
any  body  of  people  may  be  restricted  by  laws; 

Though  the  Egyptians  used  flesh  for  food,  yet  they 
were  under  greater  in  this  particular,  than 

most  other  nations.’ — James. 


STRAIN,  SPRAIN,  STRESS,  FORCE. 

Strain  and  sprain  are  without  doubt  variations  of 
the  same  word,  namely,  the  Latin  stringo  to  pull  tight, 
or  to  stretch ; they  have  now,  however,  a distinct  ap- 
plication: to  strain  is  to  extend  a thing  beyond  its 
ordinary  length  by  some  extraordinary  effort;  to  sprain 
is  to  strain  it  so  as  to  put  out  of  its  place,  or  extend 
to  an  injurious  length ; the  ankle  and  the  wrist  are 
liable  to  be  sprained  by  a contusion  ; the  back  arid 
other  parts  of  the  body  may  be  strained  by  over-ex- 
ertion. 

Strain  and  stress  are  kindred  terms,  as  being  both 
variations  of  stretch  and  stringo ; but  they  differ  now 
very  considerably  in  their  application : figuratively  we 
speak  of  straining  a nerve,  or  straining  a point,  to 
express  making  great  exertions,  even  beyond  our  ordi- 
nary powers ; and  morally  we  speak  of  laying  a stress 
upon  any  particular  measure  or  mode  of  action,  sig- 
nifying to  give  a thing  importance  : the  strain  may  be 
put  for  the  course  of  sentiment  which  we  express,  and 
the  manner  of  expressing  it;  the  stress  may  be  put  for 
the  efforts  of  the  voice  in  uttering  a word  or  syllable; 
a writer  may  proceed  in  a strain  of  panegyric  or  in- 
vective ; a speaker  or  a reader  lays  a stress  on  certain 
words  by  way  of  distinguishing  them  from  others. 
To  strain  is  properly  a species  of  forcing ; we  may 
force  in  a variety  of  ways,  that  is,  by  the  exercise  of 
force  upon  different  bodies,  and  in  different  directions  ; 
but  to  strain  is  to  exercise  force  by  stretching  or  pro- 
longing bodies ; thus  to  strain  a cord  is  to  pull  it  to  its 
full  extent ; but  we  may  speak  of  forcing  any  hard 
substance  in,  or  forcing  it  out,  or  forcing  it  through, 
or  forcing  it  from  a body  : a door  or  a lock  may  be 
forced  by  violently  breaking  them ; hut  a door  or  a 
ock  may  be  strained  by  putting  the  hinges  or  the 
spring  out  of  its  place.  So  likewise,  a person  may  be 
said  to  force  himself  to  speak,  when  by  a violent  exer- 
tion he  gives  utterance  to  his  words ; but  he  strains  his 
throat  or  his  voice  when  he  exercises  the  force  on  the 
throat  or  lungs  so  as  to  extend  them,  or  he  strains  his 
powers  of  thinking;  ‘ There  was  then  (before  the  fall) 
no  poritig,  no  struggling  with  memory,  no  straining 
for  invention.’ — South.  Force  and  stress  as  nouns 
are  in  like  manner  comparable  when  they  are  applied 
to  the  mode  of  utterance  . we  must  use  a certain /orce 
in  the  pronunciation  of  every  word  ; this  therefore  is 
indefinite  and  general ; but  the  stress  is  that  particular 
and  strong  degree  of  force  which  is  exerted  in  the  pro- 
n'lnciation  of  certain  words;  ‘ Was  ever  any  one  ob- 
served to  come  out  of  a tavern  fit  for  his  study,  or  in- 
deed for  any  thing  requiring  stress.’— South. 

Oppose  not  rage,  while  rage  is  in  its /orce. 

Shakspeauh. 


STRESS,  STRAIN,  EMPHASIS,  ACCENT. 

Stress  and  strain  signify  the  same  as  in  the  pre- 
vcding  article ; emphasis,  from  the  Greek  ebaivu)  to 
appear,  signifies  making  to  appear;  accewt,  in  Latin 
accentus,  from  cano  to  sing,  signifies  to  suit  the  tune  or 
tone  of  the  voice. 

Stress  and  strain  are  general  both  in  sense  and  ap- 
plication: the  former  still  more  than  the  latter;  em- 
phasis anil  accent  are  modes  of  the  stress  Stress  is 


applicable  to  all  bodies,  the  powers  of  which  r ay  be 
tried  by  exertion ; as  the  stress  upon  a rope,  upon  a 
shaft  of  a carriage,  a wheel  or  spring  in  a machine  • 
the  strain  is  an  excessive  stress,  by  which  a thing  is 
thrown  out  of  its  course ; there  may  be  a strain  in 
most  cases  where  there  is  a stress  : but  stress  and 
strain  are  to  be  compared  with  emphasis  and  accent, 
particularly  in  the  exertion  of  the  voice,  in  which  case 
the  stress  is  a strong  and  special  exertion  of  the  voice, 
on  one  word,  or  one  part  of  a word,  so  as  to  distin 
guish  it  from  another  ; but  the  strain  is  the  undue  ex 
ertiou  of  the  voice  beyond  its  usual  pitch,  in  the  uttei 
ance  of  one  or  more  words  ; we  lay  a stress  on  our 
words  for  the  convenience  of  others ; but  when  we 
strain  the  voice  it  is  as  much  to  the  annoyance  of 
others  as  it  is  hurtful  to  ourselves;  ‘ Singing  differs 
from  vociferation  in  this,  that  it  consists  in  a certain 
harmony  ; nor  is  it  performed  with  so  much  straining 
of  the  voice.’ — James.  The  stress  may  consist  in  an 
elevation  of  voice,  or  a prolonged  utterance  ; ‘ Those 
English  syllables  which  I call  long  ones  receive  a pecu 
liar  stress  of  voice  from  their  acute  or  circurnfler 
accent,  as  in  quickly,  ddwry.’ — Foster.  The  em- 
phasis is  that  species  of  stress  which  is  employed  to 
distinguish  one  word  or  syllable  from  another:  the 
stress  may  be  accidental ; but  the  emphasis  is  an  in 
tentional  stress  : ignorant  people  and  children  are 
often  led  to  lay  the  stress  on  little  and  uninyrortani 
words  in  a sentence ; speakers  sometimes  find  it  con 
venient  to  mark  particular  words,  to  which  they  at 
tach  a value,  by  the  emphasis  with  which  they  utter 
them  ; ‘ Emphasis  not  so  much  regards  the  time  as  a 
certain  grandeur,  whereby  some  letter,  syllable,  word, 
or  sentence,  is  rendered  more  remarkable  than  the 
rest  by  a more  vigorous  pronunciation  and  a longer 
stay  upon  it.’ — Holder.  The  stress  may  be  casual 
or  regular,  on  words  or  syllables;  the  accent  is  that 
kind  of  regulated  stress  which  is  laid  on  one  syllable 
to  distinguish  it  from  another : there  are  many  words 
in  our  own  language,  such  as  subject,  object,  present, 
and  the  like,  where,  to  distinguish  I’iie  verb  from  the 
noun,  the  accent  falls  on  the  last  syllable  for  the  former, 
and  on  the  first  syllable  for  the  latter  ; ‘ The  correct 
ness  and  harmony  of  English  verse  dejjends  entirely 
upon  its  being  composed  of  a certain  number  of  syl 
tables,  and  its  having  the  accents  of  those  syllables 
properly  placed.’ — Tyrwhitt. 

In  reference  to  the  use  of  words,  these  terms  may 
admit  of  a farther  distinction:  for  we  may  lay  a stress 
or  emphasis  on  a particular  point  of  our  reasoning,  in 
the  first  case,  by  enlarging  upon  it  longer  than  on 
other  points ; or,  in  the  second  case,  by  the  use  of 
stronger  expressions  or  epithets  ; ‘After  such  a mighty 
stress,  so  irrationally  laid  upon  two  slight,  empty 
words  (‘self-consciousness’  and  ‘ mutual  conscious- 
ness’) have  they  made  any  thing,  but  the  author  him 
self  (Sherlock  on  the  Trinity)  better  understood  V — 
South.  ‘The  idle,  who  are  neither  wise  for  this 
world  nor  the  next,  are  emphatically  called,  by  Dr. 
Tillotson,  “ Fools  at  large.”  ’—Spectator.  The  strain 
or  accent  may  be  employed  to  designate  the  tone  or 
manner  in  which  we  express  ourselves,  that  is,  the 
spirit  of  our  discourse  ; in  familiar  language  we  talk  of 
a person’s  proceeding  in  a strain  of  panegyric,  or  of 
censure  ; ‘ An  assured  hope  of  future  glory  raises  him 
to  a pursuit  of  a more  than  ordinary  sZram  of  duty  and 
I)erfection.’ — South.  In  poetry  persons  are  said  to 
pour  forth  their  complaints  in  tender  accents  ; 

For  thee  my  tuneful  accents  will  I raise.— Dryden 

TO  REPRESS,  RESTRAIN,  SUPPRESS. 

To  repress  is  to  press  back  or  down : to  restrain  is 
to  strain  back  or  down  . the  former  is  the  general,  the 
latter  is  the  specifick  term:  we  always  re/jress’when 
we  restrain,  but  not  vice  versa.  Repress  is  used  mostly 
for  pressing  down,  so  as  to  keep  that  inward  which 
wants  to  make  its  appearance  : restrain  is  an  habitual 
repression  by  which  it  is  kept  in  a state  of  lowness  : a 
person  is  said  to  repress  his  feelings  when  he  does  not 
give  them  vent  either  by  his  words  or  actions;  he  is 
said  to  restrain  his  feelings  when  he  never  lets  them 
rise  beyond  a certain  pitch : good  morals,  as  well  as 
good  manners,  call  upon  us  to  repress  every  unseemly 
expression  of  joy  in  the  company  of  those  who  are  not 
in  a condition  to  partake  of  our  joy;  it  is  prudence 
vuel'  as  virtue  to  restrain  our  appetites  by  an  habitual 


222 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


forbearance,  that  they  may  not  gain  the  ascendancy. 
One  cannot  too  quickly  repress  a rising  spirit  of  re- 
sistance in  any  community,  large  or  small ; ‘ Philo- 
sophy has  often  attempted  to  repress  insolence  by  as- 
serting that  all  conditions  are  levelled  by  death.’ — 
Johnson.  One  cannot  too  early  restrain  the  irregu- 
larities of  childhood ; ‘ He  that  would  keep  the  power 
of  sin  from  rurtning  out  into  act,  must  restrain  it  from 
conversing  with  the  object.’ — South.  The  innocent 
vivacity  of  youth  should  not  be  repressed ; but  their 
wildness  and  intemperance  ought  to  be  restrained. 

To  repress  is  simply  to  keep  down  or  to  keep  from 
rising  to  excess.  To  suppress  is  to  keep  under  or  to 
keep  from  appearing  in  publick  or  coming  into  notice. 
A judjcious  parent  represses  every  tumultuous  passion 
in  a I hild  ; ‘Her  forwardness  was  repressed  with  a 
frown  by  her  mother  or  aunt.’ — Johnson.  A judicious 
commander  suppresses  a rebellion  by  a timely  and 
resolute  exercise  of  authority ; ‘ Every  rebellion,  when 
'.t  is  suppressed,  makes  the  subject  weaker  and  the 
prince  stronger.’ — Davies.  To  repress  a feeling  is  to 
keep  it  down  so  that  it  may  not  increase  in  force ; so 
likewise  to  repress  violence  either  of  feeling  or  con- 
duct; 

Such  kings 

Favour  the  innocent,  repress  the  bold, 

And,  while  they  flourish,  make  an  age  of  gold. 
Waller. 

• ‘Some,  taking  dangers  to  be  the  only  remedy  against 
dangers,  endeavoured  to  set  up  the  sedition  again,  but 
they  were  speedily  repressed,  and  thereby  the  sedition 
suppressed  wholly.’ — Hayward.  To  suppress  a feel- 
ing is  not  to  give  it  expression,  to  suppress  a v^^ork, 
&c.  is  not  to  give  it  publication,  or  withdraw  it  from 
farther  publication; 

With  him  Palemon  kept  the  watch  at  night. 

In  whose  sad  bosom  many  a sigh  supprest 
Some  painful  secret  of  the  soul  confest. 

Falconer. 

You  may  depend  upon  the  suppression  of  these 
verses.’ — Pope. 


TO  STIFLE,  SUPPRESS,  SMOTHER. 

Stifle  is  a frequentative  of  stuff,  in  Latin  stipo,  and 
Greek  to  make  tight  or  close ; suppress  signifies 

the  same  as  in  the  preceding  article ; smother,  as  a fre- 
quentative of  smut  or  smoke,  signifies  to  cover  with 
smut  or  stnoke. 

Stifle  and  smother  in  their  literal  sense  will  be  more 
properly  corsidered  under  the  article  of  Suffocate,  &c. 
{v.  To  suffocate) ; they  are  here  taken  in  a moral  ap- 
plication. 

The  leading  idea  of  all  these  terms  is  that  of  keep- 
ing out  of  view : stifle  is  applicable  to  the  feelings 
only  ; suppress  to  the  feelings  or  to, outward  circum- 
stances; smother  to  outward  circumstances  only;  we 
stifle  resentment;  we  suppress  anger;  the  former  is 
an  act  of  some  continuance;  the  latter  is  the  act  of 
the  moment;  we  stifle  oar  resentment  by  abstaining  to 
take  any  measures  of  retaliation;  ‘You  excel  in  the 
art  of  stifling  and  concealing  your  resentment.’ — 
Bwift.  We  suppress  the  rising  emotion  of  anger,  so 
as  not  to  give  it  utterance  or  even  the  expression  of  a 
look;  ‘They  foresaw  the  violence  with  which  this  in- 
dignation would  burst  out  after  being  so  long  svp- 
vressed.' — Robertson.  It  requires  time  and  powerful 
motives  to  stifle,  but  only  a single  effort  to  suppress ; 
nothing  but  a long  course  of  vice  can  enable  a man  to 
stifle  the  admonitions  and  reproaches  of  conscience  ; 
Art,  brainless  art!  our  furious  charioteer, 

(For  nature’s  voice  unstifled  would  recall) 

Drives  headlong  to  the  precipice  of  death. 

Young. 

A sense  of  prudence  may  sometimes  lead  a man  to 
suppress  the  joy  which  an  occurrence  produces  in  his 
mind ; 

Well  did’st  thou,  Richard  to  suppress  thy  voice; 

For  had  he  passions  of  th  i heart  burst  out, 

I fear  wt  should  havj  seen  decipher’d  there 

More  f-ancorous  spight,  more  furious  raging  broils. 

Shakspeare. 

In  regard  to  outward  circumstances,  we  say  that  a 
book  is  suppressed  by  the  authority  of  government : 
that  vice  is  suppressed  by  the  exertions  of  those  who 


have  power;  an  affair  is  smothered  so  that  it  shall  not 
become  generally  known,  or  that  the  fire  is  smothered 
under  the  embers ; ‘ Great  and  generous  principles  not 
being  kept  up  and  cherished,  but  smothered  in  sensual 
delights,  God  suffers  them  to  sink  into  low  and  inglo- 
rious satisfaction.’ — South. 


TO  SUFFOCATE,  STIFLE,  SMOTHER.  CHOKE, 
Suffocate,  in  Latin  suffocatus,  participle  of  suffoco, 
is  compounded  of  sub  and  faux,  signifying  to  stop  up 
the  throat;  stifle  is  a frequentative  of  stuff,  that  is,  to 
stuff  excessively ; smother  is  a frequentative  of  smoke; 
choke  is  probably  a variation  of  cheek,  in  Saxon  ceac, 
because  strangulation  is  effected  by  a compression  oi 
the  throat  under  the  cheek-bone. 

These  terms  express  the  act  of  stopping  the  breath; 
but  under  various  circumstances  and  by  various  means ; 
suffocation  is  produced  by  every  kind  of  means,  ex 
ternal  or  internal,  and  is  therefore  the  most  general  of 
these  terms ; 

A suffocating  wind  the  pilgrim  smites 
With  instant  death. — Thomson. 

Stifling  proceeds  by  internal  means,  that  is,  by  the  aa 
mission  of  foreign  bodies  into  the  passages  which  lead 
to  the  respiratory  organs,  and  in  this  sense  is  employed 
figuratively ; 

When  my  heart  was  ready  with  a sigh  to  cleave, 

I have,  with  mighty  anguish  of  my  soul. 

Just  at  the  birth  stifled  this  still-born  sigh. 

Shakspeare. 

We  may  be  suffocated  by  excluding  the  air  externally, 
as  by  gagging,  confining  closely,  or  pressing  violently ; 
we  may  be  suffocated  or  stifled  by  means  of  vapours, 
close  air,  or  smoke.  To  smother  is  to  suffocate  by 
the  exclusion  of  air  externally,  as  by  covering  a person 
entirely  with  bedclothes;  to  choke  is  a mode  of  stifling 
by  means  of  bodies  disproportionately  large,  as  a piece 
of  food  lodging  in  the  throat,  or  the  larynx,  in  which 
sense  they  may  both  be  used  figuratively;  ‘The  love 
of  jealous  men  breaks  out  furiously  (when  the  object 
of  their  loves  is  taken  from  them)  and  throws  off  all 
mixture  of  suspicion  which  choked  and  smothered  i1 
before.’— Addison. 


TO  CHECK,  CURB,  CONTROL. 

All  these  terms  express  a species  of  restraining. 

Check  and  curb  are  figurative  expre.ssions  borroweo 
from  natural  objects.  Check,  from  check  or  check-mate 
in  the  game  of  chess,  signifies  as  a verb  to  exert  a re- 
strictive power  ; curb,  from  the  curb,  by  which  horses 
are  kept  in,  signifies  in  like  manner,  acoercive  restrain 
ing ; control  is  probably  contracted  from  counter-roll, 
that  is,  to  turn  against  an  object,  to  act  against  it. 

To  check  is  to  throw  obstacles  in  the  way,  to  impede 
the  course ; to  curb  is  to  bear  down  by  the  direct  exer 
cise  of  force,  to  prevent  from  action ; to  control  is  to 
direct  and  turn  the  course;  the  actions  of  men  are 
checked;  their  feelings  are  curbed;  their  actions  or 
feelings  are  controlled. 

External  means  are  employed  in  checking  or  con 
trolling;  external  or  internal  means  are  employed  in 
curbing:  men  check  and  control  others;  they  curb 
themselves  or  others ; young  people  ought  always  to  be 
checked  whenever  they  discover  a too  forward  temper 
in  the  presence  of  their  superiours  or  elders;  ‘ Devo 
tion,  when  it  does  not  lie  under  the  check  of  reason,  is 
apt  to  degenerate  into  enthusiasm.’ — Addison.  It  is 
necessary  to  curb  those  who  are  of  an  impetuous 
temper ; 

The  point  of  honour  has  been  deem’d  of  use, 

To  teach  good  manners,  and  to  curb  abuse  ; 

Admit  it  true,  the  consequence  is  clear. 

Our  polished  manners  are  a mask  we  wear. 

Cowper. 

It  is  necessary  to  keep  youth  under  control,  until  they 
have  within  themselves  the  restrictive  power  of  judge- 
ment to  curb  their  passions,  and  control  their  inordinaM 
appetites; 

Whatever  private  views  and  passions  plead, 

No  cause  can  justify  so  black  a deed  ; 

These,  when  the  angry  tempest  clouds  the  soul, 

May  darken  reason  ard  bet  course  control. 

. Tuomsov 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


223 


t.nlimited  power  cannot  with  propriety  be  intrusted 
10  any  body  of  individuals  ; there  ought  in  every  state 
to  be  a legitimate  means  of  checking  those  who  show  a 
disposition  to  exercise  an  undue  authority ; but  to  invest 
the  people  with  this  office  is  in  fact  giving  back,  into  the 
hands  of  the  community,  tliat  whicli  for  the  wisest  pur- 
poses was  taken  from  tliem  by  the  institution  of  govern- 
ment: it  is  giving  a restraining  power  to  those  who 
themselves  are  most  in  want  of  being  restrained; 
Avliose  ungovernable  passions  require  to  be  curbed  by 
file  iron  arm  of  power,  whose  unruly  wills  require  all 
he  influence  of  wisdom  and  authority  to  control  them. 


ro  FORBID,  PROHIBIT,  INTERDICT, 
PROSCRIBE. 

The/or  \n  forbid.,  from  the  German  ver,  is  negative, 
signifying  to  bid  not  to  do;  ihe  pro  \n  prohibit,  a.ndi 
inter  in  interdict,  have  both  a similarly  negative  sense : 
the  former  verb,  from  habeo  to  have,  signifies  to  have  or 
hold  that  a thing  shall  not  be  done,  to  restrain  from 
doing  ; the  latter,  from  dico  to  say,  signifies  to  say  that 
a thing  shall  not  be  done. 

Forbid  is  the  ordinary  term ; prohibit  is  the  judicial 
term;  interdict  the  moral  term. 

To  forbid  is  a direct  and  personal  act ; to  prohibit  is 
an  indirect  action  that  o|»erates  by  means  of  extended 
influence:  both  imply  the  exercise  of  power  or  authority 
of  an  individual ; but  the  former  is  more  applicable  to 
the  power  of  an  individual,  and  the  latter  to  the  autho- 
rity of  government.  A parent/orfirrfs  his  child  marry- 
ing when  he  thinks  proper ; ‘ The  father  of  Constantia 
was  so  incensed  at  the  father  of  Theodosius  that  he 
forbade  the  son  his  house.’ — Addison.  The  govern- 
ment prohibits  the  use  of  spirituous  liqu  j»s  ; ‘ I think 
that  all  persons  (that  is,  quacks)  should  be  prohibited 
from  curing  their  incurable  patients  by  act  of  parlia- 
ment.’— Hawkesworth.  Interdict  is  a species  of 
forbidding  applied  to  more  serious  concerns ; we  may 
oe  interdicted  the  use  of  wine  by  a physician  ; ‘ It  is  not 
to  be  desired  that  morality  should  be  considered  as 
interdicted  to  all  future  writers.’ — Johnson. 

A thing  \s  forbidden  by  a command  ; it  is  prohibited 
by  a law  : hence  that  which  is  unmoral  \s  forbidden  by 
the  express  word  of  God ; that  which  is  illegal  is  pro- 
hibited by  the  laws  of  man.  We  are  forbidden  in  the 
Scripture  from  even  indulging  a thought  of  committing 
evil;  it  is  the  policy  of  every  government  to  prohibit 
the  importation  and  exportation  of  such  commodities 
as  are  likely  to  affect  tlie  internal  trade  of  the  country.’' 
To  forbid  or  interdict  are  opposed  to  command  ; in  pro- 
hibit, to  allow.  As  nothing  is  forbidden  to  Christians 
which  is  good  and  just  in  itself,  so  nothing  is  com- 
manded that  is  hurtful  and  unjust;  the  same  cannot  be 
said  of  the  Mahometan  or  any  other  religion.  As  no 
one  \s,  prohibited  in  our  own  country  from  writing  that 
W’hich  can  tend  to  the  improvement  of  mankind  ; so  on 
the  other  hand  he  is  not  allowed  to  indulge  his  private 
rnalirrnity  by  the  publication  of  injurious  personalities. 

Forbid  and  interdict,  as  personal  acts,  are  properly 
applicable  to  persons  only,  but  by  an  improper  applica- 
tion are  extended  to  things ; prohibit,  however,  in  the 
general  sense  of  restraining,  is  applied  with  equal  pro- 
priety to  things  as  to  persons:  shd^me  forbids  us  doing 
•a  thing ; 

Life's  span  forbids  us  to  extend  our  cares. 

And  stretch  our  liopes  beyond  our  years. 

Creech. 

Law  authority,  and  the  like,  prohibit  ; ‘ Fear  prohibits 
endeavours  by  infusing  despair  of  success.’ — Johnson. 
Nature  interdicts : 

Other  ambition  nature  interdicts. — Young. 

Proscribe,  in  Latin  proscribo,  signified  originally  to 
offer  for  sale,  and  also  to  outlaw  a person,  but  is  now 
employed  either  in  the  political  or  moral  sense  of  con- 
demning capitally  or  utterly,  whence  it  has  been  ex- 
tended in  its  application  to  signify  the  absolutely  for- 
bidding to  be  used  or  hei  J as  to  proscribe  a name  or  a 
doctrine ; ‘ Some  utterly  proscribe  the  name  of  chance, 
Ks  a word  of  impious  and  profane  signification.’ — 
South. 

* Vide  Trusler : “To  forbid,  prohibit.” 


TO  DECIDE,  DETERMINE,  CONCeTTDE  UPON 
The  idea  of  bringing  a thing  to  an  end  is  common  to 
the  signification  of  all  these  words;  but  decide  expresses 
more  than  determine,  and  determine  more  than  conclude 
upon ; to  decide,  from  the  Latin  decide,  compounded  of 
de  and  catdo,  signifying  to  cut  off  or  cut  short  a busi- 
ness ; and  determine,  from  the  Latin  determino,  com- 
pounded of  de  and  terminus  a term  or  boundary,  signi- 
fying to  fix  the  boundary,  are  both  employed  in  matteis 
relating  to  ourselves  or  others;  conclude,  from  the 
Latin  conclude,  signifying  to  make  the  mind  up  to  a 
thing,  is  employed  in  matters  that  respect  the  parties 
only  who  conclude.  As  it  respects  others,  to  decide  is 
an  act  of  greater  authority  than  to  determine:  a parent 
decides  for  his  child  ; a subordinate  persork  may  deter- 
mine sometimes  for  those  who  are  under  him  in  the 
absence  of  his  superiours.  In  all  cases,  to  decide  is  an 
act  of  greater  importance  than  to  determine.  The  na- 
ture and  character  of  a thing  is  decided  upon  : its  limits 
or  extent  are  determined  on.  A judge  decides  on  the 
law  and  equity  of  the  case ; the  jury  determine  as  to  the 
guilt  or  innocence  of  the  person.  An  individual  decides 
in  his  own  mind  on  any  measure,  and  the  propriety  of 
adopting  it ; he  determines  in  his  own  mind,  as  to  how, 
when,  and  where  it  shall  be  commenced. 

One  decides  in  all  matters  of  question  or  dispute ; one 
determines  in  all  matters  of  fact.  We  decide  in  order 
to  have  an  opinion  ; we  determine  in  order  to  act.  In 
complicated  cases,  where  arguments  of  apparently 
equal  weiglit  are  offered  by  men  of  equal  authority,  if 
is  difficult  to  decide  ; 

With  mutual  blood  th’  Ausonian  soil  is  dyed, 
While  on  its  borders  each  their  claim  decide. 

Dryden 

When  equally  feasible  plans  are  offered  for  our  choice, 
we  are  often  led  to  determine  upon  one  of  them  from 
trifling  motives;  ‘Revolutions  of  state,  many  times 
make  way  for  new  institutions  and  forms;  and  often 
determine  in  either  setting  up  some  tyranny  at  home, 
or  bringing  in  some  conquest  from  abroad.’ — Temple 
To  determine  and  conclude  are  equally  practical : but 
determine  seems  to  be  more  peculiarly  the  act  of  an 
individual ; conclude  may  be  the  act  of  one  or  cf  many 
We  defcriwmc  by  an  immediate  act  of  the  will : we  con 
elude  on  a thing  by  inference  and  deduction.  Caprice 
may  often  influence  in  determining  ; but  nothing  is 
concluded  on  without  deliberation  and  judgement. 
Many  things  may  be  determined  on  which  are  eiihei 
never  put  into  execution,  or  remain  long  unexecuted; 
Eve!  now  expect  great  tidings,  which  perhaps 
Of  us  will  soon  determine,  or  impose 
New  laws  to  be  observ’d. — Milton. 

What  is  concluded  on  is  mostly  followed  by  immediate 
action.  To  conclude  on  is  properly  to  come  to  a final 
determination  ; 

Is  it  concluded  he  shall  he  protector  1 

It  is  determined,  not  concluded  yet; 

But  so  it  must  be,  if  the  king  miscarry. 

Shakspeare. 


TO  DETERMINE,  RESOLVE. 

To  determine  (v.  To  decide)  is  more  especially  an  act 
of  the  judgement ; * to  resolve  (v.  Courage)  is  an  act  of 
the  will : the  former  requires  exjrmination  and  choice ; 
we  determine  how  or  what  we  shall  do  : the  latter  re- 
quires a firm  spirit ; we  resolve  that  we  will  do  what 
we  have  determined  upon.  Oax  determinations  should 
be  prudent,  that  Ihey  may  not  cause  repentance;  our 
resolutions  should  be  fixed,  in  order  to  yirevent  varia- 
tion. There  can  be  no  co-operation  with  a man  who 
is  undetermined ; it  will  be  dangerous  to  co-operate 
with  a man  who  is  irresolute. 

In  theordinary  concerns  of  life  we  have  frequent  oc- 
casion to  determine  whhmiresolvin g ; in  thedi.«charge 
of  our  moral  duties,  or  the  performance  of  any  office, 
we  have  occasion  to  resolve  without  determining.  A 
master  determines  io  dismiss  his  servant;  the  servant 
resolves  on  becoming  more  diligent.  Personal  con- 
venience or  necessity  gives  rise  to  the  determination  ; 
a sense  of  duty,  honour,  fidelity,  and  the  like,  gives 
birth  to  the  resolution.  A traveller  determines  to  tak« 
a certain  route ; a learner  resolves  to  conquer  ever 

* Vide  Abbe  Girard:  “Decision,  resolution  ’ 


224 


ENGLISH  SYNOTNYMES. 


difficulty  in  the  acquirement  of  learning.  Humour  or 
change  of  circumstances  occasions  a person  to  alter  his 
determination ; timidity,  fear,  or  defect  in  principle, 
occasions  the  resolution  to  waver.  Cliildren  are  not 
capable  of  determining : and  their  best  resolutions  fall 
belbre  the  gratification  of  the  moment.  Those  who 
determine  hastily  are  frequently  under  the  necessity  of 
altering  their  determinations ; ‘ When  the  mind  hovers 
among  such  a variety  of  allurements,  one  fial  better 
settle  on  a way  of  life  that  is  not  the  very  best  we  might 
have  chosen,  than  grow  old  without  determining  our 
choice.’ — Addison.  There  are  no  resolutions  so  weak 
as  those  that  are  made  on  a sick  bed : the  return  of 
health  is  quickly  succeeded  by  a recurrence  to  our 
former  course  of  life;  ‘The  resolution  of  dying  to  end 
our  miseries  does  not  show  such  a degree  of  magna- 
nimity, as  a resolution  to  bear  them,  and  submit  to  the 
dispensations  of  Providence.’ — Addison. 

In  matters  of  science,  determine  is  to  fix  the  mind,  or 
to  cause  it  to  rest  in  a certain  opinion  ; to  resolve  is  to 
lay  open  what  is  obscure,  to  clear  the  mind  from  doubt 
and  hesitation.  We  determine  points  of  question;  we 
resolve  difficulties.  It  is  more  difficult  to  determine  in 
matters  of  rank  or  precedence  than  in  cases  where  the 
solid  and  real  interests  of  men  are  concerned;  ‘We 
pray  against  nothing  but  sin,  and  againstevil  in  general 
(in  the  Lord’s  prayer),  leaving  it  with  Omniscience  to 
determine  what  is  really  such.’ — Addison.  It  is  the 
business  of  the  teacher  to  resolve  the  difficulties  which 
are  proposed  by  the  scholar;  ‘I  think  there  is  no  great 
difficulty  in  resolving  your  doubts.  The  reasons  for 
which  you  areinclined  to  visit  London  are,  I think,  not 
of  sufficient  strength  to  answer  the  objections.’ — John- 
son. Every  point  is  not  proved  which  is  determined  ; 
cor  is  every  difficulty  resofued  which  is  answered. 

TO  SOLVE,  RESOLVE. 

Solve  and  resolve  both  come  from  the  Latin  solvo^  in 
Gieek  Xu'w,  in  Hebrew  to  loosen. 

Between  solve  and  resolve  there  is  no  considerable 
difference  either  in  sense  or  application:  the  former 
seems  merely  to  speak  of  unfolding,  in  a general  manner, 
,hat  which  is  wrapped  up  in  obscurity  : to  resolve  is 
ather  to  unfold  it  by  the  particular  method  of  carrying 
5ne  back  to  first  principles;  we  solve  a problem,  and 
resolve  a difficulty ; 

Something  yet  of  doubt  remains, 

Which  only  thy  solution  can  resolve. — Milton. 

DECIDED,  DETERMINED,  RESOLUTE. 

A man  who  is  decided  (a.  To  decide)  remains  in  no 
.'oubt:  he  who  is  determined  is  uninfluenced  by  the 
doubts  or  questions  of  others:  he  who  is  resolute  (v. 
To  determine,  resolve)  is  uninfluenced  by  the  con- 
sequences of  his  actions.  A decided  character  is  at 
all  times  essential  for  a prince  or  a minister,  but  par- 
ticularly so  in  an  unsettled  period  like  the  present ; a 
determined  character  is  essential  for  a commander,  or 
any  one  who  has  to  exercise  authority;  a resolute 
character  is  essential  for  one  who  has  engaged  in  dan- 
gerous enterprises.  Pericles  was  a man  of  a decided 
temper,  which  was  well  fitted  to  direct  the  affairs  of 
government  in  a season  of  turbulence  and  disquietude; 
‘Almost  all  the  high-bred  republicans  of  my  time 
have,  afier  a short  space,  become  the  most  decided 
thorough-paced  courtiers.’ — Burke.  Titus  Manlius 
Torquatus  displayed  himself  to  be  a man  of  a deter- 
mined character,  when  he  put  to  death  his  victorious 
son  for  a breach  of  military  discipline  ; 

A race  determined,  that  to  death  contend ; 

So  fierce  these  Greeks  their  last  retreats  defend. 

Pope. 

Brutus,  the  murderer  of  Caesar,  was  a man  of  a resolute 
temper ; ‘ Most  of  the  propositions  we  think,  reason, 
discourse,  nay,  act  upon,  are  such  as  we  cannot  have 
undoubted  knowledge  of  their  truth  ; yet  some  of  them 
border  so  near  upon  pertainty  that  we  make  no  doubt 
at  all  about  them ; but  assent  to  them  as  firmly,  and 
act  according  to  that  assent  as  resolutely,  as  if  they 
were  infallibly  demonstrated.’ — Locke. 

DECIDED,  DECISIVE. 

ZJeerded  marks  that  which  is  actually  decided.'  deci- 
sivs  that  which  appertains  to  decision. 


Decided  is  employed  for  persons  or  things ; aeciswe 
only  for  things.  A person’s  aversion  or  attachment  is 
decided ; a sentence,  a judgement,  or  a victory,  is  de- 
cisive. A man  of  a decided  character  always  adopts 
decisive  measures.  It  is  right  to  be  decidedly  averse 
to  every  thing  which  is  immoral:  we  should  be  cau 
tious  not  to  pronounce  decisively  on  any  point  where 
we  are  not  perfectly  clear  and  well  grounded  in  our 
opinion.  ’ui  every  popular  commotion  it  is  the  duty 
of  a gooc  subject  to  take  a decided  part  in  favour  of 
law  and  order;  ‘ A politick  caution,  a guarded  circum 
spection,  were  among  the  ruling  principles  of  our 
firefathers  in  their  most  decided  conduct.’— Burke 
Such  is  the  nature  of  law,  that,  if  it  were  not  decisive, 
it  would  be  of  no  value;  ‘ The  sentences  of  supericui 
judges  are  final,  decisive,  and  irrevocable.' — BuiifiK 
STONE. 


DECISION,  JUDGEMENT,  SENTENCE. 

Decision  signifies  literally  the  act  of  deciding,  or  tlMi 
thing  decided  upon  (r.  To  decide) ; judgement  signifies 
the  act  oi  judging  or  determining  in  general  (u.  To 
decide);  sentence,  in  Latin  sententia,  signifies  the 
»opinion  held  or  maintained. 

These  terms,  though  very  different  in  their  original 
meaning,  are  now  employed  so  that  the  two  latter  are 
species  of  the  former;  a final  conclusion  of  any  busi 
ness  is  comprehended  in  them  all:  but  the  decision 
conveys  none  of  the  collateral  ideas  which  are  expressed 
by  judgement  and  sentence : a decision  has  no  respect 
to  the  agent ; it  may  be  said  of  one  or  many  ; it  may 
be  the  decision  of  a court  of  law,  of  the  nation,  of  the 
publick,  of  a particular  body  of  men,  or  of  a private 
individual:  but  a judgement  is  given  in  a publick 
court,  or  among  private  individuals:  a sentence  is 
passed  in  a court  of  law,  or  at  the  bar  of  the  publick. 

A decision  specifies  none  of  the  circumstances  of 
the  action;  it  may  be  a legal  or  an  arbitrary  decision; 
it  may  be  a decision  according  to  one’s  caprice,  oi 
after  mature  deliberation : a judgement  is  always 
passed  either  in  a court  of  law,  and  consequently  by 
virtue  of  authority;  or  it  is  passed  by  an  individual 
by  the  authority  of  his  own  judgement:  a sentence  is 
always  passed  by  the  authority  of  law,  or  the'  will  of 
the  publick. 

A decision  respects  matters  of  dispute  or  litigation  ; 
it  puls  an  end  to  all  question;  ‘The  decisions  of  the 
judges,  in  the  several  courts  of  justice,  are  the  prin 
cipal  and  most  authoritative  evidence  tliatcan  be  given 
of  the  existence  of  such  a custom  as  shall  form  a part 
of  the  common  law.’ — Blackstonk.  A judgement 
respects  the  guilt  or  innocence,  the  moral  excellence 
or  defects,  of  a person ; ‘ It  is  the  greatest  folly  to  seek 
the  praise  or  approbation  of  any  being  besides  the  Su 
preine  Being  ; because  no  other  being  can  make  a right 
judgement  of  us.’ — Addison.  A sentence  respects  the 
punishment  or  consequent  fate  of  the  object:  ‘The 
guilty  man  has  an  honour  for  the  judge,  who  with 
justice  pronounces  against  liiin  tlie  sentence  of  death 
itself.’ — Steele.  Some  questions  are  of  so  compli 
cated  a nature,  that  it  is  not  possible  to  bring  them  to 
a decision ; men  are  forbidden  by  the  Christian  reli 
gion  to  be  severe  in  their  judgements  on  one  another  ; 
the  works  of  an  author  must  sometimes  await  the  sen- 
tence of  impartial  posterity  before  their  value  can  bt* 
duly  appreciated. 

FINAL,  CONCLUSIVE. 

Final,  in  French  final,  Latin  finalis,  from  finis  the 
end,  signifies  having  an  end;  conclusive,  as  in  the 
preceding  article,  signifies  shutting  up,  or  coming  to  a 
conclusion. 

Final  designates  simply  the  circumstance  of  being 
the  last;  conclusive  the  mode  of  finishing  or  coming 
to  the  last:  a determination  is  final  which  is  to  be 
succeeded  by  no  other  ; ‘Neither  with  us  in  England 
hath  there  been  (till  very  lately)  any  final  determina- 
tion upon  the  right  of  authors  at  the  common  law.’— 
Blackstone.  A reasoning  is  conclusive  that  |)uts  a 
stop  to  farther  question;  ‘I  hardly  think  the  example 
of  Abraham’s  complaining,  that,  unless  he  had  some 
children  of  his  body,  his  steward  Eliezer  of  Damascus 
would  be  bis  heir,  is  quite  conclusive  to  show- that  he 
made  him  so  by  will.’ — Blackstone.  The  final  i. 
arbitrary ; it  depends  upon  the  will  to  make  ai  o» 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  225 


not;  tne  conclusive  is  relative;  it  depends  upon  the 
circumstances  and  the  understa  iding.  a person  gives 
a final  answer  at  option;  but,  in  order  to  make  an 
answer  conclusive,  it  must  be  satisfactory  to  all  parties. 

CONCLUSIVE,  DECISIVE,  CONVINCING. 
Conclusive  applies  either  to  practical  or  argumenta- 
tive matters;  decisive  to  what  is  practical  only ; con- 
vincing to  what  is  argumentative  only. 

It  is  necessary  to  be  conclusive  vVhen  w’e  deliberate, 
and  decisive  when  we  command.  What  is  conclusive 
puts  an  end  to  all  discussion,  and  determines  the 
judgement;  ‘I  will  not  disguise  that  Dr.  Bentley, 
whose  criticism  is  so  conclusive  for  the  forgery  of  those 
tragedies  quoted  by  Plutarch,  is  of  opinion  “Thespis 
himself  published  nothingin  writing.’” — Cumberland. 
What  is  decisive  puis  an  end  to  all  wavering,  and  de- 
termines the  will ; ‘ Is  it  not  somewhat  singular  that 
Young  preserved,  without  any  palliation,  this  preface 
(to  his  Satire  on  Women)  so  bluntly  decisive  in  favour 
of  laughing  at  the  world,  in  the  same  collection  of  his 
works  which  contains  the  mournful,  angry,  gloomy, 
J^ight  Thoughts!' — Croft.  Negotiators  have  some- 
times an  interest  in  not  speaking  conclusively ; com- 
manders  can  never  retain  their  authority  without 
speaking  decisively  ; conclusive,  when  compared  to 
convincing,  is  gono'caX-,  the  latter  is  particular:  an  ar- 
gument is  convincing,  a chain  of  reasoning  conclusive. 
There  may  be  much  that  is  convincing,  where  there  is 
nothing  conclusive : a proof  may  be  convincing  of  a 
particular  circumstance  ; but  conclusive  evidence  will 
Dear  upon  the  main  question  ; ‘That  religion  is  essen- 
tial to  the  welfare  of  man,  can  be  proved  by  the  most 
c^mvincing  arguments.’ — Blair. 

CRITERION,  STANDARD. 

Criterion,  in  Greek  K^iry^iov,  from  Kpivo>  to  judge, 
signifies  the  mark  or  rule  by  which  one  may  judge; 
standard,  from  the  verb  to  stand,  signifies  the  point 
at  which  one  must  stand,  or  beyond  which  one  must 
not  go. 

The  criterion  is  employed  only  in  matters  of  judge- 
ment ; the  standard  is  used  in  the  ordinary  concerns 
rf  life.  The  former  serves  for  determining  the  cha- 
racters and  qualities  of  things;  the  latter  for  defining 
quantity  and  measure.  The  language  and  manners  of 
a person  is  the  best  criterion  for  forming  an  estimate 
sf  his  station  and  education  ; 

But  have  we  then  no  law  besides  our  will. 

No  just  criterion  fix’d  to  good  or  ill"? 

As  well  at  noon  we  may  obstruct  our  sight. 

Then  doubt  if  such  a thing  exists  as  light. 

Jenyns. 

In  order  to  produce  a uniformity  in  the  mercantile 
transactio^is  of  mankind,  one  with  another,  it  is  the 
f-ustom  of  government  to  set  up  a certain  standard  for 
tie  regulation  of  coins,  weights,  and  measures. 

The  word  standard  may  likewise  be  used  figura- 
vely  in  the  same  sense.  The  Bible  is  a standard  of 
xceilence,  both  in  morals  and  religion,  which  cannot 
oe  too  closely  followed.  It  is  impossible  to  have  the 
same  standard  in  t le  arts  and  sciences,  because  all 
our  performances  iall  short  of  perfection,  and  will 
admit  of  improvement ; 

Rate  not  th’  extension  of  the  human  mind. 

By  the  plebeian  standard  of  mankind. — Jenyns. 

TO  CONFIRIM,  CORROBORATE. 

Confirm,  in  French  confirmer,  Latin  covfirmo,  which 
Is  compounded  of  con  and  firmo  or  firmus,  signifying 
to  make  additionally  corroborate,  in  Latin  corro- 
boratus,  participle  of  corrnhoro,  compounded  of  cor  or 
con  and  roboro  to  strengthen,  signifies  to  add  to  the 
strength. 

The  idea  of  strengthening  is  common  to  these  terms, 
but  under  different  circumstances : confirm  is  used 
generally;  corroborate  only  in  particular  instances. 
What  confirms  serves  to  confirm  the  minds  of  others : 
There  is  an  Abyssinian  here  who  knew  Mr.  Bruce 
at  Givender.  I have  examined  him,  and  he  confirms 
Mr.  Bruce’s  account.’ — Sir  Wm.  Jones.  What  cor- 
roborates strengthens  one’s  self;  ‘ The  secrecy  of  this 
C'inference  very  'uuch  favours  my  conjecture,  that 


Augustus  made  an  attempt  to  persuade  T beriuB  from 
holding  on  the  empire  ; and  the  length  of  time  it  took 
up  corroborates  the  probability  of  that  conjecture.’  - 
Cumberland.  A testimony  may  be  confirmed  or  cor 
roborated ; but  all  doubt  is  removed  by  a confirmation ; 
the  persuasion  is  strengthened  by  a corroboration  i 
when  the  truth  of  a person’s  assertions  is  called  in 
question,  it  is  fortunate  for  him  when  circumstances 
present  themselves  that  confirm  the  truth  of  what  he 
has  said,  or,  if  he  have  respectable  friends,  tc  corrobo- 
rate his  testimony. 


TO  CONFIRM,  ESTABLISI.. 

Confi,rm  [v.  To  confirm,  corroborate) ; establish,  from 
the  word  stable,  signifies  to  make  stable  or  able  to 
stand. 

The  idea  of  strengthening  is  common  to  these  as  to 
the  former  terms,  but  with  a different  application: 
confirm  respects  the  state  of  a person’s  mind,  and 
whatever  acts  upon  the  mind ; establish  is  employed 
with  regard  to  whatever  is  external ; a report  is  con 
firmed  ; a reputation  is  established : a person  is  con- 
firmed in  the  persuasion  or  belief  of  any  truth  or  cir 
cumstance; 

Trifles,  light  rs  air. 

Are  to  the  jealous,  confirmations  strong 
As  proofs  of  Holy  W'rit. — Shakspeare 
A thing  is  established  in  the  publick  estimatio  i,  or 
a principle  is  established  in  the  mind ; ‘ The  silk 
worm,  after  having  spun  her  task,  lays  her  eggs  and 
dies  ; but  a man  can  never  have  taken  in  his  full  mea- 
sure of  knowledge,  has  not  time  to  subdue  his  pas- 
sions, or  establish  his  soul  in  virtue,  and  come  up  to 
the  perfection  of  his  nature,  before  he  is  hurried  of! 
the  stage.’— Addison. 

The  mind  seeks  its  own  means  of  confirming  itself ; 
things  are  established  either  by  time  or  authority : no 
person  shpuld  be  hasty  in  giving  credit  to  reports  that 
are  not  fully  confirmed,  nor  in  giving  support  to  me»> 
sures  that  are  not  established  upon  the  surest  grounds- 
a reciprocity  of  good  offices  serves  to  confirm  an  alii 
ance,  or  a good  understanding  between  people  anti 
nations ; interest  or  reciprocal  affection  serve  to  esta- 
blish an  intercourse  between  individuals,  which  has 
perhaps,  been  casually  commenced. 


UNDETERMINED,  UNSETTLED, 
UNSTEADY,  WAVERING. 

Undetermined  {v.  To  determine,)  is  a temporary 
state  of  the  mind;  unsettled  is  commonly  more  lasting, 
we  are  undetermined  in  the  ordinary  concerns  of  life ; 
we  are  unsettled  in  matters  of  opinion : we  may  be 
undetermined  whether  we  shall  go  or  stay;  w'e  are 
unsettled  in  our  faith  or  religious  profession  ; ‘ Uncer 
tain  and  unsettled  as  Cicero  was,  he  seems  fired  with 
the  contemplation  of  immortality.’ — Pearse. 

Undetermined  and  unsettled  are  applied  to  parti- 
cular objects ; unsteady  and  wavering  are  habits  of  the 
mind : to  be  unsteady  is,  in  fact,  to  be  habitually  Mwsei- 
tled  in  regard  to  all  objects.  An  unsettled  character  is 
onei^hat  has  no  settled  principles:  an  unsteady  cha. 
racter  has  an  unfitness  in  himself  to  settle  ; ‘You  will 
find  soberness  and  truth  in  the  proper  teachers  of  reli 
gion,  and  much  unsteadiness  and  vanity  in  others.’ — 
Earl  Wentworth.  Undetermined  describes  one 
uniform  state  of  mind,  namely,  the  want  of  deter- 
mination : wavering  describes  a changeable  state, 
namely,  the  state  of  determining  variously  at  different 
times.  Undetermined  is  always  taken  in  an  indif- 
ferent, wavering  mostly  in  a bad,  sense  : we  may  fre- 
quently be  undetermined  from  the  nature  of  the  case, 
which  does  not  present  motives  for  determining ; ‘ We 
suffer  the  last  part  of  life  to  steal  from  us  in  weak 
hopes  of  some  fortuitous  occurrence  or  drowsy  equi- 
librations of  undetermined  counsel.’ — Johnson.  A 
person  is  mostly  wavering  from  a defect  in  his  cha 
racter,  in  cases  where  he  might  determine  ; 

Yet  such,  we  find,  they  are  as  can  control 
The  servile  actions  of  our  wav  ring  soul. 

Prior. 

A parent  may  with  reason  be  undetermined  as  to  the 
line  of  life  which  'se  shall  choose  for  his  son  : men  ot 


226 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMLS 


soft  and  timid  characters  are  always  wavering  in  the 
most  trivial,  as  well  as  tlie  most  important,  concerns 
of  life. 


CONSTANCY,  STABILITY,  STEADINESS, 
FIRMNESS. 

Constancy,  in  French  constancc,  Latin  constantia, 
from  constans  and  consto,  compounded  of  cun  and  sto 
to  stand  by  or  close  to  a tiling,  signities  the  quality  of 
adhering  to  the  thing  that  has  been  once  chosen ; sta- 
bility, in  French  stabilitJ,  Latin  stabilitas,  from  sta- 
bilis  and  sto  to  stand,  signities  the  abstract  quality  of 
being  able  to  stand;  steadiness,  from  steady  or  staid, 
Saxon  stetig,  high  German  stdtig,  Greek  and 

to  stand,  signifies  a capacity  for  standing  ; finn- 
ness,  signifies  the  abstract  quality  of  firm. 

Constancy  respects  the  aftections;  stability  the  opi- 
nions ; steadiness  the  action  or  the  motives  of  action  ; 
firmness  the  [lurpose  or  resolution. 

* Constancy  prevents  from  changing,  and  furnishes 
the  mind  with  resources  against  weariness  or  disgust 
of  the  same  object ; it  preserves  and  supports  an 
attachment  under  every  change  of  circumstances  ; 

' Without  constancy  there  is  neither  love,  friendship, 
nor  virtue  in  the  world.’ — Addison.  Stability  pre- 
vents from  varying,  it  bears  up  the  mind  against  the 
movements  of  levity  or  curiosity,  which  a diversity  of 
objects  might  produce;  ‘ With  God  there  is  no  varia- 
bleness, with  man  there  is  no  stability.  Virtue  and 
vice  divide  the  empire  of  his  mind,  and  wisdom  and 
folly  alternately  rule  him.’ — Blair.  Steadiness  pre- 
vents from  deviating;  it  enables  the  mind  to  bear  up 
against  the  influence  of  humour,  which  temperament 
or  outward  circumstances  might  produce  ; it  fixes  on 
one  course  and  keeps  to  it;  ‘ A manly  steadiness  of 
conduct  is  the  object  we  are  always  to  keep  in  view.’ 
—Blair.  Firmness  prevents  from  yielding;  it  gives 
the  mind  strength  against  all  the  attacks  to  which  it 
may  be  exposed  ; it  makes  a resistance,  and  comes  off 
triumphant ; ‘ A corrupted  and  guilty  man  can  possess 
no  true  firmness  of  heart.’ — Blair. 

Consta'iicy,  among  lovers  and  friends,  is  the  favourite 
theme  of  poets;  the  world  has,  however,  afforded  but 
few  originals  from  which  they  could  copy  their  pic- 
tures : they  have  mostly  described  what  is  desirable 
rather  than  what  is  real.  Stability  of  character  is 
essential  for  those  who  are  to  command;  for  how  can 
they  govern  others  who  cannot  govern  their  own 
thoughts'?  Steadiness  of  deportment  is  a great  re- 
commendation to  those  who  have  to  obey:  how  can 
any  one  perform  his  part  well  who  suffers  himself  to 
be  perpetually  interrupted  1 Firmness  of  character  is 
indispensable  in  the  support  of  principles:  there  are 
many  occasions  in  which  this  part  of  a man’s  cha- 
racter is  likely  to  be  put  to  a severe  test. 

Constancy  is  opposed  to  fickleness  ; stability  to 
changcableness;  steadiness  to  flightiness  ; firmness  to 
pliancy. 

FIRM,  FIXED,  SOLID,  STABLE. 

Firm,  in  French  firme,  Latin  firmus,  comes  from 
fero  to  bear,  signifying  the  quality  of  bearing,  up- 
holding, or  keeping ; denotes  the  state  of  being 
fixed:  solid,  in  Latin  solidus,  comes  from  solum  the 
ground,  which  is  the  most  solid  thing  existing;  stable, 
in  Latin  stabilis,  from  sto,  signifies  the  quality  of 
being  able  to  stand. 

That  is  firm  which  is  not  easily  shaken;  that  is 
fixed  which  is  fastened  to  something  else,  and  not 
easily  torn ; that  is  solid  which  is  able  to  bear,  and 
does  not  easily  give  way  ; that  is  stable  which  is  able 
to  make  a stand  against  resistance,  or  the  effects  of 
time.  A pillar  which  is  firm  on  its  base,  fixed  to  a 
wall  made  of  solid  oak,  is  likely  to  be  stable.  A man 
stands  firm  m battle  who  does  not  flinch  from  the  at- 
tack : he  is  fixed  to  a spot  by  the  order  of  his  com- 
mander. An  army  of  men  form  a solid  mass, 
and,  by  their  heroism,  may  deserve  the  most  stable 
monument  that  can  be  erected  ; 

In  one  firm  orb  the  bands  were  rang’d  around, 

A cloud  of  heroes  blacken’d  all  the  ground. 

Pope. 

• Gip9rd-  “ Stability,  Constance,  fermet^.” 


Unmev’d  and  silent,  the  whole  war  they  wa  < 
Serenely  dreadful,  and  as  fix'd  as  fate Pope. 

In  the  moral  sense,  firmness  respects  the  purpost. 
or  such  actions  as  depend  on  the  purpose ; fixed  r use. 
either  for  the  mind,  or  for  outward  circumsidiicea 
solid  is  applicable  to  things  in  general,  in  an  absalut  ^ 
sense ; stable  is  applicable  to  things  in  a relative  6cn.% 
Decrees  are  more  or  less  firm,  according  to  the  souro. 
from  which  they  spring ; none  are  firm,  compareii' 
with  those  which  arise  from  the  will  of  the  Almighty 
The  man  that ’s  resolute  and  just 
Firm  to  his  principles  and  trust. 

Nor  hopes  nor  fears  can  bind. — Walsh. 

Laws  are  fixed  in  proportion  as  they  are  connects 
with  a constitution  in  which  it  is  difficult  to  innovate 
‘ One  loves  fixed  laws,  and  the  other  arbitrary  power 
— Temple.  That  which  is  solid  is  so  of  its  own  na. 
ture,  but  does  not  admit  of  degrees : a solid  reasor 
has  within  itself  an  independent  property,  which  can 
not  be  increased  or  diminished  ; 

But  these  fantastick  errours  of  our  dream 
Lead  us  to  solid  wrong. — Cowley. 

That  which  is  stable  is  so  by  comparison  with  tha' 
which  is  of  less  duration  ; the  characters  of  some  iner 
are  more  stable  than  those  of  others  ; youth  will  noi 
have  so  stable  a character  as  manhood ; ‘ The  pros 
perity  of  no  man  on  earth  is  stable  and  assured.’— 
Blair. 

A friendship  is  firm  when  it  does  not  depend  upot 
the  opinion  of  others ; it  is  fixed  when  the  choice  h 
made  and  gronnded  in  the  mind  ; it  is  solid  when  ii 
rests  on  the  only  solid  basis  of  accordancy  in  virtu* 
and  religion ; it  is  stable  when  it  is  not  liable  to  de 
crease  or  die  away  with  time. 


HARD,  FIRM,  SOLID. 

The  close  adherence  of  the  component  parts  oi 
body  constitutes  hardness.  The  close  adherence  oi 
different  bodies  to  each  other  constitutes  firmness  {v 
Fixed).  That  is  hard  which  will  not  yield  to  a closet 
compression ; that  is  firm  which  will  not  yield  so  as  te 
produce  a separation.  Ice  is  hard,  as  far  as  it  respeetB 
itself,  when  it  resists  every  pressure ; it  is  firm  witl 
regard  to  the  water  which  it  covers,  when  it  is  s« 
closely  bound  as  to  resist  every  weight  without 
breaking. 

Hard  and  solid  respect  the  internal  constitution  of 
bodies,  and  the  adherence  of  the  component  parts; 
but  hard  denotes  a much  closer  degree  of  adherence 
than  solid : the  hard  is  opposed  to  the  soft ; the  solid 
to  the  fluid  ; every  hard  body  is  by  nature  solid ; al- 
though every  solid  body  is  not  hard.  Wood  is  always 
a solid  body,  but  it  is  sometimes  hard,  and  sometimes 
soft ; water,  when  congealed,  is  a solid  body,  and  ad- 
mits of  different  degrees  of  hardness. 

In  the  improper  application,  hardness  is  allied  to 
insensibility : firmness  to  fixedness ; solidity  to  sub- 
stantiality: a hard  man  is  not  to  be  acted  upon  by 
any  tender  motives;  a firm  man  is  not  to  be  turned 
from  his  purpose ; a solid  man  holds  no  purposes  that 
are  not  well  founded.  A man  is  hardened  in  that 
which  is  bad,  by  being  made  insensible  to  that  which 
is  good  : a man  is  confirmed  in  any  thing  good  or  bad, 
by  being  rendered  less  disposed  to  lay  it  aside ; his 
mind  is  consolidated  by  acquiring  fresh  motives  for 
action. 


TO  FIX,  FASTEN,  STICK. 

Fix  {v.  To  fix,  settle);  fasten  is  to  make  fast;  stick 
is  to  make  to  stick. 

Fix  is  a generick  term ; fasten  and  stick  are  but 
modes  of  fixing . we  fix  whatever  we  make  to  remain 
in  a given  situation  ; we  fasten  if  we  fix  it  firmly : we 
stick  when  we  fix  a thing  by  means  of  sticking.  A 
post  is  fixed  in  the  ground ; it  is  fastened  to  a wall  by 
a nail ; it  is  stuck  to  another  board  by  means  of  glue 
Shelves  are  fixed:  a horse  is/asteraed  to  a gate : bills 
are  stuck  up.  What  is  fixed  may  be  removed  in 
various  ways ; 

On  mules  and  dogs  the  infection  first  began, 

And  fast  the  vengeful  arrows  fix'd  in  man.— Pope 
What  \s fastened  is  removed  by  main  force ; 


ENGLISH  SYNQNYMES.  22^ 


As  me  bold  hound  that  gives  the  ion  chase, 

With  beating  bo'som,  and  will)  eager  pace, 

Hangs  on  his  haunch,  or  fastens  on  his  hai's, 
Guards  as  he  turns,  and  circles  as  he  wheels. 

POPB. 

What  is  stuck  must  be  separated  by  contrivance ; , 
Some  lines  more  moving  than  the  rest. 

Stuck  to  the  point  that  pierc’d  her  breast.— Swift. 


TO  FIX,  SETTLE,  ESTABLISH. 

To  fix,  in  Latin  fixum,  perfect  of  fig^o,  and  in  Greek 
BTjyw,  signifies  simply  to  make  to  keep  its  place ; settle, 
which  is  a frequentative  of  set,  signifies  to  make  to 
sit  or  be  at  rest ; establish,  from  the  Latin  stabilis, 
signifies  to  make  stable  or  keep  its  ground. 

Fix  is  the  general  and  indefinite  term  ; to  settle  and 
establish  are  to  fix  strongly.  Fix  and  settle  are  ap- 
plied either  to  material  or  spiritual  objects,  establish 
only  to  moral  objects.  A post  may  be  fixed  in  the 
ground  in  any  manner,  but  it  requires  time  for  it  to 
settle  ; 

Hell  heard  the  insufferable  noise,  hell  saw 
Heaven  running  from  heav’n,  and  would  have  fled 
Affrighted,  but  that  fate  hod.  fix'd  too  deep 
Her  dark  foundations. — Milton. 

Warm’d  in  the  brain  the  brazen  weapon  lies, 

And  shades  eternal  settle  o’er  his  eyes. — Pope. 

A person  may  either  fix  himself,  settle  himself,  or 
fstaiIrsA  himself:  the  first  case  refers  simply  to  his 
taking  up  hid  abode,  or  choosing  a certain  spot ; tlie 
second  refers  to  his  permanency  of  stay ; and  Uie 
third  to  the  business  which  he  raises  or  renders  per- 
manent. 

The  same  distinction  exists  between  these  words  in 
their  farther  application  to  the  conduct  of  men.  We 
may^x  one  or  many  points,  important  or  unimportant, 
it  is  a mere  act  of  the  will;  we  settle  many  points  of 
importance;  it  is  an  act  of  deliberation:  thus  we  fig, 
the  day  and  hour  of  doing  a thing;  we  settle  the  affairs 
of  our  family  ; 

While  wavering  councils  thus  his  mind  engage, 
Fluctuates  in  doubtful  thought  the  Pylian  sage. 

To  join  the  host  or  to  the  gen’ral  haste. 

Debating  long,  he  fixes  on  the  last. — Pope. 

Justice  submitted  to  what  Abra  pleas’d. 

Her  will  alone  could  settle  or  revoke. 

And  law  was  fixed  bv  what  she  latest  spoke. 

Prior. 

So  likewise  to  is  properly  the  act  of  one ; to  settle 
may  be  the  joint  act  of  many  : thus  a parent  fixes  on 
a business  for  his  child,  or  he  settles  tlie  marriage  con- 
tract with  another  parent.  To^z  and  settle  are  per- 
sonal acts,  and  the  objects  are  mostly  of  a private 
nature , but  to  establish  is  an  indirect  action,  and  the 
object  mostly  of  a public  nature  thus  w'e  fix  our  opi- 
nions ; we  settle  our  minds  ; or  we  are  instrumental  in 
establishing  laws,  institutions,  and  the  like.  It  is 
much  to  be  lamented  that  any  one  should  remain  un- 
settled in  his  faith;  and  still  more  so,  that  the  best 
form  of  faith  is  not  universally  established ; ‘ A pam- 
phlet that  talks  of  slavery,  France,  and  the  pretender  ; 
they  desire  no  more;  it  will  settle  the  wavering  and 
confirm  the  doubtful.’ — Swift.  ‘ I wou'ld  establish 
but  one  general  rule  to  be  observed  in  all  conversation, 
which  is  this,  that  men  should  not  talk  to  please  them- 
BPlves,  but  those  that  hear  them.’ — Steele. 


TO  FIX,  DETERMINE,  SETTLE,  LIMIT. 

To^z,  as  in  the  preceding  article,  is  here  the  general 
term  ; to  determine  (v.To  decide) ; to  settle  (v.  To  fix)  ; 
to  limit  {v.  To  bound) ; are  here  modes  of  fixing. 
They  all  denote  the  acts  of  conscious  agents,  but  differ 
in  the  object  aiid  circumstances  of  the  action : we  may 
fix  any  object  by  any  means,  and  to  any  point,  we  may 
fix  material  objects  or  spiritual  objects,  we  may  either 
fix  by  means  of  our  senses,  or  our  thoughts;  but  we 
can  determine  only  by  me.Tns  of  our  thoughts.  To 
fix,  in  distinction  from  the  rest,  is  said  in  regard  to  a 
single  point  or  a line  ; but  to  determine  is  always  said 
of  one  or  more  points,  or  a whole : we  fix  where  a 
thing  shall  begin;  but  we  determine  where  it  shall 
begin,  and  where  it  shall  end,  which  way,  and  how 


far  it  shall  go,  and  the  like : thus,  we  may  ^z bur  eye 
upon  a star,  or  we  fix  our  minds  upon  a particular 
branch  of  astronomy ; ‘ In  a rotund,  whether  it  be  a 
building  or  a plantation,  you  can  no  where  fix  a boun- 
dary.’— Burke.  We  determine  the  distance  of  the 
heavenly  bodies,  or  the  specific  gravity  of  bodies,  and 
the  like,  upon  philosophical  principles.  So  in  morals 
we  may^z  our  minds  on  an  object ; but  we  determine 
the  mode  of  accomplishing  it ; ‘Your  first  care  must 
be  to  acquire  the  power  of  fixing  your  thoughts.’— 
BLit.iR.  ‘ More  particularly  to  determine  the  propei 
season  for  grammar,  I do  not  see  how  it  can  be  made 
a study,  but  as  an  introduction  to  rhetorick.’ — Locke  . 

Determine  is  to  settle  as  a means  to  the  end  ; we 
commonly  determine  all  subordinate  matters,  in  ordc 
to  settle  a matter  finally : thus,  the  determination  of  a 
single  cause  will  serve  to  settle  all  other  differences- 
‘ One  had  better  settle  on  a way  of  life  that  is  not  the 
very  best  we  might  have  chosen,  than  grow  old  with- 
out determining  our  choice.’ — Addison.  The  deter- 
mination respects  the  act  of  the  individual  who  fixes 
certain  points  and  brings  them  to  a term ; the  settle- 
ment respects  simply  the  conclusion  of  the  affair,,or 
the  termination  of  all  dispute  and  question ; ‘ Religion 
settles  the  pretensions  and  otherwise  interfering  in 
terests  of  mortal  men.’ — Addison. 

How  can  we  bind  or  limit  his  decree 

But  what  our  ear  has  heard  or  eye  may  see  ? 

Prior. 

To  determine  and  limit  both  signify  to  fix  bpunda 
ries ; but  the  former  respects,  for  the  most  part,  such 
boundaries  or  terms  as  are  formed  by  the  nature  of 
things ; ‘ No  sooner  have  they  climbed  that  hill,  which 
thus  determines  their  view  at  a distance,  but  a new 
prospect  is  opened.’ — Atterbury. 

No  mystic  dreams  could  make  their  fates  appear. 

Though  now  determin'd  by  Tydides’  spear. — Pope. 
Limit,  cm  the  other  hand,  is  the  act  of  a conscious 
agent  employed  upon  visUile  objects,  and  the  process 
of  the  action  itself  is  rendered  visible,  as  when  we 
limit  a price,  or  limit  our  time,  &;c. 

TO  COMPOSE,  SETTLE. 

Compose,  in  Latin  composui,  perfect  of  compono  to 
put  together,  signifies  to  put  in  due  order ; in  which 
sense  it  is  allied  to  settle. 

We  compose  that  Which  has  been  disjointed  and 
separated,  by  bringing  it  together  again  ; we  settle  that 
which  has  been  disturbed  and  put  in  motion,  by  inak 
ing  it  rest : we  compose  the  thoughts  which  have  been 
deranged  and  thrown  into  confusion  ; 

Thy  presence  did  each  doubtful  heart  compose, 

And  factions  wonder’d  that  they  once  arose. 

Tickell. 

We  settle  the  mind  which  has  been  fluctuating  and 
distracted  by  contending  desires ; 

Perhaps. my  reason  may  but  ill  defend 

My  settled  faith,  my  mind  with  age  impair’d. 

Shenstone. 

The  mind  must  be  composed  before  we  can  think 
justly ; it  must  be  settled  before  we  can  act  consist 
ently. 

We  compose  the  differences  of  others : we  settle  our 
own  differences  with  others : it  is  difficult  to  compose 
the  quarrels  of  angry  opponents,  or  to  settle  the  dis 
pules  of  obstinate  partisans. 

COMPOSED,  SEDATE. 

Composed  expresses  the  state  of  being  composed  {d. 
To  compose) ; sedate,  in  Latin  sedatus,  participle  of 
sedo  to  settle,  signifies  the  quality  of  being  settled. 

Composed  respects  the  air  and  looks  externally,  and 
the  spirits  internally ; sedate  relates  to  the  deportmen 
or  carriage  externally,  and  the  fixedness  of  the  pur- 
pose internally  : composed  is  opposed  to  ruffled  or  hur- 
ried, sedate  to  buoyant  or  volatile. 

Composure  is  a particular  state  of  the  mind ; sedate- 
ness is  an  habitual  frame  of  mind  ; a part  of  the  cha- 
racter: a composed  mien  is  very  becoming  in  the  sea- 
son of  devotion  ; ‘Upon  her  nearer  approach  to  Her 
cules  she  stepped  before  the  other  lady,  who  came  for 
ward  with  a regular  composed  carriage  ’ — Addison 


228 


i^:nglish  synonymes. 


A seaate  tarr  a-je  is  becoming  in  youth  who  are  en- 
gaged in  serious  concerns ; 

Let  me  associate  with  the  serious  night, 

And  contemplation,  her  sedate  compeer. 

Thomson. 


TO  ASK,  OR  ASK  FOR,  CLAIM,  DEMAND. 

To  ask,  is  here  taken  for  something  more  than  a 
simple  expression  of  wishes,  as  denoted  in  the  article 
under  To  ask,  beg;  claim,  in  Latin  clamo  to  cry  after, 
signifies  to  express  an  imperious  wish  for;  demand, 
in  French  demander,  Latin  demands,  compounded  of 
de  and  mando,  signifies  to  call  for  imperatively. 

Ask,  in  the  sense  of  beg,  is  confined  to  the  expression 
of  wishes  on  the  part  of  the  asker,  without  involving 
any  obligation  on  the  part  of  the  person  asked;  all 
granted  in  this  case  is  voluntary,  or  complied  with  as  a 
favour : but  ask  for  in  the  sense  here  taken  is  involun- 
tary, and  springs  from  the  forms  and  distinctions  of 
society.  Ask  is  here,  as  before,  generick  or  specifick  ; 
claim  and  demand  are  specifick ; in  its  specifick  sense 
itjconveys  a less  peremptory  sense  than  either  claim  or 
demand.  To  ask  for  denotes  simply  the  expressed 
wish  to  have  what  is  considered  as  due ; 

Virtue,  with  them,  is  only  to  abstain 

From  all  that  nature  asks-,  and  covet  pain. 

Jknyns. 

To  claim  is  to  assert  a right,  or  to  make  it  known  ; 

My  country  claims  me  all,  claims  ev’ry  passion. 

Martyn. 

To  demand  is  to  insist  on  having  without  the  liberty 
of  a refusal ; 

Even  mountains,  vales. 

And  forests,  seem  impatient  to  demand 
The  promis’d  sweetness.  Thomson. 

Asking  respects  obligation  in  general,  great  or 
small ; claim  respects  obligations  of  importance.  Ask- 
ing  for  supposes  a right,  not  questionable ; claim  sup- 
poses a right  hitherto  unacknowledged ; demand  sup- 
poses eitner  a disputed  right,  or  the  absence  of  all 
right,  and  the  simple  determination  to  have  : a trades- 
man asks  for  what  is  owing  to  him  as  circumstances 
may  require  ; a person  claims  the  property  he  has  lost ; 
people  are  .sometimes  pleased  to  make  demands,  the 
legality  of  which  cannot  be  proved.  What  is  lent 
must  be  asked  for  when  it  is  wanted  ; whatever  has 
been  lost  and  is  found  must  be  recovered  by  a claim  ; 
whatever  a selfish  person  wants,  he  strives  to  obtain 
by  a demand,  whether  just  or  unjust. 

TO  DEMAND,  REQUIRE. 

To  demand,  is  here  taken  in  the  same  sense  as  in  the 
preceding  article ; require,  in  Latin  require,  com- 
pounded of  re  and  queero,  signifies  to  seek  for,  or  to 
seek  to  get  back. 

We  demand  that  which  is  owing  and  ought  to  be 
given ; we  require  that  which  we  wish  and  expect  to 
have  done.  A demand  is  more  positive  than  a requi- 
sition ; the  former  admits  of  no  question  ; the  latter  is 
liable  to  be  both  questioned  and  refused:  the  creditor 
makes  a demand  on  the  debtor ; the  master  requires 
a certain  portion  of  duty  from  his  servant ; it  is  unjust 
to  demand  of  a person  what  he  has  no  right  to  give; 
Hear,  all  ye  Trojans ! all  ye  Grecian  bands. 
What  Paris,  author  of  the  war,  demands. 

Pope. 

It  is  unreasonable  to  require  of  a person  what  it  is  not 
in  his  power  to  do; 

Now,  by  my  sov’reign  and  his  fate  I swear, 
Renown’d  for  faith  in  peace,  and  force  in  war. 

Oft  our  alliance  other  lands  desir’d. 

And  what  we  seek  of  you,  of  us  requir'd. 

Dryden. 

A thing  is  commonly  demanded  in  express  words ; it 
is  required  by  implication;  a person  demands  admit- 
tance when  it  is  not  voluntarily  granted  ; he  requires 
respectful  deportment  from  those  who  are  subordinate 
to  him. 

In  the  figurative  application  the  same  sense  is  pre- 
served : things  of  urgency  and  moment  demand  imme- 
diate attention  ; ‘ Surely  the  retrospect  of  life  and  the 
extirpation  of  lusts  and  appetites,  deeply  rooted  and 


widely  spread,  may  be  allowed  to  demandkome  secession 
from  business  and  folly.’ — Johnson.  Difficult  matter* 
require  a steady  attention ; 

Oh  then  how  blind  to  all  that  truth  requires. 

Who  think  it  freedom  when  a part  aspires. 

Goldsmith 

RIGHT,  CLAIM,  PRIVILEGE. 

Right  signifies  in  this  sense  what  it  is  right  for  one 
to  possess,  which  is  in  fact  a word  of  large  meaning: 
for  since  the  right  and  the  wrong  depend  upon  inde 
terminable  questions,  the  right  of  having  is  equally 
indeterminable  in  some  cases  with  every  other  species 
of  right.  A claim  {v.To  ask  for)  is  a species  of 
to  have  that  which  is  in  the  hands  of  another;  the 
right  to  ask  another  for  it.  The  privilege  is  a speciaa 
of  right  peculiar  to  particular  individuals  or  bodies. 

Right,  in  its  full  sense,  is  altogether  an  abstract  thing 
which  is  independent  of  human  laws  and  regulations; 
claims  and  privileges  are  altogether  connected  with  the 
establishments  of  civil  society. 

Liberty,  in  the  general  sense,  is  an  unalienable  right 
which  belongs  to  man  as  a rational  and  responsible 
agent ; it  is  not  a claim,  for  it  is  set  above  all  question, 
and  all  condition ; nor  is  it  a privilege,  for  it  cannot  be 
exclusively  granted  to  one  being,  nor  unconditionally  be 
taken  away  from  another. 

Between  the  right  and  the  power  there  is  often  as 
wide  a distinction  as  between  truth  and  falsehood  ; we 
have  often  a right  to  do  that  which  we  have  no  power 
to  do,  and  the  power  to  do  that  which  we  have  no  right 
to  do  ; slaves  have  a right  to  the  freedom  which  is  en 
joyed  by  all  other  creatures  of  the  same  species  with 
themselves,  but  they  have  not  the  power  to  use  this 
freedom  as  others  do.  In  England  men  have  tin  power 
of  thinking  for  themselves  as  they  please;  but,  by  the 
abuse  which  they  make  of  this  power,  we  see  that,  in 
many  cases,  they  have  not  the  right,  unless  we  admit 
the  contradiction  that  men  have  a right  to  do  what  is 
wrong;  they  have  the  power  therefore  of  exercising 
this  right  only,  because  no  other  person  has  the  legal 
right  of  controlling  them ; 

In  ev’ry  street  a city  bard 
Rules,  like  an  alderman,  his  ward; 

His  undisputed  rights  extend 

Through  all  the  lane  from  end  to  end.— Swift. 

We  have  often  a claim  to  a thing,  which  it  is  not  in  our 
power  to  substantiate;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  claims 
are  setup  in  cases  which  are  totally  unfounded  on  any 
right ; 

Whence  is  this  pow’r,  this  fondness  of  all  arts. 
Serving,  adorning  life  through  all  its  parts; 

Which  names  impos’d,  by  letters  mark’d  those  names. 
Adjusted  properly  by  legal  claims  ? — Jenyns. 
Privileges  are  rights  granted  to  individuals,  depending 
either  upon  the  will  of  the  granter,  or  the  circumstances 
of  the  receiver,  or  both  ; privileges  are  therefore  partial 
rights,  transferable  at  the  discretion  of  persons  indivi 
dually  or  collectively ; 

A thousand  bards  thy  rights  disown. 

And  with  rebellious  arm  pretend. 

An  equal  privilege  to  descend. — Swift 


PRIVILEGE,  PREROGATIVE,  EXEMPTION 
IMMUNITY. 

Privilege,  in  Latin  privilegium,  compoundeJ  of 
privus  and  lex,  signifies  a law  made  in  favour  of  any 
individual  or  set  of  individuals;  prerogative,  comes 
from  the  hntXn pr(Brogativi,so  called  from  pree  and  rogo 
to  ask,  because  certain  Roman  tribes,  so  called,  were 
first  asked  whom  they  would  have  to  be  consuls : hence 
applied  in  our  language  to  the  right  of  detei mining  or 
choosing  first  in  many  particulars ; exemption,  from  the 
verb  to  exempt,  and  immunity,  from  the  Latin  immunis 
free,  are  both  employed  for  the  object  from  which  one 
is  exempt  or  free. 

Privilege  and  prerogative  consist  of  positive  advan- 
tages ; exemption  and  immunity  of  those  which  are 
negative  : by  the  former  we  obtain  an  actual  good,  by 
the  latter  the  removal  of  an  evil. 

Privilege,  in  its  most  extended  sense,  comprehend* 
all  the  rest:  for  every  prerogative,  exemption,  ana 
immunity,  are  privileges,  inasmuch  as  they  rest  upon 
certain  laws  or  custoi?:^,  which  are  made  for  the  benefit 


ENGLISH  STfNONYMES. 


229 


of  certain  individuals;  but  in  thi)  restricted  sense  tbc 
privilege  is  used  only  for  the  subordinate  parts  of 
society,  and  the  prerogative  for  the  sjiperiour  orders; 
ss  they  respect  the  [>v\\Aick^  privileges  belong  to,  or  are 
granted  to,  the  subject:  prerogatives  belong^  to  the 
crown.  It  is  the  privilege  of  a member  of  parliament 
to  escape  arrest  for  debt ; it  is  the  prerogative  of  the 
crown  to  be  irresponsible  for  the  conduct  of  its  minis- 
ters; as  respects  private  cases  it  is  the  privilege  of 
females  to  have  the  best  places  assigned  to  them ; it  is 
ihf^.  prerogative  oi  the  male  to  address  the  female. 

Privileges  are  applied  to  every  object  which  it  is  desi- 
rable to  have ; ‘ As  the  aged  depart  from  the  dignity,  so 
they  forfeit  the  privileges  of  gray  hairs.’ — Blair. 
Prerogative  is  confined  to  the  case  of  making  one’s 
election,  or  exercising  any  special  power;  ‘By  the 
worst  of  usurnations,  a usurpation  on  the  prerogatives 
of  nature,  you  attempt  to  force  tailors  and  carpenters 
into  the  state.’ — Burke.  Exemption  is  applicable  to 
cases  in  which  one  is  exempted  from  any  tribute,  or 
payment;  ‘ Neither  nobility  nor  clergy  (in  France)  en- 
joyed any  exemption  from  the  duty  on  consumable  com- 
modities.’— Burke.  Immunitij^  from  the  Latin  munus 
an  office,  is  peculiarly  applicable  to  cases  in  which  one 
is  freed  from  a service:  but  it  is  figuratively  applied  to 
a privileged  freedom  from  any  thing  painful;  ‘You 
claim  an  im,munity  from  evil  which  belongs  not  to  the 
lot  of  man.’ — Blair.  All  chartered  towns  or  corpo- 
rations have  privileges,  exemptions,  and  immunities  : 
it  is  the  privilege  of  the  city  of  London  to  shut  its 
gates  against  the  king. 


PRETENSION,  CLAIM. 

Pretension  {v.  To  affect)  and  claim  {v.  To  ask  for) 
both  signify  an  assertion  of  rights,  but  they  differ  in  the 
nature  of  the  rights.  The  first  refers  only  to  the  rights 
which  are  calculated  as  such  by  an  individual;  the 
latter  to  those  which  exist  independently  of  his  suppo- 
sition: there  cannot  therefore  be  a pretension  without 
one  to  pretend,  but  there  may  be  a claim  without  any 
immediate  claimant ; thus  we  say  a person  rests  his 
pretension  to  the  crown  upon  the  ground  of  being  de- 
scended from  the  former  king ; in  hereditary  monarchies 
there  is  no  one  who  has  any  claim  to  the  crown  except 
the  next  heir  in  succession.  The  pretension  is  com- 
monly built  upon  one’s  personal  merits,  or  the  views  of 
one’s  own  merits ; 

But  if  to  unjust  things  thou  dost  pretend, 

Ere  they  begin,  let  thy  pretensions  end. 

Denham. 

The  claim  rests  upon  the  laws  of  civil  society  ; ‘ Will 
he  not  therefore,  of  the  two  evils,  choose  the  least,  by 
submitting  to  a master  who  hath  no  immediate  claim 
upon  him,  rather  than  to  another  who  hath  already 
revived  several  claims  upon  him  ?’ — Swift.  A person 
makes  high  pretensions  who  estimates  his  merits  and 
consequent  deserts  at  a high  rate;  he  judges  of  his 
claims  according  as  they  are  supported  by  the  laws  of 
his  country  or  the  circumstances  of  the  case : the  pre- 
tension, when  denied,  can  never  be  proved ; the  claim, 
when  proved,  can  always  be  enforced.  One  is  in 
general  willing  to  dispute  the  pretensions  of  men  who 
make  themselves  judges  in  their  own  cause;  but  one 
is  not  unwilling  to  listen  to  any  claims  which  are  mo- 
destly preferred.  Those  who  make  a pretension  to  the 
greatest  learning  are  commonly  men  of  shallow  infor- 
mat on  ; ‘It  is  often  charged  upon  writers,  that,  with 
all  their  pretensions  to  genius  and  discoveries,  they  do 
little  more  than  copy  one  another,’— Johnson.  Those 
who  have  the  most  substantial  claims  to  the  gratitude 
and  respect  of  mankind  are  commonly  found  to  be  men 
of  the  fewest  pretensions  ; 

Poets  have  undoubted  right  to  claim. 

If  not  the  greatest,  the  most  lasting  name. 

Congreve. 


PRETENCE,  PRE'J’ENSION,  PRETEXT, 
EXCUSE. 

Pretence  comes  from  pretend  (v.  To  affect)  in  the 
««nse  of  setting  forth  any  thing  independent  of  our- 
selves. Pretension  comes  from  the  same  verb  in  the 
sense  of  setting  forth  any' thing  that  depends  upon  our- 
selves. The  pretence  is  commonly  a misrepresentation ; 
Ihe  nretension  is  frc  piently  a miscalculation  ; the  pre- 


tence IS  set  forth  to  conceal  what  is  bad  in  one  s self;  the 
pre{cnsion  is  set  forth  to  display  what  is  good ; the  former 
betrays  one’s  falsehood,  the  latter  one’s  conceit  or  self- 
importance  ; the  former  can  never  be  employed  in  a 
good  sense,  the  latter  may  sometimes  be  employed  in 
an  indifferent  sense:  a man  of  bad  character  may 
make  a pretence  of  religion  by  adopting  an  outward 
profession ; 

Ovid  had  warn’d  her  to  beware 

Of  strolling  gods,  whose  usual  trade  is, 

Under  pretence  of  taking  air. 

To  pick  up  sublunary  ladies. — Swift. 

Men  of  the  least  merit  often  make  the  highest  preten 
sions  ; 

Each  thinks  his  own  the  best  pretension.— Gay. 

The  pretence  and  pretext  alike  consist  of  what  is 
unreal ; but  the  former  is  not  so  great  a violation  of 
truth  as  the  latter:  the  pretence  may  consist  of  truth 
and  falsehood  blended ; the  pretext,  from  preetego  to 
cloak  or  cover  over,  consists  altogether  of  falsehood; 
the  pretence  may  sometimes  serve  only  to  conceal  or 
palliate  a fault;  the  pretext  serves  to  hide  something 
seriously  culpable  or  wicked : a child  may  make  indis- 
position a pretence  for  idleness; 

Let  not  the  Trojans,  with  a feigned  pretence 
Of  proffer’d  peace,  delude  the  Latian  prince. 

Dryden. 

A thief  makes  his  acquaintance  with  the  servants  a 
pretext  for  getting  admittance  into  houses ; ‘ Justifying 
perfidy  and  murder  for  publick  benefit,  publick  benefit 
would  soon  become  the  pretext,  and  perfidy  and  murder 
the  end.’ — Burke. 

The  pretence  and  excuse  {v.  To  apologise)  are  both 
set  forth  to  justify  one’s  conduct  in  the  eyes  of  others; 
but  the  pretence  always  conceals  something  more  or 
less  culpable,  and  by  a greater  or  less  violation  of 
truth  ; the  excuse  may  sometimes  justify  that  which  is 
justifiable,  and  with  strict  regard  to  truth.  To  oblige 
one’s  self,  under  the  pretence  of  obliging  another,  is  a 
despicable  trick  ; ‘ I should  have  dressed  the  whole 
with  greater  care  ; but  I had  little  time,  which  I am 
sure  you  know  to  be  more  than  pretence.’ — Wake.  Ill- 
ness is  an  allowable  excuse  to  justify  any  omission  in 
business ; 

Nothing  but  love  this  patience  could  produce, 

And  I allow  your  rage  that  kind  excuse. 

Dryden. 

Although  the  excuse  for  the  most  part  supposes  what 
is  groundless,  yet  it  is  moreover  distinguished  from  the 
pretence,  that  it  never  implies  an  intentional  falsehood  ; 
‘The  last  refuge  of  a guilty  person  is  to  take  shelter 
under  an  excuse.’— South. 


TO  AFFECT,  PRETEND  TO. 

Affect  is  here  taken  in  the  same  sense  as  in  the  fol 
lowing  article;  pretend,  in  Latin  pr<etenrfo,  that  is,priE 
and  tendo,  signifies  to  hold  or  stretch  one  thing  before 
another  by  way  of  a blind. 

These  terms  are  synonymous  only  in  the  bad  sens^ 
of  setting  forth  to  others  what  is  not  real  • we  affect  by 
putting  on  a false  air;  we  pretend  by  making  a false 
declaration.  Art  is  employed  m affecting ; assurance 
and  sel  f complacency  in  pretending.  A person  affects 
not  to  hear  what  it  is  convenient  for  him  not  to  answer; 
he  pretends  to  have  forgotten  what  it  is  convenient  for 
him  not  to  recollect.  One  affects  the  manners  of  a 
gentleman,  and  pretends  to  gentility  of  birth.  One 
affects  the  character  and  habils  of  a scholar;  onepre 
tends  to  learning. 

To  affect  the  qualities  which  we  have  not  spoils  tliose 
which  we  have ; 

Self,  quite  put  off,  affects  with  too  much  art 
To  put  on  Woodward  in  each  mangled  part. 

Churchill 

To  pretend  to  attainments  which  we  have  not  made, 
obliges  us  to  have  recourse  to  falsehoods  in  order  to 
escape  detection  ; ‘ There  is  something  so  natively 
great  and  good  in  a person  that  is  truly  devout,  tha.; 
an  awkward  man  may  as  well  pretend  to  be  genteel  ae 
a hypocrite  to  be  pious.’ — Steele. 

* Vide  Trussler  “ To  afl>ct.  pretend  to.” 


230 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


rij  AFFECT.  ASSUME. 

Effect,  in  this  sense,  derives  its  origin  immediately 
fiom  the  L.ilin  affecto  to  desire  after  eagerly,  signifying 
to  aim  at  or  aspire  after ; assume,  in  Latin  assumo, 
compounded  of  as  or  ad  and  sumo  to  take,  signifies  to 
take  to  one’s  self. 

To  affect  is  to  use  forced  efforts  to  appear  to  have 
some  quality;  lo  assume  is  to  appropriate  something 
to  one’s  self.  One  aff'ects  to  have  fine  feelings,  and  as- 
sumes great  importance. 

Affectation  springs  from  the  desire  of  appearing 
better  than  we  really  are ; assumption  from  the  think- 
ng  ourselves  better  than  we  really  are.  We  affect  the 
irtues  which  we  have  not : ‘ It  has  been  from  age  to 
ige  an  affectation  to  love  the  pleasures  of  solitude, 
among  those  who  cannot  possibly  be  supposed  qualified 
for  passing  life  in  that  manner.’ — Spectator.  We  as- 
sume the  character  which  does  not  belong  to  us ; 

Laughs  not  the  heart  when  giants,  big  with  pride. 

Assume  the  pompous  port,  the  martial  part  1 

Churchilu 

An  affected  person  is  always  thinking  of  others ; an 
assuming  person  thinks  only  of  himself.  The  affected 
man  strives  to  gain  applause  by  appearing  to  be  what 
he  is  not ; the  assuming  man  demands  respect  upon  the 
ground  of  what  he  supposes  himself  to  be.  Hypocrisy  is 
often  the  companion  of  affectation;  self-conceit  always 
that  of  assumption. 

To  affect  is  mostly  taken  in  a bad  sense,  but  some- 
times in  an  indifferent  sense  ; to  assume  may  be  some- 
times an  indifferent  action  at  least,  if  not  justifiable. 
Men  always  affect  that  which  is  admired  by  others,  in 
order  to  gain  their  applause ; ‘ In  conversation  the  medi- 
um is  neither  to  0.^'ect  silence  nor  eloquence.’ — Sterne. 
Men  sometimes  assume  an  appearance,  a name,  or  an 
authority,  which  is  no  more  than  their  just  right ; 

This  when  the  various  god  had  urg’d  in  vain. 

He  strait  assum'd  his  native  form  again. — Pope. 


TO  APPROPRIATE,  USURP,  ARROGATE, 
ASSUME,  ASCRIBE. 

Appropriate,  in  French  approprier,  compounded  of 
^p  or  ad  and  propriatus,  participle  of  proprio,  an  old 
verb,  from  proprius  proper  or  own,  signifies  to  make 
one’s  own  ; usurp,  in  French  usurper,  L^alm  usurpo, 
from  usus  use,  is  a frequentative  of  utor,  signifying  to 
make  use  of  as  if  it  were  one’s  own ; arrogate,  in 
Latin  arrogatus,  participle  of  arrogo,  signifies  to  ask 
or  claim  to  for  one’s  self;  assume,  in  French  assumer, 
Latin  assumo,  compounded  of  as  or  ad  and  sujno  to 
.ake,  signifies  to  take  to  one’s  self;  ascribe,  in  Latin 
ascribo,  compounded  of  as  or  ad  and  scribo  to  write, 
signifies  here  to  writedown  to  one’s  own  account. 

The  idea  of  taking  something  to  one’s  self  by  an  act 
of  on.^’s  own,  is  common  to  all  these  terms. 

To  appropriate  is  to  take  to  one’s  self  either  with  or 
without  right;  to  usurp  is  to  take  to  one’s  self  by  vio- 
lence, or  in  violation  of  right.  Appropriating  is  ap- 
plied in  its  proper  sense  to  goods  or  possessions  ; 

To  themselves  appropriating 
The  spirit  of  God,  promis’d  alike,  and  giv’n 
To  all  believers. — Milton. 

Usurping  is  properly  applied  to  power,  publick  or  pri- 
vate ; a M.surper  exercises  the  functions  of  government 
without  a legitimate  sanction  ; ‘ Not  hai  mg  the  natural 
superiority  of  fathers,  their  power  must  be  usurped,  and 
hen  unlawful ; or  if  lawful,  then  granted  or  consented 
unto  by  them  over  whom  they  exercise  the  same,  or 
else  given  them  extraordinarily  from  God.’^ — Hooker. 
Appropriation  is  a matter  of  convenience , it  springs 
from  a selfish  concern  for  ourselves,  and  a total  uncon- 
cern for  others:  usurpation  is  a matter  of  self-indul- 
gence; it  springs  from  an  inordinate  ambition  that  is 
gratified  only  at  the  expense  of  others.  Appropriation 
seldom  requires  an  effort : a person  appropriates  that 
which  casualty  falls  into  his  hands.  Usurpation  mostly 
takes  place  in  a disorganized  state  of  society  ; when 
the  strongest  prevail,  the  most  artful  and  the  most  vi- 
cious individual  invests  himself  with  the  supreme  au- 
thority. Appropriation  is  generally  an  act  of  injustice  : 
usurpation  is  always  an  act  of  violence.  "Jo  usurp  is 
applied  figuratively  in  the  same  sense  ; ‘ If  any  passion 
has  so  much  usurped  our  understanding,  as  not  to  suffer 


us  to  enjoy  advantages  with  the  n.  oderation  prescribe^ 
by  reason,  it  is  not  too  late  to  apply  this  remedy  : when 
we  find  ourselves  sinking  under  sorrow,  we  may  then 
usefully  revolve  the  uncertainty  of  our  condition,  and 
the  folly  of  lamenting  that  from  which,  if  it  had  staid  a 
little  longer,  we  should  ourselves  have  been  taken 
away.’ — .Ioiinson.  To  appropriate  may  be  applied  in 
the  sense  of  assigning  to  others  their  own,  as  well  as 
taking  to  one’s  self;  ‘Things  sanctified  were  thereby 
in  such  sort  appropriated  unto  God,  as  tiiat  they  might 
never  afterward  be  made  common.’ — Hooker.  But 
in  this  sense  it  has  nothing  in  common  with  the  word 
usurp. 

Arrogate,  assume,  and  ascribe,  denote  the  taking  to 
one’s  self,  but  do  not,  like  appropriate  and  usurp,  itnply 
taking  from  another.  Arrogate  is  a more  violent  action 
than  assume,  and  assume  than  ascribe.  Arrogate  and 
assume  are  employed  either  in  the  proper  or  figurative 
sense,  ascribe  only  in  the  figurative  sense.  We  arro- 
gate distinctions,  honours,  and  titles;  we  assume 
names,  rights,  privileges. 

In  the  moral  sense  we  arrogate  pre-eminence,  assume 
importance,  ascribe  merit.  To  arrogate  is  a species 
of  moral  usurpation ; it  is  always  accompanied  with 
haughtiness  and  contempt  forotliers : that  is  arrogated 
to  one’s  self  to  which  one  has  not  thesniallest  title  : an 
arrogant  temper  is  one  of  the  most  odious  features  in 
the  human  character ; it  is  a compound  of  folly  and 
insolence;  ‘ After  having  thus  ascribed  due  honour  to 
birth  and  parentage,  I must  however  take  notice  of 
those  who  arrogate  to  themselves  more  honours  than 
are  due  to  them  on  this  account.’ — Addison.  To  as- 
sume is  a species  of  moral  appropriation ; its  objects  are 
of  a less  serious  nature  than  those  of  arrogating ; and 
it  does  less  violence  lo  moral  propriety  : we  assume  in 
trifies,  we  arrogate  only  in  important  matters ; ‘ It  very 
seldom  happens  that  a man  is  slow  enough  in  assuming 
the  character  of  a husband,  or  a woman  quick  enough 
in  condescending  to  that  of  a wife.’ — Addison.  ’Fa 
ascribe  is  oftener  an  act  of  vanity  than  of  injustice- 
many  men  are  entitled  lo  the  merit  which  they  ascribe 
to  themselves ; but  by  this  very  act  they  lessen  the 
merit  of  their  best  actions;  ‘ Sometimes  we  aseWie  tc 
ourselves  the  merit  of  good  qualities,  which,  if  justly 
considered,  should  cover  us  with  shame.’ — Craig.  A 
conscientious  man  will  appropriate  nothing  to  himself 
which  he  cannot  unquestionably  claim  as  his  own  ; ‘ A 
voice  was  heard  from  the  clouds  declaring  the  inten 
tion  of  this  visit,  which  was  to  restore  and  appropriate 
to  every  one  what  was  his  due.’ — Addison. 

Usurpers,  who  violate  the  laws  both  of  God  and 
man,  are  as  much  to  be  pitied  as  dreaded  : they  gene 
rally  pay  the  price  of  their  crimes  in  a miserable  life 
and  a still  more  miserable  death.  Nothing  exposes  a 
man  to  greater  ridicule  than  arrogating  to  himself 
titles  and  distinctions  which  do  not  belong  to  him. 
Although  a man  may  sometimes  innocently  assume  to 
himself  the  right  of  judging  for  others,  yet  he  can  never, 
with  any  degree  of  justice,  assume  the  right  of  oppress- 
ing them.  Self-complacence  leads  many  to  ascribe 
great  merit  to  themselves  for  things  which  are  gene- 
rally regarded  as  trifling. 

Arrogating  as  an  action,  or  arrogance  as  a disposi- 
tion, is  always  taken  in  a bad  sense : the  former  is 
always  dictated  by  the  most  preposterous  pride ; the 
latter  is  associated  with  every  unworthy  quality.  As- 
sumption, as  an  action,  varies  in  its  character  according 
to  circumstances ; it  may  be  either  good,  bad,  or  indif- 
ferent: it  is  justifiable  in  certain  exigencies  to  assume. 
a command  where  there  is  no  one  else  able  to  direct : it 
is  often  a matter  of  indifTerence  what  name  a person 
assumes  who  does  so  only  in  conformity  to  the  will  cf 
another ; but  it  is  alw.ays  bad  to  assume  a name  as  a 
mask  to  impose  upon  others. 

As  a disposition  assumption  is  always  bad,  but  still 
not  to  the  same  degree  as  arrogance.  An  arrogant 
man  renders  himself  intolerable  to  society , an  as 
suming  man  makes  himself  offensive  : arrogance  is 
the  characteristick  of  men  ; assumption  is  peculiar  to 
youths:  an  arrogant  man  can  be  humbled  only  by 
silent  contempt;  ‘Humility  is  expressed  by  the  stoop- 
ing and  bending  of  the  head;  arrogance  when  it  is 
lifted  up,  or,  as  we  say,  tossed  up.’ — Dryden.  An  as 
suming  youth  must  be  checked  by  the  voice  of  au 
thority ; ‘ This  makes  him  over-forward  in  business, 
assuming  in  conversation,  and  peremptory  in  answers.' 
— Collier. 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


23 


>**iGGANCE,  PRESUMPTION. 

U si^n'fies  either  the  act  of  arrogating  or 

khii  -'  Wiioshion  to  arrogate;  presumption,  from  pre- 

U»tin  prmsunw,  compounded  o\'  prm  before,  au:! 
sujwoU)  take  or  put,  eigniftes  the  disposition  to  put  ont.’s 
self  forward. 

Arrogance  is  the  act  of  the  great;  presumption  that 
of  the  little:  the  arrogant  man  takesupon  himself  to  be 
above  others  ; ‘ I must  confess  I was  very  much  sur- 
prised to  see  so  great  a body  of  editors,  criticks,  commen- 
tators, and  grammarians,  irteet  with  so  very  ill  a recep- 
tion They  had  formed  themselves  into  a body,  and 
with  a great  deal  of  arrogance  demanded  the  first  sta- 
tion in  the  column  of  knowledge;  but  the  goddess,  in- 
stead of  complying  with  their  request,  clapped  them 
into  liveries.’ — Addison.  The  presumptuous  man 
strives  to  be  on  a level  with  those  who  are  above  him  ; 
‘In  the  vanity  and  presumption  of  youth,  it  is  com- 
mon to  allege  the  consciousnesis  of  innocence  as  a 
reason  for  the  contempt  of  censure.’—HAWKEswoRxii. 
Arrogance  is  commonly  coupled  with  haughtiness: 
presumption  with  meanness : men  arrogantly  demand 
as  a right  the  homage  which  has  perhaps  before  been 
voluntarily  granted  ; the  creature  presumptuously  ar- 
raigns the  conduct  of  the  Creator,  and  murmurs  against 
the  dispensations  of  liis  providence 

TO  APPROPRIATE,  IMPROPRIATE. 

To  appropriate  (v.  To  appropriate)  is  to  coneign  to 
some  particular  use ; 

Some  they  appropriated  to  the  gods. 

And  some  to  publick,  some  to  private  ends. 

RoscommI)..^. 

But  in  a more  particular  manner  to  take  to  one’s  own 
private  use;  ‘Why  should  people  engross  and  appro- 
priate the  common  benefits  of  fire,  air,  and  water  to 
themselves.’ — L’Estranqe.  To  impropriate  is  in 
Bome  cases  used  in  this  latter  sense ; ‘ For  the  pardon 
of  the  rest,  the  king  thought  it  not  fit  it  should  pass  by 
Parliament ; the  better,  being  matter  of  grace,  to  impro- 
priate the  thanks  to  himself.’ — Bacon.  But  for  the 
most  part  this  word  has  been  employed  fa  denote  the 
lawless  appropriation  of  the  church  lands  by  the  laity, 
which  took  place  at  the  Reformation;  ‘Those  impro- 
priated livings,  which  have  now  no  settled  endowment, 
and  are  therefore  called  not  vicarages,  but  perpetual  or 
sometimes  arbitrary  curacies;  they  are  such,  as  be- 
longed formerly  to  those  orders  who  could  serve  the 
rure  of  them  in  their  own  persons.’ — Wharton. 

PRELUDE,  PREFACE. 

Prelude,  from  the  Latin  prce  before  and  ludo  to  play, 
signifies  the  game  that  precedes  another ; pre/ace,  from 
the  Latin  for  to  speak,  signifies  the  speech  that  pre- 
cedes. 

The  idea  of  a preparatory  introduction  is  included  in 
both  these  terms,  but  the  former  consists  of  actions ; the 
latter  of  words;  the  throwing  of  stones  and  breaking 
of  windows  is  the  prelude  on  the  part  of  a mob  to  a 
general  riot;  ‘At  this  time  there  was  a general  peace 
all  over  the  world,  which  was  a proper  prelude  for 
ushering  in  his  coming  who  was  the  Prince  of  peace.’ 
— Prideaux.  An  apology  for  one’s  ill  behaviour  is 
sometimes  the  preface  to  soliciting  a remission  of  pun- 
ishment; 

As  no  delay 

preface  brooking  through  his  zeal  of  right. 

Milton. 

The  prelude  is  mostly  preparatory  to  that  which  is  in 
itself  actually  bad : the  preface  is  mostly  preparatory  to 
something  su  pposed  to  be  objectionable.  Intemperance 
in  liquor  is  the  prelude  to  every  other  extravagance, 
when  one  wishes  to  ensure  compliance  with  a request 
that  may  possibly  be  unreasonable,  it  is  necessary  to 
pave  the  way  by  some  suitable  preface. 

TO  PREMISE,  PRESUME. 

Premise,  from  pres  and  mittn,  signifies  set  down 
Doforehand ; presume,  from  prce  and  sumo  to  take,  sig- 
nifies to  take  beforehand. 

Both  these  terms  are  employed  in  regard  to  our  pre- 
' loa.s  assertions  or  admissions  of  any  circumstance ; 


the  former  is  used  for  what  is  theoretical  or  bticmss  t; 
opinions;  the  latter  is  used  for  what  is  practical  or 
belongs  to  facts : we  premise  that  the  existence  of  a 
Deity  is  unquestionable  when  we  argue  respecting  his 
attributes;  ‘Here  we  must  first  premise  what  it  is  to 
enter  into  temptation.’— South.  We  presume  that  a 
person  has  a firm  belief  in  divine  revelation  when  we 
exhort  him  to  follow  the  precepts  of  the  Gospel ; ‘ In  the 
long  lambic  metre,  it  does  not  appear  that  Chaucet 
ever  composed  at  all ; for  I presume  no  one  can  imagine 
that  he  was  the  author  of  Gamelyn.’ — Tyrwhitt. 
No  argument  can  be  pursued  until  we  have  premised 
those  points  upon  which  both  parties  are  to  agree  : we 
must  tc  careful  not  to  presume  upon  more  than  wha* 
we  are  fully  authorized  to  take  for  certain. 

PECULIAR,  APPROPRIATE,  PARTICULAR. 

Peculiar,  in  Latin  peculiaris,  comes  from  pecus 
cattle,  that  is,  the  cattle  which  belonged  to  tlie  slave  ot 
servant,  in  distinction  from  the  master ; and  the  epithet 
therefore,  designates  in  a strong  manner  private  pro- 
perty, belonging  exclusively  to  one’s  self;  appropriate 
signifies  appropriated  {v.  To  ascribe)  ; particular  {v 
Particular). 

Peculiar  is  said  of  that  which  belongs  to  persons  or 
things;  appropriate  is  said  of  that  which  belongs  to 
things  only : the  faculty  of  speech  is  peculiar  to  man,  in 
distinction  from  all  other  animals;  ‘I  agree  with  Sir 
William  Temple,  but  not  that  the  thing  itself  is  pecu- 
liar to  the  English,  because  the  contrary  may  be  found 
in  many  Spanish,  Italian,  and  French  productions.’ — 
Swift.  An  address  may  be  appropriate  to  the  circum 
stances  of  the  individual  who  makes  it ; ‘ Modesty  ana 
diffidence,  gentleness  and  meekness,  were  looked  upon 
as  the  appropriate  virtues  of  the  sex.’ — Johnson 
PecMliar  designates  simple  property ; appropriate  desig 
nates  the  right  of  propriety;  there  are  advantages  and 
disadvantages  peculiar  to  every  situation ; the  excel- 
lence of  a discourse  depends  often  on  its  being  appro- 
priate to  the  season  Peculiar  and  particular  are  both 
employed  to  distinguish  objects;  but  the  former  distin- 
guishes the  object  by  showing  its  connexion  with,  oi 
alliance  to,  others;  particular  distinguishes  it  by  a 
reference  to  some  acknowledged  circumstance;  hence 
we  may  say  that  a person  enjoys  peculiar  privileges  or 
particular  privileges : in  this  case  peculiar  signifies  such 
as  are  confined  to  him,  and  enjoyed  by  none  else  ; 

Great  father  Bacchus,  to  my  song  repair. 

For  clust’ring  grapes  are  thy  peculiar  care. 

Dryden. 

Particular  signifies  such  as  are  distinguished  in  degree 
and  quality  from  others  of  the  kind;  ‘This  is  true  of 
actions  considered  in  their  general  nature  or  kind,  bu. 
not  considered  in  their  parffeuZar  individual  instances. 
— South. 


TO  ASCillBE,  ATTRIBUTE,  IMPUTE. 

Ascribe  signifies  the  same  as  in  the  article  under  To 
Appropriate,  Usurp ; attribute,  in  Latin  attributus 
participle  of  attribuo,  compounded  of  ad  and  tribuo. 
signifies  to  bestow  upon,  or  attach  to  a thing  what 
belongs  to  it ; mpMtc,  compounded  of  im  or  in  and  pute, 
Latin  pwZo  to  think,  signifies  to  think  or  judge  what  is 
in  a thing. 

To  ascribe  is  to  assign  any  thing  to  a person  as  his 
property,  his  possession,  or  the  fruit  of  his  labour,  &.c. ; 
to  attribute  is  to  assign  things  to  others  as  their  causes ; 
to  impute  is  to  assign  qualities  to  persons.  Milton 
ascribes  the  first  use  of  artillery  to  the  rebel  angels ; the 
loss  of  a vessel  is  attributed  to  the  violence  of  the  storm  ; 
the  conduct  of  the  captain  is  imputed  to  his  want  ol 
firmness.  The  letters  of  Junius  have  been  falsely 
ascribed  to  many  persons  in  succession,  as  the  anlhot 
to  this  day  remains  concealed,  and  out  of  the  reach  of 
even  probable  conjecture ; the  oracles  of  the  heathens 
are  ascribed  by  some  theologians  to  the  devil;  ‘Holi 
ness  is  ascribed  to  the  pope;  majesty  to  kings  ; serenity 
or  mildness  to  princes;  excellence  or  perfection 
ambassadors;  grace  to  archbishops ; honour  to  peerr 
—Addison.  The  death  of  Alexander  the  Great  is 
attributed  to  his  intemperance;  generosity  has  been 
imputed  to  him  from  his  conduct  on  certain  occasionsi 
but  particularly  in  his  treatment,  of  the  Persian  prin 
cesies,  the  reiaiivcs  of  Darius;  ‘ Perhaps  it  niay  appert 


T32 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


upon  examination  tliat  the  most  p«)lite  ages  are  the  least 
virtuous.  This  may  be  attributed  to  the  folly  of  admit- 
ting wit  and  learning  as  merit  in  themselves,  without 
considering  the  application  of  them.’ — Steele.  ‘ Men 
in  their  innovations  should  follow  the  example  of  time, 
which  innovateth,  but  quietly,  and  by  degrees  scarce  to 
■>e  perceived,  for  otherwise  what  is  new  and  unlooked 
for,  ever  mends  some  and  impairs  others;  and  he  that 
IS  hurt  for  a wrong  imputeth  it  to  the  author.’ — Bacon. 

Ascribe  is  mostly  used  in  a favourable  or  indifferent 
sense ; impute  is  either  favourable  or  unfavourable.  In 
the  doxology  of  the  church  ritual,  all  honour,  might, 
majesty,  dominion,  and  power,  are  ascribed  to  the 
three  persons  in  the  Holy  Trinity:  the  actions  of  men 
are  often  so  equivocal  that  it  is  difficult  to  decide 
whether  praise  or  blame  ought  to  be  imputed  to  them ; 
‘I  made  it  by  your  persuasion,  to  satisfy  those  who 
imputed  it  to  folly.’ — Temple.  ‘We  who  are  adepts 
ill  astrology  can  impute  it  to  several  causes  in  the 
planets,  that  this  quarter  of  our  great  city  is  the  region 
of  such  as  either  never  had,  or  have  lost,  the  use  of 
reason.’ — Steele. 


aUALITY,  PROPERTY,  ATTRIBUTE, 
(Quality,  in  Latin  qualitas,  from  qualis  such,  signi- 
fies such  as  a thing  really  is;  property,  which  is 
changed  from  propriety  and  proprius  proper  or  one’s 
own,  signifies  belonging  to  a thing  as  an  essential  ingre- 
dient; attribute,  in  Latin  attributus,  participle  of  aitri- 
buo  to  bestow  upon,  signifies  the  things  bestowed  upon 
or  assigned  to  another. 

The  quality  is  that  which  is  inherent  in  the  object 
and  co-existent;  ‘Humility  and  patience,  industry  and 
temperance,  are  very  often  the  good  qualities  of  a poor 
mati.’ — Addison.  The  property  is  that  which  belongs 
to  it  for  the  time  being ; ‘ No  man  can  have  sunk  so  far 
into  stupidity,  as  not  to  consider  the  properties  of  the 
ground  on  which  he  walks,  of  the  plants  on  which  he 
feeds,  or  of  the  animals  that  delight  his  ear.’ — John- 
son. The  attribute  is  the  quality  which  is  assigned 
to  any  object; 

Man  o’er  a wider  field  extends  his  views, 

God  through  the  wonder  of  his  works  pursues, 
Exploring  thence  his  attributes  and  laws. 

Adores,  loves,  imitates,  th’  Eternal  Cause. 

Jenyns. 

We  cannot  alter  the  quality  of  a thing  without  altering 
the  whole  thing;  but  we  may  give  or  take  away 
perties  from  bodies  at  pleasure,  without  entirely  de- 
stroying their  identity ; and  we  may  ascribe  attributes 
at  discretion. 


PRESUMPTIVE,  PRESUMPTUOUS,  PRE- 
SUMING. 

Presumptive  comes  from  presume,  in  the  sense  of 
supposing  or  taking  for  granted;  presumptuous,  pre- 
suming (v.  Arrogance),  come  from  the  same  verb  in 
the  sense  of  taking  upon  one’s  self,  or  taking  to  one’s 
self  any  importance:  the  former  is  therefore  employed 
in  an  indifferent,  the  latter  in  a bad  acceptation  : a pre- 
eumpiive  heir  is  one  presumed  or  expected  to  be  heir; 
presumptive  evidence  is  evidence  founded  on  some/ire- 
sumption  or  supposition  ; so  likewise  presumptive  rea- 
soning; ‘ There  is  no  qualification  for  government  but 
virtue  and  wisdom,  actual  or  presumptive.' — Burke. 
A presumptuous  man,  a presumptuous  thought,  a pre- 
sumptuous behaviour,  all  indicate  an  unauthorized  j^re- 
sumption  in  one’s  own  favour ; ‘ See  what  is  got  by 
those  presumptuous  principles  which  have  brought 
your  leaders  (of  the  revolution)  to  despise  all  their  pre- 
decessors.’— Burke.  Presumptuous  is  a stronger  term 
than  presuming,  because  it  has  a more  definite  use;  the 
former  designates  the  express  quality  of  presumption, 
the  latter  the  inclination ; a man  is  presumptuous  when 
his  conduct  partakes  of  the  nature  of  presumption ; he 
is  presuming  inasmuch  as  he  shows  himself  disposed 
to  presume : hence  we  speak  of  a presumptuous  lan- 
guage, not  a presuming  language;  n presuming  inmpex, 
not  a presumptuous  temper.  In  like  manner  when  one 
=a3  s it  is  presumptuous  in  a man  to  do  any  thing,  this 
ex[»resses  the  idea  of  presumption  much  more  forcibly 
than  to  say  it  is  presuming  in  him  to  do  it.  It  would 
W presumptuous  in  a man  to  address  a monarch  in  the 
auguage  of  familiarity  and  disrespect;  it  is  presuming 


in  a common  person  to  address  any  one  who  is  superloia 
in  station  with  familiarity  and  disrespect. 


TO  DENY,  REFUSE. 

Deny,  in  Latin  deni  go,  or  nego,  that  is,  ne  or  non 
and  ago,  signifies  to  say  no  to  a thing  ; refuse,  in 
Latin  refusus,  from  re  and  fundo  to  pour,  signifies  tc 
throw  back  that  which  is  presented. 

To  deny  respects  matters  of  fact  or  knowledge  ; to 
refuse  matters  of  wish  or  request.  We  deny  what 
immediately  belongs  to  ourselves  ; we  refuse  wdiat  be- 
longs to  another.  We  deny  as  to  the  past ; we  ref  use 
as  to  the  future:  we  deny  our  participation  in  that 
which  has  been  ; we  refuse  our  participation  in  that 
which  may  be:  to  deny  must  always  be  expresslj 
verbal ; a refusal  may  sometimes  be  signified  by  ac 
tions  or  looks  as  well  as  words.  A denial  affects  out 
veracity ; a refusal  affects  our  good-nature. 

To  deny  is  likewise  sometimes  used  in  regard  U 
one’s  own  gratifications  as  well  as  to  one’s  knowledge, 
in  which  case  it  is  still  more  analogous  to  refuse, 
which  regards  the  gratifications  of  another.  In  this 
case  we  say  we  deny  a person  a thing,  but  we  refuse 
his  request,  or  refuse  to  do  a thing; 

Jove  to  his  Thetis  nothing  could  deny, 

Nor  was  the  signal  vain  that  shook  the  sky. 

Pope. 

O sire  of  Gods  and  men  ! Thy  suppliant  hear ; 

Refuse  or  grant ; for  what  has  Jove  to  fear  1 

Pope. 

Some  Christians  think  it  very  meritorious  to  deny 
themselves  their  usual  quantity  of  food  at  certain 
tunes  ; they  are  however  but  sorry  professors  of 
Christianity  if  they  refuse  at  the  same  time  to  give 
of  their  substance  to  the  poor.  Instances  are  not  rare 
of  misers  who  have  denied  themselves  the  common 
necessaries  of  life,  and  yet  have  never  refused  tc  re- 
lieve those  who  were  in  distress,  or  assist  those  who 
were  in  trouble. 

Deny  is  sometimes  the  act  of  unconscious  agents ; 
refuse  is  always  a personal  and  Intentional  act.  W# 
are  sometimes  denied  by  circumstances  the  consolaflci 
of  seeing  our  friends  before  they  die; 

Inquire  you  how  these  pow’rs  we  shall  attain  1 
’T  is  not  for  us  to  know ; our  search  is  vain  ; 

Can  any  one  remember  or  relate 
How  he  existed  in  the  embryo  state  ? 

That  light’s  deny'd  to  him  which  others  see. 

He  knows  perhaps  you  ’ll  say — and  so  do  we 

Jenyns 


TO  REFUSE,  DECLINE,  REJECT,  REPEL, 
REBUFF. 

Refuse  signifies,  as  in  the  preceding  article,  simpiv 
to  pour,  that  is,  to  send  back,  which  is  the  common 
idea  of  all  these  terms  ; to  decline,  in  Latin  declino,  is 
literally  to  turn  aside ; to  reject,  from  jacio  to  throw,  is 
to  cast  back ; repel,  from  pello  to  drive,  to  drive  back  ; 
to  rebuff,  from  buff  or  puff,  signifies  to  puff  one  back, 
send  off  with  a puff. 

Ref  use  is  an  unqualified  action,  it  is  accompanied 
with  no  expression  of  opinion  ; decline  is  a gentle  and 
indi.'-ect  mode  of  refusal ; reject  is  a direct  mode,  and 
conveys  a positive  senti.ment  of  disapprobation  : we 
refuse  what  is  asked  of  us,  for  want  of  inclination  to 
comply ; 

But  all  her  arts  are  still  employ’d  in  vain ; 

Again  she  comes,  and  is  refus'd  again. 

Dryden. 

We  decline  what  is  proposed  from  motives  of  discre 
tion  ; ‘ Melissa,  though  she  could  not  boast  the  apathy 
of  Cato,  wanted  not  the  more  prudent  virtue  of  Scijiio, 
and  gained  the  victory  by  declining  the  contest.’— 
Johnson.  We  reject  what  is  offered  to  us,  because 
it  does  not  fall  in  with  our  views; 

Why  should  he  then  reject  a suit  so  just  1 — Dryi  en. 
We  refuse  to  listen  to  the  suggestions  of  our  friends 
‘ Having  most  affectionately  set  life  and  death  before 
them,  and  conjured  them  to  choose  one  and  avoid  the 
other,  he  still  leaves  unto  them,  as  to  free  and  rationa 
agents,  a liberty  to  refuse  all  his  calls,  to  let  his  talents 
lie  by  then"'  unprofitable.’ — Hammond  We  decline  ar 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  233 


itter  of  Service  ; ‘ Could  Card  Ine  have  been  captivated 
with  the  glories  of  this  world,  she  had  them  ; '1  laid  be- 
fore her;  but  she  generously  declined  them,  because  she 
saw  the  acceptance  of  them  was  inconsistent  with  re- 
ligion.’—Addison.  We  reject  the  insinuations  of  the 
interested  and  evil-minded ; ‘Whether  it  be  a divine 
revelation  or  no,  reason  must  judge,  which  can  never 
permit  the  mind  to  reject  a greater  evidence,  to  em- 
brace wuat  IS  less  evident.’— Locke.  To  refuse  is 
properly  the  act  of  an  individual ; to  reject  is  said  of 
that  which  comes  from  any  quarter ; requests  and  peti- 
tions are  refused  by  those  wlio  are  solicited  ; opinions, 
propositions,  and  counsels,  are  rejected  by  particular 
communities:  the  king  refuses  to  give  his  assent  to  a 
bill  ; ‘ If  lie  should  choose  the  right  casket,  you  should 
refuse  to  perform  his  father’s  will,  if  you  should  refuse 
to  accept  him.’— Shakspeare.  The  parliament  re- 
jects a bill ; ‘ The  House  was  then  so  far  from  being 
possessed  with  that  spirit,  that  the  utmost  that  could 
be  obtained,  upon  a long  debate  upon  that  petition  (for 
the  total  extirpation  of  episcopacy)  was,  that  it  should 
not  be  rejected.' — Clarendon 

To  repel  is  to  reject  with  violence ; to  rebuff  is  to  re- 
fuse with  contempt.  We  refuse  and  reject  that  which 
is  either  offered,  or  simply  presents  itself,  for  accept- 
ance : but  we  repel  and  rebuff  that  which  forces  itself 
into  our  presence,  contrary  to  our  inclination : we  repel 
the  attack  of  an  enemy,  or  we  repel  the  advances  of 
one  who  is  not  agreeable ; 

Th’  unwearied  watch  their  listening  leaders  keep. 

And,  couching  close,  repel  invading  sleep.— Pope. 
We  rebuff  those  who  put  that  in  our  way  that  is  offen- 
sive. Importunate  persons  must  necessarily  expect  to 
meet  with  rebuffs.,  and  are  in  general  less  susceptible 
of  them  than  others  ; delicate  minds  feel  a refusal  as 
a rebuff; 

At  .ength  rebuff'd,  they  leave  their  mangled  prey 

Drvden 

TO  TAKE,  RECEIVE,  ACCEPT. 

To  take,  which  in  all  probability  comes  from  the 
Latin  tactum,  participle  of  tango  to  touch,  is  a general 
term ; receive,  from  re  and  capio  to  take  back,  and 
accept,  from  ac  or  ad  and  capio  to  take  to  one’s  self, 
are  specifick. 

To  take  signifies  to  make  one’s  own  by  coming  in 
exclusive  contact  with  it;  io  receive  is  to  take  under 
peculiar  circumstances.  We  take  eitiier  from  things 
or  persons;  we  receive  from  persons  only:  we  take  a 
book  from  the  table;  we  receive  a parcel  which  is  sent 
us;  we  take  cither  with  or  without  the  consent  of  the 
person;  we  receive  it  with  his  consent,  or  according  to 
his  wishes ; 

Each  takes  his  seat,  and  each  receives  his  share. 

Pope. 

A robber  takes  money  when  he  can  find  it;  a friend 
receives  the  gift  of  a friend. 

To  receive  is  an  act  of  right,  we  receive  what  is  our 
own  ; to  accept  is  an  act  of  courtesy,  we  accept  what 
is  offered  by  another.  To  receive  simply  excludes  the 
idea  of  refusal ; to  accept  includes  the  idea  of  con- 
sent: we  may  receive  with  indifferenct.  or  reluctance  ; 
but  we  accept  with  willingness;  the  idea  of  receiving  is 
included  in  that  of  accepting,  but  not  rice  versa : 
what  we  receive  may  either  involve  an  obligation  or 
not;  what  we  accept  always  involves  the  return  of 
like  courtesy  at  least ; he  who  receives  a debt  is  under 
no  obligation,  but  he  who  receives  a favour  is  bound 
by  gratitude ; 

The  sweetest  cordia  we  receive  at  last 
Is  conscience  of  our  virtuous  actions  past. 

Denham. 

He  who  accepts  a present  will  feel  himself  called  upon 
Id  make  some  return; 

Unrnnsom’d  here  receive  the  spotless  fair, 
flccept  the  hecatomb  the  Greeks  prepare. —Pope 


RECEIPT,  RECEPTION. 

Receipt  comes  from  receive,  in  its  application  (\i 
Inanimate  objects,  which  are  taken  into  possession ; 
reception  comes  fr  5m  the  same  verb,  in  the  sense  of 
treating  persons  a',  their  first  arrival;  in  the  commer- 


cial intercourse  of  men,  the  receipt  of  goods  or  rnoney 
must  be  acknowledged  in  writing;  ‘If  a man  will 
keep  but  of  even  hand,  his  ordinary  expenses  ought 
to  be  but  to  half  of  his  receipts.' — Bacon.  In  the 
friendly  intercourse  of  men,  their  reception  of  each 
other  will  be  polite  or  cold,  according  to  the  senti- 
ments entertained  towards  the  individual ; ‘ I thank 
you  and  Mrs.  Pope  for  my  kind  reception.' — Atter 
BURY. 


TO  CHOOSE,  PREFER 

Choose,  in  French  choisir,  German  kiesen  from  the 
French  cher,  Celtick  choe  dear  or  good,  signifies  to  hold 
good  ; prefer,  in  French  ^re/erer,  Latin  preefero,  com- 
pounded of  pree  and  fero  to  take  before,  signifies  to 
take  one  thing  rather  than  another. 

* To  choose  is  to  prefer  as  the  genus  to  the  species : 
we  always  choose  m preferring,  but  we  do  not  always 
prefer  in  choosing.  To  choose  is  to  take  one  thing 
from  among  others ; to  prefer  is  to  take  one  thing 
before  or  rather  than  another.  We  sometimes  choose 
from  the  bare  necessity  of  choosing ; but  we  never 
prefer  without  making  a positive  and  voluntary  choice. 

When  we  choose  from  a specifick  motive,  the  acts 
of  choosing  and  preferring  differ  in  the  nature  of  the 
motive.  The  former  is  absolute,  the  latter  relative. 
We  choose  a thing  for  what  it  is,  or  what  we  esteem  it 
to  be  of  itself ; we  prefer  a thing  for  what  it  has,  or 
what  we  suppose  it  has,  siiperiour  to  another  ; ‘Judge- 
ment was  wearied  with  the  perplexity  of  choice  where 
there  was  no  motive  for  preference.' — Johnson. 

Utility  and  convenience  are  grounds  for  choosing; 
comparative  merit  occasions  the  preference : we  choose 
something  that  is  good,  and  are  contented  with  it  until 
we  see  something  better  which  we  prefer. 

We  calculate  and  pause  in  choosing ; we  decide  in 
preferring ; the  judgement  determines  in  making  the 
choice;  the  will  determines  in  giving  xhe  jyrefcrence. 
We  choose  things  from  an  estimate  of  their  merits  or 
their  fitness  for  the  purpose  proposed  ; we  prefer  them 
from  their  accordance  with  our  tastes,  habits,  and 
pursuits.  Books  are  chosen  by  those  who  wish  to 
read  ; romances  and  works  of  fiction  are  preferred  oy 
general  readers ; learned  works  by  the  scholar. 

One  who  wants  instruction  chooses  a master,  but  he 
will  mostly  prefer  a teacher  whom  he  knows  to  a per- 
fect stranger.  Our  choice  is  good  or  bad  according  ta 
our  knowledge  ; our  preference  is  just  or  unjust,  ac 
cording  as  it  is  sanctioned  by  reason. 

Our  choice  may  be  directed  by  our  own  experience  or 
that  of  others;  our  ;i?v/6rc?ice  must  be  guided  by  our 
own  feelings.  We  make  our  choice;  we  give  o\ir pre- 
ference: the  first  is  the  settled  purpose  of  the  mind,  it 
fixes  on  the  object;  the  latter  is  the  inclining  of  the 
will,  it  yields  to  the  object. 

Choosing  must  be  employed  in  all  the  important  con- 
cerns of  life  ; ‘ There  is  nothing  of  so  great  importance 
to  us,  as  the  good  qualities  of  one  to  whom  we  join 
ourselves  for  life.  When  the  choice  is  left  to  friends, 
the  chief  point  under  consideration  is  an  estate ; 
where  the  parties  choose  for  themselves,  their  thoughts 
turn  most  upon  the  person.  — Addison.  Preferring 
is  admissible  in  subordinate  matters  only;  ‘When  a 
man  has  a mind  to  venture  his  money  in  a lottery, 
every  figure  of  it  appears  equally  alluring;  and  no 
manner  of  reason  can  be  given  why  a man  should 
prefer  one  to  the  other  before  the  lottery  is  drawn.’- 
Addison.  There  is  but  one  thing  that  is  right,  and 
that  ought  to  be  chosen  when  it  is  discovered  : there 
are  many  indifferent  things  that  may  suit  our  tastes 
and  inclinations;  these  we  are  at  liberty  to  prefer. 
But  Xo  prefer  what  we  ought  not  to  choose  is  to  make 
our  reason  bend  to  our  will.  Our  Saviour  said  of 
Mary  that  she  chose  the  better  part ; had  she  consulted 
her  feelings  she  would  \\nve  preferred  the  part  she  had 
rejected.  The  path  of  life  should  be  chaen.;  but  the 
path  to  be  taken  in  a walk  may  be  preferred.  It  is 
advisable  for  a youth  in  the  choice  of  a profession  to 
consult  what  he  prefers,  as  he  has  the  greatest  chance 

* The  Abbe  Girard,  under  the  article  choisir,  pre- 
/erer,  has  reversed  this  rule;  but  as  I conceive,  from 
a confusion  of  thought,  which  pervades  the  whole  of 
his  illustration  on  these  words.  The  Abbe  Roubaua 
has  controverted  his  positions  with  some  degree  of 
accuracy.  I have,  however,  given  my  own  view  of 
the  nicitter  in  distinction  from  either. 


23^ 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


of  succeeding  when  he  can  combine  his  pleasure  with 
his  duty.  A friend  should  be  chosen:  a companion 
may  bepre/<»'^-e«Z.  A wife  should  be  cAose7i ; hut  un- 
fortunately lovers  are  most  apt  to  give  a preference  in  a 
matter  where  a good  or  bad  choice  may  determine  one’s 
happiness  or  misery  for  life.  A wise  prince  is  careful 
in  the  choice  ai  his  ministers;  but  a weak  prince  has 
mostly  favourites  whom  he  prefers. 

TO  CHOOSE,  PICK,  SELECT. 

Choose  signifies  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  article  ; 
nick,  in  German  picken,  or  bicken,  French  bicquer, 
Dutch  becken,  Icelandick  picka,  Swedish  piacka,  comes 
very  probably  from  the  old  German  bag,  bich,  to  stick, 
corresponding  to  the  Latia^^o  to  fix,  signifying  to  fix 
upon  ; select,  Latin  selectus,  participle  of  seligo,  that 
is,  lego  to  gather  or  put,  and  se  apart. 

Choose  is  as  in  the  former  case  the  generick ; the 
others  are  specifick  terms  : pick  and  select  are  expressly 
difierent  modes  of  choosing.  We  always  choose  when 
we  pick  and  select ; but  we  do  not  always  pick  and 
select  when  we  choose. 

To  choose  may  be  applied  to  two  or  more  things  ; 
to  pick  and  select  can  be  used  only  for  several  things. 
We  may  choose  one  book  out  of  two,  but  we  pick  and 
select  out  of  a library  or  a parcel ; pick  may  be  said  of 
one  or  many;  select  only  of  many. 

To  choose  does  not  always  spring  from  any  parti- 
cular design  or  preference  ; ‘ My  friend.  Sir  Roger, 
being  a good  churchman,  has  beautified  the  inside  of 
his  church  with  several  texts  of  his  own  choosing.' — 
Addison.  To  pick  and  select  signify  to  choose  with 
care.  What  is  picked  and  selected  is  always  the  best 
of  its  kind,  but  the  former  is  commonly  something  of 
a physical  nature  ; the  latter  of  a moral  or  intellectual 
description.  Soldiers  are  sometimes  picked  to  form  a 
particular  i.jgiment;  ‘ I know,  by  several  experiments, 
ihat  those  Idtle  animals  (the  ants)  take  great  care  to 
provide  themselves  with  wheat  when  they  can  find  it, 
and  always  pzc/c  out  the  best.’ — Addison.  Pieces  are 
selected  in  prose  or  verse  for  general  purposes  ; ‘The 
chief  advantage  which  these  fictions  have  over  real 
life  is,  that  their  authors  are  at  liberty,  though  not  to 
Invent,  yet  to  select  objects.’— Johnson. 

TO  CHOOSE,  ELECT. 

Both  these  terms  are  employed  in  regard  to  persons 
appointed  to  an  office ; the  former  in  a general,  the 
latter  in  a particular  sense. 

Choosing  {v.  To  choose,  prefer)  is  either  the  act  of 
one  man  or  of  many  ; election,  from  eligo,  or  e and 
lego,  signifying  to  take  or  gather  out  of  or  from,  is 
always  that  of  a number:  it  is  performed  by  the  con- 
currence of  many  voices. 

A prince  chooses  his  ministers  ; the  constituents  elect 
members  of  parliament.  A person  is  chosen  to  serve 
the  office  of  sheriff’;  he  is  elected  by  the  corporation  to 
be  mayor. 

Choosing  is  an  act  of  authority  ; it  binds  the  person 
chosen:  election  \s  a voluntary  act;  the  elected  have 
the  power  of  refusal.  People  are  obliged  to  serve  in 
some  offices  when  they  are  chosen,  although  they 
would  gladly  be  exempt ; 

Wise  were  the  kings  who  never  chose  a friend. 

Till  with  full  cups  they  had  unmask’d  his  soul. 

And  seen  the  bottom  of  his  deepest  thoughts. 

Roscommon. 

The  circumstance  of  being  elected  is  an  honour  after 
which  men  eagerly  aspire  ; and  for  the  attainment  of 
wiiich  they  risk  their  property,  and  use  the  most 
strenuous  exertions;  ‘ This  prince,  in  gratitude  to  the 
people,  by  whose  consent  he  was  chosen,  elected  a 
hundred  senators  out  of  the  commoners.’ — Swift. 


ELIGIBLE,  PREFERABLE. 

Eligible,  or  fit  to  be  elected,  and  preferable,  fit  to  be 
preferred,  serve  as  epithets  in  the  sense  of  choose  and 
prefer  (v.  To  choose,  prefer)  ; w'hat  is  is  desira- 

ble in  itself,  what  \s  preferable  is  more  desirable  than 
another.  There  may  be  many  eligible  situations,  out 
of  whicli  perliaps  there  is  but  one  preferable.  Of 
persons  however  we  say  rather  tnat  they  axe  eligible 
to  an  offics:  than  preferable  ; ‘ The  middle  condition  is 


the  most  eligible  to  the  man  who  would  improve  him 
self  in  virtue.’ — Addison.  The  saying  of  Plato  is, 
that  labotir  is  as  preferable  to  idleness  as  "irightness  tc 
rust !’ — Hughes. 


OPTION.  CHOICE. 

Option  is  immediately  of  Latin  derivation,  and  is 
consequently  a term  of  less  frequent  use  than  the 
word  choice,  which  has  been  shown  (».  To  choose)  to 
be  of  Celtick  origin.  The  former  term,  from  the  Greek 
dirrdpai  to  see  or  consider,  implies  an  uncontrolled  act 
of  the  mind ; the  latter  a simple  leaning  of  the  will. 
We  speak  of  option  on]^  as  regards  one’s  freedom  from 
external  constraint  in  the  act  of  choosing : one  speaks 
of  choice  only  as  the  simple  act  itself.  The  option  or 
the  power  of  choosing  is  given ; the  choice  itself  is 
made : hence  we  say  a thing  is  at  a person’s  option,  or 
it  is  his  own  option,  or  the  option  is  left  to  him,  in 
order  to  designate  his  freedom  of  choice  more  strongly 
than  is  expressed  by  the  word  choice  itself;  ‘While 
they  talk  we  must  make  our  choice,  they  or  the  jaco- 
bins. We  have  no  other  option.' — Burke. 

TO  GATHER,  COLLECT. 

To  gather,  in  Saxon  gatherian,  probably  contracted 
from  get  here,  signifies  simply  to  bring  to  one  spot. 
To  collect,  from  colligo  or  col,  cum,  and  lego  to  gather 
into  one  place,  annexes  also  the  idea  of  binding  oi 
forming  into  a whole  ; vve  gather  that  which  is  scat 
tered  in  different  parts:  thus  stones  are  gathered  into  a 
heap ; vessels  are  collected  so  as  to  form  a fleet.  Ga- 
thering is  a mere  act  of  necessity  or  convenience ; 

As  the  small  ant  (for  she  instructs  the  man. 

And  preaches  labour)  gathers  all  she  can. 

Creech 

Collecting  is  an  act  of  design  or  choice ; 

The  royal  bee,  queen  of  the  rosy  bower. 

Collects  her  precious  sweets  from  every  flower 

C.  Johnson 

We  gather  apples  from  a tree,  or  a servai\t  gathers 
the  books  from  the  table;  the  antiquarian  collects 
coins,  or  the  bibliomaniac  collects  rare  books. 

ACCEPTABLE,  GRATEFUL,  WELCOME. 
Acceptable  signifies  ^Vorthy  to  be  accepted  ; grateful, 
from  the  Latin  gratus  pleasing,  signifies  altogether 
pleasing;  it  is  that  which  recommends  itself.  The 
acceptable  is  a relative  good  ; the  grateful  is  positive  . 
the  former  depends  upon  our  external  condition,  the 
latter  on  our  feelings  and  taste  : a gift  is  acceptable  to  a 
poor  man,  which  would  .be  refused  by  one  less  needy 
than  himself ; ‘ I cannot  but  think  the  followino  letter 
from  the  Emperor  of  China  to  the  Pope  of  Rome, 
proposing  a coalition  of  the  Chinese  and  Roman 
Churches,  will  be  acceptable  to  the  curious.’ — Steele. 
Harmonious  sounds  are  always  grateful  to  a musical 
ear; 

The  kids  with  pleasure  browze  the  bushy  piain: 

The  showers  axe  grateful  to  the  swelling  crain 

Drydek. 

Acceptable  anAwelcomc  both  apply  to  external  circum- 
stances, and  are  therefore  relatively  employed  ; but 
acceptable  is  confined  to  such  thinus  as  are  offered  for 
our  choice;  but  welcoTHc,  signifying  come  well  or  in 
season,  refers  to  whatever  happens  according  to  our 
wishes : we  may  not  always  accept  that  which  is  ac- 
ceptable, but  we  shall  never  reject  that  which  is  wel- 
come ; it  is  an  insult  to  offer  any  thing  by  way  of  a gift 
to  another  which  is  not  acceptable;  it  is  a grateful 
task  to  be  the  bearer  of  welcome  intelligence  to  our 
friends;  ‘Whatever  is  remote  from  common  appear- 
ances is  always  welcome  to  vulgar  as  to  childish  cre- 
dulity.’— Johnson 

ACCEPTANCE,  ACCEPTATION. 

Though  both  derived  from  the  verb  accept,  have  this 
difference,  that  the  former  is  employed  to  express  the 
abstract  action  generally;  the  latter  only  in  regard. tc 
particular  objects.  A book,  or  whatever  else  is  offered 
to  us,  may  be  worthy  of  our  acceptance  or  not ; ‘ It  is 
not  necessary  to  refuse  benefits  from  a bad  man,’  wJien 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  235 


ihe  acf cp<a«ce  iitn)lies  no  appic/balion  of  his  crimes.’— 
Johnson.  A word  acquires  its  acceptation  from  the 
manner  in  which  it  is  generally  accepted  by  the  learn- 
ed; ‘On  the  subject  of  dress  I may  add  by  way  of 
caution  that  the  ladies  would  do  well  not  to  forget 
themselves.  I do  not  mean  this  in  the  common  accepta- 
tion of  the  phrase,  which  it  may  be  sometimes  con- 
venient and  proper  to  do.’ — Mackenzie. 

TO  ADMIT,*  RECEIVE. 

Admit,  in  French  admettre,  Latin  admitto,  com- 
pounded of  ad  and  mitto,  signifies  to  send  or  suffer  to 
pass  into ; receive,  in  French  recevoir,  Latin  recipio, 
compounded  of  re  and  capio,  signifies  to  take  back  or 
to  one’s  se’f. 

To  admit  is  a general  term,  the  sense  of  which  de- 
pends upon  what  follows  ; to  receive  has  a complete 
sense  in  itself : we  cannot  speak  of  admitting,  without 
associating  with  it  an  idea  of  the  object  to  which  one 
is  admitted ; but  receive  includes  no  relative  idea  of 
the  receiver  or  the  received. 

Admitting  is  an  act  of  relative  import ; receiving  is 
always  a positive  measure:  a person  may  be  admitted 
into  a house,  who  is  not  prevented  from  entering ; 
Somewhat  is  sure  design’d  by  fraud  or  force; 

Trust  not  their  presents,  nor  admit  the  horse. 

Dryden. 

A person  is  received  only  by  the  actual  consent  of 
some  individual ; 

He  star’d  and  roll’d  his  haggard  eyes  around  ; 

Then  said,  ‘ Alas ! what  earth  remains,  what  sea 
Is  open  to  receive  unhappy  me  ?— Dryden. 

We  may  be  admitted  in  various  capacities ; we  are 
received  only  as  guests,  friends,  or  inmates.  Persons 
are  admitted  to  the  tables,  and  into  the  familiarity  or 
confidence  of  others ; 

The  Tyrian  train,  admitted  to  the  feast. 

Approach,  and  on  the  painted  couches  rest. 

Dryden. 

Persons  are  hospitably  received  by  those  who  wish  to 
be  their  entertainers ; 

Pretending  to  consult 
About  the  great  reception  of  their  king 
Thither  to  come. — Milton. 

We  admit  willingly  or  reluctantly;  we  receive  po- 
litely or  rudely.  Foreign  ambassadors  are  admitted  to 
an  audience,  and  received  at  court.  It  is  necessary  to 
be  cautious  not  to  admit  any  one  into  our  society,  who 
may  not  be  agreeable  and  suitable  companions;  but 
still  more  necessary  not  to  receive  any  one  into  our 
houses  whose  character  may  reflect  disgrace  on  our- 
selves. 

Whoever  is  admitted  as  a member  of  any  commu- 
nity should  consider  himself  as  bound  to  conform  to  its 
regulations : whoever  is  received  into  the  service  of  an- 
other should  study  to  make  himself  valued  and  esteemed. 
A winning  address,  and  agreeable  manners,  gain  a 
person  admittance  into  the  genteelest  circles ; the 
talent  for  affording  amusement,  procures  a person  a 
good  reception  among  the  mass  of  mankind. 

When  applied  to  unconscious  agents  there  is  a simi- 
lar distinction  between  these  terms : ideas  are  admitted 
into  the  mind  by  means  of  association  and  the  like  ; 
‘There  are  some  ideas  which  have  admittance  only 
through  one  sense,  which  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  re- 
ceive them.’ — Locke.  Things  are  received  by  others  in 
consequence  of  their  adaptation  to  each  other ; 

The  thin-leav’d  arbute  hazel-grafts  receives. 

And  planes  huge  apples  bare,  that  bore  but  leaves. 

Dryden. 

ADMITTANCE,  ACCESS,  APPROACH. 
Admittance  marks  the  act  or  liberty  of  admitting 
(».  To  admit,  receive) ; access,  from  accedo  to  approach 
or  come  up  to,  marks  the  act  or  liberty  of  approaching; 
approach,  from  ap  or  ad  and  proximus  nearest,  signifies 
coming  near  or  drawing  near. 

We  get  admittance  into  a place  or  a society;  we 
have  access  to  a person  ; and  make  an  approach  eithur 
towards  a person  or  a thing. 

* Girard:  “ Amettre,  recevoir.’ 


Admittance  may  be  open  or  excluded ; access'  and 
approach  may  be  free  or  difficult. 

We  have  admittance  when  we  enter ; we  have  ac- 
cess to  him  whom  we  address.  There  can  be  no  accest 
where  there  is  no  admittance ; but  there  may  be  ad- 
mittance without  access.  Servants  or  officers  may 
grant  us  admittance  into  the  palaces  of  princes;  ‘As 
my  pleasures  are  almost  wholly  confined  to  those  of  the 
sight,  I take  it  for  a peculiar  happiness  that  I have 
always  had  an  easy  and  familiar  admittance  to  the  fail 
sex.’ — Steele.  The  favourites  of  princes  have  access 
to  their  persons;  ‘Do  not  be  surprised,  most  holy 
father,  at  seeing,  instead  of  a coxcomb  to  laugh  at, 
j'our  old  friend  who  has  taken  this  way  of  access  to 
admonish  you  of  your  own  folly.’ — Steele. 

Access  and  admittance  are  here  considered  as  the 
acts  of  conscious  agents;  approach  is  as  properly  the 
act  of  unconscious  as  conscious  agents.  We  may 
speak  of  the  approach  of  an  army,  or  the  approach,  of 
a war ; 

’T  is  with  our  souls 

As  with  our  eyes,  that  after  a long  darkness 
Are  dazzled  at  th’  approach  of  sudden  light. 
Admittance  may  likewise  sometimes  be  taken  figura 
tively,  as  when  we  speak  of  the  admittance  of  ideas 
into  the  mind. 


ADMITTANCE,  ADMISSION. 

These  words  differ  according  to  the  different  ac- 
ceptations of  the  primitive  from  which  they  are  both 
derived ; the  former  being  taken  in  the  proper  sense 
or  familiar  style,  and  the  latter  in  the  figurative  sense 
or  in  the  grave  style. 

The  admittance  to  publick  places  of  entertainment  is 
on  particular  occasions  difficult;  ‘Assurance  never 
failed  to  get  admittance  into  the  houses  of  the  great.' 
— Moore.  The  admission  of  irregularities  hewever 
trifling  in  the  commencement,  is  mostly  attended  with 
serious  consequences;  ‘The  gospel  has  then  only  a 
free  admission  into  the  assent  of  tiie  unders-'anding. 
when  it  brings  a passport  from  a rightly  disposed  will 
— South. 


IMPERVIOUS,  IMPASSABLE,  INACCESSIBLE 
Impervious,  from  the  Latin  in,  per,  and  via,  signifies 
not  having  a way  through;  impassable,  not  to  bt 
passed  through  ; inaccessible,  not  to  be  approached. 
A wood  is  impervious  when  the  trees,  branches,  and 
leaves  are  entangled  to  such  a degree  as  to  admit  of 
no  passage  at  all ; 

The  monster,  Cacus,  more  than  half  a beast, 

This  hold  impervious  to  the  sun  possess’d. 

Dryden 

A river  is  impassable  that  is  so  deep  that  it  cannot 
be  forded. 

But  lest  the  difficulty  of  passing  back 
Stay  his  return  perhaps  over  this  gulf 
Impassable,  impervious,  let  us  try 
Advent’rous  work. — Milton. 

A rock  or  a mountain  is  inaccessible  the  summit  of 
which  is  not  to  be  reached  by  any  path  whatever; 

At  least  our  envious  foe  hath  fail’d  who  thought 
All  like  himself  rebellious,  by  whose  aid 
This  inaccessible  high  strength,  the  seat 
Of  Deity  Supreme,  us  dispossess’d. 

He  trusted  to  have  seiz’d.— Milton. 

What  is  impervious  is  for  a permanency  ; what  is  im 
passable  is  commonly  so  only  for  a time : roads  are 
frequently  impassable  in  the  winter  that  are  passable 
in  the  summer,  while  a thicket  is  impervious  during  the 
whole  of  the  year:  impassable  is  likewise  said  only 
of  that  which  is  to  be  passed  by  living  creatures,  but 
impervious  may  be  extended  to  inanimate  objects;  a 
wood  may  be  impervious  to  the  rays  of  the  sun 

TO  APPROACH,  APPROXIMATE. 
Approach,  in  French  approcher,  compound  of  ap  oi 
ad  and  proche,  or  in  Latin  prope  near,  signifies  to  come 
near;  approximate,  compounded  of  cp“and  proximus 
to  come  nearest  or  next,  signifies  either  to  draw  neay 
or  bring  near. 


236 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES 


To  approach  is  intransitive  only ; a person  approaches 
an  object ; ‘ Lambs  push  at  those  that  approach  them 
with  their  heads  before  the  first  budding  of  a horn  ap- 
pears.’— Addison.  To  approximate  is  both  transitive 
and  intransitive ; a person  approximates  two  objects  ; 
‘Shakspeare  approximates  the  remote  and  far.’ — 
Johnson. 

To  approach  denotes  simply  the  moving  of  an  object 
towards  another,  but  to  approximate  denotes  the  gra- 
dual moving  of  two  objects  towards  each  other  : that 
wliich  approaches  may  come  into  immediate  con- 
junction; ‘Comets,  in  their  approaches  towards  the 
earth,  are  imagined  to  cause  diseases,  famines,  and 
other  such  like  judgements  of  God.’ — Dkrham.  But 
bodies  may  approximate  for  some  time  before  they 
form  a junction,  or  may  never  form  a junction  ; ‘The 
approximations  and  recesses  of  some  of  the  little  stars 
I speak  of,  suit  not  with  the  observation.^  of  some 
very  ancient  astronomers.’— Derham.  Ari  equivo- 
cation approaches  to  a lie.  Minds  approximate  by  long 
intercourse. 

TO  HOLD,  KEEP,  DETAIN,  RETAIN. 

Hold,  in  Saxon  healden,  Teutonick  holden  ; is  pro- 
bably.connected  with  the  verb  to  have,  in  Latin  habeo, 
&c. ; keep  in  all  probability  comes  from  capio  to  lay 
hold  of ; detain  and  retain  both  come  from  the  Latin 
teneo  to  hold  ; the  first  signifies,  by  virtue  of  the  par- 
ticle dc,  to  hold  from  another ; the  second,  by  virtue  of 
the  particle  re,  signifies  to  hold  back  for  one's  self. 

To  hold  is  a physical  act ; it  requires  a degree  of 
bodily  strength,  or  at  least  the  use  of  the  limbs;  to 
keep  is  simply  to  have  by  one  at  one’s  pleasure.  The 
mode  of  the  action  is  the  leading  idea  in  the  signifi- 
cation of  hold ; the  durability  of  the  action  is  the  lead- 
ing idea  in  the  word  keep:  we  may  hold  a thing  only 
for  a moment ; but  what  we  keep  we  keep  for  a time. 
On  the  other  hand,  we  may  keep  a thing  by  holding, 
although  we  may  keep  it  by  various  other  means ; we 
may  therefore  hold  without  keeping,  and  we  may  keep 
without  holding.  A servant  holds  a thing  in  his  hand 
for  it  to  be  seen,  but  he  does  not  keep  it;  he  gives  it  to 
his  master  who  puts  it  into  his  pocket,  and  conse- 
luently  keeps,  but  does  not  hold  it.  A thing  may  be 
ield  in  the  hand,  or  kept  in  the  hand ; in  the  former 
:ase,  the  pressure  of  the  hand  is  an  essential  part  of 
Jie  action,  but  in  the  latter  case  it  is  simply  a conliu- 
»ont  part  of  the  action : the  hand  holds,  but  the  person 
keeps  it. 

What  is  held  is  fixed  in  position,  but  what  is  kept  is 
left  loose  or  otherwise,  at  the  will  of  the  individual. 
Things  are  held  by  human  beings  in  their  hands,  by 
beasts  in  their  claws  or  mouths,  by  birds  in  their  beaks; 
things  are  kept  by  human  beings  either  about  their 
persons  or  in  their  houses,  according  to  convenience ; 

France,  thou  mayst  hold  a serpent  by  the  tongue, 

A fasting  tiger  safer  by  the  tooth. 

Than  keep  in  peace  that  hand  which  thou  dost  hold. 

Shakspeare. 

Detain  and  retain  are  modes  of  keeping : the 
former  signifies  keeping  back  what  belongs  to  another; 
the  latter  signifies  keeping  a long  time  for  one’s  own 
purpose.  A person  may  be  either  held,  kept,  detained, 
or  retained : when  he  is  held  he  is  held  contrary  to  his 
will  by  the  hand  of  another  ; as  suspected  persons  are 
held  by  the  officers  of  justice,  that  they  may  not  make 
their  escape : he  is  kept,  if  he  stops  in  any  place,  by  the 
desire  of  another;  as  a man  is  kept  in  prison  until  his 
innocence  is  proved ; or  a child  is  kept  at  school,  until 
he  has  finished  his  education;  he  is  detained  if  he  be 
kept  away  from  any  place  to  which  he  is  going,  or 
from  any  person  to  whom  he  belongs:  as  the  servant 
of  another  is  detained  to  take  back  a letter  ; or  one  is 
detained  by  business,  so  as  to  be  prevented  attending  to 
an  appointment : a person  is  retained,  who  is  kept  for 
a continuance  in  the  service,  the  favour,  or  the  power 
of  another  ; as  some  servants  are  said  to  be  retained 
while  others  are  dismissed ; 

Too  late  it  was  for  satyr  to  be  told. 

Or  ever  hope  recover  her  again; 

In  vain  he  seeks,  that  having,  cannot  hold. 

Spenser. 

I’hat  I may  know  what/cet^js  you  here  with  me. 

Dryden. 

'He  has  described  the  passion  of  Calypso,  and  the 
hidecent  advances  she  made  to  detain  him  from  his 


country.’ — Broome  ‘Having  the  address  to  relate 
the  conquest  she  (Roxalana)  had  made,  she  kept  pos- 
session of  his  (Solyman’s)  love  without  any  rival  for 
many  years.’ — Robertson. 

These  words  bear  a similar  analogy  to  each  other  in 
an  extended  application.  A money-lender  holds  the 
property  of  others  in  pledge;  the  idea  of  a temporary 
and  partial  action  is  here  expressed  by  hold,  in  distinc- 
tion from  keep,  which  is  used  to  express  something  defi- 
nite and  permanent;  ‘Assuredly  it  is  more  shame  fora 
man  to  lose  that  which  he  holdeth,  than  to  fail  in  getting 
that  which  he  ne^erhad.’ — Hayward.  The  money- 
lender keeps  the  {roperty  as  his  own,  if  the  borrower 
forfeits  it  by  breaca  of  contract ; 

This  charge  I keep  until  my  appointed  day 

Of  rendering  up. — Milton. 

When  a person  purchases  any  thing,  he  is  expected  to 
keep  it,  or  pay  the  value  of  the  thing  ordered,  if  the 
tradesman  fulfil  his  part  of  the  engagement.  What  is 
detained  is  kept  either  contrary  to  the  will,  or  without 
the  consent,  of  the  possessor;  when  things  are  suspected 
to  be  stolen,  the  officers  of  justice  have  the  right  of 
detaining  them  until  inquiry  be  instituted ; 

Haste!  goddess,  haste!  the  flying  host  detam 
Nor  let  one  sail  be  hoisted  on  the  main. — Pope 

What  is  retained  is  continued  to  be  kept;  it  supposes, 
however,  some  alteration  in  the  terms  or  circumstances 
under  which  it  is  kept ; a person  retains  his  seat  in  a 
coach,  notv/ithstanding  he  finds  it  disagreeable;  ora 
lady  retains  some  of  the  articles  of  millinery,  which 
are  sent  for  her  choice,  but  she  returns  the  rest ; 

Let  me  retain 

The  name,  and  all  th’  addition  to  a king 

Shakspeare 

All  are  used  in  a moral  application  except  detain;  in 
this  case  they  are  marked  by  a similar  distinction.  A 
person  is  said  to  hold  an  office,  by  which  simple  pos 
session  is  implied ; he  may  hold  it  for  a long  or  a short 
time,  at  the  will  of  others,  or  by  his  own  will,  which 
are  not  marked  : he  keeps  a situation,  or  he  keeps  hts 
post,  by  which  his  continuance  in  the  situation,  or  at 
the  post,  are  denoted : he  retains  his  office,  by  which  is 
signified  that  he  might  have  given  it  up,  or  lost  it,  had 
he  not  been  led  to  continue  in  it.  In  like  manner,  with 
regard  to  one’s  sentiments,  feelings,  or  external  circum 
stances,  a man  is  said  to  hold  certain  opinions,  which 
are  ascribed  to  him  as  a part  of  his  creed ; ‘ It  is  a cer- 
tain sign  of  a wise  government,  when  it  can  hold  men’s 
hearts  by  hopes.’ — Bacon.  A person  keeps  his  opinions 
when  no  one  can  induce  him  to  give  them  up;  ‘ The 
proof  is  best  when  men  keep  their  authority  towards 
their  children,  but  not  their  purse.’ — Bacon.  Heretam* 
his  old  attachments,  notwithstanding  the  lapse  of  years, 
and  change  of  circumstances,  which  have  intervened, 
and  were  naturally  calculated  to  wean  him  ; ‘ Ideas  are 
retained  by  renovation  of  that  impression  which  time 
is  always  wearing  away.’ — Johnson. 


TO  HOLD,  OCCUPY,  POSSESS. 

Hold  has  the  same  general  meaning  as  in  the  pre 
ceding  article;  occupy, \n  Latin  occm/jo, or  oc and capro 
to  hold  or  keep,  signifies  to  keep  so  that  it  cannot  be 
held  by  others ; possess,  in  Latin  possideo,  or  potis  and 
sedeo,  signifies  to  sit  as  master  of. 

We  hold  a thing  for  a long  or  ashort  time ; w'e  occ7ipy 
it  for  a permanence  ; we  hold  it  for  ourselves  or  others ; 
we  occupy  it  only  for  ourselves  : we  hold  it  for  various 
purposes;  we  occM;?y  only  for  the  purpose  of  converting 
it  to  our  private  use.  Thus  a person  may  hold  an 
estate,  or,  which  is  the  same  thing,  the  title  deeds  to  an 
estate  pro  tempore,  for  another  person’s  benefit : but  Ire 
occupies  an  estate  if  he  enjoys  the  fruit  of  it.  On  the 
other  hand,  to  occupy  is  only  to  hold  under  a certain 
compact;  but  to  possess  is  to  hold  as  one’s  own.  The 
tenant  occupies  the  farm  when  he  holds  it  by  a certain 
I ease,  and  cultivates  it  for  his  subsistence:  but  the 
landlord  possesses  the  farm  who  possesses  the  right  to 
lot  it,  and  to  receive  the  rent. 

We  may  hold  by  force,  or  fraud,  or  right ; 

He  (the  eagle)  drives  them  from  hi.s  fort  the  towering 
seat. 

For  ages  of  his  empire  which  in  peaie 

Unstaln’d  he  AoZds.’— Thomson 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES  *23, 


We  occupy  either  by  force  or  right;  ‘If  the  title  of 
occupiers  be  good  in  a land  unpeopled,  why  should  if  be 
bad  accounted  in  a country  peopled  thinly.’ — Raleigh, 
We  possess  only  by  right; 

But  now  the  feather’d  youtb  their  former  bounds 
Ardent  disdain,  and  weighing  oft  their  wings, 
Demand  the  (lee  possession  of  the  sky. 

Thomson. 

Hence  we  say  figuratively,  to  hold  a person  in  esteem 
or  contempt,  to  a person’s  attention,  io  occupy 

a place,  «Scc.  or  to  possess  one’s  affection; 

I,  as  a stranger  to  my  heart  and  me. 

Hold  thee  from  this  for  ever. — Shakspeare. 

‘He  must  assert  infinite  generations  before  that  first 
deluge,  and  then  the  earth  could  not  receive  them,  but 
the  infinite  bodies  of  men  must  occupy  an  infinite 
space.’ — Bentley. 

Of  fortune’s  favour  long  possess'd, 

He  was  with  one  fair  daughter  only  bless’d. 

Dryden. 


TO  HOLD,  SUPPORT,  MAINTAIN. 

Hold  is  here,  as  in  the  former  article,  a term  of  very 
general  import ; to  support,  from  sub  dioAporto  to  carry, 
signifying  to  bear  the  weight  of  a thing  ; and  to  main- 
tain, from  the  French  maintenir,  and  the  Latin  manus 
a hand,  and  teneo  to  hold,  signifying  to  hold  firmly,  are 
particular  modes  of  holding. 

Hold  and  support  are  employed  in  the  proper  sense, 
maintain  in  the  improper  sense.  To  hold  is  a term 
unqualified  by  any  circumstance ; we  may  hold  a thing 
in  any  direction,  hold  up  or  down,  straight  or  crooked  : 
support  is  a species  of  holding  up ; to  hold  up,  however, 
is  a personal  act,  or  a direct  effort  of  the  individual ; to 
support  may  be  an  indirect  and  a passive  act ; he  who 
holds  any  thing  up  keeps  it  in  an  upright  posture,  by  the 
exertion  of  his  strength  ; he  who  supports  a thing  only 
bears  its  weight,  or  suffers  it  to  rest  upon  himself : per- 
sons or  voluntary  agents  can  hold  up ; inanimate  objects 
may  support ; a servant  holds  up  a child  that  it  may 
see  ; a pillar  supports  a building. 

Hold,  maintain,  and  support  are  likewise  employed 
still  farther  in  a moral  apiilication,  as  it  respects  the 
different  opinions  and  circumstances  of  men  ; opinions 
are  held  and  maintained  as  one’s  own  ; they  are  sup- 
ported when  they  are  another’s.  We  hold  and  maintain 
when  we  believe ; we  support  the  belief  or  doctrine 
of  another,  or  what  we  ourselves  have  asserted  and 
maintained  at  a former  time.  What  is  held  is  held  by 
the  act  of  the  mind  within  one’s  self;  what  main- 
tained and  supported  is  openly  declared  to  beheld.  To 
hold  marks  simply  the  state  of  one’s  own  mind;  ‘It 
was  a notable  observation  of  a wise  father,  that  those 
which  held  and  persuaded  pressure  of  consciences  were 
commonly  interested  therein  themselves  for  their  own 
ends.’ — Bacon.  To  maintain  indicates  the  effort 
which  one  makes  to  inform  others  of  this  state;  ‘If 
any  man  of  quality  will  maintain  upon  Edward,  Earl 
of  Gloucester,  that  he  is  a manifold  traitor,  let  him 
appear.’ — Shakspeare.  To  support  indicates  the 
efforts  which  one  makes  to  Justify  that  state.  We 
hold  an  opinion  only,  as  it  regards  ourselves ; we  main- 
tain and  support  it  as  it  regards  others ; that  is,  wemain- 
tain  it  either  with  others,  for  others,  or  against  others: 
we  support  it  in  an  especial  manner  against  others : we 
maintain  it  by  assertion  ; we  support  it  by  argument. 
Bad  principles  do  harm  only  to  the  individual  when 
they  are  held;  they  will  do  harm  to  all  over  whom  our 
influence  extends  when  wewiarntam  them ; they  may  do 
harm  to  all  the  world,  when  we  undertake  to  support 
them.  Good  principles  need  only  be  held,  or  at  most 
maintained,  unless  where  adversaries  set  themselves  up 
against  them,  and  render  it  necessary  to  stipp or t them . 
Infidel  principles  have  been  held  occasionally  by  indi- 
viduals in  all  ages,  but  they  were  never  maintained 
with  so  much  openness  and  effrontery  at  any  time,  as 
£t  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  when  supporters 
of  such  principles  were  to  be  found  in  every  tap-room. 

Hold  is  applied  not  only  to  principles  and  opinions, 
but  also  to  sentiments  ; maintain  and  support  are  con- 
fined either  to  abstract  and  speculative  opinions,  or  to 
the  whole  mind:  we  hold  a thing  dear  or  cheap,  we 
hold  itin  abhorrence,  or  we  hold  it  sacred , ‘ AsChaucer 


IS  the  father  of  English  poetry,  so  1 hold  him  in  the 
same  degree  of  veneration  as  the  Grecians  held  Homer 
or  the  Romans  Virgil.’— Dryden.  We  maintain  o' 
support  truth  or  errour ; we  maintain  an  influence  ovei 
ourselves,  or  maintain  a cause  ; 

Who  then  is  free  1 The  wise,  who  well  maintains 

An  empire  o’er  himself. — Francis. 

We  support  our  resolution  or  our  minds;  ‘Nothing 
can  support  the  minds  of  the  guilty  from  drooping. 
South. 


TO  HAVE,  POSSESS. 

Have,  in  German  haben,  Latin  AaJeo,  not  improbably 
from  the  Hebrew  HIlK  fo  desire,  or  he  loved, 

because  those  who  have  most,  desire  most,  or  because 
men  love  worldly  possessions  above  every  thing  else 
possess  has  the  same  meaning  as  in  the  preceding  arti 
cle  ; have  is  the  general,  possess  is  the  particular  term . 
Aaue  designates  nocircumstance  of  the  action;  possess 
expresses  a particular  species  of  having. 

To  have  is  sometimes  to  have  in  one’s  hand  or  within 
one’s  reach  ; but  to  possess  is  to  have  as  one’s  own  : a 
clerk  has  the  money  which  he  has  fetched  for  his  em- 
ployer ; the  latter  possesses  the  money,  which  he  has 
the  power  of  turning  to  his  use.  To  have  is  sometimes 
to  have  the  right  to,  to  belong ; to  possess  is  to  have  by 
one  and  at  one’s  command  : a debtor  has  the  property 
which  he  has  surrendered  to  his  creditor ; but  he  cannot 
be  said  to  possess  it,  because  he  has  it  not  within  his 
reach,  and  at  his  disposal:*  we  are  not  necessarily 
masters  of  that  which  we  have;  although  we  always 
are  of  that  which  we  possess  : to  have  is  sometimes 
only  temporary  ; to  possess  is  mostly  permanent : we 
have  money  which  we  are  perpetually  disposing  of;  we 
possess  lands  which  we  keep  for  a permanency:  a 
person  has  the  good  graces  of  those  whom  he  pleases ; 
he  possesses  the  confidence  of  those  who  put  every 
thing  in  his  power:  the  stoutest  heart  may  have  occa- 
sional alarms,  but  will  never  lose  its  self-possession  : a 
husband  has  continual  torments  who  is  possessed  by 
the  demon  of  jealousy  : a miser  Aos  goods  in  his  coffers, 
but  he  is  not  master  of  them;  they  possess  his  heart 
and  affections : we  have  things  by  halves  when  we 
share  them  with  others;  we  possess  them  only  when 
they  are  exclusively  ours  and  we  enjoy  them  undi- 
videdly; 

That  I spent,  that  I had; 

That  1 gave,  that  I Aaoe; 

That  I left,  that  I lost. 

Epitaph  on  a Charitable  Man 
A lover  has  the  affections  of  his  mistress  by  whom  he 
is  beloved ; he  possesses  her  whole  heart  when  she 
loves  him  only  : one  has  an  interest  in  a mercantile 
concern  in  which  he  is  a partner ; the  lord  of  a manor 
possesses  all  the  rights  annexed  to  that  manor;  ‘The 
various  objects  that  compose  the  world  were  by  nature 
formed  to  delight  our  senses;  and  as  it  is  this  alone 
that  makes  them  desirable  to  an  uncorrupted  taste,  a 
man  maybe  said  naturally  to  possess  them  when  he 
possesseth  those  enjoyments  which  they  are  fitted  by 
nature  to  yield.’ — Berkeley 


TO  LAY  OR  TAKE  HOLD  OF,  CATCH,  SEIZE, 
SNATCH,  GRASP,  GRIPE. 

To  lay  or  take  hold  of  is  here  the  generick  expression ; 
it  denotes  simply  getting  into  the  possession,  which  is 
the  common  idea  in  the  signification  of  all  these  terms, 
which  differ  chiefly  in  regard  to  the  motion  in  which 
the  action  is  performed.  To  ca.tch  is  to  lay  hold  o/ 
with  an  effort.  To  seize  is  to  lay  hold  of  with  violence. 
To  snatch  is  to  lay  hold  of  by  a sudden  and  violent 
effort.  One  is  said  to  lay  hold  of  that  on  which  he 
places  his  hand  ; he  takes  hold  of  that  which  he  secures 
in  his  hand.  We  lay  hold  of  any  thing  when  we  see  it 
falling;  we  take  hold  of  any  thing  when  we  wish  to 
lift  it  up ; ‘ Sometimes  it  happens  that  a corn  slips  out 
of  their  paws  when  they  (tlie  ants)  are  climbing  up; 
they  take  hold  of  it  again  when  they  can  find  it,  other- 
wise they  look  for  another.’ — Addison.  We  catch  the 
thing  which  attempts  to  escape;  ‘One  great  gen'us 

* Vide  Abbe  Girard  : “ Avoir,  posseder 


238 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


often  catches  the  flame  from  another.’ — Addison.  We 
seize  a thing  when  it  makes  resistance ; 

Furious  he  said,  and  tow’rd  the  Grecian  crew, 
{Seiz'd  by  the  crest)  ih’  unhappy  warriour  drew. 

Pope. 

We  snatch  that  which  we  are  particularly  afraid  of 
not  getting  otherwise ; 

The  hungry  harpies  fly, 

They  snatch  the  meat,  defiling  all  they  find. 

Dryden. 

A person,  who  is  fainting,  lays  hold  of  the  first  thing 
which  comes  in  his  way;  a sick  person  or  one  that 
wants  support  takes  hold  of  another’s  arm  in  walking ; 
various  artifices  are  employed  to  catch  animals ; the 
wild  beasts  of  the  forest  seize  their  prey  the  moment 
they  come  ifithiu  their  reach  ; it  is  the  rude  sport  of  a 
schoolboy  to  snatcA  out  of  the  hand  of  another  that 
which  he  is  not  willing  to  let  go. 

To  lay  hold  of  is  to  get  in  the  possession.  To  grasp 
and  to  gripe  signify  to  have  or  keep  in  the  possession ; 
an  eagerness  to  keep  or  not  to  let  go  is  expressed  by 
that  of  grasping ; 

Like  a miser  ’midst  his  store. 

Who  grasps  and  grasps  till  he  can  hold  no  more. 

Dryden. 

A fearful  anxiety  of  losing  and  an  earnest  desire  of 
keeping  is  expressed  by  the  act  of  griping ; 

They  gripe  their  oaks  ; and  every  panting  breast 
Is  rais’d  by  turns  with  hope,  by  turns  with  fear  depress’d. 

Dryden. 

When  a famished  man  lays  hold  of  food,  he  grasps  it, 
from  a convulsive  kind  of  fear  lest  it  should  leave  him ; 
when  a miser  lays  hold  of  money  he  gripes  it  from 
the  love  he  bears  to  it;  and  the  fear  he  has  that  it  will 
be  taken  from  him. 


OCCUPANCY,  OCCUPATION, 

Are  words  which  derive  their  meaning  from  the  dif- 
ferent acceptations  ot  the  primitive  verb  occm;i?/;  the 
former  being  used  to  express  the  state  of  holding  or 
possessing  any  object ; the  latter  to  express  the  act  of 
taking  possession  of,  or  keeping  in  possession.  He 
who  has  the  occupancy  oi  land  enjoys  the  fruits  of  it ; 
‘ As  occupancy  gave  the  right  to  the  temporary  use  of 
the  soil ; so  it  is  agreed  on  all  hands,  that  occupancy 
gave  also  the  original  right  to  the  permanent  property 
in  the  substance  of  the  earth  itself.’ — Blackstone. 
The  occupation  of  a country  by  force  of  arms  is  of 
little  avail,  unless  one  has  an  adequate  force  to  main- 
tain one’s  ground ; ‘ The  unhappy  consequences  of 
this  teniperament  is,  that  my  atlachineiit  to  any  occu- 
pation seldom  outlives  its  novelty.’ — Cowpkr. 


POSSESSOR,  PROPRIETOR,  OWNER, 
MASTER. 

The /losA'cssor  has  the  full  power,  if  not  the  right, 
of  the  present  disposal  over  the  object  of  possession  ; 
‘ I am  convinced  that  a poelick  talent  is  a blessing  to 
its  possessor.' — Seward.  The  proprietor  and  owner 
has  the  unlimited  right  of  transfer,  but  not  always  the 
power  of  iiniiiediate  disposal.  The  proprietor  and  the 
owner  are  the  same  in  signification,  though  not  in  ap- 
plication; the  first  term  being  used  principally  in  re- 
gard to  matters  of  importance  ; the  latter  on  familiar 
occasions : the  proprietor  of  an  estate  is  a more  suita- 
ble expression  than  the  owner  of  an  estate  ; 

Death  ! great  proprietor  of  all ! ’T  is  thine 
To  tread  out  empire  and  to  quench  the  staiis. 

• Young. 

The  owner  of  a book  is  a more  becoming  expression 
than  the  proprietor;  ‘One  cause  of  the  insu'iiciericy 
of  riches  (to  produce  happiness)  is,  that  they  very 
seldom  make  their  omner  rich.’ — Johnson.  The/jos- 
sessor  and  the  master  are  commonly  the  same  person, 
when  those  things  are  in  question  which  are  subject  to 
possession ; but  the  terms  are  otherwise  so  different 
in  their  original  meaning,  that  they  can  scarcely  admit 
of  comparison  : the  possessor  of  a house  is  naturally 
the  master  of  the  house  ; and,  in  general,  whatever  a 
man  possesses,  that  he  has  in  his  power,  and  is  conse- 
nently  master  of ; but  we  may  have,  legally,  th®  right 


of  possessing  a thing,  over  which  we  have  actually  nc 
power  of  control;  in  this  case,  we  are  nominally  pos- 
sessor, but  virtually  not  master.  A minor,  or  insane 
person,  may  be  both  possessor  and  proprietor  of  that 
over  which  he  has  no  control ; a man  is,  Ihereforej  on 
the  other  hand,  appropriately  denominated  master^ 
not  possessor  of  his  actions  ; 

There,  Csesar,  grac’d  with  both  Mint  rvas,  shone, 
Caesar,  the  world’s  great  master,  and  his  own. 

Pope. 


TO  SUSTAIN,  SUPPORT,  MAINTAIN. 

The  idea  of  exerting  one’s  self  to  keep  an  object  from 
sinking  is  common  to  all  these  terms,  which  vary 
either  in  the  mode  or  the  object  of  the  action.  To  sus- 
tain, from  the  Latin  sustineo,  i.  e.  sus  or  sub  and  tenee 
to  hold,  signifying  to  hold  from  underneath ; and  sup- 
port, from  sub  and  porto  to  bear,  signifying  to  bear 
from  underneath,  are  passive  actions,  and  imply  that 
we  bear  the  weight  of  something  pressing  upon  us; 
maintain  {v.  To  assert)  is  active,  and  implies  that  we 
exert  ourselves  so  as  to  keep  it  from  pressing  upon  us. 
We  sustain  a load  ; we  support  a burden  ; we  main- 
tain & contest.  The  principal  difficulty  in  an  engage- 
ment is  often  to  sustain  the  first  shock  of  the  attack ; 
With  labour  spent,  no  longer  can  he  wield 
The  heavy  falchion,  or  sustain  the  shield, 
O’erwhehn’d  with  darts.— Dryden. 

A soldier  has  not  merely  to  support  the  weight  of  his 
arms,  but  to  maintain  his  post ; ‘ Let  this  support  and 
comfort  you,  that  you  are  the  father  of  ten  children, 
among  whom  there  seems  to  be  but  one  soul  of  love 
and  obedience.’ — Lyttleton.  What  is  sustained  is  ' 
often  temporary ; what  is  supported  is  mostly  perma- 
nent; a loss  or  an  injury  is  sitstamecl;  pain,  distress, 
and  misfortunes,  are  supported : maintain,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  mostly  something  of  importance  or  ad- 
vantage ; credit  must  always  be  maintained  ; 

As  compass’d  with  a wood  of  spears  around, 

The  lordly  lion  still  maintains  his  ground. 

So  Turnus  fares. — Dryden. 

We  must  sustain  a loss  with  tranquillity ; we  mus’ 
support  an  affliction  with  equanimity ; we  must  main- 
tain our  own  honour,  and  that  of  the  community  to 
which  we  belong,  by  the  rectitude  of  our  conduct 


STAFF,  STAY,  PROP,  SUPPORT. 

From  staff  in  the  literal  sense  (v.  Staff)  comes  staff 
in  the  figurative  application  ; any  thing  may  be  de- 
nominated a staff  which  holds  up  after  the  manner  of 
a staff,  particularly  as  it  respects  persons ; bread  is 
said  to  be  the  staff  of  life;  one  person  may  serve  as 
a staff  to  another.  The  staff  serves  in  a state  of 
motion;  ‘ Let  shame  and  confusion  then  cover  me  if 
I do  not  abhor  the  intolerable  anxiety  I well  understand 
to  wait  inseparably  upon  that  staff  of  going  about  be- 
guilefully  to  supplant  any  man.’ — Lord  Wentworth. 
The  stay  and  prop  are  employed  for  objects  in  a state 
of  rest;  the  stay  makes  a thing  stay  for  the  time  being, 
it  keeps  it  from  falling  ; it  is  equally  applied  to  persons 
and  things ; we  may  be  a stay  to  a person  who  is  fall- 
ing by  letting  his  body  rest  against  us;  in  the  same 
manner  buttresses  against  a wall,  and  shores  against  a 
building,  serve  the  purpose  of  a stay,  while  it  is  under 
repair.  For  the  same  reason  that  part  of  a female’s 
dress  which  serves  as  a stay  to  the  body  is  denorni 
nated  stays  ; the  prop  keeps  a thing  up  for  a perma 
nency ; every  pillar  on  which  a building  rests  is  a 
prop ; whatever  therefore  requires  to  be  raised  from 
the  ground,  and  kept  in  that  state,  may  be  set  upon 
props ; between  the  stay  and  the  prop  there  is  this 
obvious  distinction,  that  as  the  stay  does  not  receive 
the  whole  weight,  it  is  put  so  as  to  receive  it  indirectly, 
by  leaning  against  the  object ; but  the  prop,  for  a con- 
trary reason,  is  put  upright  underneath  the  object  so  as 
to  receive  the  weight  directly ; the  derivation  of  this 
word  prop,  from  the  Dutch  proppe  a plug,  and  the 
German  pfropfen  a cork,  does  not  seem  to  account 
very  clearly  for  its  present  use  In  English. 

Stay  and  prop  may  be  figuratively  extended  in  then 
application  with  the  same  distinction  in  t?i  eir  sense  ; a 
crust  of  bread  may  serve  as  a stay  to  the  stomach 


238 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES 


It  nope  precarious,  and  of  tnitigs  when  gain’d 
Of  little  moment,  and  as  little  stay, 

Can  sweeten  toils  and  dangers  into  joys, 

When  then  that  hope  which  nothing  can  defeat  1 

Young. 

A person’s  money  may  serve  as  a proj>  for  the  credit 
of  another.  Support  is  altogether  taken  in  the  moral 
and  abstract  sense ; whatever  supports,  that  is,  bears 
the  weight  of  an  object,  is  a support,  whether  in  a state 
of  motion  like  a staff,  or  in  a state  of  rest  like  a stay; 
whether  to  bear  the  weight  in  part  like  a stay,  or  alto- 
gether like  a prop,  it  is  still  a support : but  the  term  is 
likewise  employed  on  all  occasions  in  which  the  other 
terms  are  not  admissible.  Whatever  supports  exist- 
ence, whetiier  directly  or  indirectly,  is  a support: 
lood  is  the  support  of  the  animal  body;  labour  or  any 
particular  employment  is  likewise  one’s  support,  or  the 
indirect  means  of  gaining  the  support;  hope  is  the 
support  of  the  mind  under  the  most  trying  circum- 
stances; religion,  as  the  foundation  of  all  our  hopes, 
is  the  best  and  surest  support  under  affliction ; 
Whate’er  thy  many  fingers  can  entwine, 

Proves  thy  support  and  all  its  strength  is  thine, 
Tho’  nature  gave  not  legs,  it  gave  thee  hands, 

Bv  which  xXxyprop,  thy  prouder  cedar  stands. 

Denham. 


STAFF,  STICK,  CRUTCH 
Staff,  in  Low  German  staff,  &c.,  in  Latin  stipes,  in 
Greek  comes  from  stipo  to  fix  ; stick  signi- 
fies that  which  can  be  stuck  in  the  ground ; crutch,  as 
changed  from  cross,  is  a staff  or  stick  which  has  a 
cross  bar  at  the  top. 

The  ruling  idea  in  a staff  is  that  of  firmness  and 
fixedness;  it  is  employed  for  leaning  upon;  the  ruling 
idea  in  the  stick  is  that  of  sharpness  with  which  it  can 
penetrate,  it  is  used  for  walking  and  ordinary  pur- 
poses ; the  ruling  idea  in  the  crutch  is  its  form,  which 
serves  the  specifick  purpose  of  support  in  case  of  lame- 
ness; a staff  can  never  be  small,  but  a stick  maybe 
large  ; a crutch  is  in  size  more  of  a staff  than  a com- 
mon stick. 


LIVELIHOOD,  LIVING,  SUBSISTENCE, 
MAINTENANCE,  SUPPORT, 
SUSTENANCE. 

The  rrreans  of  living  or  supporting  life  is  the  idea 
common  to  all  these  terms,  which  vary  according  to 
the  circumstances  of  the  individual  and  the  nature  of 
the  object  which  constitutes  the  means:  the  livelihood 
is  the  thing  sought  after  by  the  day;  a labourer  earns 
a livelihood  by  the  sweat  of  his  brow ; living  is  ob- 
tained by  more  respectable  and  less  severe  efforts  than 
the  two  former;  tradesmen  obtain  a good  living  by 
keeping  shops;  artists  procure  a living  by  the  exercise 
of  their  talents  ; ‘ A man  may  as  easily  know  where 
!o  find  one  to  teach  to  debauch,  whore,  game,  and 
b!as|ihenie,  as  lo  teach  him  to  write  or  cast  accounts  ; 
t is  the  very  profession  and  livelihood  of  such  people, 
getting  their  living  by  those  practices  for  which  they 
deserve  to  forfeit  fhefr  lives.’ — South.  A subsistence 
is  obtained  by  irregular  efforts  of  various  descriptions  ; 
beggars  meet  with  so  much  that  they  obtain  something 
belter  than  a precarious  and  scanty  subsistence : ‘Just 
the  necessities  of  a bare  subsistence  are  not  to  be  the 
only  measure  of  a parent’s  care  for  his  children.’ — 
South.  Maintenance,  support,  and  sustenance,  differ 
from  the  other  three  inasmuch  as  they  do  not  compre- 
hend what  one  gains  by  one’s  own  efforts,  but  by  the 
efforts  of  others;  ihe  maintenance  \s  that  which  is  per- 
manent ; it  supplies  the  place  of  a living ; the  support 
may  be  casual,  and  vary  in  degree : the  object  of  most 
publkk  charities  is  to  afford  a maintenance  to  such  as 
cannot  obtain  a livelihood  or  living  for  themselves ; 
‘The  Jews,  in  Babylonia,  honoured  Hyreanus  their 
king,  and  supplied  him  with  a maintenance  suitable 
thereto.’ — Prideaux.  It  is  the  business  of  the  parish 
to  give  support,  in  time  of  sickness  and  distress,  to  all 
who  are  legal  parishioners;  ‘If  it  be  a curse  to  be 
forced  to  toil  for  the  necessary  support  of  life,  how 
does  he  heighten  the  curse  who  toils  for  superfluities.’ 
—South,  maintenance  and  support  are  always 

granted  ; but  the  sustenance  is  that  which  is  taken  or 
received-  the  former  comprehends  the  tm  ans  of  ob- 


taining food  ; the  sustenance  comprehends  that  which 
sustains  the  body  which  supplies  the  place  of  food; 
‘Besides,  man  has  a claim  also  to  a promise  for  his 
support  and  sustenance  which  none  have  ever  missed 
of  who  come  up  to  the  conditions  of  it.’ — South. 


LIVING,  BENEFICE. 

Living  signifies  literally  the  pecuniary  resource  by 
which  one  lives ; benefice,  from  bencfacio,  signifies 
whatever  one  obtains  as  a benefit ; the  former  is  appli- 
cable to  any  situation  of  life,  but  particularly  lo  that 
resource  which  a parish  affords  to  the  clergyman  ; the 
latter  is  applicable  to  no  other  object:  we  speak  of  the 
living  as  a resource  immediately  derived  from  the 
parish,  in  distinction  from  a curacy,  which  is  derived 
from  an  individual;  ‘In  consequence  of  the  Pope’s 
interference,  the  best  livings  were  filled  by  Italian,  and 
other  foreign,  clergy.’ — Blackstone.  \Vc  speak  of  a 
benefice  in  respect  to  the  terms  by  which  it  is  held,  ac- 
cording to  the  ecclesiastical  law ; there  are  many 
livings  which  are  not  benefices,  although  not  vice 
versa  • ‘ Estates  held  by  feudal  tenure,  being  originally 
gratuitous  donations,  were  at  that  time  denominated 
bencficia;  their  very  name,  as  Well  as  constitution,  was 
borrowed,  and  the  care  of  the  souls  of  a parish  thence 
came  to  be  denominated  a iewc^ce.’— Blackstone. 

TO  BE,  EXIST,  SUBSIST. 

Be,  with  its  inflections,  is  to  be  traced  through  the 
northern  and  Oriental  languages  to  the  Hebrew  H'' 
the  name  of  God,  and  XIH  to  From  the  derivation 
of  exist,  as  given  under  the  article  To  Exist,  Live, 
arises  the  distinction  in  the  use  of  the  two  words.  To 
be  is  applicable  either  to  the  accidents  of  things,  or  to 
the  substances  or  things  themselves ; to  exist  only  to 
substances  or  things  that  stand  or  exist  of  themselves. 

VVe  say  of  qualities,  of  forms,  of  actions,  of  ar- 
rangement, of  movement,  and  of  every  different  re 
lation,  whether  real,  ideal,  or  qualificative,  that  they 
are ; ‘ He  does  not  understand  either  vice  or  virtue  who 
will  not  allow  that  life  without  the  rules  of  morality  is 
a wayward  uneasy  Steele.  We  say  of 

matter,  of  spirit,  of  body,  and  of  all  substances,  that 
they  exist ; ‘ When  the  soul  is  freed  from  all  corporeal 
alliance,  then  it  truly  exists.' — Hughes  after  Xeno- 
phon. Man  is  man,  and  will  be  man  under  all  cir- 
cumstances and  changes  of  life : he  exists  under  every 
known  climate  and  variety  of  heat  or  cold  in  the  at- 
mosphere. 

Being  and  existence  as  nouns  have  this  farther  dis- 
tinction, that  the  former  is  employed  not  only  to  de- 
signate the  abstract  state  of  being,  but  is  metaphori 
cally  employed  for  the  sensible  objeetthatfs;  the  latter 
is  confined  altogether  to  the  abstract  sense.  Hence  we 
speak  of  human  beings  ; beings  animate  or  inanimate , 
the  Supreme  Being ; but  the  existence  of  a God  ; ex- 
istence of  innumerable  worlds ; the  existence  of  evil. 
Being  may  in  some  cases  be  indifferently  employed  for 
existence,  particularly  in  the  grave  style  ; when  speak 
ing  of  animate  objects,  as  the  being  of  a God ; our 
frail  being ; and  when  qualified  in  a compound  form  is 
preferable,  as  our  well-being. 

Subsist  is  properly  a species  of  existing;  from  the 
Latin  prepositive  sub,  signifying  for  a.  time,  it  denotes 
temporary  or  partial  existence.  Every  thing  exists  by 
the  creative  and  preservative  power  of  the  Almighty  : 
that  which  subsists  depends  for  its  existence  upon  the 
chances  and  changes  of  this  mortal  life ; 

Forlorn  of  thee. 

Whither  shall  I betake  me?  where  subsist  ? 

Milton. 

To  exist  therefore  designates  simply  the  event  of  being 
or  existing ; to  subsist  conveys  the  accessory  ideas 
of  the  mode  and  duration  of  existing.  Man  exists 
while  the  vital  or  spiritual  part  of  him  remains ; he 
subsists  by  what  he  obtains  to  support  life.  Friend- 
ships exist  in  the  world,  notwithstanding  the  prevalence 
of  selfishness ; but  it  cannot  subsist  for  any  lengtii  of 
time  between  individuals  in  whom  this  base  tempet 
prevails. 

* Vide  Abbe  Girard  : “ Etre  exister  subsister  ” 


240 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


TO  BE,  BECOME,  GROW. 

Be  ( V.  To  he,  exist)  ; become  signifies  to  come  to  be, 
that  is,  to  be  in  course  of  time ; grow  is,  in  all  probability, 
changed  from  the  Latin  crevi,  perfect  of  cresco  to  in- 
crease cr  grow. 

Be  {v.  To  be,  exist)  is  positive  ; become,  that  is  to  come 
to  be,  or  to  be  in  course  of  time  is  relative  : a person  is 
what  he  is  without  regard  to  what  he  was  ; he  becomes 
that  which  he  was  not  before ; 

To  be  or  not  to  be  ? that  is  the  question. 

SuAKSPKARE. 

We  judge  of  a man  by  what  he  is,  but  we  cannot 
judge  of  him  by  what  he  will  become:  this  year  lie  is 
immoral  and  irreligious,  but  by  the  force  of  reflection 
on  himself  ho  may  become  the  contrary  in  another 
year:  ‘About  this  time  Savage’s  nurse,  who  had 
always  treated  him  as  her  own  son,  died  ; and  it  was 
natural  for  him  to  take  care  of  those  eftlcts  which  by 
her  death  were,  as  he  imagined,  become  his  own.’ — 
Johnson. 

To  become  includes  no  idea  of  the  mode  or  circum- 
stance of  becoming ; to  grow  is  to  become  by  a gradual 
process:  a man  may  become  a good  man  from  a vicious 
one,  in  consequence  of  a sudden  action  on  his  mind  ; 
but  he  grows  in  wisdom  and  virtue  by  means  of  an  in- 
crease in  knowledge  and  experience ; 

Authors,  like  coins,  dear,  as  they  grow  old. 

Pope. 


TO  EXIST,  LIVE. 

Exist,  in  French  exister,  Latin  existo,  compounded 
of  e or  ex  and  sisto,  signifies  to  place  or  stand  by  itself 
or  of  itself;  live,  through  the  medium  of  the  Saxon 
lihban,  and  the  other  northern  dialects,  comes  in  all 
probability  from  the  Hebrew  the  heart,  which  is 
the  seat  of  animal  life. 

Existence  is  the  property  of  all  things  in  the  uni- 
verse; life,  which  is  the  inherent  power  of  motion,  is 
the  particular  property  communicated  by  the  Divine 
Being  to  some  parts  only  of  his  creation  : exist,  there- 
fore, is  the  general,  and  live  the  specifick,  term : what- 
ever lives,  exists  according  to  a certain  mode;  but 
Biany  things  exist  without  living:  when  we  wish  to 
speak  of  things  in  their  most  abstract  relation,  w'e  say 
they  exisl; 

Can  any  now  remember  or  relate 
How  he  existed  in  an  embryo  state? — Jenyns. 
When  w^e  wish  to  characterize  the  form  of  existence 
we  say  they  litre;  ‘ Death  to  such  a man  is  rather  to  be 
looked  upon  as  the  period  of  his  mortality,  than  the  end 
of  his  life.' — Melmoth  {Letters  of  Pliny). 

Existence,  in  its  proper  sense,  is  the  attribute  which 
we  commonly  ascribe  to  the  Divine  Being,  and  it  is  that 
which  is  immediately  communicable  by  himself ; life 
Is  that  mode  of  existenee  which  he  has  made  to  be  com- 
municable by  other  objects  besides  himself:  existence 
IS  taken  only  in  its  strict  and  proper  sense,  independent 
of  all  its  attributes  and  appendages  ; butii/e  is  regarded 
in  connexion  with  the  means  by  which  it  is  supported, 
as  animal  life,  or  vegetable  life.  In  like  manner,  when 
speaking  of  spiritual  objects,  exist  retains  its  abstract 
sense,  and  live  is  employed  to  denoic  an  active  prin- 
ciple : animosities  should  never  exist  in  the  mind;  and 
every  thing  which  is  calculated  to  keep  them  alive 
should  be  kept  at  a distance. 


TO  OUTLIVE,  SURVIVE. 

To  outlive  is  literally  to  live  out  the  life  of  another,  to 
live  longer:  to  survive,  in  French  survivre,  is  to  live 
tifter : the  former  is  employed  to  express  the  comparison 
between  two  lives ; the  latter  to  denote  a protracted  ex- 
istence beyond  any  given  term:  one  person  is  said  pro- 
perly to  outlive  another  who  enjoys  a longer  life ; but  we 
speak  of  surviving  persons  or  things,  in  an  indefinite  or 
unqualified  manner:  it  is  not  a peculiar  blessing  to 
tuilive  all  our  nearest  relatives  and  friends ; ‘ A man 
never  outlives  his  conscience,  and  that  for  this  cause 
only,  he  cannot  outlive  himself.’ — South.  No  man 
can  be  happy  in  surviving  his  honour;  ‘Of  so  vast,  so 
lasting,  so  surviving  an  extent  is  the  malignity  of  a 
great  guiU’— South. 


TO  DELIVER,  RESCUE,  SAVE. 

To  deliver,  \n  French  delivrer,  compounded  of  dc  ano 
livrer,  in  Latin  libero,  signifies  literally  to  make  free 
to  rescue,  contracted  from  the  French  re  and  secounr 
and  indirectly  from  the  Latin  re  and  curro  to  run,  sig 
nifies  to  run  to  a person’s  .assistance  in  the  moment  o' 
diflici  Uy  ; to  save  is  to  make  safe. 

The  idea  of  taking  or  keeping  from  danger  is  com 
mon  to  these  terms;  but  deliver  and  rescue  signify 
rather  the  taking  from,  save  the  keeping  from  danger- 
we  deliver  and  rescue  from  the  evil  that  is ; we  save 
from  evils  that  may  be,  as  well  as  from  those  that  are. 
Deliver  and  reseue  do  not  convey  any  idea  of  the 
means  by  which  the  end  is  produced;  save  commonly 
includes  the  idea  of  some  superiour  agency:  a man  may 
be  delivered  or  reseued  by  any  person  without  distinc- 
tion ; he  is  commonly  saved  by  a superiour. 

Deliver  is  an  unqualified  term,  it  is  applicable  to 
every  mode  of  the  action  or  species  of  evil ; to  rescue  is 
a species  of  delivering,  namely,  delivering  from  the 
power  of  another : to  save  is  applicable  to  the  greatest 
possible  evils : a person  may  be  delivered  from  a burden, 
from  an  oppression,  from  disease,  or  from  danger  by 
any  means;  ‘In  our  greatest  fears  and  troubles  w’e 
may  ease  our  hearts  by  reposing  ourselves  upon  God, 
in  confidence  of  his  support  and  deliverance  ’ — Til- 
LOTsoN.  A prisoner  is  rescued  from  the  hands  of  an 
enemy ; 

My  household  gods,  companions  of  my  woes. 

With  pious  care  I rescu'd  from  our  foes. — Dryden 
A person  is  saved  from  destruction ; 

Now  shameful  flight  alone  can  save  the  host, 

Our  blood,  our  treasure,  and  our  glory  lost. — Pope. 
‘ He  who  feareth  God  and  worketh  righteousness,  and 
perseveres  in  the  faith  and  duties  of  our  religion,  shall 
certainly  be  saved.' — Rogers. 


DELIVERANCE,  DELIVERY, 

Are  drawn  from  the  same  verb  {v.  To  deliver)  to  cx 
press  its  different  senses  of  taking  from  or  giving  to ; th« 
former  denotes  the  taking  of  something  from  one’s  self  • 
the  latter  implies  giving  something  to  another. 

To  wish  for  a deliverance  from  that  which  is  hurtfui 
or  painful  is  to  a certain  extent  justifiable ; 

Whate’er  befalls  your  life  shall  be  my  care, 

One  death,  or  one  deliverance,  we  will  share. 

Dryden 

The  careful  delivery  of  property  into  the  hands  of  the 
owner  will  be  the  first  object  of  concern  with  a faithful 
agent;  ‘With  our  Saxon  ancestors  the  de//wcr?/ of  g 
turf  was  a necessary  solemnity  to  establish  the  con 
veyance  of  lands.’ — Blackstone. 

TO  FREE,  SET  FREE,.  DELIVER,  LIBERATE 

To  free  is  properly  to  make  free,  in  distinction  from 
set  free;  the  first  is  employed  in  what  concerns  our 
selves,  and  the  second  in  thattvhich  concerns  another 
A m.an /rees  himself  from  an  engagement;  he  sets 
another  free  from  his  engagement:  we  free  or  set 
ourselves /ree,  from  that  which  has  been  imposed  upon 
us  by  ourselves  or  by  circumstances ; we  are  delivered 
or  liberated  from  that  which  others.have  imposed  uirori 
us ; the  former  from  evils  in  general,  the  latter  from 
the  evil  of  confinement.  1 /ree  myself  from  a burden  ; 
I set  my  own  slave  free  from  his  slavery ; I deliver 
another  man’s  slave  from  a state  of  bondage ; I liberate 
a man  from  prison.  A man  frees  an  estate  from  rent, 
service,  taxes,  and  all  incumbrances , a king  sets  hia 
subjects  free  from  certain  imposts  or  tribute,  he  de- 
livers them  from  a foreign  yoke,  or  he  liberates  inoso 
who  have  been  taken  in  war.  We  free  either  by 
an  act  of  the  will,  or  by  contrivance  and  method ; 
we  set  free  by  an  act  of  authority;  we  deliver  or 
liberate  by  active  measures  and  physical  strength. 
A man  frees  himself  from  impertinence  by  es- 
caping the  company  of  the  impertinent;  he  sets 
others  free  from  all  apprehensions  by  assuring  them 
of  his  protection ; he  deZraers  them  out  of  a perilous 
situation  by  his  presence  of  mind.  A country  is  freed 
from  the  horrours  of  a revolution  by  the  vigorous 
councils  of  a determined  statesman;  in  this  manner 
was  England  freed  from  a counterpart  of  the  French 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


241 


evolution  by  llie  vigour  of  the  government ; a country 
s set  free  from  the  exactions  and  hardsliips  of  usurpa- 
tion and  tyranny  by  the  mild  influence  of  established 
government : in  this  manner  is  Europe  set  free  from 
the  iron  yoke  of  the  French  usurper  by  its  ancient 
rulers.  A country  is  delivered  from  the  grasp  and 
oppression  of  the  invader;  in  this  manner  has  Spain 
been  delivered,  by  the  wisdom  and  valour  of  an  illus- 
trious Britisli  general  at  the  head  of  a band  of  British 
heroes. 

When  applied  in  a moral  sense  free  is  applied  to  sin, 
or  any  other  morsd  evil ; 

She  then 

Sent  Iris  down  to  free  her  from  the  strife 
Of  labouring  nature,  and  dissolve  her  life. 

Dryden. 

S6t  free  is  employed  for  ties,  obligation,  and  respon- 
sibility ; 

When  heav’n  would  kindly  set  us  free, 

And  earth’s  enchantment  end  ; 

It  takes  the  most  effectual  means. 

And  robs  us  of  a friend. — Young. 

Deliver  is  employed  for  external  circumstances ; ‘How- 
ever desirous  Mary  was  of  obtaining  deliverance  from 
Darnley’s  caprices,  she  had  good  reasons  for  rejecting 
the  method  by  which  they  proposed  to  accomplish  it.’ 
— Robertson.  God,  as  our  Redeemer,  frees  us  from 
the  bondage  and  consequences  of  sin,  by  the  dispensa- 
tions of  his  atoning  grace ; but  he  does  not  set  us 
free  from  any  of  our  moral  obligations  or  moral  re- 
sponsibility as  free  agents ; as  our  Preserver  he  deli- 
vers us  from  dangers  and  misfortunes,  trials  and 
temptations. 


FREE,  LIBERAL. 

Free  is  here  considered  as  it  respects  actions  and 
sentiments.  In  all  its  acceptations  free  is  a term  of 
dispraise,  and  liberal  that  of  commendation.  To  be 
free,  signifies  to  act  or  think  at  will ; to  be  liberal  is  to 
act  according  to  the  dictates  of  an  enlarged  heart  and 
an  enlightened  mind.  A clown  or  a fool  may  be  free 
with  his  money,  and  may  squander  it  away  to  please 
his  humour,  or  gratify  his  appetite;  but  the  nobleman 
and  the  wise  man  will  be  liberal  in  rewarding  merit,  I 
in  encouraging  industry,  and  in  promoting  whatever 
can  contribute  to  the  ornament,  the  prosperity,  and  im- 
provement of  his  country.  A man  who  is  free  in  his 
sentiments  thinks  as  he  pleases ; the  man  who  is  liberal 
thinks  according  to  the  extent  of  his  knowledge.  The 
/■j-ee-thinking  man  is  wise  in  his  own  conceit,  he  de- 
spises the  opinions  of  others ; the  lifteraZ-mindcd  thinks 
modestly  on  his  own  personal  attainments,  and  builds 
upon  the  wisdom  of  others. 

The  freethinker  circumscribes  all  knowledge  within 
the  conceptions  of  a few  superlatively  wise  heads ; 
‘The  /reethinkers  plead  very  hard  to  think /reeZy  .• 
they  have  it ; but  what  use  do  they  make  of  it  ? Do 
their  writings  show  a greater  depth  of  design,  or  more 
just  and  correct  reasoning,  than  those  of  other  men  V 
— Berkeley.  ‘Their  pretensions  to  be /recthinkers  is 
no  other  than  rakes  have  to  be  /rcelivers,  and  savages 
to  be  freemen.' — Addison.  The  ZZZ<«raZ-minded  is 
anxious  to  enlarge  the  boundaries  of  science  by  making 
all  the  thinking  world  in  all  ages  to  contribute  to  the 
advancement  of  knowledge ; 

For  me,  for  whose  well-being 
So  amply,  and  with  hands  so  liberal, 

Thou  hast  provided  all  things. — Milton. 

The  desire  of  knowledge  discovers  a liberal  mind.’ — 
Blair.  With  the  freethinker  nothing  is  good  that  is 
fW  or  established  ; v/ith  the  liberal  man  nothing  is 
good  because  it  is  new,  nothing  bad  because  it  is  old. 
Men  of  the  least  knowledge  and  understanding  are 
the  most  Jree  m tneir  opinions,  in  which  description 
of  men  this  age  abounds  above  all  others  ; such  men 
are  exceedingly  anxious  to  usurp  the  epithet  liberal  to 
themse.ves;  but  the  good  sense  of  mankind  will  pre- 
vail against  oartial  endeavours,  and  assign  this  title  to 
none  but  men  o'’  comprehensive  talents,  sound  judge- 
nenls,  extensive  ex,  erience,  and  deep  erudition. 

It  seems  as  if  freedom  of  thought  was  that  aberra- 
ion  of  the  mind  which  is  opposed' to  the  two  extremes 
' f «mpers<it'un  and  bigotry;  and  that  libernlity  is  tlu' 
•in.ppy  medium.  Ti  e /recthinker  holds  nothing  sacred, 


and  is  attachea  to  nothing  but  his  own  conceits^  the 
superstitious  man  holds  too  many  things  sacred,  and  is 
attached  to  every  thing  that  favours  this  bent  of  his 
mind.  A /j-eethinker  accommodates  his  duties  to  his 
inclinations:  he  denies  his  obligation  to  any  thing 
which  comes  across  the  peculiar  fashion  of  his  senti 
ment.  A man  of  free  sentiments  rejects  the  spirit  of 
Christianity,  with  the  letter  or  outward  formality  ; the 
superstitious  man  loses  the  spirit  of  Christianity  in  his 
extravagant  devotion  to  its  outward  formalities. 

On  the  other  hand  bigotry  and  libei  xlity  are  opposed 
to  each  other,  not  in  regard  to  what  they  believe,  so 
much  as  in  regard  to  the  nature  of  their  belief.  The 
bigoted  man  so  narrows  his  mind  to  the  compass  of  his 
belief  as  to  exclude  every  other  object  ; the  liberal 
man  directs  his  views  to  every  object  which  does  not 
directly  interfere  with  his  belief.  It  is  possible  for  the 
bigoted  and  the  liberal  man  to  have  the  same  faith 
but  the  former  mistakes  its  true  object  and  tendency 
namely,  the  improvement  of  his  rational  powers, 
which  the  latter  pursues. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  from  the  above,  that  the 
/reethinker,  the  superstitious  man,  and  the  bigot,  are 
alike  the  offspring  of  ignorance ; and  that  liberality 
Is  the  handmaid  of  science,  and  the  daughter  of  truth. 
Of  all  the  mental  aberrations  freedom  of  thinking  is 
the  most  obnoxious,  as  it  is  fostered  by  the  pride  of  the 
heart,  and  the  vanity  of  the  imagination.  In  super- 
stition we  sometimes  see  the  anxiety  of  a well-disposed 
mind  to  discharge  its  conscience : with  bigotry  we  often 
see  associated  the  mild  virtues  which  are  taught  by 
Christianity;  but  in  the /reethinker  we  only  see  the 
bad  passions  and  the  unruly  will  set  free  from  all  ttee 
constraints  of  outward  authority,  and  disengaged  from 
the  control  of  reason  and  judgement;  in  such  a mat 
the  amiable  qualities  of  the  natural  disposition  become 
corrupted,  and  the  evil  humours  triumph 

FREE,  FAMILIAR. 

Free  has  already  been  considered  as  it  respec-ts  the 
words,  actions,  and  sentiments  {v.  Free)  ; in  the  pre 
sent  case  it  is  coupled  with  familiarity,  inasmuch  as 
they  respect  the  outward  behaviour  or  conduct  in 
general  of  men  one  to  another. 

To  be  fret  is  to  be  disengaged  from  all  the  con 
straints  which  the  ceremonies  of  social  intercourse 
impose  ; to  be  familiar  is  to  be  upon  the  footing  of  a 
familiar,  of  a relative,  or  one  of  the  same  family. 
Neither  of  these  terms  can  be  admitted  as  unexcep- 
tionable ; but  freedom  is  that  which  is  in  general 
totally  unauthorized;  familiarity  sometimes  shelters 
itself  under  the  sanction  of  long,  close,  and  friendly 
intercourse.  , 

Free  is  a term  of  much  more  extensive  import  than 
familiar ; a man  may  be  free  towards  another  in  a 
thousand  ways;  but  he  is  familiar  towards  him  only 
in  his  manners  and  address.  A man  who  is  free  looks 
upon  every  thing  as  his  which  he  chooses  to  make  use 
of;  a familiar  man  only  wants  to  share  with  another 
and  to  stand  upon  an  equal  footing.  A man  who  is 
free  will  take  possession  of  another  man’s  house  or 
room  in  his  absence,  and  will  make  use  of  his  name 
or  his  property  as  it  suits  his  convenience  ; his  freedom 
always  turns  upon  that  which  contributes  to  his  own 
indulgence;  ‘Being  one  day  very  free  at  a great 
feast,  he  suddenly  broke  forth  into  a great  laughter.’ — 
Hakewell.  a man  who  is  familiar  will  smile  upon 
you,  take  hold  of  your  arm,  call  you  by  some  friendly 
or  common  name,  and  seek  to  enjoy  with  you  all  the 
pleasures  of  social  intercourse;  his  familiarity  always 
turns  upon  that  which  will  increase  his  own  im- 
portance ; ‘ Kalandar  streight  thought  he  saw  his  niece 
I’arthenia,  and  was  about  in  such  familiar  sort  to 
have  spoken  unto  her ; but  she  in  grave  and  honour- 
able manner,  gave  him  to  understand  he  was  mistaken.’ 
— Sidney.  There  cannot  be  two  greater  enemies  to 
the  harmony  of  society  than  freedom  and  familiarity ; 
both  of  which  it  is  the  whole  business  of  politeness  to 
destroy  ; for  no  man  can  be  free  without  being  in 
danger  of  infringing  upon  what  belongs  to  another, 
nor  familiar  vvithoiit  being  in  danger  of  obtruding 
himself  to  the  annoyance  of  others. 

When  these  words  are  used  figuratively  in  re.’erencc 
to  things,  they  do  not  bear  that  objectionable  feature  ; 

Free  and  familiar  with  misfortune  grow. 

Bo  us’d  to  sorrow,  and  inur’d  to  wo. — Fri  ir 


242 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


FREE,  EXEMPT. 

To  free  is  as  general  in  its  signification  as  in  the 
preceding  articles  ; to  exempt,  in  Latin  exemptus,  par- 
ticiple of  eximo,  signifies  set  out  or  disengaged  from  a 
part. 

The  condition  and  not  the  conduct  of  men  is  here 
considered.  Freedom  is  either  accidental  or  inten- 
tional; ihe  exemption  is  always  intentional:  we  may 
be  free  from  disorders,  or  free  from  troubles ; we  are 
exempt,  that  is  exempted  by  government,  from  serving 
in  the  militia  Free  is  applied  to  every  thing  from 
which  anyone  may  wish  to  he  free;  hut  exempt,  o\\ 
the  contrary,  to  those  burdens  which  we  should  share 
with  others:  we  may  be  free  from  imperfections, /ree 
from  inconvenieitcies,  free  from  the  interruptions  of 
others ; 

O happ}'^,  if  he  knew  his  happy  state. 

The  swain  who, /ree  from  bus’ ness  and  debate, 

Receives  his  easy  food  from  nature’s  hand ! 

Dryden. 

A man  is  exempt  from  any  oflice  or  tax ; ‘ To  be  ex- 
empt from  the  passions  with  which  Others  are  tor- 
mented, is  the  only  pleasing  solitude.’ — Addison.  We 
may  likewise  be  said  to  be  exempt  from  troubles  when 
speaking  of  these  as  the  dispensations  of  Providence 
to  others. 


FREEDOM,  LIBERTF. 

Freedom,  the  abstract  noun  of  free,  is  taken  in  al' 
Ihe  senses  of  the  primitive;  liberty,  from  the  Latin 
iber  free,  is  only  taken  in  the  sense  of  free  from  ex- 
ernal  constraint,  from  the  action  of  power. 

Freedom  is  personal  and  private  ; liberty  is  publick. 
The  freedom  of  the  city  is  the  privilege  granted  by  any 
city  to  individuals ; the  liberty  of  the  city  are  the  im- 
munities enjoyed  by  the  city.  By  the  same  rule  of 
distinction  we  speak  of  the  freedom  of  the  will,  the 
freedom  of  manners,  the  freedom  of  conversation,  or 
the  freedom  of  debate;  ‘The  ends  for  which  men 
unite  in  society,  and  submit  to  government,  are  to 
enjoy  security  to  their  property  and  freedom  to  their 
persons,  from  all  injustice  or  Violence.’— Blair.  ‘ I 
would  not  venture  into  the  world  under  the  character 
af  a man  who  pretends  to  talk  like  other  people,  until 
I had  arrived  at  a full  freedom  of  speech.’ — Addison. 
We  speak  of  the  liberty  of  conscience,  the  liberty  of 
the  press,  the  liberty  of  the  subject ; ‘ The  liberty  of 
the  press  is  a blessing  when  we  are  inclined  to  write 
against  others,  and  a calamity  when  we  find  ourselves 
overborne  by  the  multitude  of  our  assailants.’ — John- 
son. A slave  obtains  his  f reedom 
O freedom!  first  delight  of  human  kind  ! 

Not  that  which  bondmen  from  their  masters  find, 
The  privilege  of  doles. — Dryden. 

A captive  obtains  his  liberty. 

Freedom  serves  moreover  to  qualify  the  action  ; 
liberty  is  applied  only  to  the  agent:  hence  we  say,  to 
speak  or  think  with  freedom;  but  to  have  the  Ziierty 
of  speaking,  thinking,  or  acting.  Freedom  and  liberty 
are  likewise  employed  for  the  private  conduct  of  indi- 
viduals towards  each  other  ; but  the  former  is  used  in 
a qualified  good  sense,  the  latter  in  an  unqualified  bad 
sense  A freedom  may  sometimes  be  licensed  or 
•illowed  ; liberty  is  always  taken  in  a bad  sense.  A 
freedom  may  be  innocent  and  even  pleasant;  a liberty 
always  does  more  or  less  violence  to  the  decencies  of 
life,  or  the  feelings  of  individuals.  There  are  little 
freedoms  which  may  pass  between  youth  of  different 
sexes,  so  as  to  heighten  the  pleasures  of  society ; but 
a modest  woman  will  be  careful  to  guard  against  any 
freedoms  which  may  admit  of  misinterpretation,  and 
re.sent  every  liberty  offered  to  her  as  an  insult. 


TO  GIVE  UP,  DELIVER,  SURRENDER, 
YIELD,  CEDE,  CONCEDE. 

We  ^ive  up  (v.  To  give,  grant)  that  which  we  wish 
to  retain ; we  deliver  that  which  we  wish  not  to  re- 
tain. Deliver  does  not  include  the  idea  of  a transfer ; 
but  give  up  implies  both  the  giving  from,  and  the 
giving  to.  we  give  up  our  house  to  the  accommoda- 
tion of  our  friends  ; ‘A  popish  priest  threatens  to  ex- 
communicate a Northumberland  esquire  if  he  did  not 
give  up  to  him  the  church  lands ’‘-Addison.  VVe 


I deliver  property  into  the  hands  of  the  owner;  ‘ It  u ^ 
wonder  that  they  who  at  such  a time  could  be  cor- 
ruptea  to  frame  and  deliver  such  a petition,  would  no-' 
be  reformed  by  such  an  answer.’ — Dryden.  We  may 
give  up  with  reluctance,  and  deliver  with  pleasure ; 
‘ Such  an  expectation  will  never  come  to  pass;  there- 
fore I will  e’en  give  it  up  and  go  and  fret  myself.’— 
Collier. 

On  my  experience,  Adam,  freely  taste. 

And  fear  of  death  deliver  to  the  winds. — Milton 
To  give  up  is  a colloquial  substitute  for  either  sm 
render  or  yield  ; as  it  designates  no  circumstance  ol 
the  action,  it  may  be  employed  in  familiar  discourse, 
in  almost  every  case  for  the  other  terms:  where  the 
action  is  compulsory,  we  may  either  say  an  officei 
gives  up  or  surrenders  his  sword  ; when  the  action  is 
discretionary,  we  mayeither  say  he  gives  up,  or  yields 
a point  of  discussion : give  up  has,  however,  an  ex 
tensiveness  of  application  which  gives  it  an  office  dis 
tinct  from  either  surrender  or  yield.  When  we  speak 
of  famiiiar  and  personal  subjects,  give  up  is  more 
suitable  than  surrender,  which  is  confined  to  matters 
of  publick  interest  or  great  moment,  unless  when  taket 
figuratively:  a man  gives  up  his  place,  his  right,  hi* 
claim,  and  the  like  ; he  surrenders  a fortress,  a vessel, 
or  his  property  to  his  creditors,  or  figuratively  he  sur 
renders  his  judgement  or  opinions.  When  give  up  is 
compared  with  yield,  they  both  respect  personal  mat- 
ters ; but  the  former  expresses  a much  stronger  action 
than  the  latter:  a man  gives  up  his  whole  judgement 
to  another  ; he  yields  to  the  opinion  of  another  in  par- 
ticular cases;  he  gives  himself  up  to  sensual  indul . 
gencies ; he  yields  to  the  force  of  temptation  ; ‘ The* 
peaceable  man  will  give  up  his  favourite  schemes  , 
he  will  yield  to  an  opponent  rather  than  become  the 
cause  of  violent  embroilments.’ — Blair.  ‘ The  young, 
half-seduced  by  persuasion,  and  half-compelled  by  ridi- 
cule, surrender  their  convictions,  and  consent  to  livt 
as  they  see  others  around  them  living.’ — Blair. 

Cede,  from  the  Latin  cedo  to  give,  is  properly  to  sur 
render  by  virtue  of  a treaty:  we  may  surrender  a 
town  as  an  act  of  necessity ; but  the  cession  of  a 
country  is  purely  a political  transaction ; thus,  general* 
frequently  surrender  such  towns  as  they  are  not  able 
to  defend ; and  governments  cede  such  countries  as 
they  find  it  not  convenient  -to  retain.  To  concede, 
which  is  but  a variation  of  cede,  is  a mode  of  yieldi\g 
which  may  be  either  an  act  of  discretion  or  courtesy  • 
as  when  a government  concedes  to  the  demands  of  the 
people  certain  privileges,  or  when  an  individual  con 
cedes  any  point  in  dispute  for  the  sake  of  peace  : ‘As 
to  the  magick  power  which  the  devil  imparts  for  these 
concessions  of  his  votaries,  theologians  have  different 
opinions.’ — Cumberland. 

TO  GIVE  UP,  ABANDON,  RESIGN,  FOREGO. 

These  terms  differ  from  the  preceding  (?;.  To  give 
up),  inasmuch  as  they  designate  actions  entirely  free 
from  foreign  inffuence.  A man  gives  up,  abandons 
and  resigns,  from  the  dictates  of  his  own  mind,  inde- 
pendent of  all  control  from  others.  To  give  up  and 
abandon  both  denote  a positive  decision  of  the  mind  ; 
but  the  former  may  be  the  act  of  the  understanding  or 
the  will,  the  latter  is  more  commonly  the  act  of  the 
will  and  the  passions:  to  give  up  is  applied  to  familiar 
cases ; abandon  to  ifiatters  of  importance : one  gives 
tip  an  idea,  an  intention,  a plan,  and  the  like;  ‘ Upon 
his  friend  telling  him,  he  wondered  he  gave  up  the 
question,  when  he  had  visibly  the  better  of  the  dis- 
pute ; 1 am  never  ashamed,  says  he,  to  be  confuted  by 
one  who  is  master  of  fifty  legions.’ — Addison.  One 
abandons  a project,  a scheme,  a measure  of  govern 
ment; 

For  Greece  we  grieve,  abandoned  by  her  fate, 

To  drink  the  dregs  of  thy  unmeasur’d  hate. 

Pope. 

To  give  up  and  resign  are  applied  either  to  the  out 
ward  actions,  or  merely  to  the  inward  movements- 
but  the  former  is  active,  it  determinately  fixes  the  con 
duct ; the  latter  seems  to  be  rather  passive,  it  is  the 
leaning  of  the  mind  to  the  circumstances : a man  gives 
up  his  situation  by  a positive  act  of  his  choice ; he 
resigns  his  office  when  he  feels  it  incon  /enient  to  hold 
it:  so,  likewise,  we  give  up  what  we  expect  or  lay 
claim  to  • ‘ He  declares  himself  to  be  now  satisfied  te 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  24^ 


Ihe  contrary,  In  whicli  he  has  given  up  the  cause — 
Dryden.  We  resign  what  we  hope  or  wish  for ; 

The  praise  of  artful  numbers  I resign^ 

And  hang  iny  pipe  upon  the  sacred  pine. — Drydkn. 
hi  this  forego,  which  signifies  to  let  go  or  let 

pass  by,  is  comparable  with  resign,  inasmuch  as  it 
expresses  a passive  action ; but  we  resign  that  which 
we  have,  and  we  forego  that  which  we  might  have : 
thus,  we  resign  the  claims  which  we  have  already 
made;  we  forego  the  claim  if' we  abstain  altogether 
from  making  it:  the  former  may  be  a matter  of  pru- 
dence : the  latter  is  always  an  act  of  virtue  and  for- 
bearance ; 

Desirous  to  resign  and  render  back. 

All  I receiv’d.— Milton. 

' What  they  have  enjoyed  with  great  pleasure  at  one 
time,  has  proved  insipid  or  nauseous  at  another  ; and 
they  see  nothing  in  it,  for  which  they  should /c;re^o  a 
present  enjoyment.’ — Locke. 

Then,  pilgrim,  turn,  thy  cares  forego  ; 

All  earth-born  cares  are  wrong. — Goldsmith. 

When  applied  reflectively,  to  give  up  is  used  either  in 
a good,  bad,  or  indilferent  sense;  abandon  always  in 
a bad  sense  ; resign  always  in  a good  sense : a man 
may  give  himself  up,  either  to  studious  pursuits,  to  idle 
vagaries,  or  vicious  indulgencies ; he  abandons  him- 
self to  gross  vices ; he  resigns  himself  to  the  will  of 
Providence,  or  to  the  circumstances  of  his  condition; 
a man  is  said  to  be  given  up  to  his  lusts  who  is  without 
any  principle  to  control  him  in  the  gratification  ; he  is 
said  to  be  abandoned,  when  his  outrageous  conduct 
bespeaks  an  entire  insensibility  to  every  honest  prin- 
ciple ; he  is  said  to  be  resigned  when  he  discovers  com- 
posure and  tranquillity  in  the  hour  of  affliction 

TO  ABANDON,  DESERT,  FORSAKE, 
RELINQUISH. 

The  idea  of  leaving  or  separating  one’s  self  from  an 
object  is  common  to  these  terms,  which  differ  in  the 
sircumstances  or  modes  of  leaving.  The  two  former 
are  more  solemn  acts  than  the  two  latter.  .Abandon, 
from  the  French  abandonner,  is  a concretion  of  the 
words  donner  d ban,  to  give  up  to  a publirk  ban  or  out- 
lawry. To  abandon  then  is  to  expose  to.  every  mis- 
fortune which  results  from  a formal  and  publick  de- 
nunciation; to  set  out  of  the  protection  of  law  and 
government ; and  to  deny  the  privileges  of  citizenship ; 
desert,  in  Latin  deserlus,  participle  of  desero,  that  is, 
de  privative  and  sero  to  sow,  signifies  to  lie  unsown, 
unplanted,  cultivated  no  longer.  To  desert  then  is  to 
leave  off  cultivating ; and  as  there  is  something  of 
idleness  and  improvidence  in  ceasing  to  render  the  soil 
productive,  ideas  of  disapprobation  accompany  the 
word  in  all  its  metaphorical  applications.  He  who 
leaves  off  cultivating  a farm  usually  removes  from  it; 
hence  the  idea  of  removal  and  blameworthy  removal, 
which  usually  attaches  to  the  term  ; forsake,  in  Saxon 
forsecan,  is  compounded  of  the  primitive  for  and 
sake,  seeft,  sccan,  signifying  to  seek  no  more,  to  leave 
off  seeking  that  which  has  been  an  object  of  search; 
relinquish,  in  Latin  relinquo,  is  compounded  of  re  or 
retro  behind,  and  linquo  to  leave,  that  is,  to  leave 
what  we  would  fain  take  with  us,  to  leave  with  re- 
luctance. 

To  abandon  is  totally  to  withdraw  ourselves  from 
an  object ; to  lay  aside  all  care  and  concern  for  it;  to 
leave  it  altogether  to  itself;  to  desert  is  to  withdraw 
ourselves  at  certain  times  when  our  assistance  or  co- 
operation is  required,  or  to  separate  ourselves  from  that 
to  which  we  ought  to  be  attached : to  forsake  is  to 
withdraw  our  regard  for  and  interest  in  an  object,  to 
keep  at  a distance  from  it ; to  relinquish  is  to  leave 
that  which  has  once  been  an  object  of  our  pursuit. 

Abandon  and  desert  are  employed  tor  persons  or 
things;  forsake  for  persons  or  places;  relinquish  for 
things  only. 

With  regard  to  persons  these  terms  express  moral 
culpability  in  a progressive  ratio  downwards:  abandon 
comprehends  the  violation  of  the  most  sacred  ties, 
desert,  a breach  of  honour  and  fidelity  ;/<?r5a/£e,  a rup- 
ture of  the  social  bond. 

IVe  abandon  those  who  are  entirely  dependent  for 
protection  and  support;  they  are  left  in  a helpless  state 
e.’'posed  to  every  danger;  a child  is  abandoned  ly  hs 


parent;  ‘He  who  abandons  his  offspring  or  corrupts 
them  by  his  example,  perpetrates  a greater  evil  than  a 
murderer.’— Hawkesworth.  We  desert  those  with 
whom  we  have  entered  into  a coalition ; they  are  left 
to  their  own  resources : a soldier  deserts  his  comrades ; 
a partisan  deserts  his  friends;  ‘After  the  death  of 
Stella,  Swift’s  benevolence  was  contracted,  and  his 
severity  exasperated : he  drove  his  acquaintance  from 
his  table,  and  wondered  wliy  he  was  deserted.' — John- 
son We  forsake  those  with  whom  we  have  been  in 
habits  of  intimacy ; they  are  deprived  of  the  pleasures 
and  comforts  of  society  ; a man  forsakes  his  compan- 
ions ; a lover  forsakes  his  mistress,  or  a husband  his 
wife ; 

Forsake  me  not  thus,  Adam  ! — Milton. 

We  are  bound  by  every  law  human  and  divine  not 
to  abandon ; we  are  called  upon  by  every  good  principle 
not  to  desert ; we  are  impelled  by  every  kind  feeling  not 
to  forsake.  Few  animals  except  man  will  abandon 
their  young  until  they  are  enabled  to  provide  for  them- 
selves. Interest,  which  is  but  too  often  the  only  prin- 
ciple that  brings  men  together,  will  lead  them  to  desert 
each  other  in  the  time  of  difficulty.  We  are  enjoined 
in  the  gospel  not  to  forsake  the  poor  and  needy. 

When  abandoned  by  our  dearest  relatives,  deserted 
by  our  friends,  and  forsaken  by  the  world,  we  have 
always  a resource  in  our  Maker. 

With  regard  to  things  (in  which  sense  the  wore 
relinquish  is  synonymous)  the  character  of  abandoning 
varies  with  the  circumstances  and  motives  of  the  action 
according  to  which  it  is  either  good,  bad,  or  indifferent , 
deserting  is  always  taken  in  an  unfavourable  or  ba« 
sense ; the  act  of  forsaking  is  mostly  indifferent,  Lu? 
implies  a greater  or  less  breach  of  some  tie;  that  ol 
relinquishing  is  prudent  or  imprudent. 

A captain  may  abandon  his  vessel  when  he  has  ni 
means  of  saving  it,  except  at  the  risk  of  his  life ; 

He  boldly  spake,  sir  knight,  if  knight  thou  be. 
Abandon  this  forestalled  place  at  erst. 

For  fear  of  further  harm,  I counsel  thefe. 

Spenser. 

neglected  nature  pines 

Abandoned. — Cowper. 

An  upright  statesman  will  never  desert  his  post  when 
his  country  is  in  danger,  nor  a true  soldier  desert  hi» 
colours ; ‘ He  who  at  the  approach  of  evil  betrays  his 
trust,  or  deserts  his  post,  is  branded  with  cowardice.’ — 
Hawkesworth.  Birds  will  mostly/orsaA:e  their  nests 
when  they  discover  them  to  have  been  visited,  and 
most  animals  wiW  forsake  their  haunts  when  tliey  find 
themselves  discovered;  ‘Macdonald  and  Macleod  of 
Skie  have  lost  many  tenants  and  labourers,  hut  Raarsa 
has  not  yet  been /orsa^en  by  any  of  its  inhabitants.’- 
JoHNSoN.  So  likewise  figuratively  ; ‘ When  learning, 
abilities,  and  what  is  excellent  in  the  world,  forsake 
the  church,  we  may  easily  foretell  its  ruin  without  the 
gift  of  prophecy.’ — South.  Men  often  inadvertently 
relinquish  the  fairest  prospects  in  order  to  follow  some 
favourite  scheme  which  terminates  in  their  ruin ; ‘ Men 
are  wearied  with  the  toil  which  they  bear,  but  cannot 
find  in  their  hearts  to  relinquish  it.’ — Steele. 

Having  abandoned  their  all,  they  forsook  the  place 
which  gave  them  birth,  and  relinquished  the  advan- 
tages which  they  might  have  obtained  from  theii  rank 
and  family. 


TO  ABANDON,  RESIGN,  RENOUNCE,  ABDI 
CATE. 

The  idea  of  giving  up  is  common  to  these  terms, 
which  signification,  though  analogous  to  the  former, 
admits,  however,  of  a distinction ; as  in  the  one  case  we 
separate  ourselves  from  an  object,  in  the  other  we  send 
or  cast  it  from  us.  In  this  latter  sense  the  terms  aban- 
don and  resign  have  been  partially  considered  in  the 
preceding  articles;  renounce,  in  Latin  renuncio,  from 
nuncio  to  tell  or  declare,  is  to  declare  otf  from  a thing ; 
abdicate,  from  dico  to  speak,  signifies  likewise  to  call  or 
cry  off  from  a thing. 

We  abandon  and  resign  by  giving  up  to  another;  we 
renounce  by  sending  away  from  ourselves ; we  abandon 
a thing  by  transferring  our  power  over  to  another;  in 
this  manner  a debtor  abandons  his  goods  to  his  credit- 
ors: we  re.sign  a thing  by  transferring  our  possession 
of  it  to  another ; in  this  manner  we  resign  a place  to  u 


244 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


friend : wc  renounce  a thing  by  simply  ceasing  to  hold 
it ; in  this  manner  we  renounce  a claim  or  a profession. 
As  to  renounce  signified  originally  to  give  up  by  word 
of  mouth,  and  to  resign  to  give  up  by  signature,  the 
former  is  consequently  a less  formal  action  than  the 
latter:  we  may  renounce  by  implication;  wo  resign  in 
direct  terms . we  renounce  the  pleasures  of  the  world 
when  we  do  not  seek  to  enjoy  them ; we  resign  a plea- 
sure, a profit,  or  advantage,  of  which  we  expressly  give 
up  the  enjoyment. 

To  abdicate  is  a species  of  informal  resignation.  A 
monarch  abdicates  his  throne  who  simply  declares  his 
will  to  cease  to  reign ; but  a minister  resigns  his  office 
when  he  gives  up  the  seals  by  which  he  held  it. 

A humane  commander  will  not  abandon  a town  to 
the  rapine  of  the  soldiers ; 

The  passive  Gods  beheld  the  Greeks  defile 
Their  temples,  and  abandon  to  the  spoil 
Their  own  abodes. — Dryden. 

The  motives  for  resignations  are  various.  Discontent, 
disgust,  and  the  love  of  repose,  are  the  ordinary 
inducements  for  men  to  resign  honourable  and  lucra- 
tive employments;  ‘It  would  be  a good  appendix  to 
“ the  art  of  living  and  dying,”  if  any  one  would  write 
“ the  art  of  growing  old,”  and  teach  men  to  ?-cs2^n  their 
pretensions  to  the  pleasures  of  youth.’— Steele.  Men 
are  not  so  ready  to  renounce  the  pleasures  that  are 
within  their  reach,  as  to  seek  after  those  which  are  out 
of  their  reach ; ‘ For  ministers  to  be  silent  in  the  cause 
of  Christ  is  to  renounce  it,  and  to  fly  is  to  desert  it.’— 
South.  The  abdication  of  a throne  is  not  always  an 
act  of  magnanimity,  it  may  frequently  result  from 
caprice  or  necessity;  ‘Much  gratitude  is  due  to  the  nine 
from  their  favoured  poets,  and  much  hath  been  paid : for 
even  to  the  present  hour  they  are  invoked  and  wor- 
shipped by  the  sons  of  verse,  while  all  the  other  deities 
of  Olympus  have  either  abdicated  their  thrones,  or  been 
dismissed  from  them  with  contempt.’ — Cumberland. 

Charles  the  Fifth  abdicated  his  crown,  and  his 
minister  resigned  his  office  on  the  very  same  day, 
when  both  renounced  the  world  with  its  allurements 
and  its  troubles. 

We  abandon  nothing  but  that  over  which  we  have 
had  an  entire  and  lawful  control ; we  abdicate  nothing 
but  that  which  we  have  held  by  a certain  right;  but  we 
may  resign  or  renounce  that  which  may  be  in  our  pos- 
session only  by  an  act  of  violence.  A usurper  cannot 
abandon  his  people,  because  he  has  no  people  over 
whom  he  can  exert  a lawful  authority ; still  less  can  he 
abdicate  a throne,  because  he  has  no  throne  to  abdicate^ 
but  he  may  resign  supreme  power,  because  power  may 
be  unjustly  held;  or  he  may  renounce  his  pretensions 
to  a throne,  because  pretensions  may  be  fallacious  or 
extravagant. 

Abandon  and  resign  are  likewise  used  in  a reflective 
sense ; the  former  to  express  an  involuntary  or  culpable 
action,  the  latter  that  which  is  voluntary  and  proper. 
The  soldiers  of  Hannibal  abandoned  themselves  to 
effeminacy  during  their  winter  quarters  at  Cumae; 

‘ It  is  the  part  of  every  good  man’s  religion  to  resign 
himself  to  God’s  will.’— Cumberland. 

TO  ABSTAIN,  FORBEAR,  REFRAIN. 

Abstain,  in  French  abstenir,  Latin  ahstineo,  is  com- 
pounded of  ab  or  abs  from  and  teneo  to  keep,  signifying 
to  keep  one’s  self  from  a thins,',  forbear  is  compounded 
of  the  preposition  for,  or  from,  and  the  verb  to  bear  or 
carry,  signifying  to  carry  or  take  one’s  self  from  a thing; 
refrain,  in  French  refriner,  Latin  refierno,  is  com- 
pounded of  re  back  and  freeno,  from  freenum  a bridle, 
signifying  to  keep  back  as  it  were  by  a bridle,  to 
bridle  in. 

The  first  of  these  terms  marks  the  leaving  a thins, 
and  the  two  others  the  omission  of  an  action.  We 
abstain  from  any  object  by  not  making  use  of  it ; we 
forbear  to  do  or  refrain  from  doing  a thing  by  not 
taking  any  part  in  it. 

Abstaining  nnd  forhean-ing  are  outward  actions,  but 
refraining  Is  connected  with  the  operations  of  the 
mind.  We  may  abstain  from  the  thing  we  desire,  or 
forbear  to  do  the  thing  which  we  wish  to  do;  but  we 
can  never  refrain  from  any  action  without  in  some 
measure  losing  our  desire  to  do  it. 

We  abstain  from  whatever  concerns  our  food  and 
clothing ; we  forbear  to  do  what  we  may  have  parti- 


cular motives  for  doing;  refrain  from  what  we  desire 
to  do,  or  have  been  in  the  habits  of  doing. 

It  is  a part  of  the  Mahometan  faith  to  abstain  from 
the  use  of  wine;  but  it  is  a Christian  duty  to  forbear 
doing  an  injury  even  in  return  for  an  injury ; and  to 
refrain  from  all  swearing  and  evil  speaking. 

Abstinence  is  a virtue  when  we  abstain  from  that 
which  may  be  hurtful  to  ourselves  or  injurious  to 
another;  ‘Though  a man  cannot  abstain  from  being 
weak,  he  may  from  being  vicious.’ — Addison.  For- 
bearance is  essential  th  preserve  peace  and  gooa  wil! 
betw'een  man  and  man.  Every  one  is  too  liable  to 
offend,  not  to  have  motives  for  forbearing  to  deal 
harshly  with  the  offences  of  his  neighbour  ; ‘ By  for- 
bearing to  do  what  may  be  innocently  done,  wc  may 
add  hourly  new  vigour  and  resolution,  and  secure  the 
power  of  resistance  when  pleasure  or  interest  shall  lend 
their  charms  to  guilt.’ — Johnson.  If  we  refrain  from 
uttering  with  the  lips  the  first  dictates  of  an  angry  mind, 
we  shall  be  saved  much  repentance  in  future  ; ‘If  we 
conceive  a being,  created  with  all  his  faculties  and 
senses,  to  open  his  eyes  in  a most  delightful  plain,  to 
view  for  the  first  time  the  serenity  of  the  sky,  the 
splendour  of  the  sun,  the  verdure  of  the  fields  and 
woods,  the  glowing  colours  of  the  flowers,  we  can 
hardly  believe  it  possible  that  he  should  refrain  from 
bursting  into  an  ecstacy  of  joy,  and  pouring  out  his 
praises  to  the  Creator  of  those  wonders.’ — Sir  Wil 
Li.AM  Jones. 

ABSTINENT,  SOBER,  ABSTEMIOUS,  TEM 
PERATE. 

The  first  of  these  terms  is  generick,  the  rest  specifick ; 
Abstinent  (v.  To  abstain)  respects  every  thing  that 
acts  on  the  senses,  and  in  a limited  sense  applies  parti- 
cularly to  solid  food ; sober,,  from  the  Latin  sobrius  or 
sebrius,  that  is,  sine  ebrius,  not  drunk,  implies  an 
abstinence  from  excessive  drinking;  abstemious,  from 
the  Latin  abstemius,  compounded  of  abs  and  tenietum 
wine,  implies  the  abstaining  from  wine  or  strong  liquor 
in  general ; temperate,  in  Latin  temperatus,  participle 
of  tempero  to  moderate  or  regulate,  implies  a well  regu 
la-ted  abstinence  in  all  manner  of  sensual  indulgence. 

We  may  be  abstinent  without  being  sober,  sobet 
without  being  abstemious,  and  all  together  without 
being  temperate. 

An  abstinent  man  does  not  eat  or  drink  so  much  aa 
he  could  eiijoy ; a sober  man  may  drink  much  without 
being  affected.’*’  An  abstemious  man  drinks  nothing 
strong.  A temperate  man  enjoys  all  in  a due  proportion. 

A particular  passion  may  cause  us  to  be  abstinent, 
either  partially  or  totally : sobriety  may  often  depend 
upon  the  strength  of  the  constitution,  or  be  prescribed 
by  prudence : necessity  may  dictate  abstemiousness,  but 
nothing  short  of  a well  disciplined  mind  will  enable  us 
tohe  temperate.  Diogenes  practised  the  most  rigorous 
abstinence:  some  men  have  unjustly  obtained  a ''ha- 
racter  for  sobriety,  whose  habit  of  body  has  enab.ed 
them  to  resist  the  force  of  strong  liquor  even  when 
taken  to  excess:  it  is  not  uncommon  for  persons  to 
practise  abstemiousness  to  that  degree,  as  not  to  drink 
any  thing  but  water  all  their  lives:  Cyrus  was  distin- 
guished by  his  temperance  as  his  other  virtues ; he 
shared  all  hardships  with  his  soldiers,  and  partook  of 
their  frugal  diet. 

Unlimited  abstinence  is  rather  a vice  than  a virtue, 
for  we  are  taught  to  enjoy  the  things  which  Providence 
has  set  before  us  ; ‘ To  set  the  mind  above  the  appetites 
is  the  end  of  abstinence,  which  one  of  the  fathers 
observes  to  be  not  a virtue,  but  the  groundwork  of 
virtue.’ — Johnson.  Sobriety  ought  to  be  highly 
esteemed  among  the  lower  ortlers,  where  the  abstinence 
from  vice  is  to  be  regarded  as  positive  virtue;  ‘ Cratinus 
carried  his  love  of  wine  to  such  an  excess,  that  he  got 
the  name  of  (pi'Xoaoros,  launching  out  in  praise  of 
drinking,  and  rallyins:  all  sobriety  out  of  countenance.’ 
— Cumberland.  Abstemiousness  is  sometimes  the 
only  means  of  preserving  health  ; 

The  strongest  oaths  are  straw 
To  th’  fire  i’  th’  blood  ; be  more  abstemious. 

Or  else  good  night  your  vow. — Shakspeare. 
Habitual  temperance  is  the  most  efficacious  means  of 
keeping  both  body  and  mind  in  the  most  regular  state  ; 
‘ If  we  consider  the  life  of  these  ancient  sages,  a great 

♦ Vide  Trusler : “ Sober,  temperate,  abstemious  ’ 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


245 


part  of  whose  philosophy  consisted  in  a temperate  and 
abstemious  course  of  life,  one  would  think  the  life  of  a 
philosopher  and  the  life  of  a man  were  of  two  different 
dates.’ — Addison. 

MODESTY,  MODERATION,  TEMPERANCE, 
SOBRIETY, 

ModesUj,  in  French  modestie,  Latin  modestia,  and 
moderation,  in  Latin  moderatio  and  moderor,  both  come 
from  modus  a measure,  limit,  or  boundary ; that  is, 
forming  a measure  or  rule ; temperance,  in  Latin  tempe- 
rantia,  from  tempus  time,  signifies  fixing  a time  or  term 
{v.  Abstinent) ; sobriety  {v.  Abstinent). 

Modesty  lies  in  the  mind,  and  in  the  tone  of  feeling ; 
moderation  respects  the  desires : modesty  is  a principle 
that  acts  discretionally ; moderation  is  a rule  or  line  that 
acts  as  a restraint  on  the  views  and  the  outward  con- 
duct. 

Modesty  consists  in  a fair  and  medium  estimate  of 
one’s  character  and  qualification;  it  guards  a man 
against  too  high  an  estimate ; it  recommends  to  him  an 
estimate  below  the  reality:  moderation  consists  in  a 
suitable  regulation  of  one’s  desires,  demands,  and  ex- 
pectations ; it  consequently  depends  very  often  on 
modesty  as  its  groundwork : he  who  thinks  modestly 
of  his  own  acquirements,  his  own  performances,  and 
his  own  merits,  will  be  jnoderate  in  his  expectations  of 
praise,  reward,  and  recompense : he,  on  the  other  hand, 
who  overrates  his  own  abilities  and  qualifications,  will 
equally  overrate  the  use  he  makes  of  them,  and  conse- 
quently be  immoderate  in  the  price  which  he  sets  upon 
his  services : in  such  cases,  therefore,  modesty  and 
moderation  are  to  each  other  as  cause  and  effect ; but 
there  may  be  modesty  without  moderation,  and  modera- 
tion without  modesty.  Modesty  is  a sentiment  confined 
to  one’s  self  as  the  object,  and  consisting  solely  of  one’s 
judgement  of  what  one  is,  and  what  one  does.  Mode- 
ration, as  is  evident  from  the  above,  extends  to  objects 
that  are  external  of  ourselves : modesty,  rather  than 
moderation,  hciongs  to  an  author;  moderation,  xothcx 
than  modesty,  belongs  to  a tradesman,  or  a man  who 
has  gains  to  make  and  purposes  to  answer;  ‘I  may 
wiodestfy  conclude,  that  whatever  errours  there  may  be 
'in  this  play,  there  are  not  those  whicli  have  been  ob- 
jected to  it.’— Dryden. 

Equally  inur’d 
By  moderation  either  state  to  bear, 

Prosperous  or  adverse. — Milton. 

Modesty  shields  a man  from  mortification  and  disap- 
pointments which  assail  the  self-conceited  man  in 
every  direction ; a modest  man  conciliates  the  esteem 
even  of  an  enemy  and  a rival ; he  disarms  the  resent- 
ments of  those  who  feel  themselves  most  injured  by  his 
superiority ; he  makes  all  pleased  with  him  by  making 
them  at  ease  with  themselves;  the  self-conceited  man, 
on  the  contrary,  sets  llie  whole  world  against  himself, 
because  he  sets  himself  against  every  body;  everyone 
is  out  of  humour  with  him,  because  he  makes  them  ill 
at  ease  with  themselves  while  in  his  company ; 

There ’s  a proud  modesty  in  merit ! — Dryden. 

JIfoderaffon  protects  a man  equally  from  injustice  on 
the  one  hand,  and  imposition  on  the  other  ; he  who  is 
moderate  himself  makes  others  so ; for  every  one  finds 
his  advantage  in  keeping  within  that  bound  which  is  as 
convenient  to  himself  as  to  his  neighbour;  the  world 
will  always  do  this  homage  to  real  goodness,  that  they 
will  admire  it  if  they  cannot  practise  it,  and  they  will 
practise  it  to  the  utmost  extent  that  their  passions  will 
allow  them.  Modesty,  as  a female  virtue,  has  regard 
solely  to  the  conduct  of  females  with  the  other  sex,  and 
is  still  more  distinguished  from  moderation  than  in  the 
former  case. 

Modcrationis  the  measure  of  one’s  desires,  one’s  ha- 
bits, one’s  actions  and  one’s  words  ; temperance  is  the 
ndaptation  of  the  time  or  season  for  particular  feelings, 
actions,  or  words  ; a man  is  said  to  be  moderate  in  his 
principles,  who  adopts  the  medium  or  middle  course  of 
thinking ; it  rather  qualifies  the  thing  than  the  person : 
he  is  said  to  be  temperate  in  his  anger,  if  he  do  not 
suffer  it  to  br^ak  out  into  any  excesses;  temperance 
characterizes  the  person  rather  than  the  thing;  ‘ These 
are  the  tenets  winch  the  moderatcst  of  the  Romanists 
will  not  venture  to  affirm.’— -Smalridge. 

fehe ’s  not  forward,  but  modest  as  the  dove, 

She 't!  not  hot,  but  temperate  a.s  the  morn. 

Shakspeare. 


A moderate  man  in  politicks  endeavours  to  steer 
clear  of  all  party  spirit,  and  is  consequently  so  temperate 
in  his  language  as  to  provoke  no  animosity ; ‘ Few 
harangues  from  the  pulpit,  except  in  the  days  of  your 
league  in  France,  or  in  the  days  of  our  solemn  league 
and  covenant  in  England,  have  ever  breathed  less  of 
the  spirit  of  moderation  than  this  lecture  in  the  Old 
Jewry.’— Burke.  ‘ Temperate  mirth  is  not  extin 
guished  by  old  .Tge.’ — Blair.  Moderationin  the  enjoy 
ment  of  every  thing  is  essential  in  order  to  obttin  the 
purest  pleasure : and  temperance,  which  absiihitely 
taken  is  habitual  moderation,  is  always  attended  with 
the  happiest  effects  to  one’s  constitution ; as,  on  the 
contrary,  any  deviation  from  temperance,  even  in  a 
single  instance,  is  always  punished  with  bodily  pain 
and  sickness. 

Temperance  and  sobriety  have  already  been  consi 
dered  in  their  proper  application,  which  will  serve  to 
illustrate  their  improper  application  {v.  Abstinent). 
Temperance  is  an  action ; it  is  the  tempering  of  our 
words  and  actions  to  the  circumstances:  sobriety  is  d. 
state  in  which  one  is  exempt  from  every  stimulus  to 
deviate  from  the  right  course ; as  a man  who  is  intoxi- 
cated with  wine  runs  into  excesses,  and  loses  that 
power  of  guiding  himself  which  he  has  when  he  is 
sober  or  free  from  all  intoxication,  so  is  he  who  is 
intoxicated  with  any  passion,  in  like  manner,  hurried 
away  into  irregularities  which  a man  in  his  right  senses 
will  not  be  guilty  of ; sobriety  is,  therefore,  the  state 
of  being  in  one’s  right  or  sober  senses  ; and  sobriety  is 
with  regard  to  temperance,  ns  a cause  to  the. effect; 
sobriety  of  mind  will  not  only  produce  moderation  and 
temperance,  but  extend  its  inffiience  to  the  whole  con- 
duct of  a man  in  every  relation  and  circumstance,  to 
his  internal  sentiments  and  his  external  behaviour: 
hence  we  speak  of  sobriety  in  one’s  mien  or  deport- 
ment, sobriety  in  one’s  dress  and  manners,  sobriety  in 
one’s  religious  opinions  and  observances ; ‘ The  vines 
give  wine  to  the  drunkard  as  well  as  to  the  sober  man.’ 
— Taylor.  ‘Another,  who  had  a great  genius  for 
tragedy,  following  the  fury  of  his  natural  temper,  made 
every  man  and  woman  in  his  plays  stark  raging  mad 
there  was  not  a sober  person  to  be  had.’ — Dryden. 
Spread  thy  close  curtains,  love-performing  night, 

Thou  soier-suiled  matron,  all  in  black. — Shakspeare. 

CHASTITY,  CONTINENCE,  MODESTY 

Chastity,  in  French  chastity,  Latin  casti  as,  comes 
from  castus  pure,  and  the  Hebrew  iJ/Tp  sacred  ; con- 
tinence, in  French  continence,  Latin  continentia,  from 
continens  and  contineo,  signifies  the  act  of  keeping 
one’s  self  within  bounds. 

These  two  terms  are  equally  employed  in  relation  to 
the  pleasures  of  sense:  both  are  virtues,  but  sufficiently 
distinct  in  their  characteristicks. 

* Chastity  prescribes  rules  for  the  indulgence  of 
these  pleasures;  continence  altogether  interdicts  their 
use.  Chastity  extend.',  its  views  to  whatever  may  bear 
the  smallest  relation  to  the  object  which  it  proposes  to 
regulate;  it  controls  the  thoaghis,  words,  looks,  atti- 
tudes, food,  dress,  company,  and  in  short  the  whole 
modeof  living:  contrwcwce  simply  confines  itself  to  the 
privations  of  the  pleasures  themselves:  it  is  possible, 
therefore,  to  be  chaste  w'ithout  being  continent,  and 
continent  without  being  chaste. 

Chastity  is  suited  to  all  times,  ages,  and  conditions ; 
continence  belongs  only  to  a state  of  celibacy : the 
Christian  religion  enjoins  chastity,  as  a positive  duty 
on  all  its  followers;  the  Romish  religion  enjoins  conti- 
nence ox\  its  clerical  members;  old  age  renders  men 
continent,  although  it  seldom  makes  them  chaste: 

It  fails  me  here  to  write  of  chastity. 

That  fairest  virtue  far  above  the  rest.- -Spenser 

‘When  Pythagoras  enjoined  on  his  disciples  an  absti- 
nence from  beans,  it  has  been  thought  by  some  an  in- 
junctiononlyofceirtmcjicy  —Brown  {Vulgar  Errers) 

Chastity  and  continence  have  special  regard  to  the 
outward  conduct , modesty  goes  farther,  it  is  an  habi 
tual  frame  of  mind,  which  prescribes  a limit  to  all  the 
desires.  When  modesty  shows  itself  by  an  external 
sign,  it  is  to  be  seen  mostly  in  the  behaviour ; hwichasuty 
shows  itself  more  commonly  in  the  conduct  IVe 

* Beauz^e  ; “ Chastity,  continence.  ” 


246 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


speak  of  a w.jde it  blush,  not  of  achaste  blush.  When 
the  term  chastity  is  applied  to  the  mind  it  denotes  a 
chastened  mind,  or  a chastened  tone  of  teeling,  which 
has  been  evidently  acquired  ; but  modesty  results  from 
the  natural  character,  or  from  early  formed  liabits. 
Modesty  is  the  peculiar  characteristick  of  a virtuous 
female,  and  is  the  safeguard  of  virtue.  When  a 
woman  has  laid  aside  her  modesty^  she  will  not  long 
retain  her  chastity;  ‘Of  the  general  character  of 
women,  which  is  modesty^  he  has  taken  a most  beco- 
ming care : for  his  amorous  expressions  go  no  farther 
than  virtue  may  allow.’ — Drvden. 


MODERATION,  MEDIOCRITY. 

Moderation  (v.  Modesti  ] is  the  characteristick  of 
the  person  ; mediocrity^  implying  the  mean  or  medium, 
characterizes  the  condition : moderation  is  a virtue  of 
lo  small  importancefor  beings  who  find  excess  in  every 
thing  to  be  an  evil; 

Such  moderation.vi'Mh  thy  bounty  join. 

That  thou  may’st  nothing  give  that  is  not  thine. 

Denham. 

Mediocrity  in  external  circumstances  is  exempt  from 
all  the  evils  which  attend  either  poverty  or  riches ; 

Mediocrity  only  of  enjoyment  is  allowed  to  man.’ — 
Blair. 

MEAN,  MEDIUM. 

Mean  is  but  a contraction  of  medium^  which  sig- 
nifies in  Latin  the  middle  path.  The  term  mean  is  used 
abstractedly  in  all  speculative  matters:  there  is  a 
mean  in  opinions  between  the  two  extremes ; this 
mean  is  doubtless  the  point  nearest  to  truth,  and  has 
jeen  denominated  the  golden  jiiean,  from  its  supposed 
e.xcellence ; 

The  man  within  the  golden  mean, 

Who  can  his  boldest  wish  contain, 

Securely  views  the  ruin’d  cell 
Where  sordid  want  and  sorrow  dwell. 

Francis. 

Medium  is  employed  in  practical  matters;  computa- 
tions are  often  erroneous  from  being  too  high  or  too 
low  : the  medium  is  in  this  case  the  one  most  to  be 
preferred.  The  moralist  will  always  recommend  the 
mean  in  all  opinions  that  widely  differ  from  each  other: 
our  passions  always  recommend  to  us  some  extrava- 
gant conduct  either  of  insolent  resistance  or  mean 
compliance  ; but  discretion  recommends  the  medium 
or  middle  course  in  such  matters.  This  term  is  how- 
sver  mostly  used  to  denote  any  intervening  object, 
which  may  serve  as  a middle  point;  ‘He  who  looks 
upon  the  soul  through  its  outward  actions,  often  sees 
it  through  a deceitful  medium.’’ — Addison. 


BECOMING,  DECENT,  SEEMLY,  FIT,  SUITA- 
BLE. 

Becoming,  from  become,  compounded  of  be  and 
come,  signifies  coming  in  its  place ; decent,  in  French 
decent,  in  Latin  decens,  participle  of  deceo,  from  the 
Greek  and  the  Chaldee  to  beseem,  signifies 
the  quality  of  beseeming  and  befitting ; seemly,  com- 
pounded of  seem  to  appear,  and  ly  or  like,  signifies 
likely  or  pleasant  in  appearance;  fit  and  suitable  are 
explained  under  the  article  Fit. 

What  is  becoming  rjspects  the  manner  of  being  in 
society,  such  as  it  ought  to  be,  as  to  person,  time,  and 
place.  Decency  regards  the  manner  of  displaying 
one’s  self,  so  as  to  be  approved  and  respected.  Seem- 
liness is  very  similar  in  sense  to  decency:  but  its  ap- 
plication is  confined  only  to  such  things  as  immediately 
strike  the  observer.  Fitness  and  suitableness  relate 
.o  the  disposition,  arrangement,  and  order  of  either 
being  or  doing,  according  to  persons,  things,  or  circum- 
stances. 

The  becoming  consists  of  an  exteriour  that  is  pleas- 
ing to  the  view  : decency  involves  moral  propriety  ; it 
is  regulated  by  the  fixed  rules  of  good  breeding: 
seemliness  is  decency  in  the  minor  morals,  or  iti  our 
behaviour  to  or  in  the  presence  of  others  : fitness  is 
regulated  by  local  circumstances,  and  siiitableness  by 
the  established  customs  and  usages  of  society.  The 
dress  of  a woman  is  becoming  when  it  renders  her  per- 
son more  agreeable  to  the  eye;  it  is  decent  if  it  in  no 


wise  offend  modesty  ; it  is  unseemly  if  in  any  legre* 
however  trivial,  it  violates  decorum ; it  is  fit  if  it  be 
what  the  occasion  requires ; it  is  suitable  if  it  be  ac- 
cording to  the  rank  and  character  of  the  wearer.  What 
is  becoming  varies  for  every  individual ; the  age,  the 
complexion,  the  stature,  and  the  habits  of  the  peison 
must  be  consulted  in  order  to  obtain  the  appearence 
which  is  becoming ; what  becomes  a young  female,  oi 
one  of  fair  complexion,  may  not  become  one  who  is 
farther  advanced  in  life,  or  who  has  dark  features : 
decency  and  seemliness  are  one  and  the  same  for  all ; 
all  civilized  nations  have  drawn  the  exact  line  between 
the  decent  and  indecent,  although  fashion  may  some 
times  draw  females  aside  from  this  line,  and  cause  them 
to  be  unseemly  if  not  expressly  indecent : fitness  varies 
with  the  seasons,  or  the  circumstances  of  persons, 
what  is  fit  for  the  winter  is  unfit  for  the  summer,  o; 
what  is  fit  for  dry  weather  is  unfit  for  the  wet ; what 
is  fit  for  town  is  not  fit  for  the  country , w'hat  is  fit 
for  a healthy  person  is  not  fit  for  one  that  is  infirm  : 
suitableness  accommodates  itself  to  the  external  cir- 
cumstances and  conditions  of  persons ; the  house,  the 
furniture,  and  equipage  of  a prince,  must  be  suitable 
to  his  rank ; the  retinue  of  an  ambassador  must  bf 
suitable  to  the  character  which  he  has  to  maintain, 
and  to  the  wealth,  dignity,  and  importance  of  tht 
nation,  whose  monarch  lie  represents ; ‘ Raphael, 
amid  his  tenderness  and  friendship  for  man,  shows 
such  a dignity  and  condescension  in  all  his  speech  and 
behaviour,  as  are  suitable  to  a superiour  nature.’ — Ad- 
dison. 

Gravity  becomes  a judge,  or  a clergyman,  at  all 
times:  an  unassuming  tone  is  becoming  in  a child 
when  he  addresses  his  superiours;  ‘Nothing  ought  to 
be  lield  laudable  or  becoming,  but  what  nature  itself 
should  prompt  us  to  think  so.’— Steele.  Decency 
requires  a more  than  ordinary  gravity  when  we  are  in 
the  house  of  mourning  or  prayer;  it  is  indecent  for  a 
child  on  the  commission  of  a fault  to  affect  a careless 
unconcern  in  the  presence  of  those  whom  he  has 
offended;  ‘A  Gothick  bishop,  perhaps,  thought  it 
proper  to  repeat  such  a form  in  such  particular  shoes 
or  slippers;  another  fancied  it  would  be  very  decent 
if  such  a part  of  publick  devotions  was  performed  with 
a mitre  on  his  head.’ — Addison.  Seemliness  is  an 
essential  part  of  good  manners ; to  be  loud  in  one’? 
discourse,  to  use  expressions  not  authorized  in  culti- 
vated society,  or  to  discover  a capiirtus  or  tenacioui 
temper  in  one’s  social  intercourse  with  others  are  mh 
seemly  things ; 

I am  a woman  lacking  wit 
To  make  a seemly  answer  to  such  persons. 

Shakspeare. 

There  is  a fitness  or  unfitness  in  persons  for  each 
other’s  society  : education  fits  a person  for  the  society 
of  the  noble,  the  wealthy,  the  polite,  and  the  learned. 
There  is  also  a fitness  of  things  for  persons  according 
to  their  circumstances ; ‘ To  the  wiser  judgement  of 
God  it  must  be  left  to  determine  what  is  fit  to  be  be- 
stowed, and  what  to  be  withheld.’ — Blair.  There  is 
a suitableness  in  people’s  tempers  for  each  other ; such 
a suitability  is  particularly  requisite  for  those  who  are 
destined  to  live  together:  selfish  people,  with  opposite 
taste  and  habits,  can  never  be  switaiic  companions; 
‘ He  creates  those  sympathies  and  suitableness  of  na 
ture  that  are  the  foundation  of  all  true  friendship,  and 
by  his  providence  brings  persons  so  affected  together  ’ 
— South. 


DECENCY,  DECORUM. 

Though  decency  and  decorum  are  both  derived  from 
the  same  word  (w.  Becoming),  they  have  acquired  a 
distinction  in  their  sense  and  application.  Decency 
respects  a man’s  conduct;  decorum  his  behaviour:  a 
person  conducts  himself  with  decency ; he  behaves 
with  decorum. 

Indecency  is  a vice;  it  is  the  violation  of  publick  or 
private  morals:  indecorum  is  a fault;  it  offends  the 
feelings  of  those  who  witness  it.  Nothing  but  a de- 
praved mind  can  lead  to  mdemit  pr.actices:  indiscre- 
tion and  thoughtlessness  may  sometimes  give  rise  tc 
that  which  is  indecorous.  Decency  enjoins  upon  ali 
relatives,  according  to  the  proximity  of  their  relation- 
ship, to  show  certain  marks  of  respect  to  the  memory 
of  the  dead:  ‘Even  religion  Itself,  unless  decency  be 
the  handmaid  which  waits  upon  her,  is  apt  to  maks 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


24^ 


people  appear  guilty  of  sourness  and  ill-humour.’ — 
Spectator.  Regard  for  the  feelings  of  others  en- 
joins a certain  outward  decorum  upon  every  one  who 
attends  a funeral ; ‘ I will  admit  that  a fine  woman  of 
a certain  rank  cannot  have  too  many  real  vices  ; but 
at  the  same  time  I do  insist  upon  it,  that  it  is  essen- 
tially her  interest  not  to  have  the  appearance  of  any 
one.  This  decorum,  I confess,  will  conceal  her  con- 
quests: but  on  the  other  hand,  if  she  will  be  pleased 
to  reflect  that  those  conquests  are  known  sooner  or 
later,  she  will  not  upon  an  average  find  herself  a 
loser.’ — Chesterfield. 

IMMODEST,  IMPUDENT,  SHAMELESS. 

Immodest  signifies  the  want  of  modesty  ; impudent 
and  shameless  signify  without  shame. 

The  immodest  is  less  than  either  the  impudent  or 
shameless : an  immodest  girl  lays  aside  the  ornament 
of  her  sex,  and  puts  on  another  garb  that  is  less  becom- 
ing ; but  her  heart  need  not  be  corrupt  until  she  be- 
comes impudent : she  wants  a good  quality  when  she 
is  immodest ; she  is  possessed  of  a positively  bad  qua- 
lity when  she  is  impudent.  There  is  always  hope  that 
an  immodest  woman  may  be  sensible  of  her  errour,  and 
amend ; but  of  an  impudent  woman  there  is  no  such 
chance,  she  is  radically  corrupt ; ‘ Musick  difliiscs  a 
calm  all  around  us,  and  makes  us  drop  all  those  immo- 
dest thoughts  which  would  be  a hindrance  to  us  in  the 
performance  of  the  great  duty  of  thanksgiving.’ — 
Spectator.  ‘ I am  at  once  equally  fearful  of  sparing 
you,  and  of  being  too  impudent  a corrector.’ — Pope. 

Impudent  may  characterize  the  person  or  the  thing: 
shameless  characterizes  the  person.  A person’s  air, 
look,  and  words,  are  impudent,  when  contrary  to  all 
modesty : the  person  himself  is  shameless  who  is  de- 
void of  all  sense  of  shame; 

The  sole  remorse  his  greedy  heart  can  feel 
Is  if  one  life  escapes  his  murdering  steel ; 
Shameless  Ity  force  or  fraud  to  work  his  way, 

And  no  less  prompt  to  flatter  than  betray. 

Cumberland. 

INDECENT,  IMMODEST,  INDELICATE. 

^decent  is  the  contrary  of  decent  (v.  Becoming),  im- 
modest the  contrary  of  modest  {v.  Modest),  indelicate 
the  contrary  of  delicate  (v.  Fine). 

Indecency  and  immodesty  violate  the  fundamental 
principles  of  morality : the  former  however  in  external 
matters,  as  dress,  words,  and  looks  ; the  latter  in  con- 
duct and  disposition.  A person  may  be  indecent  for 
want  of  either  knowing  or  thinking  better ; but  a female 
cannot  be  habitually  immodest  without  radical  cor- 
ruption of  principle.  Indecency  may  be  a partial,  im- 
modesty is  a positive  and  entire  breach  of  the  moral 
law.  Indecency  belongs  to  both  sexes ; immodesty  is 
peculiarly  applicable  to  the  misconduct  of  females ; 
‘The  Dubistan  contains  more  ingenuity  and  wit,  more 
indecency  and  blasphemy,  than  I ever  saw  collected  in 
one  single  volume.’— Sir  Wm.  Jones. 

Immodest  words  admit  of  no  defence. 

For  want  of  decency  is  want  of  sense. 

Roscommon. 

Indecency  is  less  than  immodesty,  but  more  than  in- 
delicacy: they  both  respect  the  outward  behaviour; 
but  the  former  springs  from  illicit  or  uncurbed  desire  ; 
indelicacy  from  the  want  of  education.  It  is  a great 
indecency  for  a man  to  marry  again  very  quickly  after 
the  death  of  his  wife;  but  a still  greater  indecency  for 
a woman  to  put  such  an  aflTront  on  her  deceased  hus- 
band: it  is  a great  indelicacy  in  any  one  to  break  in 
upon  the  retirpnent  of  such  as  are  in  sorrow  and 
mourning.  It  is  indecent  for  females  to  expose  their 
persons  as  many  do  whom  we  canhot  call  immodest 
women ; it  is  indelicate  for  females  to  engage  in  mas- 
culine exercises;  ‘Your  papers  would  be  chargeable 
with  something  worse  than  indelicacy,  did  you  treat 
the  detestable  sin  of  uncleanness  in  the  same  manner 
as  you  rally  self-love.’— Spectator. 

TO  ABJURE,  RECANT,  RETRACT,  REVOKE. 

RECALL. 

Mjure,  in  Latin  abjuro,  is  compounded  of  the  pri 
vauve  ab  and  juro  to  swear,  signifying  to  swear  to  the 


contrary  or  give  up  with  an  oath ; recant,  in  Latin 
recanto,  is  compounded  of  the  privative  re  and  canto 
to  sing  or  declare,  signifying  to  unsay,  to  contradict  by 
a counter  declaration  ; retract,  in  Latin  retractus,  par- 
ticiple of  retraho,  is  compounded  of  re  back  and  traho 
to  draw,  signifying  to  draw  back  what  has  been  let 
go ; revoke  and  recall  have  the  same  original  sense 
as  recant,  with  this  difference  only,  that  the  word 
call,  which  is  expressed  also  by  voke,  or  in  Latin  voco 
implies  an  action  more  suited  to  a multitude  than  the 
word  canto  to  sing,  which  may  pass  in  solitude. 

We  abjure  a religion,  we  recant  a doctrine,  we  re- 
tract a promise,  we  revoke  a command,  we  recall  an 
expression. 

What  has  been  solemnly  professed  is  renounced  bv 
abjuration ; 

The  pontiff  saw  Britannia’s  golden  fleece. 

Once  all  his  own,  invest  her  worthier  sons  ! 

Her  verdant  valleys,  and  her  fertile  plains. 

Yellow  with  grain,  abjure  his  hateful  sway. 

Shenstone 

What  has  been  publickly  maintained  as  a settled 
point  of  belief  is  given  up  by  recanting;  ‘A  false 
satire  ought  to  be  recanted  for  the  sake  of  him  whose 
reputation  may  be  injured.’ — Johnson.  What  has 
been  pledged  so  as  to  gain  credit  is  contradicted  by  re- 
tracting;  ‘When  any  scholar  will  convince  me  that 
these  were  futile  and  malicious  tales  against  Socra- 
tes, I will  retract  all  credit  in  them,  and  thank  him 
for  the  conviction.’ — Cumberland.  What  has  been 
pronounced  by  an  act  of  authority  is  rendered  null 
by  revocation  } ‘ What  reason  is  there,  but  that  those 
grants  and  privileges  should  be  revoked  or  reduced  to 
their  first  intention.’ — Spenser.  What  has  been  mis 
spoken  through  inadvertence  or  mistake  is  rectified  by 
recalling  the  words ; 

’T  is  done,  and  since ’t  is  done ’t  is  past  recall, 
And  since ’t  is  past  recall  must  be  forgotten. 

Dryden 

Although  Archbishop  Cranmer  recanted  the  princi 
pies  of  the  reformation,  yet  he  soon  after  recalled  his 
words,  and  died  boldly  for  his  faith.  Henry  IV.  of 
France  abjured  Calvinism,  but  he  did  not  retract  the 
promise  which  he  had  made  to  the  Calvinists  of  his 
protection.  Louis  XIV.  drove  many  of  his  best  sub- 
jects from  France  by  revoking  the  edict  of  Nantes. 

Interest  but  too  often  leads  men  to  abjure  their 
faith  ; the  fear  of  shame  or  punishment  leads  them  to 
recant  their  opinions  ; the  want  of  principle  dictates 
the  retracting  of  one’s  promise  ; instability  is  the  or- 
dinary cause  for  revoking  decrees ; a love  of  preci- 
sion commonly  induces  a speaker  or  writer  to  recall 
a false  expression. 

TO  ABOLISH,  ABROGATE,  REPEAL, 
REVOKE,  ANNUL,  CANCEL. 

Abolish,  in  French  abolir,  Latin  aboleo,  is  com- 
pounded of  ab  and  oleo  to  lose  the  smell,  signifying 
to  lose  every  trace  of  former  existence ; abrogate,  in 
French  abroger,  Latin  abrogatus,  participle  of  abro- 
go,  compounded  of  ab  and  rogo  to  ask,  signifies  lite- 
rally to  ask  away,  or  to  ask  that  a thing  may  be  done 
away  ; in  allusion  to  the  custom  of  the  Romans, 
among  whom  no  law  was  valid  unless  the  consent  of 
the  people  xvas  obtained  by  asking,  and  in  like  manner 
no  law  was  unmade  without  asking  their  consent ; 
repeal,  in  French  rappeler,  from  the  Latin  words  re 
and  appello,  signifies  literally  to  call  back  or  unsay 
what  has  been  said,  which  is  in  like  manner  the  ori- 
ginal meaning  of  revoke ; annul,  in  French  annuller, 
comes  from  nulle,  in  Latin  nihil,  signifying  to  reduce 
to  nothing  ; cancel,  in  French  canceller,  comes  from 
the  Latin  cancello  to  cut  crosswise,  signifying  to 
strike  out  crosswise,  that  is,  to  cross  out. 

Abolish  is  a more  gradual  proceeding  than  abrogate 
or  any  of  the  other  actions.  Disuse  abolishes ; a posi- 
tive interference  is  necessary  to  abrogate.  The  for- 
mer is  emp’oyed  with  regard  to  customs  : the  latter 
with  regard  to  the  authorized  transacti«ns  of  man- 
kind ; ‘ The  long-continued  wars  between  the  English 
and  the  Scots,  had  then  raised  invincible  jealousies 
and  hate,  whica  long-continued  peace  hath  since  abol- 
ished.^—Sin  John  Hayward.  ‘ Solon  abrogated  all 
Draco’s  sanguinary  laws,  except  those  that  affected 
murder.’— Cumberland. 


248 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


Lh\\  ? are  repealed  of  abrogated ; but  the  former  of 
these  teriris  is  mostly  in  modern  use,  the  latter  is  ap- 
plied to  the  proceedings  of  the  ancients.  Edicts  are 
revoked.  Official  proceedings,  contracts,  &c.  are  an- 
nulled. Deeds,  bonds,  obligations,  debts,  &c.  are 
cancelled. 

The  introduction  of  new  customs  will  cause  the 
abolition  of  the  old.  ‘ On  the  parliament’s  part  it  was 
proposed  that  all  the  bishops,  deans,  and  chapters 
might  be  immediately  taken  away  and  abolished.' — 
Clarendon.  None  can  repeal.,  but  those  that  have 
the  power  to  make  laws;  ‘If  the  Presbyterians  should 
obtain  their  ends,  I could  not  be  sorry  to  find  them 
mistaken  in  the  point  which  they  have  most  at  heart, 
by  the  repeal  of  the  test;  I mean  the  benefit  of  em- 
ployments.’— Swift.  The  revocation  of  any  edict  is 
the  individual  act  of  one  who  has  the  power  to  pub- 
lish it;  ‘When  we  abrogate  a law  as  being  ill  made, 
the  whole  cause  for  which  it  has  been  made  still  re- 
maining, do  we  not  herein  revoke  our  own  deed,  and 
upbraid  ourselves  with  folly  I’ — Hooker.  To  annul 
may  be  the  act  of  superiour  authority,  or  an  agree- 
ment between  the  parlies  from  whom  the  act  ema- 
nated; a reciprocal  obligation  is  annulled  by  the  mu- 
tual consent  of  those  who  have  imposed  it  on  each 
other;  but  if  the  obligation  be  an  authoritative  act,  the 
annulment  must  be  so  too; 

I will  annul 

By  the  high  power  with  which  the  laws  invest  me. 

Those  guilty  forms  in  which  you  have  entrapp’d. 

Basely  entrapp’d,  to  thy  detested  nuptials. 

My  queen  betroth’d. — Thomson 
To  cancel  is  the  act  of  an  individual  towards  another 
on  whom  he  has  a legal  demand ; an  obligation  may 
be  cancelled,  either  by  a resignation  of  right  on  the 
part  of  the  one  to  whom  it  belonged,  or  a satisfaction 
of  the  demand  on  the  part  of  the  obliged  person ; 

This  hour  makes  friendships  which  he  breaks  the 
next. 

And  every  breach  supplies  a vile  prete.\t. 

Basely  to  cancel  all  concessions  past. 

If  in  a thousand  you  deny  the  last. 

Cumberland. 

A change  of  taste,  aided  by  political  circumstances, 
has  caused  the  abolition  of  justs  and  tournaments  and 
other  military  sports  in  Europe.  The  Roman  people 
sometimes  abrogated  from  party  spirit  what  the  magis- 
trates enacted  for  the  good  of  the  njpublick  ; the  same 
restless  temper  would  lead  many  to  wish  for  the  repeal 
of  the  most  salutary  acts  of  our  parliament. 

Caprice,  which  has  often  dictated  the  proclamation 
of  a decree  in  arbitrary  governments,  has  occasioned 
Is  revocation  after  a short  interval. 

It  is  sometimes  prudent  to  annul  proceedings  which 
have  been  decided  upon  hastily. 

A generous  man  may  be  willing  to  cancel  a debt; 
but  a grateful  man  preserves  the  debt  in  his  mind,  and 
will  never  suffer  it  to  be  cancelled. 


TO  BLOT  OUT,  EXPUNGE,  RASE  OR  ERASE, 
EFFACE,  CANCEL,  OBLITERATE. 

Blot  is  in  all  probability  a variation  of  spot,  signify- 
ing to  cover  over  with  a blot;  expunge,  in  Latin  ex- 
pungo,  compounded  of  ex  and  pungo  to  prick,  signifies 
to  put  out  by  pricking  with  the  pen  ; erase,  comes  from 
the  Latin  erasus,  participle  of  erado,  that  is,  e and  rado 
to  scratch  out;  efface,  in  French  effacer,  compounded 
of  the  Latin  e and  facio  to  make,  signifies  literally  to 
make  or  put  out;  cancel,  in  French  canceller,  Latin 
cancello,  from  cancelli  lattice-work,  signifies  to  strike 
out  with  cross  lines;  obliterate,  in  Latin  obliteratus, 
participle  of  oblitero,  compounded  of  ob  and  liter  a, 
signifies  to  cover  over  letters. 

All  these  terms  obviously  refer  to  characters  that  are 
impressed  on  bodies  ; the  first  three  apply  in  the  proper 
sense  only  to  that  which  is  written  with  the  hand,  and 
bespeak  the  manner  in  which  the  action  is  performed. 
Letters  are  blotted  out,  so  that  they  cannot  be  seen 
again;  they  are  expunged,  so  as  to  signify  that  they 
cannot  stand  for  anything;  they  are  erased,  so  that 
the  space  may  be  reoccupied  with  writing.  The  last 
three  are  extended  in  their  application  to  other  cha- 
•acters  formed  on  other  substances:  efface  is  general, 


and  does  not  designate  either  the  manner  or  the  ot> 
jeef.  inscriptions  on  stone  may  be  cj^aced,  which  are 
rubbed  oft'  so  as  not  to  be  visible  : cancel  is  principally 
confined  to  written  or  printed  characters ; they  are 
cancelled  by  striking  through  them  with  the  pen  ; in 
this  manner,  leaves  or  pages  of  a book  are  cancelled 
which  are  no  longer  to  be  u«ed  as  a part  of  a work; 
obliterate  is  said  of  all  characters,  but  without  defining 
the  mode  in  which  they  are  put  out;  letters  are  obli- 
terated, which  are  in  any  way  made  illegible. 

Efface  applies  to  images,  or  the  representations  of 
things;  in  this  manner  the  likeness  of  a person  may 
be  effaced  from  a statue;  cancel  respects  the  subject 
which  is  written  or  printed ; obliterate  respects  the 
single  letters  which  constitute  words. 

Effacing  is  the  consequence  of  some  direct  aoion 
on  the  thing  which  is  effaced ; in  this  manner  writing 
may  be  effaced  from  a wall  by  the  action  of  the  ele- 
ments : cancel  is  the  act  of  a person,  and  always  the 
fruit  of  design:  obliterate  is  the  fruit  of  accident  and 
circumstances  in  general ; time  itself  may  obliterate 
characters  on  a wall  or  on  paper. 

The  metaphorical  use  of  these  terms  is  easily  de 
ducible  from  the  preceding  explanation  ; what  is 
figuratively  described,  as  written  in  a book,  may  be 
said  to  be  blotted;  thus  our  sins  are  blotted  out  by  the 
aioning  blood  of  Christ,  and  in  the  same  manner  things 
may  be  blotted  out  from  the  mind  or  the  recollection  ; 
‘ If  virtue  is  of  this  amiable  nature,  what  can  we  think 
of  those  who  can  look  upon  it  with  an  eye  of  hatred 
and  ill-will,  and  can  suffer  themselves,  from  their  aver- 
sion for  a party,  to  blot  out  all  the  merit  of  the  person 
who  is  engaged  in  it.’ — Addison.  When  the  contents 
of  a book  are  in  part  rejected,  they  are  aptly  described 
as  being  expunged;  in  this  manner,  the  free-thinking 
sects  expunge  every  thing  from  the  Bible  which  does 
not  suit  tlieir  purpose,  or  they  expunge  from  their  creed 
what  does  not  humour  their  passions  ; ‘ I believe  that 
any  person  who  was  of  age  to  take  a part  in  public!; 
concerns  forty  years  ago  (if  the  intermediate  space 
were  expunged  from  his  memory)  would  hardly  credit 
his  senses  when  he  should  hear  that  an  army  of  two 
hundred  thousand  men  was  kept  up  in  this  island.’ — 
Burke.  When  the  memory  is  represented  as  having 
characters  impressed,  they  are  said  to  be  erased,  when 
they  are,  as  it  w'ere,  directly  taken  out  and  occupied 
by  others  ; in  this  manner,  the  recollection  of  what  s 
child  has  learned  is  easily  erased  by  play;  and  with 
equal  propriety  sorrows  may  be  said  to  e'fface  the  re- 
collection of  a person’s  image  from  the  mind  ; 

Yet  the  best  blood  by  learning  is  refin’d. 

And  virtue  arms  the  solid  mind  ; 

While  vice  will  stain  the  noblest  race. 

And  the  paternal  stamp  efface. — Oldis worth 

From  the  idea  of  striking  out  or  cancelling  a debt  ii 
an  account  book,  a debt  of  gratitude,  or  an  obligation 
is  said  to  be  cancelled; 

Yet  these  are  they  the  world  pronounces  wise  ; 

The  world,  which  cancels  nature’s  right  and  wrong, 

And  new  casts  wisdom. — Young. 

As  the  lineaments  of  the  face  correspond  to  written 
characters,  we  may  say  that  all  traces  of  his  former 
greatness  are  obliterated;  ‘The  transferring  of  the 
scene  from  Sicily  to  the  Court  of  King  Arthur,  must 
have  had  a very  pleasing  effect,  before  the  fabulous 
majesty  of  that  court  was  quite  obliterated.'— Ilyb 

WHITT. 


FORSAKEN,  FORLORN,  DESTITUTE 
To  be  forsaken,  (v.  To  abandon)  is  to  be  deprived 
of  the  company  and  assistance  of  others  ; to  be  forlorn, 
from  the  German  verlohren  lost,  is  to  be  forsaken  in 
time  of  difficulty,  to  be  withouta  guide  in  an  unknown 
road  ; to  be  destitute,{xom  the  Latin  destitutus,  is  to  b« 
deprived  of  the  first  necessaries  of  life. 

To  be  forsaken  is  a partial  situation  ; to  he  forlorn 
and  destitute  are  permanent  conditions.  We  .may  bs 
forsaken  by  a fellovv'-traveller  on  the  road;  we  an 
forlorn  when  we  get  into  a deserted  path,  with  no  ont 
to  direct  us ; we  are  destitute  when  we  have  no  mean 
of  subsistence,  nor  the  prospect  of  obtaining  the  means 
It  is  [)articularly  painful  to  he  forsaken  by  the  friend  o 
our  youth,  and  the  sharer  of  our  fortunes  • 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  £4S 


But  fearful  for  themselves,  my  countrymen 
Left  me  forsaken  in  the  Jyclops’  den. 

Dryden. 

The  orphan,  who  is  left  to  travel  the  road  of  life  without 
counsellor  or  friend,  is  of  all  others  in  the  most  forlorn 
condition ; ‘ Conscience  made  them  (Joseph’s  brethren) 
recollect,  tliat  they  who  had  once  been  deaf  to  the  sup- 
plications of  a brother,  were  now  left  friendless  and 
forlorn.'— BhKiK.  If  poverty  be  added  to  forlornness, 
a man’s  misery  is  aggravated  by  his  becoming  desti- 
tute; ‘Friendless  and  destitute,  Dr.  Goldsmith  was 
exposed  to  all  the  miseries  of  indigence  in  a foreign 
country.’— Johnson. 

PROFLIGATE,  ABANDONED,  REPROBATE. 

Profligate,  in  Latin  profligatus,  participle  of  profligo, 
compounded  of  the  intensive  pro  and  fligo  to  dash  or 
beat,  signifies  completely  ruined  and  lost  to  every  thing ; 
abandoned  signifies  given  up  to  one’s  lusts  and  vicious 
indulgences;  reprobate  (u.  To  reprove)  signifies  one 
tlioroughly  rejected. 

These  terms,  in  their  proper  acceptation,  expresses 
the  most  wretched  condition  of  fortune  into  which  it  is 
possible  for  any  human  being  to  be  plunged,  and  conse- 
quently in  their  improper  application  they  denote  that 
state  of  moral  desertion  and  ruin  which  cannot  be  ex- 
ceeded in  wickedness  or  depravity.  A profligate  man 
has  lost  all  by  his  vices,  consequently  to  his  vices  alone 
lie  looks  for  the  regaining  those  goods  of  fortune  wliich 
he  has  squandered ; as  he  has  nothing  to  lose,  and 
every  thing  to  gain  in  his  own  estimation,  by  pursuing 
the  career  of  his  vices,  he  surpasses  all  others  in  his 
unprincipled  conduct;  ‘Aged  wisdom  can  check  the 
most  forward;  and  abash  the  mo&l  profligate.' — Blair. 
An  abandoned  man  is  altogether  abandoned  to  his  pas- 
sions, which,  having  the  entire  sway  over  him,  natu- 
rally imiiel  him  to  every  excess;  ‘To  be  negligent  of 
what  any  one  thinks  of  you,  does  not  only  show  you  ar- 
rogant but  abandoned.' — Hughes.  TUercprobatc  man 
is  one  who  has  been  reproved  until  he  becomes  in- 
sensible to  reproof,  and  is  given  up  to  the  malignity  of 
bis  own  passions  ; 

And  here  let  those  who  boast  in  mortal  things, 

Leatn  how  their  greatest  monuments  of  fame. 

And  strength,  and  art,  are  easily  outdone 

By  reprobate  spirits. — Milton. 

The  profligate  man  is  the  greatest  enemy  to  society ; 
cLe  abandoned  man  is  a still  greater  enemy  to  himself; 
the  profligate  man  lives  upon  the  publick,  whom  he 
plunders  or  defrauds  ; the  abandoned  man  lives  for  the 
indulgence  of  his  own  unbridled  passions;  the  repro- 
bate man  is  little  better  than  an  outcast  both  by  God 
and  man;  unprincipled  debtors,  gamesters,  sharpers, 
swindlers,  and  the  like,  are  profligate  characters ; 
whoremasters,  drunkards,  spendthrifts,  seducers,  and 
debauchees  of  all  descriptions,  are  abandoned  cha- 
racters ; although  the  profligate  and  abandoned  are 
commonly  the  same  persons,  yet  the  young  are  in  ge- 
neral abandoned,  and  those  more  hackneyed  in  vice  are 
■profligate ; none  can  be  reprobate  but  those  who  have 
been  long  inured  to  profligate  courses. 


HEINOUS,  FLAGRANT,  FLAGITIOUS, 
ATROCIOUS. 

Heinous,  in  French  heinous,  Greek  cUvog  or  ^tivbg 
terrible ; flagrant,  in  Latin^a^rans  burning,  is  a figu- 
rative expression  for  what  is  excessive  and  violent  in 
its  nature;  flagitious, in  Latin  flagitiosus,  from  flagi- 
tmm  infamy,  signifies  peculiarly  infamous ; atrocious, 
in  Latin  atrox  cruel,  from  ater  black,  signifies  exceed- 
ingly black. 

These  epithets,  which  are  applied  to  crimes,  seem  to 
rise  in  degree.  A crime  is  heinous  which  seriously  of- 
fends against  the  laws  of  men  ; a sin  is  heinous  which 
seriously  offends  against  the  will  of  God  ; ‘ T^ere  are 
many  authors  who  have  shown  wherein  the  malignity 
jf  a lie  consists,  and  set  forth  in  proper  colours  the  hei- 
nousness of  the  offence.’ — Addison.  An  offence  is 
flagrant  which  iv  in  direct  defiance  of  established 
opinions  and  practice;  ‘ If  any  flagrant  deed  occur  to 
smite  a man’s  conscience,  on  this  he  cannot  avoid  rest- 
ing with  anxiety  and  terrour.’ — Blair.  An  nciis flagi- 
tious if  it  be  a gross  violation  of  the  moral  law.  or  cou- 


pled with  any  grossness ; ‘ It  is  recoided  of  Sir  Matthew 
Hale,  that  he  for  a long  time  concealed  the  consecration 
of  himself  to  the  stricter  duties  of  religion,  lest  by 
some  flagitious  action  he  should  bring  piety  into  dis- 
grace.’— Johnson.  A crime  is  atrocious  which  is  at 
tended  with  any  aggravating  circumstances ; ‘ The 
wickedness  of  a loose  or  profane  author  is  more  atro 
cious  than  that  of  the  giddy  libertine.’ — Johnson.  Lying 
is  a heinous  sin ; gaming  and  drunkenness  are  flagrant 
breaches  of  the  Divine  law;  the  murder  of  a whole 
family  is  in  the  fullest  sense  atrocious. 


BARE,  NAKED,  UNCOVERED. 

Bare,  in  Saxon  hare,  German  bar,  Hebrew 
to  lay  bare  ; naked,  in  Saxon  naced,  German  nacket  or 
nakt,  low  German  naakt,  Swedish  nakot,  Danish  no 
gen,  <Scc.  comes  from  the  Latin  nudus,  compounded  of 
ne  not,  and  dutus  or  indutus  clothed,  and  the  Greek 
to  clothe. 

Bare  marks  the  condition  of  being  without  some  ne- 
cessary appendage ; ‘ Though  the  lords  used  to  be  co- 
vered while  the  commons  were  bare,  yet  the  commons 
would  not  be  bare  before  the  Scottish  commissioners; 
and  so  none  were  covered.’ — Clarendon.  iN'aked  de- 
notes the  absence  of  an  external  covering  or  something 
essential ; bare  is  therefore  often  substituted  for  naked 
although  not  vice  versa ; we  speak  of  bareheaded, 
barefoot,  to  expose  the  bare  arm  ; but  a figure  is  said  to 
be  naked,  or  the  body  is  naked. 

When  applied  to  other  objects,  bare  conveys  the  idea 
of  want  in  general ; naked  simply  the  want  of  some- 
thing exteriour:  when  we  speak  of  sitting  upon  the 
bare  ground,  of  laying  any  place  hare,  of  bare  walls,  a 
bare  house,  the  idea  of  want  in  essentials  is  strongly 
conveyed;  but  naked  walls,  naked  fields,  n naked  ap 
pearance,  all  denote  something  wanting  to  the  eye . 
bare  in  this  sense  is  frequently  followed  by  tlie  object 
that  is  wanted;  naked  is  mostly  employed  as  an  ad 
junct : a tree  is  bare  of  leaves ; this  constitutes  it  a 
naked  tree;  ‘The  story  of  A2neas,  on  which  Virgil 
founded  his  poem,  was  very  bare  of  circumstances. 
Addison. 

Why  turn’st  thou  from  me  ? I’m  alone  already; 

Methinks  I stand  upon  a naked  beach. 

Sighing  to  winds  and  to  the  seas  conqilaining. 

Otway. 

They  preserve  the  same  analogy  in  their  figurativ€ 
application  : a bare  sufficiency  is  that  which  scarcely 
suffices;  ‘Christ  and  the  Apostles  did  most  earnestlj 
inculcate  the  belief  of  his  Godhead,  and  accepted  mer 
upon  the  bare  acknowledgement  of  this.’ — South. 
The  naked  truth  is  that  which  has  nothing  about  it  to 
intercept  the  view  of  it  from  the  mind ; 

The  truth  appeal's  so  naked  on  my  side. 

That  any  purblind  eye  may  find  it  out. 

Shakspeare. 

Sometimes  the  word  naked  may  be  applied  in  the  ex 
act  sense  of  bare  to  imply  the  want  of  some  necessarj 
addition,  when  it  expresses  the  idea  more  strongly  than 
bare;  ‘ Not  that  God  doth  require  nothing  unto  happi 
ness  at  the  hands  of  men,  saving  only  a naked  belief, 
for  hope  and  charity  we  may  not  exclude.’ — Hooker. 

iN'aked  and  uncovered  bear  a strong  resemblance  to 
each  other;  to  be  naked  is  in  fact  to  have  the  body  un 
covered,  but  many  things  are  uncovered  which  are  not 
naked : nothing  is  said  to  be  naked  but  what  in  the 
nature  of  things,  or  according  to  the  usages  of  men, 
ought  to  be  covered ; 

He  pitying  how  they  stood 
Before  him  naked  to  the  air,  that  now 
Must  suffer  change ; — 

As  father  of  his  ffimily,  he  clad 

Their  nakedness  with  skins  of  beasts. — Milton 

Every  thing  is  uncovered  from  which  the  covering  is 
removed ; ‘ In  the  eye  of  that  Supreme  Being  to  whom 
our  whole  internal  frame  is  uncovered,  dispositions 
hold  the  place  of  actions.’— Blair.  According  to  our 
natural  sentiments  of  decency,  or  our  acquired  senti- 
ments of  propriety,  we  expect  to  see  the  naked  body 
covered  with  clothing,  the  naked  tree  covered  with 
leaves;  the  wa/rerZ  walls  covered  with  papei  or  paint’ 
and  the  naked  country  covered  with  verdure  or  ha’ 
bitations:  on  the  other  hand,  plants  a.o  left  um.overe 


250 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


to  receive  the  benefit  of  the  sun  or  rain : furniture  or 
articles  of  use  or  necessity  are  left  uncovered  to  suit 
the  convenience  of  the  user : or  a person  may  be  un- 
cover edy  in  the  sense  of  bare-headed,  on  certain  occa- 
sions. 


BARE,  3JANTY,  DESTITUTE. 

Bare  («.  Bart,  naked) : scanty,  from  to  scant,  signi- 
fies the  quality  of  scanting;  scant  is  most  probably 
changed  from  the  Latin  scindo  to  clip  or  cut ; destitute, 
in  Latin  dcstitutus,  participle  of  destituo,  compounded 
of  de  privative  and  statuo  to  appoint  or  provide  for, 
signifies  unprovided  for  or  wanting. 

All  these  terms  denote  the  absence  or  deprivation  of 
some  necessary.  Bare  and  scanty  have  a relative 
sen'se : bare  respects  what  serves  for  ourselves ; scanty 
that  which  is  provided  by  others.  A subsistence  is 
bare;  a supply  is  scanty.  An  imprudent  person  will 
estimate  as  a bare  competence  what  would  supply  an 
economist  with  superfluities;  ‘Were  it  for  the  glory 
of  God,  that  the  clergy  should  be  left  as  bare  as  the 
apostles  when  they  had  neither  staff  nor  scrip,  God 
would,  I hope,  endue  them  with  the  self-same  affec- 
tion.’— Hooker.  A hungry  person  will  consider  as  a 
scanty  allowance  what  would  more  than  suffice  for  a 
moderate  eater ; ‘ So  scanty  is  our  present  allowance  of 
happiness,  that  in  many  situations  life  could  scarcely 
be  supported,  if  hope  were  not  allowed  to  relieve  the 
present  hour,  by  pleasures  borrowed  from  the  future.’ — 
Johnson. 

Bare  is  said  of  those  things  which  belong  to  the  cor- 
poreal sustenance;  destitute  is  said  of  one’s  outward 
circumstances  in  general.  A person  is  bare  of  clothes 
or  money  ; he  is  destitute  of  friends,  of  resources,  or 
of  comforts;  '■  Destitute  oi  that  faithful  guide,  the  com- 
pass, the  ancients  had  no  other  method  of  regulating 
their  course  than  by  observing  the  sun  and  stars.’— Ro- 
bertson. 

BARE,  MERE. 

Bare  (v.  Bare,  naked) ; mere,  in  Latin  merus  mere, 
properly  sofas  alone,  from  the  Greek  psfpw  to  divide, 
signifies  separated  from  others. 

Bare  is  used  in  a positive  sense : were,  negatively. 
The  bare  recital  of  some  events  brings  tears.  The 
mere  circumstance  of  receiving  favours  ought  not  to 
bind  any  person  to  the  opinions  of  another. 

The  bare  idea  of  being  in  the  company  of  a mur- 
derer is  apt  to  awaken  horrour  in  the  mind  ; ‘ He  who 
goes  no  farther  than  bare  justice,  stops  at  the  begin- 
ning of  virtue.’ — Blair.  The  mere  attendance  at  a 
place  of  worship  is  the  smallest  part  of  a Christian’s 
duty ; ‘ I would  advise  every  man,  who  would  not  ap- 
pear in  the  world  a mere  scholar  or  philosopher,  to 
make  himself  master  of  the  social  virtue  of  complai- 
sance.’— Addison. 


SCARCITY,  DEARTH. 

Scarcity  {v.  Rare)  is  a generick  term  to  denote  the 
tircumstance  of  a thing  Seeing  scarce : dearth,  which 
js  the  same  as  dearness,  is  a mode  of  scarcity  applied 
in  the  literal  sense  to  provisions  mostly,  as  provisions 
are  mostly  dear  when  they  are  scarce ; the  word 
dearth  therefore  denotes  scarcity  in  a high  degree: 
whatever  men  want,  and  find  it  difficult  to  procure, 
they  complain  of  its  scarcity ; when  a country  has  the 
misfortune  to  be  visited  with  a famine,  it  experiences 
the  frightfullcst  of  all  dearths. 

RARE,  SCARCE,  SINGULAR. 

Rare,  in  Latin  rarus,  comes  from  the  Greek  apaihg 
thin;  scarce,  in  Dutch  schaers  sparing,  comes  from 
schcren  to  cut  or  clip,  signifying  cut  close  ; singular  {v. 
Particular.) 

Rare  and  scarce  both  respect  number  and  quantity, 
which  admits  of  expansion  or  diminution:  rare  is  a 
thinned  number,  a diminished  quantity;  scarce  is  a 
short  quantity. 

Rare  is  applied  to  matters  of  convenience  or  luxury; 
scarce  to  matters  of  utility  or  necessity:  that  which  is 
rare  becomes  valuable,  and  fetches  a high  price  ; that 
which  is  scarce  becomes  precious,  and  the  loss  of  it  is 
aeriously  fel‘  The  best  of  every  thing  is  in  its  nature 


rare;  there  will  never  be  a superfluity  Ci  such  things 
there  are,  however,  some  things,  as  particularly  curious 
plants,  or  particular  animals,  which,  owing  to  cirenm 
stances,  are  always  rare:  that  which  is  most  in  use, 
will,  in  certain  cases,  be  scxrce;  when  the  supply  of 
an  article  fails,  and  the  demand  for  it  continues,  it 
naturally  becomes  scarce.  An  aloe  in  blossom  is  a 
rarity,  for  nature  has  prescribed  such  limits  to  its 
growth  as  to  give  but  very  few  of  such  flowers  • ‘ A 
perfect  union  of  wit  and  judgement  is  one  of  the 
rarest  things  in  the  world.’ — Burke.  The  jointings 
of  Rajihael,  and  other  distinguished  painters,  are  daily 
becoming  more  scarce,  because  time  will  diminish  theii 
quantity,  although  not  their  value ; ‘ When  any  parti 
cular  piece  of  money  grew  very  scarce,  it  was  often 
recoined  by  a succeeding  emperour.’ — Addison. 

What  is  rare  will  often  be  singular,  and  what  is 
singular  will  often,  on  that  account,  be  rare;  but 
they  are  not  necessarily  applied  to  the  same  object: 
fewness  is  the  idea  common  to  both ; but  rare  is  said 
of  that  of  which  there  might  be  more ; but  singula? 
is  applied  to  that  which  is  single,  or  nearly  single,  in 
its  kind.  The  rare  is  that  which  is  always  sought 
for ; the  singular  is  not  always  that  which  one  esteems : 
a thing  is  rare  which  is  difficult  to  be  obtained ; a thing 
is  singular  for  its  peculiar  qualities,  good  or  bad ; ‘ We 
should  learn,  by  reflecting  on  the  misfortunes  which 
have  attended  others,  that  there  is  nothing  singular  in 
those  which  befall  ourselves.’— Melmoth  {Letters 
of  Cicero).  Indian  plants  are  many  of  them  rare  in 
England,  because  the  climate  will  not  agree  with  them , 
the  sensitive  plant  is  singular,  as  its  quality  of  yielding 
to  the  touch  distinguishes  it  from  all  other  plants. 

Scarce  is  applied  only  in  the  proper  sense  to  physical 
objects;  rare  and  singular  are  ajrplicable  to  moral 
objects.  One  speaks  of  a rare  instance  of  fidelity  of 
which  many  like  examples  cannot  be  found  ; of  a sin 
gular  instance  of  depravity,  when  a parallel  case  can 
scarcely  be  found. 

SIMPLE,  SINGLE,  SINGULAR. 

Simple,  in  Latin  simplex  or  sine  plied  without  a 
fold,  is  opposed  to  the  complex,  which  has  many  folds, 
or  to  the  compound  which  has  several  parts  involved 
or  connected  with  each  other ; ‘ To  make  the  com 
pound  for  the  rich  metal  simple,  is  nn  adulteration  or 
counterfeiting.’ — Bacon.  Single  and  singular  {v.  One) 
are  opposed,  one  to  double,  and  the  other  to  multifa 
rious; 

Mankind  with  other  animals  compare. 

Single  how  weak  and  impotent  they  are 

Jenynb 

‘ These  busts  of  the  emperours  and  empresses  are  all 
very  scarce,  and  some  of  them  almost  singular  in  their 
kind.’ — Addison.  We  may  speak  of  a simple  cii  cum- 
stance  as  independent  of  any  thing;  of  a single  in 
stance*or  circumstance  as  unaccompanied  by  any  other ' 
and  a singular  instance  as  one  that  rarely  has  its  like 
In  the  moral  application  to  the  person,  simplicity,  as 
far  as  it  is  opposed  to  duplicity  in  the  heart,  can  never 
be  excessive;  but  when  it  lies  in  the  head,  so  that  it 
cannot  penetrate  the  folds  and  doublings  of  other  per- 
sons, it  is  a fault;  ‘Nothing  extraneous  must  cleave 
to  the  eye  in  the  act  of  seeing;  its  bare  object  must  bo 
as  naked  as  truth,  as  simple  and  unmixed  as  sincerity  ’ 
— South.  Singleness  of  heart  and  intention  is  that 
species  of  simplicity  which  is  altogether  to  be  admired; 
singularity  may  be  either  good  or  bad  according  to 
circumstances ; to  be  singular  in  virtue  is  to  be  truly 
good ; but  to  be  singular  in  manner  is  affectation, 
which  is  at  variance  with  genuine  simplicity,  if  not 
directly  opposed  to  it ; ‘ From  the  union  of  the  crowns 
to  the  Revolution  in  1688,  Scotland  was  placed  in  a 
political  situation  the  most  singular  and  most  unhappy  ’ 
— Robertson. 

^ SOME,  ANY. 

Some,  probably  contracted  from  so  a one  or  such  a 
one,  is  altogether  restrictive  in  its  sense : any,  from  a 
one,  is  altogether  universal  and  indefinite.  So?ne  ap- 
plies to  one  particular  part  in  distinction  from  the  rest. 
any  to  eveiy  individual  part  without  distinction.  Some 
think  this,  and  others  that:  awy  person  might  believe 
if  he  would ; a?iy  one  can  conqr  rr  his  passions  who 
calls  in  the  aid  of  religion.  Ir.  consequence  of  Uiia 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


251 


listincUon  in  sense,  so7necan  on  .y  be  used  in  particular 
affirmative  propositions ; but  any,  which  is  equivalent 
to  all,  may  be  either  in  negative,  interrogative,  or  hy- 
pothetical propositions;  some  say  so:  does  any  one 
believe  it  1 He  will  not  give  to  any 


SOLITARY,  SOLE,  ONLY,  SINGLE. 

Solitary  and  sole  are  both  derived  from  solus  alone 
or  whole ; only,  that  is  onely,  signifies  the  quality 
of  unity ; single  is  an  abbreviation  of  singular  (r. 
Simple). 

All  these  terms  are  more  or  less  opposed  to  several 
or  many.  Solitary  and  sole  signify  one  left  by  itself; 
the  former  mostly  in  application  to  particular  sensible 
objects,  the  latter  in  regard  mostly  to  moral  objects ; 
a solitary  shrub  expresses  not  only  one  shrub,  but  one 
that  has  been  left  to  itself ; 

The  cattle  in  the  fields  and  meadows  green. 

Those  rare  and  solitary,  these  in  flocks. — Milton. 
The  sole  cause  or  reason  signifies  that  reason  or  cause 
which  stands  unsupported  by  any  thing  else;  ‘All 
things  are  but  insipid  to  a man  in  comparison  of  that 
one,  which  is  the  sole  minion  of  his  fancy.’— South. 
Only  does  not  include  the  idea  of  desertion  or  depriva- 
tion, but  it  comprehends  that  of  want  or  deficiency : 
to  say  of  a person-that  he  has  only  one  shilling  in  his 
pocket,  means  to  imply,  that  he  wants  more  or  ought 
to  have  more.  Single  signifies  simply  one  or  more  de- 
tached from  others,  without  conveying  any  other  col- 
lateral idea : a single  sheet  of  paper  may  be  sometimes 
more  convenient  than  a double  one;  a single  shilling 
may  be  all  that  is  necessary  for  the  present  purpose : 
there  may  be  single  ones,  as  well  as  a single  one ; but 
the  other  terms  exclude  the  idea  of  there  being  any 
thing  else , 

Thy  fear 

Will  save  us  trial,  what  the  least  can  do. 

Single  against  the  wicked. — Milton. 

A solitary  act  of  generosity  is  not  sufficient  to  charac- 
terize a man  as  generous;  with  most  criminals  the 
sole  ground  of  their  defence  rests  upon  their  not  having 
learned  to  know  and  do  better:  harsh  language  and 
severe  looks  are  not  the  only  means  of  correcting  the 
faults  of  others:  single  instances  of  extraordinary 
talents  now  and  then  present  themselves  in  the  course 
of  an  age. 

In  the  adverbial  form,  solely,  only,  and  singly  are 
employed  with  a similar  distinction.  The  disasters 
which  attend  an  unsuccessful  military  enterprise  are 
seldom  to  be  attributed  solely  to  the  incapacity  of  th  • 
general : there  are  many  circumstances  both  in  the 
natural  and  moral  world  which  are  to  be  accounted  for 
only  by  admitting  a providence  as  presented  to  us  in 
Divine  revelation;  there  are  many  things  which  men 
could  not  effect  singly  that  might  be  effected  by  them 
conjointly 


ONE,  SINGLE,  ONLY. 

Unity  is  the  common  idea  of  all  these  terms ; and  at 
the  same  time  the  whole  signification  of  one,  which  is 
opposed  to  none;  single,  in  Latin  singulus  each  or 
one  by  itself,  probably  contracted  from  sine  angulo 
without  an  angle,  because  what  is  entirely  by  itself 
cannot  form  an  angle,  signifies  that  one  which  is  ab- 
stracted from  others,  and  is  particularly  opposed  to 
two,  or  a double  which  may  form  a pair;  only,  con- 
tracted from  onely,  signifying  in  the  form  of  unity,  is 
employed  for  that  of  which  there  is  no  more.  A 
person  has  one  child,  is  a positive  expression  that  be- 
speaks its  own  meaning;  a person  has  a single  child, 
conveys  the  idea  that  there  ought  to  be  or  might  be 
more,  that  more  was  expected,  or  that  once  there 
were  more:  a person  has  an  only  child,  implies  that  he 
never  had  more ; 

For  shame,  Rutilians,  can  you  bear  the  sight 
Of  one  exposed  for  all,  in  single  fight  1 — Dryden. 

Homely  but  wholesome  roots 
My  daily  food,  and  water  from  the  nearest  spring 
My  only  drink. — Filmer. 

BESIDES,  MOREOVER. 

Besides  that  is,  by  the  side,  next  to,  marks  simply 


the  connexion  which  subsists  between  what  goes  be- 
fore and  what  follows ; moreover,  that  is,  more  than 
all  else,  marks  the  addition  of  something  particular  to 
what  has  already  been  said. 

Thus  in  enumerating  the  good  qualities  of  an  indi- 
vidual, we  may  say,  “ he  is  besides  of  a peaceable 
disposition.”  On  concluding  any  subject  of  question 
we  may  introduce  a farther  clause  by  a moreover; 
“ Moreover  we  must  not  forget  the  claims  of  those 
who  will  suffer  by  such  a change;”  ‘Now,  the  best 
way  in  the  world  for  a man  to  seem  to  be  any  thing, 
is  really  to  be  what  he  would  seem  to  be.  Besides, 
that  it  is  many  times  as  troublesome  to  make  good  the 
pretence  of  a good  quality  as  to  have  it.’ — Tillotson, 
‘ It  being  granted  that  God  governs  the  world,  it  will 
follow  also  that  he  does  it  by  means  suitable  to  the 
natures  of  the  things  that  he  governs ; and  moreover 
man  being  by  nature  a free,  moral  agent,  and  so  ca- 
pable of  deviating  from  his  duty,  as  well  as  performing 
it,  it  is  necessary  that  he  should  be  governed  by  laws  ’ 
— South. 


BESIDES,  EXCEPT. 

Besides  (v.  Moreover),  which  is  here  taken  as  a pre- 
position, expresses  the  idea  of  addition ; except  ex- 
presses that  of  exclusion. 

There  were  many  there  besides  ourselves ; no  one 
except  ourselves  will  be  admitted  ; ‘ Besides  impiety 
discontent  carries  along  with  it  as  its  inseparable 
concomitants,  several  other  sinful  passions.’ — Blair 
‘ Neither  jealousy  nor  envy  can  dwell  with  the  Su- 
preme Being.  He  is  a rival  to  none,  he  is  an  enemy  to 
none,  except  to  such  as,  by  rebellion  against  his  laws 
seek  enmity  with  him.’ — Blair. 

UNLESS,  EXCEPT. 

Unless,  which  is  equivalent  to  if  less,  if  not,  or  il 
one  fail,  is  employed  only  for  the  particular  case  ; but 
except  has  always  a reference  to  some  general  rule,  of 
which  an  exception  is  hereby  signified;  I shall  not  do 
it  unless  he  ask  me ; no  one  can  enter  except  those 
who  are  provided  with  tickets ; ‘ Unless  money  can 
be  borrowed,  trade  cannot  be  carried  on.’ — Black- 
stone.  ‘ If  a wife  continues  in  the  use  of  her  jewels 
till  her  husband’s  death,  she  shall  afterward  retain 
them  against  his  executors  and  administrators,  and  all 
other  persons  except  creditors.’ — Blackstone. 

HOWEVER,  YET,  NEVERIIIELESS 
NOTWITHSTANDING. 

These  conjunctions  are  in  grammar  termed  adversa 
tive,  because  they  join  sentences  together  that  stand 
more  or  less  in  opposition  to  each  other.  However  is 
the  most  general  and  indefinite ; it  serves  as  a conclu- 
sive deduction  drawn  from  the  whole. 

The  truth  is  however  wAyei  all  come  out : by  which 
is  understood  that  much  of  the  truth  has  been  told, 
and  much  yet  remains  to  be  told : so  likewise  in  simi- 
lar sentences ; I am  not,  however,  of  that  opinion ; 
where  it  is  implied  either  that  many  hold  the  opinion, < 
or  much  may  be  said  of  it ; but  be  that  as  it  may,  I 
am  not  of  that  opinion : however  you  may  rely  on  my 
assistance  to  that  amount;  that  is,  at  all  events,  let 
whatever  ha|jpen,  you  may  rely  on  so  much  of  my 
assistance  : however,  as  is  obvious  from  the  above  ex 
amples,  connects  not  only  one  single  proposition,  but 
many  propositions  either  expressed  or  understood; 

‘ However  it  is  but  just  sometimes  to  give  the  world  a 
representation  of  the  bright  side  of  human  nature.’ — 
Hughes.  Yet,  nevertheless,  and  notwithstanding,  are 
mostly  employed  to  set  two  specifick  propositions 
either  in  contrast  or  direct  opposition  to  each  other* 
the  two  latter  are  but  species  of  the  former,  pointing 
out  the  opposition  in  a more  specifick  manner. 

There  are  cases  in  which  yet  is  peculiarly  proper  • 
others  in  which  nevertheless,  and  others  in  which  not 
withstanding,  is  preferable.  Yet  bespeaks  a simple 
contrast;  Addison  was  not  a good  speaker,  yet  he  was 
an  admirable  writer;  Johnson  was  a man  of  uncouth 
manners,  yet  he  had  a good  heart  and  a sound  head  ; 

‘ He  had  not  that  reverence  for  the  queen  as  might 
have  been  expected  from  a man  of  his  wisdom  and 
breed  ng  ; yet  he  was  impertinently  solicitous  to  know 
what  her  Majesty  said  of  him  in  private.’— CuAiiBN 


V 


252  ENGLISH  SYNONYMES 


OoN.  JV’evertheless  a.nd  notwithstanding  coaid  not  in 
ibese  cases  have  been  substituted.  JVevertheless  and 
notwithstanding  are  mostly  used  to  imply  effects  or 
consequences  opposite  to  what  might  naturally  be 
expected  to  result.  He  has  acted  an  unworthy  part ; 
nevertheless  I will  be  a friend  to  him  as  far  as  I can ; 
that  is,  although  he  has  acted  an  unworthy  part,  I will 
be  no  less  his  friend  as  far  as  lies  in  my  power ; ‘ There 
will  always  be  something  that  we  shall  wish  to  have 
finished,  and  be  nevertheless  unwilling  to  begin.’ — 
Johnson.  JSTotwithstanding  all  I have  said,  he  still 
persists  in  his  own  imprudent  conduct,  that  is,  all  I 
have  said  notwithstanding  or  not  restraining  him  from 
t,  he  still  persists.  He  is  still  rich  notwithstanding 
his  loss ; that  is,  his  loss  notwithstanding,  or  not 
standing  in  the  way  of  it,  he  is  still  rich  ; ‘ JVotwith- 
standing  there  is  such  infinite  room  between  man  and 
his  ftlaker  for  the  creative  power  to  exert  itself  in,  it 
is  impossible  that  it  ever  should  be  filled  up.’ — Addi- 
son. From  this  resolution  of  the  terms,  more  than 
from  any  specifick  rule,  we  may  judge  of  their  distinct 
applications,  and  clearly  perceive  that  in  such  cases  as 
those  above-cited  the  conjunctions  nevertheless  and 
notwithstanding  could  not  be  substituted  for  each  other, 
nor  yet  for  either;  in  other  cases,  however,  where  the 
objects  are  less  definitely  pointed  out,  they  may  be  used 
indifferently.  The  Jesuits  piqued  themselves  always 
upon  their  strict  morality,  and  yet  {notwithstanding, 
or  nevertheless)  they  admitted  of  many  things  not 
altogether  consonant  with  moral  principle : you  know 
that  these  are  but  tales,  yet  {notwithstanding,  never- 
theless) you  believe  them. 

ALL,  WHOLE. 

Jill  and  whole  are  derived  from  the  same  source,  that 
is,  in  German  all  a.nd  heil  whole  or  sound,  Dutch  all, 
hel,  or  heel,  Saxon  al,  wal,  Danish  al,  aid,  Greek  tfAos, 
Hebrew 

Ml  respects  a number  of  individuals  ; whole  respects 
a single  body  with  its  components  : we  have  not  all, 
if  we  have  not  the  whole  number;  we  have  not  the 
whole,  if  we  have  not  all  the  parts  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed. It  is  not  within  the  limits  of  human  capacity 
to  take  more  than  a partial  survey  of  all  the  interest- 
ing objects  which  the  whole  globe  contains. 

When  applied  to  spiritual  objects  in  a general  sense, 
all  is  preferred  to  whole;  but  when  the  object  is  spe- 
cifick, wAofe  is  preferable  : thus  we  say,  all  hope  was 
lost;  but,  our  whole  hope  rested  in  this;  ‘It  will  be 
asked  how  the  drama  moves  if  it  be  not  credited.  It 
is  credited  with  all  the  credit  due  to  a drama.’— John- 
son. ‘ The  whole  story  of  the  transactions  between 
Edward  Harold  and  the  Duke  of  Normandy  is  told  so 
differently  by  ancient  writers,  that  there  are  few  im- 
portant passages  of  the  English  history  liable  to  so 
great  uncertainty.’— Hume. 

ALL,  EVERY,  EACH. 

Ml  is  collective;  every  single  or  individual;  each 
•distributive. 

All  and  every  are  universal  in  their  signification  ; 
each  is  restrictive  : the  former  are  used  in  speaking  of 
great  numbers ; the  latter  is  applicable  to  small  num- 
bers. All  men  are  not  born  with  thn  same  talent, 
either  in  degree  or  kind  ; but  every  man  has  a talent 
peculiar  to  himself:  a parent  divides  his  property 
among  his  children,  and  gives  to  each  his  due  share; 
‘Harold  by  his  marriage  broke  all  measures  with  the 
Duke  of  Normandy.’ — Hume.  ^ Every  man’s  per- 
formances, to  be  rightly  estimated,  must  be  compared 
to  the  state  of  the  age  in  which  he  lived.’ — Johnson. 
‘Taken  singly  and  individually,  it  might  be  difficult 
to  conceive  how  each  event  wrought  for  good.  They 
must  be  viewed  in  their  consequences  and  effects.’ — 
Blair. 


NUMEROUS,  NUMERAL,  NUMERICAL. 

J^umerous  signifies  literally  containing  a number, 
and  is  taken  to  denote  a great  many  or  a great  num- 
ber ; numeral  and  numerical  both  imply  belonging  to 
number.  J^umernl  is  applied  to  a class  of  words  in 
grammar,  as  a numeral  adjective,  or  a numeral  noun: 
numerical  is  applied  to  whatever  other  objects  respect 
nun  ber-  as  a numerical  difference,  where  the  difier- 


ence  subsists  between  any  two  numbers,  or  it  jxpkeeaefl 
by  numbers.  . 


SPECIAL,  SPECIFICK,  PARTICULAR. 

Special,  in  Latin  specialis,  signifies  belonging  to  the 
species ; particular,  belonging  to  a particle  or  small 
part ; specifick,  in  Latin  specificus,  from  species  a spe 
cies,  and  facio  to  make,  signifies  making  a species. 
The  special  is  that  which  comes  under  the  general ; 
Xhe  particular  is  that  which  comes  under  the  special . 
hence  we  speak  of  a special  rule;  but  a particular 
case  ; ‘ God  claims  it  as  a special  part  of  liis  preroga- 
tive to  have  the  entire  disposal  of  riches.’ — South. 
Particular  and  specifick  are  both  applied  to  the  pro- 
perties of  individuals ; but  particular  is  said  of  the 
contingent  circumstances  of  things,  specifick  of  their 
inherent  properties  ; every  plant  has  something  parti 
cular  in  itself  diflerent  from  others,  it  '3  either  longei 
or  shorter,  weaker  or  stronger ; ‘ Every  state  has  a 
particular  principle  of  happiness,  and  this  principle 
may  in  each  be  carried  to  a mischievous  excess.’— 
Goldsmith.  The  specifick  property  of  a plant  is  that 
which  it  has  in  common  with  its  species  ; ‘ The  impu 
tation  of  being  a fool  is  a thing  which  mankind,  of  all 
others,  is  the  most  impatient  of,  it  being  a blot  upon 
the  prime  and  specifick  perfection  of  human  nature.’ — 
South.  Particular  is,  therefore,  a term  adapted  to 
loose  discourse;  specifick  is  a scientifick  term  which 
describes  things  minutely. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  pa*-ticularize  and  specify  ; 
wo  particularize  for  the  sake  of  information  ; we  spe- 
cify for  the  sake  of  instruction  : in  describing  a man’s 
person  and  dress  wo  particularize  if  we  mention  every 
thing  singly  which  can  be  said  upon  it;  in  delineating 
a plan  it  is  necessary  to  specify  time,  place,  distance 
materials,  and  every  thing  else  which  may  be  con- 
nected with  the  carrying  of  it  into  execution. 


PARTICULAR,  INDIVIDUAL. 

Particular  {v.  Peculiar);  individual,  in  French  tn- 
dividuel,  Latin  individuus,  signifies  that  whicli  cannot 
be  divided. 

Both  these  terms  are  employed  to  express  one  object; 
hut  particular  is  much  more  specifick  than  individual ; 
the  particular  confines  us  to  one  object  only  of  man)' 
but  individual  may  be  said  of  any  one  object  anion* 
many.  A particular  object  cannot  be  misunderstood 
for  any  other,  while  it  remains  particular;  but  the 
individual  object  can  never  be  known  from  other  indi- 
vidual objects,  while  it  remains  only  individual.  Par- 
ticular is  a term  used  in  regard  to  individuals,  and  is 
opposed  to  the  general:  individual  is  a term  used  in 
regard  to  collectives;  and  is  opposed  to  the  whole  oi 
that  which  is  divisible  into  parts;  ‘ Those  paiTicMla? 
speeches,  which  are  commonly  known  by  the  name 
of  rants,  are  blemishes  in  our  English  tragedv  ’ 
Addison. 

• To  give  thee  being,  I lent 

Out  of  my  side  to  thee,  nearest  my  heart. 
Substantial  life,  to  have  thee  by  my  side. 
Henceforth  an  individual  solace  dear. — Milton 


ALONE,  SOLITARY,  LONELY. 

Alone,  compounded  of  all  and  one,  signifies  alto- 
gether one,  or  single;  that  is,  by  one’s  self;  solitary, 
in  French  solitaire,  Latin  solitarius,  from  solus  alone, 
signifies  the  quality  of  being  aZome;  ZeneZy  signifies  in 
the  manner  of  alone. 

Alone  marks  the  state  of  a person;  solitary  the 
quality  of  a person  or  thing;  lonely  the  quality  of  a 
thing  only.  A person  walks  alone,  or  takes  a solitary 
walk  in  a lonely  place. 

Whoever  likes  to  be  much  alone  is  of  a solitary 
turn ; 

Here  we  stand  alone, 

As  in  our  form  distinct,  pre-eminent. — Young. 
Wherever  a man  can  be  most  and  oftenest  alone,  that  is 
a solitary  or  lonely  YtVdco-,  ‘I  W'ould  wish  no  man  tO 
deceive  himself  with  opinions  which  he  has  not  tlio- 
roughly  reflected  upon  in  his  solitary  hours.’— CuM' 
BERLAND 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


233 


Within  a.i  ancient  forest’s  ample  verge 
There  stands  a lonely,  but  a healthful  dwelling, 
Built  for  convenience  and  the  use  of  life.— Rowe. 


ALSO,  LIKEWISE,  TOO. 

Mso,  compounded  of  all  and  so,  signifies  literally  all 
in  the  same  manner;  likewise,  compounded  of  like  and 
wise  or  manner,  signifies  in  like  manner  ; too,  a varia- 
tion of  the  numeral  two,  signifies  what  may  be  added 
or  joined  to  another  thing  from  its  similarity. 

These  adverbial  expressions  obviously  convey  the 
same  idea  of  including  or  classing  certain  objects  to- 
gether upon  a supposed  ground  of  affinity.  Jilso  is  a 
more  general  term,  and  has  a more  comprehensive 
meaning,  as  it  implies  a sameness  in  the  whole;  ‘Let 
us  only  think  for  a little  of  that  reproach  of  modern 
times,  that  gulf  of  time  and  fortune,  the  passion  for 
gaming,  which  is  so  often  the  refuge  of  the  idle  sons  of 
pleasure,  and  often  also  the  last  resource  of  the  ruined.’ 
— Blair.  Likewise  is  more  specifick  and  limited  in  its 
acceptation;  ‘All  the  duties  of  a daughter,  a sister,  a 
wife,  and  a mother,  may  be  well  performed,  though  a 
lady  should  not  be  the  finest  woman  at  an  o[)era. 
They  are  likewise  consistent  with  a moderate  share  of 
wit,  a plain  dress,  and  a modest  air.’ — Steele. 

Too  is  still  more  limited  than  either,  and  refers  only 
to  a single  object;  ‘Long  life  is  of  all  others  the  most 
general,  and  seemingly  the  most  innocent  object  of 
desire.  With  respect  to  this,  loo,  we  so  frequently  err, 
that  it  would  have  been  a blessing  to  many  to  have  had 
their  wish  denied.’ — Blair. 

“ He  also  was  among  the  number”  may  convey  the 
idea  of  totality  both  as  respects  the  person  and  the 
event:  “he  writes  likewise  a very  fine  hand”  conveys 
the  idea  of  similar  perfection  in  hi.s  writing  as  in  other 
qualifications:  “ he  said  so  too,"  signifies  he  said  so  in 
addition  to  the  others ; he  said  it  likewise  would  imply 
that  he  said  the  same  thing,  or  in  the  same  manner. 

SOLITARY,  DESERT,  DESOLATE. 

Solitary  is  derived  from  the  Latin  solus  alone ; desert 
is  the  same  as  deserted;  desolate,  in  Latin  desolatus, 
signifies  made  solitary. 

All  these  epithets  are  applied  to  places,  but  with 
liifFerent  modifications  of  the  common  idea  of  solitude 
which  belongs  to  them.  The  solitary  simply  denotes 
the  a’osenceof  all  beings  of  the  same  kind:  thus  a place 
js  solitary  to  a man,  where  there  is  no  human  being  but 
himself;  atd  it  is  solitary  to  a brute,  when  there  are 
no  brutes  with  which  it  can  hold  society;  ‘The  first 
time  we  behold  the  hero  (Ulysses),  we  find  liim  discon- 
solately sitting  on  the  solitary  shore,  sighing  to  return 
to  Ithaca.’ — Wharton.  Desert  conveys  the  idea  of  a 
place  made  solitary  by  being  shunned,  from  its  unfit- 
ness as  a place  of  residence;  all  deserts  are  places  of 
such  wildness  as  seems  to  frighten  away  almost  all 
inhabitants; 

A peopled  city  made  a desert  place. — Dryden. 
Desolate  conveys  the  idea  of  a place  made  solitary,  or 
bare  of  inhabitants,  and  all  traces  of  habitation,  by 
violent  means;  every  country  may  become  desolate 
which  is  exposed  to  the  inroads  of  a ravaging  army; 
Supporting  and  supported,  polish’d  friends 
And  dear  relations  mingle  into  bliss  ; 

But  this  the  rugged  savage  never  felt, 

E’o  desolate  in  crowds.—THOMSON 

TO  RECEDE,  RETREAT,  RETIRE.  WITH- 
DRAW, SECEDE. 

To  recede  is  to  go  back ; to  retreat  is  to  draw  back ; 
the  former  is  a simple  action,  suited  to  one’s  conve- 
nience; the  latter  is  a particular  action,  dictated  by 
necessity  : we  recede  by  a direct  backward  movement; 
we  retreat  by  an  indirect  backward  movement:  we 
recede  a few  steps  in  order  to  observe  an  object  more 
distinctly ; we  retreat  from  the  position  we  have  takem, 
in  order  to  escape  danger:  whoever  can  advance  can 
recede ; but  in  general  those  only  retreat  whose  advance 
is  not  free : receding  is  the  act  of  everyone ; retreating 
is  peculiarly  the  act  of  soldiers,  or  those  who  make  hos- 
dle  movements.  To  retire  and  withdraw  originally 
signify  the  same  as  retreat,  that  is,  draw  back  or  off ; 
butfthey  agree  in  application  mostly  with  recede ; to 


recede  is  to  go  back  from  a given  spot;  out  to  retire'mA 
withdraw  have  respect  to  the  place  or  the  presence  of 
the  persons:  we  may  recede  on  an  open  plain  ; but  we 
retire  or  withdraw  from  a room,  or  from  some  company 
In  this  application  withdraw  is  the  more  familiar  term: 
retire  may  likewise  be  used  for  an  army , but  it  denotes 
a much  more  leisurely  action  than  retreat : a general 
retreats,  by  cominilsion,  from  an  enemy;  but  he  may 
retire  from  an  enemy’s  country  when  there  is  no  enemy 
present. 

Recede,  retire,  withdraw,  and  retreat,  are  also  used 
in  a moral  application ; secede  is  used  only  in  this  sense : 
a person  recedes  from  hi.s  engagement,  which  is  seldom 
justifiable;  or  he  may  recede  from  his  pretensions, 
which  is  mostly  commendable;  ‘ We  were  soon  brought 
to  the  necessity  of  receding  from  our  imagined  equality 
with  our  cousins.’ — Johnson.  A person  retires  from 
business’  when  he  ceases  to  carry  it  on  any  longer; 
‘ Retirement  from  the  world’s  cares  and  pleasures  has 
been  often  recommended  as  useful  to  repentance.’ — 
Johnson.  A person  withdraws  from  a society  eithei 
for  a time  or  altogether;  ‘A  temptation  may  withdraw 
for  awhile,  and  return  again.’ — South.  As  life  is  reli 
giously  considered  as  a warfare  with  the  world,  they 
are  said  to  retreat  from  the  contest  who  do  not  enter 
into  its  pleasures;  ‘ How  certain  is  our  ruin,  unless  we 
sometimes  retreat  from  this  pestilential  region  (the 
world  of  pleasure).’ — Blair.  To  secede  is  a public 
act:  men  secede  Dom  a religious  or  political  body: 
withdraw  is  a private  act;  they  withdraw  themselves 
as  individual  members  from  any  society  ; ‘ Pisistratus 
and  his  sons  maintained  their  usurpations  during  a 
period  of  sixty-eight  years,  including  those  of  Pisis 
tratus’s  secessions  from  Athens.’ — Cumberland. 


PRIVACY,  RETIREMENT,  SECLUSION. 

Privacy  literally  denotes  the  abstract  quality  of  prt 
vate;  but  when  taken  by  itself  it  signifies  the  state  of 
being  ;>r«i;ate;  retirement  literally  signifies  the  abstract 
act  of  retiring:  and  seclusion  that  of  secluding  one's 
self : but  retirement  by  itself  frequently  denotes'a  state 
of  being  retired,  or  a place  of  retirement ; seclusion,  a 
state  of  being  secluded : hence  we  say  a person  lives  in 
privacy,  in  retirement,  in  seclusion : privacy  is  onposed 
to  publicity;  he  who  lives  in  privacy,  therefore,  is  one 
who  follows  no  publick  line,  who  lives  so  as  to  be  litt.ft 
known ; 

Fly  with  me  to  some  safe,  some  sacred  ^n'uacy. 

Rowe 

Retirement  is  opposed  to  openness  or  freedom  of  access, 
he,  therefore,  who  lives  in  retirement,  withdraws  fron« 
the  society  of  others,  he  lives  by  himself ; ‘ In  our  retire- 
ments every  thing  disposes  us  to  be  serious.’ — Addison 
Seclusion  is  the  excess  of  retirement ; he  who  lives  in 
seclusion  bars  all  access  to  himself ; he  shuts  himself 
from  the  world ; 

What  can  thy  imag’ry  of  sorrow  mean  ? 

Secluded  from  the  world,  and  all  its  care. 

Hast  thou  to  grieve  or  joy,  to  hope  or  fear  ? 

Prior 

Privacy  is  most  suitable  for  such  as  are  in  circum 
stances  of  humiliation,  whether  from  their  rnisfortun*' 
or  their  fault:  retirement  is  peculiarly  agreeable  to  those 
who  are  of  a reflective  turn;  but  seclusion  is  chosen 
only  by  those  who  labour  under  some  strong  affection 
of  the  mind,  whether  of  a religious  or  physical  nature. 


TO  ABDICATE,  DESERT 

The  following  celebrated  speech  of  Lord  Somers,  in 
1688,  on  King  James’s  vacating  the  throne,  may  bg 
admitted  as  a happy  elucidation  of  these  two  important 
words;  but  I am  not  inclined  to  think  that  they  come 
sufficiently  close  in  signification  to  render  any  com- 
parison necessary. 

“ What  is  appointed  me  to  speak  to  is  your  Lord 
ships’  first  amendment  by  which  the  word  abdicated  in 
the  Commons’  vote  is  changed  into  the  word  deserted, 
and  I am  to  aenuaint  your  Lordships  what  .some  of  the 
grounds  are  that  induced  the  Commons  to  insist  on  tlie 
word  abdicated,  and  not  to  asree  to  your  amendment. 

“The  first  reason  your  Lordships  are  pleasoi  to 
deliver  for  your  changing  the  word  is,  that  the  word 


254 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


abdicated  your  Lordships  do  not  find  is  a word  known 
to  the  common  law  of  England,  and  therefore  ought 
not  to  be  used.  The  next  is  that  the  common  appli- 
cation of  the  word  amounts  to  a voluntary  express 
renunciation,  which  is  not  in  this  case,  nor  will  follow 
from  the  premises. 

“ My  Lords,  as  to  the  first  of  these  reasons,  if  it  be  an 
objection  that  the  word  abdicated  hath  not  a known 
sense  in  the  common  law  of  England,  there  is  the  same 
objection  against  the  word  deserted ; so  that  your  Lord- 
ships’  first  reason  hath  the  same  force  against  your 
own  amendment,  as  against  the  term  used  by  the  Com- 
mons. 

“The  words  are  both  Latin  words,  and  used  in  the 
best  authors,  and  both  of  a known  signification  ; their 
meaning  is  very  welt  understood,  though  it  be  true  their 
meaning  is  not  the  same.  The  word  abdicate  doth 
naturally  and  properly  signify,  entirely  to  renounce, 
throw  otf,  disown,  relinquish  any  thing  or  person,  so  as 
to  have  no  further  to  do  with  it ; and  that  whether  it  be 
done  by  express  words  or  in  writing  (which  is  the  sense 
your  Lordships  put  upon  it,  and  which  is  properly 
called  resi^ation  or  cession),  or  by  doing  such  acts  as 
are  inconsistent  with  the  holding  and  retaining  of  the 
thing,  which  the  Commons  take  to  be  the  present  case, 
and  therefore  make  choice  of  the  word  abdicate^  as  that 
which  they  thought  did  above  all  others  express  that 
meaning.  And  in  this  latter  sense  it  is  taken  by  others ; 
and  that  this  is  the  true  signification  of  the  word  I shall 
show  your  Lordships  out  of  the  best  authors. 

“ The  first  I shall  mention  is  Grotius,  De  Jure  Belli 
et  Pacis,  1.  2,  c.  4,  § 4.  Venit  enim  hoc  non  ex  jure 
civili,  sed  ex  jure  natural!,  quo  quisque  suum  potest 
abdicare,  et  ex  naturali  prtEsumptione,  qua  voluisse  quis 
creditur  quod  sufficienter  significavit.  And  then  he 
goes  on:  Recusari  hsereditas,  non  tantum  verbis  sed 
etiam  re,  potest,  etquovis  indicio  voluntatis. 

“ Another  instance  which  I shall  mention,  to  show 
that  for  abdicating  a thing  it  is  sufficient  to  do  an  act 
which  is  inconsistent  with  retaining  it,  though  there  be 
nothing  of  express  renunciation,  is  out  of  Calvin’s  Lexi- 
con Juridicum,  whore  he  says,  Generum  abdicat  qui 
sponsam  ropudiat.  Here  is  an  abdication  without 
express  words,  but  it  is  by  doing  such  an  act  as  doth 
sufliciently  signify  his  purpose. 

“ The  next  author  I shall  quote  is  Brissonius,  De 
Verborum  Significatione,  who  hath  this  passage : Homo 
liber  qui  seipsum  vendit  abdicat  se  statu  suo.  That  is, 
he  who  sells  himself  hath  thereby  done  such  an  act  as 
cannot  consist  with  his  former  state  of  freedom,  and  is 
thereby  said  properly  se  abdicasse  statu  suo. 

“ Budaeus,  in  his  Commentaries  Ad  Legem  Secundam 
de  Origine  Juris,  expounds  the  words  in  the  same  sense. 
Abdicate  se  magistratu  est  idem  quod  abire  penitus 
magistratu.  He  that  goes  out  of  his  office  of  magistracy, 
let  it  be  in  what  manner  he  will,  has  abdicated  the 
magistracy. 

“And  Grotius,  in  his  Book  de  Jure  Belli  et  Pacis, 

1. 1,  c.  4,  $ 9,  seems  to  expound  the  word  abdicate  by 
manifeste  habere  pro  derelicto ; that  is,  he  who  hath 
abdicated  atiy  thing  hath  so  far  relinquished  it,  that  he 
hath  no  right  of  return  to  it.  And  that  is  the  sense  the 
Commons  put  upon  the  word.  It  is  an  entire  aliena- 
tion of  the  thing  abdicated,  and  so  stands  in  opposition 
to  dicare.  Dicat  qui  proprium  aliquot  facit,  abdicat 
qui  alienat:  so  says  Pralejus  in  his  Lexicon  Juris.  It 
is  therefore  insisted  on  as  the  proper  word  by  the  Com- 
mons. 

“ But  the  word  deserted  (which  is  the  word  used  in 
the  amendment  made  by  your  Lordships)  hath  not  only 
a very  doubtful  signification,  but  in  the  common  ac- 
ceptance both  of  the  civil  and  canon  law,  doth  signify 
only  a bare  withdrawing,  a temporary  quitting  of  a 
thing,  and  neglect  only,  which  leaveth  the  party  at 
liberty  of  returning  to  it  again.  Desertum  pro  ne- 
glecto,  says  Spigelius  in  his  Lexicon.  But  the  differ- 
ence between  deserere  and  derelinquere  is  expressly 
laid  down  by  Bartolus  on  the  8th  law  of  the  58th  title 
of  the  11th  book  of  the  Code,  and  his  words  are  these: 
Nota  diligenter  ex  hac  lege,  quod  aliud  est  agrum  de- 
serere, aliud  derelinquere ; qui  enim  derelinquit  ipsum 
ex  poenitentiA  non  revocare,  sed  qui  deserit,  inisra  bien- 
nium potest. 

" Whereby  it  appears,  my  lords,  that  is  called  de- 
sertion which  is  temporary  and  relievable;  that  is 
called  dereliction  where  there  is  no  power  or  right  to 
return 


“ So  in  the  best  Latin  authors,  and  In  the  civil  l<s  tv 
deserere  exercitum  is  used  to  signify  soldiers  leaving 
their  colours  ; and  in  the  canon  law  to  desert  a benefice 
signifies  no  more  than  to  be  a non-resident. 

“ In  both  cases  the  party  hath  not  only  a right  of 
returning,  but  is  bound  to  return  again;  which,  my 
Lords,  as  the  Commons  do  not  take  to  be  the  present 
case,  so  they  cannot  think  that  your  Lordships  do,  be- 
cause it  is  expressly  said,  in  one  of  your  reasons  given 
in  defence  of  the  last  amendment,  that  your  Lordships 
have  been  and  are  willing  to  secure  the  nation  against 
the  return  of  King  James,  which  your  Lordships  would 
in  justice  do,  if  you  did  look  upon  it  to  be  no  more  than 
a negligent  withdrawing,  which  leaveth  a liberty  to  the 
party  to  return. 

“ For  which  reasons,  my  Lords,  the  Commons  cannot 
agree  to  the  first  amendment,  to  insert  the  word  de- 
serted instead  of  abdicated;  because  it  doth  not  in 
any  sort  come  up  to  their  sense  of  the  thing,  so  they 
apprehend  it  doth  not  reach  your  Lordships’  ineaningas 
it  is  expressed  in  your  reasons,  whereas  they  look  upon 
the  word  abdicated  to  express  properly  what  is  to  be 
inferred  from  that  part  of  the  vote  to  which  your  Lord- 
ships  have  agreed,  viz.  ‘That  King  James  II.,  by  going 
about  to  subvert  the  constitution,  and  by  breaking  the 
original  contract  between  king  and  people,  and  by  vi- 
olating the  fundamental  laws,  and  withdrawing  Inm- 
self  out  of  the  kingdom,  hath  thereby  renounced  to 
be  a king  according  to  the  constitution.’  By  avowing 
to  govern  according  to  a despotick  power  unknown 
to  the  constitution,  and  inconsistent  therewith,  he 
hath  renounced  to  be  a king  according  to  the  law'; 
such  a king  as  he  swore  to  be  at  the  coronation ; such 
a king  to  whom  the  allegiance  of  an  English  subject  is 
due;  and  hath  set  up  another  kind  of  dominion;  which 
is  to  all  intents  an  abdication  or  abandoning  of  his 
legal  title  as  fully  as  if  it  had  been  done  by  express 
words. 

“ And,  my  Lords,  for  these  reasons  the  Commons  do 
insist  upon  the  word  abdicated,  and  cannot  agree  to  the 
word  deserted." 

Without  all  this  learned  verbosity  it  will  be  obvious 
to  every  person  that  the  two  words  are  widely  distinct 
from  each  other ; abdication  being  a pure  act  of  discre 
tion  for  which  a man  is  answerable  to  himself  only : but 
desertion  an  act  which  involves  more  or  less  a breach 
of  moral  obligation. 


TO  DISMISS,  DISCHARGE,  DISCARD 

Dismiss,  in  Latin  dimissus,  participle  of  dimitto 
compounded  of  di  and  mitto,  signifies  to  send  asunder 
or  away ; discharge,  signifies  to  release  from  a charge ; 
discard,  in  Spanish  descartar,  compounded  of  des 
and  cartar,  signifies  to  lay  cards  out  or  aside,  to  cast 
them  off. 

The  idea  of  removing  to  a distance  is  included  in  all 
these  terms ; but  with  various  collateral  circumstances. 
Dismiss  is  the  general  term;  discharge  and  discard 
are  modes  of  dismissing : dismiss  is  applicable  to  per- 
sons of  all  stations,  but  is  used  more  partictilarly  for 
the  higher  orders : discharge  on  the  other  hand  is  con- 
fined to  those  in  a subordinate  station.  A clerk,  or  an 
officer,  or  a minister,  is  dismissed ; ‘ In  order  to  an  ac 
commodation,  they  agreed  upon  this  preliminary,  that 
each  of  them  should  immediately  dismiss  his  privy 
counsellor.’ — Addison.  A menial  servant  or  a soldier 
is  discharged ; ‘Mr.  Pope’s  errands  were  so  frequent 
and  frivolous  that  the  footman  in  time  avoided  and  ne- 
glected him,  and  the  Earl  of  Oxford  discharged  some 
of  his  servants  for  their  obstinate  refusal  of  his  mes- 
sages.’—Johnson. 

Neither  dismiss  nor  discharge  define  the  motive  of 
the  action  ; they  are  used  indifferently  for  that  which 
is  voluntary,  or  the  contrary  : discard,  on  the  contrary, 
always  marks  a dismissal  that  is  not  agreeable  to  the 
party  discarded.  A person  may  request  to  be  dismissed 
or  discharged,  but  never  to  be  discarded.  The  dismissa, 
or  discharge  frees  a persori  from  the  obligation  or  ne- 
cessity of  performing  a certain  duty  ; 

Dismiss  the  people  then,  and  give  command 
AVith  strong  repast  to  hearten  every  band. — Pope 
The  discarding  throws  him  out  of  a desirable  rank  or 
station  : ‘ I ain  so  great  a lover  of  whatever  is  French, 
that  I lately  discarded  an  humble  admirer  because  h* 
neither  spoke  that  tongue  nor  drank  c’aret.’— Budgsli 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


fliey  are  all  applied  to  things  i i the  moral  sense,  and 
with  the  same  distinction : we  are  said  to  dismiss  our 
fears,  to  discharge  a duty,  and  to  discard  a sentiment 
from  the  mind : 

Resume  your  courage,  and  dismiss  your  care. 

Dryden. 

If  I am  bound  to  pay  money  on  a certain  day,  I dis- 
tharge  the  obligation  if  I pay  it  before  twelve  o’clock  at 
night.’ — Blackstonk.  ‘Justice  discards  party  friend- 
ship and  kindred.’ — Addison. 


TO  LET,  LEAVE,  SUFFER. 

Let,  through  the  medium  of  the  Gothick  letan,  and 
other  changes  in  the  French  laisser,  German  lassen, 
&c.  conies  in  all  probability  from  the  Latin  laxo,  to 
loosen,  or  set  loose,  free ; leave  (v.  To  leave) ; suffer, 
from  the  Latin  suffero  to  bear  with,  signifies  not  to  put 
a stop  to. 

The  removal  of  hindrance  or  constraint  on  the  ac- 
tions of  others,  is  implied  by  all  these  terms  ; but  let  is 
a less  formal  action  than  leave,  and  this  than  suffer.  I 
let  a person  pass  in  the  road  by  getting  out  of  his  way  . 
[ leave  a person  to  decide  on  a matter  according  to  his 
own  discretion,  by  declining  to  interfere:  I suffer  a 
person  to  go  his  own  way,  over  whom  I am  expected 
to  exercise  a control.  It  is  in  general  most  prudent  to 
let  things  take  their  own  course;  ‘Where  there  is  a 
certainty  and  an  uncertainty,  let  the  uncertaiiuy  go, 
and  liold  to  that  which  is  certain.’ — Saunderson.  In 
the  education  of  youth,  the  greatest  art  lies  in  leaving 
them  to  follow  the  natural  bent  of  their  minds  and  turn 
of  disposition  without  at  the  same  time  suffering  them 
to  do  any  thing  prejudicial  to  their  character  or  future 
interests; 

This  crime  I could  not  leave  unpunished. 

Denham. 

If  Pope  had  suffered  his  hear:  to  be  alienated  from  her, 
he  could  have  tound  nothing  that  might  fill  her  place.’ 
—Johnson. 


TO  LEAVE,  aUIT,  RELINaUISH. 

Leave,  in  Saxon  leafve,  in  old  German  laube,  Latin 
Linquo,  Greek  Xtinof  , signifies  either  to  leave  or  be  want- 
ing, because  one  is  wanting  in  the  place  vvhich  one 
leaves  ; quit,  in  French  quitter,  from  the  Latin  quietus 
rest,  signifies  to  rest  or  remain,  to  give  up  the  hold  of; 
the  sense  of  relinquish  is  given  under  the  head  of 
.Abandon. 

We  leave  that  to  which  we  may  intend  to  return  ; 
we  that  to  which  we  return  no  more:  we  may 
leave  a place  voluntarily  or  otherwise  ; but  we  relin- 
quish it  unwillingly.  We  leave  persons  or  things  ; we 
quit  and  relinquish  things  only.  I leave  one  person  in 
order  to  speak  to  another  ; I leave  my  house  for  a short 
lime ; 

Why  leave  we  not  the  fatal  Trojan  shore. 

And  measure  back  the  seas  we  cross’d  before  1 

Pope. 

I quit  it  not  to  return  to  it;  ‘At  last  he  (Savage) 
quitted  the  house  of  his  friend.’ — Johnson. 

'I’hey  preserve  the  same  distinction  in  the  moral  ap- 
plication. A prudent  man  leaves  all  questions  about 
minor  matters  in  religion  and  politics  to  men  of  busy, 
restless  tempers;  ‘ VVe  have  no  better  materials  to 
compound  the  priesthood  of,  than  the  mass  of  man- 
kind, which,  corrupted  as  it  is,  those  who  receive 
orders,  must  have  some  vices  to  leave  behind  them.’ — 
Swift.  It  is  a source  of  great  pleasure  to  a contem- 
plative mind  to  revisit  the  scenes  of  early  childhood, 
which  have  been  long  quitted  for  the  busy  scenes  of 
active  life; 

The  sacred  wrestler,  till  a blessing’s  giv’n. 

Quits  not  his  hold,  but  halting,  conquers  heav’n. 

Waller. 

A mifei  is  loath  to  relinquish  the  gain  which  has 
added  so  greatly  to  his  stores  and  his  pleasures;  ‘Al- 
though Charles  relinquished  almost  every  power  for 
the  crown,  he  would  neither  give  up  his  friends  to 
punishment,  nor  desert  wha'  he  esteemed  his  religion^ 
iuty.’ — Hume 


TO  LEAVE,  TAKE  LEAVE,  BID  FAREWELL, 
OR  ADIEU. 

Leave  is  here  general  as  before  {v.  To  leave) ; it  ex 
presses  simply  the  idea  of  separating  one’s  self  from 
an  object,  whether  for  a time  or  otherwise  ; to  take 
leave  and  bid  farewell  imply  a separation  for  a perpe- 
tuity. 

To  leave  is  an  unqualified  action,  it  is  applied  to  ob- 
jects of  indifference,  or  otherwise,  but  supposes  in  ge 
neral  no  exercise  of  one’s  feelings.  We  leave  persoim 
as  convenience  requires ; 

Self  alone,  in  nature  rooted  fast. 

Attends  us  first  and  leaves  us  last. — Swift. 

We  leave  them  on  the  road,  in  the  field,  in  the  house, 
or  wherever  circumstances  direct ; we  leave  them  with 
or  without  speaking;  to  take  leave  is  a parting  cere- 
mony between  friends,  on  their  parting  for  a consider- 
able ‘ime;  ‘Now  I am  to  take  leave  oi  my  readers,  I 
am  under  greater  anxiety  than  I have  known  for  the 
work  of  any  day  since  I undertook  this  province:’ — 
Steele.  To  bid  farewell  or  adieu  is  a still  more 
solemn  ceremony,  when  the  parting  is  expected  to  be 
final.  When  applied  to  things,  we  leave  such  as  we  do 
not  wish  to  meddle  with  ; we  take  leave  of  those  things 
which  were  agreeable  to  us,  but  which  we  find  it  pru- 
dent to  give  up ; and  we  bid  farewell  to  those  for 
which  we  still  retain  a great  attachment;  ‘ Anticipate 
the  awful  moment  of  your  bidding  the  world  an  eternal 
farewell.' — Blair.  It  is  better  to  leave  a question  un 
decided,  than  to  attempt  to  decide  it  by  altercation  or 
violence ; it  is  greater  virtue  in  a man  to  take  leave  of 
his  vices,  than  to  let  them  take  leave  of  him;  when  a 
man  engages  in  schemes  of  ambition,  he  must  bid  adieu 
to  all  the  enjoyments  of  domestick  life. 

LEAVE,  LIBERTY,  PERMISSION,  LICENSE 

Leave  has  here  the  sense  of  freedom  granted,  be- 
cause what  is  left  to  itself  is  left  free ; liberty,  in  Latin* 
libertas,  from  liber  free,  denotes  the  state  of  being  free 
from  external  restraint ; permission  signifies  the  act  of 
permitting,  or  the  thing  permitted ; license,  in  Latir 
licentia,  from  licet  to  be  lawful,  signifies  the  state  of 
beir:g  permitted  by  law,  or  the  act  of  the  law  in  per 
I mitting. 

Leave  and  liberty  are  either  given  or  taken : per 
mission  is  taken  only;  license  is  granted,  and  that  in  « 
special  manner:  leave  is  employed  only  on  familial 
occasions ; ‘ I must  have  leave  to  be  grateful  to  any 
one  who  serves  me,  let  him  be  ever  so  obnoxious  to 
any  party.’ — Pope.  Liberty  is  given  in  more  im- 
portant matters;  ‘I  am  for  the  full  liberty  of  diversion  •> 
(for  children),  as  much  as  you  can  be.’ — Locke.  The 
master  gives  leave  to  his  servant  to  go  out  for  his  plea 
sure  ; a gentleman  gives  his  friends  the  liberty  of 
shooting  on  his  grounds ; leave  is  taken  in  indifferen 
matters,  particularly  as  it  respects  leave  of  absence 
liberty  is  taken  by  a greater,  and  in  general  an  un 
authorized  stretch  of  one’s  powers,  ami  is,  therefore 
an  infringement  on  the  rights  of  another.  What  is 
done  without  the  leave  may  be  done  without  the  know- 
ledge, though  not  contrary  to  the  will,  of  another  ; but 
liberties  which  are  taken  without  offering  an  apology 
are  always  calculated  to  give  offence. 

Leave  is  granted  by  private  individuals,  but  license 
is  granted  by  publick  authority : a parent  gives  leave 
to  a child  to  take  a walk ; the  government  grants 
licenses  for  selling  different  commodities.  The  word 
license  is  however  sometimes  used  figuratively; 
Leaving  the  wits  the  spacious  air. 

With  license  to  build  castles  there.— Swift. 

Leave  and  permission  are  said  to  be  asked  for,  but 
not  liberty:  we  beg  leave  to  offer  our  opinions;  we 
request  permission,  but  not  liberty,  to  speak ; ‘ The  re 
\)oateA  permissions  you  give  me  of  dealing  freely  with 
you  will,  I hope,  excuse  what  I have  done.’— Pope. 


LEAVINGS,  REMAINS,  RELICKS. 

Leavings  are  the  consequence  of  a voluntary  ac 
they  signify  what  is  left : remains  are  what  follow  in 
the  course  of  things;  they  are  what  remain;  the 
Cornier  is  therefore  taken  in  the  bad  sense  to  signify 
what  has  been  left  as  vvorihless ; the  latter  is  never 
taken  in  this  bad  sense.  Wi'en  many  persons  of  good 


25S 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


taste  have  the  liberty  of  choosing,  it  is  fair  to  expect 
that  the  leavings  will  be  worth  little  or  nothing,  after 
all  have  made  their  choice ; 

Scales,  fins,  and  bones,  the  leavings  of  the  feast. 

Somerville. 

By  the  remains  of  beauty  which  are  discoverable  in 
the  face  of  a female,  we  may  be  enabled  to  estimate 
what  her  personal  charms  had  been ; 

So  midnight  tapers  waste  their  last  remains. 

Somerville. 

Remains  signify  literally  what  remains : relicks,  from 
the  Latin  relinquo  to  leave,  that  which  is  left.  The 
former  is  a term  of  general  and  familiar  applic  ition ; 
the  latter  is  specifick.  What  remains  after  the  use  or 
consumption  of  any  thing  is  termed  the  remains ; what 
is  left  of  any  thing  after  a lapse  of  years  is  the  relick 
or  relicks.  There  are  remains  of  buildings  mostly  after 
a conflagration  ; there  are  relicks  of  antiquity  in  most 
monasteries  and  old  churches. 

Remains  are  of  value,  or  not,  according  to  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  cases ; relicks  always  derive  a value 
from  the  person  to  whom  they  were  supposed  originally 
to  belong.  The  remains  of  a person,  that  is,  what  cor- 
poreally remains  of  a person,  after  the  extinction  of 
life,  will  be  respected  by  his  friend  ; 

Upon  these  friendly  shores,  and  flow’ry  plains. 

Which  hide  Anchises,  and  his  blest  remains. 

Dryden. 

A bit  of  a garment  that  belonged,  or  is  supposed  to 
have  belonged,  to  some  saint,  will  be  a precious  relick 
in  the  eyes  of  a superstitious  Roman  Catholick;  ‘All 
those  arts,  rarities,  and  inventions,  which  the  ingenious 
pursue,  and  all  admire,  are  but  the  relick  of  an  in- 
tellect defaced  with  sin  and  time.’— South.  All  na- 
tions have  agreed  to  respect  the  remains  of  the  dead  ; 
religion,  under  most  forms,  has  given  a sacredness  to 
’■elicks  in  the  eyes  of  its  most  zealous  votaries ; the 
veneration  of  genius,  or  the  devotedness  of  friendship, 
has  in  like  manner  transferred  itself,  from  the  indivi- 
dual himself,  to  some  object  which  has  been  his  pro- 
perty or  in  his  possession,  and  thus  fabricated  for  itself 
^itcks  equally  precious. 

LOOSE,  VAGUE,  LAX.  DISSOLUTE, 
LICENTIOUS. 

Loose,  in  German  los,  &c.,  Latin  laxus,  Greek 
iAdo-ffftv,  and  Hebrew  >Sn  to  make  free;  vagne,  '\n 
Latin  signifies  wandering;  lax,  in  Latin  laxus, 

lias  a similar  origin  with  loose ; dissolute,  in  Latin  dis- 
solutus,  participle  of  dissolvo,  signifies  dissolved  or  set 
free ; licentious,  i.  e.  having  the  license  or  power  to  do 
as  one  pleases  (y.  Leave,  liberty). 

Loose  is  the  generick,  the  rest  are  specifick  terms  ; 
they  are  all  opposed  to  that  which  is  bound  or  adheres 
closely:  loose  is  employed  either  for  moral  or  intel- 
lectual subjects ; vague  only  for  intellectual  objects : 
lax  sometimes  for  what  is  intellectual,  but  oftener  for 
the  moral ; dissolute  and  licentious  only  in  moral  mat- 
ters ; whatever  wants  a proper  connexion,  or  linking 
together  of  the  parts,  is  loose ; whatever  is  scattered 
and  remotely  separated  is  vague : a style  is  loose  where 
the  words  and  sentences  are  not  made  to  coalesce,  so 
as  to  form  a regularly  connected  series  ; assertions  are 
vague  which  have  but  a remote  connexion  with  the 
subject  referred  to  : by  the  same  rule,  loose  hints 
thrown  out  at  random  may  give  rise  to  speculation  and 
conjecture,  but  cannot  serve  as  the  ground  of  any  con- 
clusion ; ignorant  people  are  apt  to  credit  every  vague 
rumour,  and  to  communicate  it  as  a certainty. 

Opinions  are  loose,  either  inasmuch  as  they  want 
logical  precision,  or  as  they  fail  in  moral  strictness; 
‘ Because  conscience  and  the  fear  of  swerving  from 
that  which  is  right,  maketh  them  diligent  observers  of 
circumstances,  the  loose  regard  whereof  is  the  nurse 
of  vulgar  folly.’— Hooker.  Suggestions  and  surmises 
are  in  their  nature  vague,  as  they  spring  from  a very 
remote  channel,  or  are  produced  by  the  wanderings  of 
the  imagination  ; ‘ That  action  winch  is  vague  and  in- 
determinate will  at  last  settle  into  habit,  and  habitual 
peculiarities  are  quickly  ridiculous.’— Johnson.  Opi- 
nions are  lax,  inasmuch  as  they  have  a tendency  to 
lessen  the  moral  obligation,  or  to  loosen  moral  ties; 
‘In  this  general  depravity  of  manners  and  laxity  of 
principles,  pure  religion  is  no  where  more  strongly  in- 


culcated (than  in  our  universities).’ — Johnson.  Leost 
notions  arise  from  the  unrestrained  state  of  the  will, 
from  the  influence  of  the  unruly  passions;  lax  notions 
from  the  errour  of  the  judgement;  loose  piinciples 
aflect  the  moral  conduct  of  individuals;  lax  principle.* 
affect  the  speculative  opinions  of  men,  either  as  iudi 
yiduals  or  in  society  : one  is  loose  in  practice,  and  lax 
in  speculation  or  in  discipline;  the  loose  man  sins 
against  his  conscience  ; he  sets  himself  free  fr-'in  that 
to  which  he  knows  that  he  ought  to  submit  the  lax 
man  errs,  but  he  affects  to  defend  his  errour.  A loose 
man  injures  himself,  but  a lax  man  injures,  society  at 
large.  Dissoluteness  is  the  excess  of  looseness  ; licen- 
tiousness is  the  consequence  of  laxity,  or  the  freedom 
from  external  constraint. 

Looseness  of  character,  if  indulged,  soon  sinks  into 
dissoluteness  of  morals;  and  laxity  of  discipiin?  is 
quickly  followed  by  licentiousness  of  manners. 

A young  man  of  loose  character  makes  light  of 
moral  obligations  in  general;  ‘The  most  voluptuous 
and  loose  person  breathing,  were  he  but  tied  to  follow 
his  dice  and  his  courtships  every  day,  would  find  it  the 
greatest  torment  that  could  befall  him.’ — South.  A 
man  of  dissolute  character  commits  every  excess,  and 
totally  disregards  every  restraint ; ‘ As  the  life  of  Petro 
nius  Arbiter  was  altogether  dissolute,  the  indiflerence 
which  he  showed  at  the  close  of  it  is  to  be  looked  upon 
as  a piece  of  natural  carelessness  rather  than  fortitude.’ 
— Addison.  In  proportion  as  a commander  is  lax  in 
the  punishment  of  offences,  an  army  will  become 
Ucemious ; in  jnoportion  as  the  administration  of  law 
becomes  Zax,  the  age  will  become  licentious;  ‘Moral 
philosophy  is  very  agreeable  to  the  paradoxical  and 
licentious  spirit  of  the  age.’ — Beattie. 


SLACK,  LOOSE. 

Slack,  in  Saxon  slaec,  low  German  slack,  Frencn 
lache,  Latin  laxus,  and  loose,  in  Saxon  laes,  both 
come  from  the  Hebrew  V*?!!  to  make  free  or  Zoose; 
they  differ  more  in  application  than  in  sense ; th'>y  are 
both  opposed  to  that  which  is  close  bound;  but  -lack 
is  said  only  of  that  which  is  tied,  or  that  with  vh  hich 
any  thing  is  tied ; while  looseis  said  of  any  substn.  ices, 
the  parts  of  which  do  not  adhere  closely:  a ro|  e is 
slack  in  opposition  to  the  tight  rope,  which  is  streh  iied 
to  its  full  extent;  and  in  general  cords  or  strings  are 
said  to  be  sZacA:  which  fail  in  the  requjoite  degree  of 
tightne.ss;  but  they  are  said  to  be  loose  in  an  indefin.te 
manner,  without  conveying  any  collateral  idea:  thus 
the  string  of  an  instrument  is  denominated  slaik 
rather  than  loose;  on  the  other  hand,  loose  is  said  of 
many  bodies  to  which  the  word  slack  cannot  be  ap- 
plied: a garment  is  loose,  but  not  slack ; the  leg  of  a 
table  is  loose,  but  not  slack.  In  the  moral  application 
that  which  admits  of  extension  lengthways  is  deno- 
minated slack;  and  that  which  fails  in  consistency 
and  close  adherence  is  Zoose;  trade  in  general  is  said 
to  be  slack,  or  the  sale  of  a particular  article  to  be 
slack ; but  an  engagement  is  said  to  be  loose,  and  prin 
ciples  loose. 

Rebellion  now  began,  for  lack 

Of  zeal  and  plunder,  to  grow  slack. — Hudibras 

Nor  fear  that  he  who  sits  so  loose  to  life. 

Should  too  much  shun  its  labours  and  its  strife. 

Denham 

TO  RELAX,  REMIT. 

The  general  idea  of  diminution  is  that  which  allies 
these  words  to  each  other ; but  they  differ  very  widely 
in  their  original  meaning,  and  somewhat  in  their  ordi- 
nary application  ; relax,  from  the  word  'az  or  loose, 
signifies  to  make  loose,  and  in  its  moral  use  to  lessen 
any  thing  in  its  degree  of  tightness  or  rigour  ; to  remit, 
from  re  and  mitto  to  send  back,  signifies  to  take  off'  in 
part  or  entirely  that  which  has  been  imposed  ; that  is, 
to  lessen  in  quantity.  In  regard  to  our  attempts  to  act, 
we  may  speak  of  relaxing  in  our  endeavours,  and  re- 
mitting our  labours  or  exertions  ; 

No  more  the  smith  his  dusky  brow  shall  clear, 
Relax  his  ponderous  strength,  and  lean  to  hear. 

Goldsmith 

How  often  have  I blessed  the  coming  day. 

When  toil  remitting  lent  its  turn  to  play. 

Goldsmith 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  25'< 


in  regard  to  our  dealings  with  others,  we  may  speak 
jf  relaxing  in  discipline,  relaxing  in  tho  severity  or 
Btrictness  of  our  oondnct,  of  remitting  a punishment 
or  remitting  a sentence.  The  discretionary  power  of 
showing  mercy  when  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  sove- 
reign, serves  to  relax  the  rigour  of  the  law;  ‘The 
statute  of  mortmain  was  at  several  times  relaxed  by 
Che  legislature.’— Swift.  When  the  punishment  seems 
to  be  disproportioned  to  the  magnitude  of  the  offence, 
it  is  but  equitable  to  remit  it.  ‘ The  magistrate  can 
often,  where  the  publick  good  demands  not  the  execu- 
tion of  the  law,  remit  the  punishment  of  criminal 
offences  by  his  own  authority.’ — Locke. 

TO  CEASE,  LEAVE  OFF,  DISCONTINUE, 
DESIST. 

Cfease,  in  French  cesser,  Latin  cesso,  from  cessi  per- 
fect of  cedo  to  yield,  signifies  to  give  up  or  put  an  end 
to:  to  leave  off  is  literally  to  separate  one’s  self  from 
an  action  or  course  of  conduct ; discontinue,  with  the 
privative  expresses  the  opposite  oi  continue:  de- 
sist, from  the  Latin  desisto,  or  de  and  sisto,  signifies 
literally  to  take  one’s  self  off  from  a thing. 

To  cease  is  neuter ; to  leave  off'  and  discontinue  are 
active ; we  cease  from  doing  a thing  ; we  leave  off  or 
discontinue  a thing.  Cease  is  used  either  for  particular 
actions  or  general  habits  ; leave  off  more  usually  and 
properly  for  particular  actions ; discontinue  for  general 
habits.  A restless,  spoiled  child  never  ceases  crying 
until  it  has  obtained  what  it  wants  ; it  is  a mark  of 
impatience  not  to  cease  lamenting  when  one  is  in  pain ; 
A successful  author  is  equally  in  danger  of  the  dimi- 
nution of  his  fame,  whether  he  continues  or  ceases  to 
write,’ — Johnson.  A labourer  leaves  off  his  work  at 
any  given  hour ; ‘ As  harsh  and  irregular  sound  is  not 
harmony;  so  neither  is  banging  a cushion,  oratory; 
therefore,  in  my  humble  opinion,  a certain  divine  of 
the  first  order  would  do  well  to  leave  this  off.'— Swift. 
A delicate  person  discontinues  his  visits  when  they  are 
found  not  to  be  agreeable ; ‘ I would  cheerfully  have 
borne  the  whole  expense  of  it,  if  my  private  establish- 
ment of  native  readers  and  writers,  which  I cannot 
with  convenience  discontinue  at  present,  did  not  require 
more  than  half  of  the  monthly  expense,  which  the  com- 

letion  of  a Digest  would  in  my  opinion  demand.’ — 

iR  Wm.  Jones. 

It  should  be  our  first  endeavour  to  cease  to  do  evil. 
It  is  never  good  to  leave  off  working  while  there  is  any 
thing  to  do,  and  time  to  do  it  in.  The  discontinuing  of 
a good  practice  without  adequate  grounds  evinces  great 
instability  of  character. 

To  cease  is  said  of  that  which  flows  out  of  the  nature 
of  things;  to  leave  off,  discontinue,  and  desist,  are 
always  the  acts  of  conscious  agents.  To  leave  off  and 
discontinue  are  voluntary  acts,  desist  is  involuntary ; 
it  is  prudent  to  desist  from  using  our  endeavours  when 
we  find  them  ineffectual ; it  is  natural  for  a person  to 
leave  off  when  he  sees  no  farther  occasion  to  continue 
his  labour;  ‘The  laird  of  Raarsa  has  sometimes  dis- 
puted the  chieftainry  of  the  clan  with  Macleod  of  Skie  ; 
but  being  much  inferiour  in  extent  of  possessions,  has, 
f suppose,  been  forced  to  desist.' — Johnson. 

CESSATION,  STOP,  REST,  INTERMISSION. 

Cessation,  from  the  verb  to  cease,  marks  the  condition 
of  leaving  off ; stop,  from  to  stop,  marks  that  of  being 
stopped  or  prevented  from  going  on  ; rest,  from  to  rest, 
marks  the  state  of  being  quiet ; and  intermission,  from 
intermit,  marks  that  of  ceasing  occasionally. 

To  cease  respects  the  course  of  things ; whatever 
does  not  go  on  has  ceased;  things  cease  of  themselves: 
stop  respects  some  external  action  or  influence ; nothing 
stops  but  what  is  supposed  to  be  stopped  or  hindered  by 
another : rest  is  a species  of  cessation  that  regards 
labour  or  exertion  ; whatever  does  not  move  or  exert 
Itself  is  at  rest:  intermission  is  a species  of  cessation 
only  for  a time  or  at  certain  intervals. 

That  which  ceases  or  stops  is  supposed  to  be  at  an 
end;  rest  or  intermission  supposes  a renewal.  A ccs- 
aatian  of  hostilities  is  at  all  times  desirable  : to  put  a 
stop  to  evil  practices  is  sometimes  the  most  difficult  and 
dangerous  of  all  undertakings : rest  after  fatigue  is 
indispensable,  for  labour  without  mtcrmr'ssion  exhausts 
the  frame.  The  rain  ceases,  a person  or  a ball  stops 
running,  the  labourer  rests  from  his  toil,  a fever  is  inter- 


mittent. There  is  nothing  in  the  world  which  does  not 
cease  to  exist  at  one  period  or  another ; 

Who  then  would  court  the  pomp  of  guilty  power, 
When  the  mind  sickens  at  the  weary  show, 

And  flies  to  temporary  death  for  ease  1 
When  half  our  life ’s  cessation  of  our  being. 

Steele. 

Death  stops  every  one  sooner  or  later  in  his  career , 
‘ In  all  those  motions  and  operations  which  are  inces- 
santly going  on  throughout  nature,  there  is  no  stop  not 
interruption.’ — Blair.  Whoever  is  vexed  with  the 
cares  of  getting  riches  will  find  no  rest  for  his  mind  or 
body  ; ‘ The  refreshing  rest  and  peaceful  night  are  tlte 
portion  of  him  only  who  lies  down  weary  with  honest 
labour.’ — Johnson.  He  will  labour  without  intermie 
xion  oftentimes  only  to  heap  troubles  on  himself 
‘ Whether  the  time  of  intermission  is  spent  in  company 
or  in  solitude,  in  necessary  business  or  involuntary 
levities,  the  understanding  is  equally  abstracted  from 
the  object  of  inquiry.’ — Johnson. 


INTERVAL,  RESPITE. 

Interval,  in  Latin  intervallum,  signifies  literally  the 
space  between  the  stakes  which  formed  a Roman 
intrenchment;  and,  by  an  extended  application,  it  sig 
nifies  any  space;  respite,  probably  contracted  from 
respirit,  signifies  a breathing  again. 

Every  respite  requires  an  interval ; but  there  are 
many  intervals  where  there  is  no  respite.  The  term 
interval  respects  time  only ; respite  includes  the  idea 
of  action  within  that  time  which  may  be  more  or  less 
agreeaWe  ; intervals  of  ease  are  a respite  to  one  who 
is  oppressed  with  labour ; ‘ Any  uncommon  exertion 
of  strength,  or  perseverance  in  labour,  is  succeeded  by 
a long  interval  of  languor.’ — Johnson.  The  interval 
which  is  sometimes  granted  to  a criminal  before  his 
execution  is  in  the  properest  sense  a respite ; ‘ Give  me 
leave  to  allow  myself  no  respite  from  labour  ’ — Spec- 
tator. 


REPRIEVE,  RESPITE. 

Reprieve  comes  in  all  probability  from  the  French 
repris,  participle  of  reprendre,  tand  the  Latin  repre- 
hendo,  signifying  to  take  back  or  take  off  that  which 
has  been  laid  on  ; respite  signifies  the  same  as  in  the 
preceding  article. 

The  idea  of  a release  from  any  pressure  or  burden  is 
common  to  these  terms ; but  the  reprieve  is  that  which 
is  granted;  the  respite  sometimes  comes  to  us  in  the 
course  of  things : we  gain  a reprieve  from  any  punish- 
ment or  trouble  which  threatens  us  ; we  gain  a respite 
from  any  labour  or  weight  that  presses  upon  us.  A 
criminal  gains  a reprieve  when  the  punishment  of 
death  is  commuted  for  that  of  transportation;  adebtor 
may  be  said  to  obtain  a reprieve  when,  with  a prison 
before  his  eyes,  he  gets  such  indulgence  from  his  credit 
ors  as  sets  him  free  ; there  is  frequently  no  respite  for 
persons  in  a subordinate  station,  when  they  fall  into 
the  hands  of  a hard  taskmaster;  Sisyphus  is  feigned 
by  the  poets  to  have  been  condemned  to  the  toil  of 
perpetually  rolling  a stone  up  a hill  as  fast  as  it  rolled 
back,  from  which  toil  he  had  no  respite  ; 

All  that  I ask  is  but  a short  reprieve. 

Till  I forget  to  love  and  learn  to  grieve. 

Some  pause  and  respite  only  I require. 

Till  with  my  tears  I shall  have  quench’d  my  fire. 

Dryden. 


INCESSANTLY,  UNCEASINGLY,  UNINTER- 
RUPTEDLY, WITHOUT  INTERMISSION. 

The  want  of  continuity,  not  of  duration,  is  denoted 
by  these  terms  ; incessantly  is  the  most  general  and 
indefinite  of  all ; it  signifies  without  ceasing,  but  may 
be  applied  to  things  which  admit  of  certain  intervals: 
unceasingly  is  definite,  and  signifies  never  ceasing,  it 
cannot  therefore  be  applied  to  what  has  any  cessation. 
In  familiar  discourse,  incessantly  is  a hyperbolick 
mode  of  speech,  by  which  one  means  to  denote  the  ab- 
sence of  those  ordinary  intervals  which  are  to  be  ex- 
pected ; as  when  one  says  a person  is  incessantly 
talking ; by  which  is  understood,  that  he  does  not  allow 
himself  the  ordinary  intervals  rest  from  talking ; 


258 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


Surfeat,  misdiet,  and  unthrifty  waste, 

V'aine  feastes,  and  ydle  superfluite, 

AH  those  this  sence’s  fort  assayle  incessantly. 

Spenser. 

Unceasingly.,  on  the  other  hand,  is  more  literally  em- 
ployed for  a positive  want  of  cessation  ; a noise  is  said 
to  be  unceasing  which  literally  never  ceases ; or  com- 
plaints are  unceasing  which  are  made  without  any 
pauses  or  intervals; 

Iinpell’d  with  steps  unceasing,  to  pursue 

Some  fleeting  good  that  mocks  me  with  the  view. 

Goldsmith. 

Incessantly  and  unceasingly  are  said  of  things  which 
act  of  themselves  ; uninterruptedly  is  said  of  that 
which  depends  upon  other  things:  it  rains  incessantZy 
marks  a continued  operation  of  nature,  independent 
of  every  thing  ; but  to  be  uninterruptedly  happy  marks 
one’s  freedom  from  every  foreign  influence  which  is 
unfriendly  to  one’s  happiness; 

She  draws  a close  incumbent  cloud  of  death. 

Uninterrupted  by  the  living  winds.— Thomson. 

Incessantly  and  the  other  two  words  are  employed 
either  for  persons  or  things ; without  intermission  is 
however  mostly  employed  for  persons ; things  act  and 
react  incessantly  upon  one  another  ; a man  of  a per- 
severing temper  goes  on  labouring  without  intermis- 
sion, until  he  has  effected  his  purpose ; ‘ For  any  one 
to  be  always  in  a laborious,  hazardous  posture  of 
defence,  without  intermission,  must  needs  be  intolera- 
ole.’— South. 

ALWAYS,  AT  ALL  TIMES,  EV^. 

Jllways,  compounded  of  all  and  ways,  is  the  same 
a.s,  under  all  circumstances,  through  all  the  ways  of 
life,  that  is,  uninterruptedly  ; at  all  times,  means, 
without  distinction  of  time;  eucr  implies,  for  a perpe- 
tuity, without  end. 

A man  must  be  always  virtuous,  that  is,  whether  in 
adversity  or  prosperity  ; ‘ Human  life  never  stands  still 
for  any  long  time.  It  is  by  no  means  a fixed  and  steady 
object,  like  the  mountain  or  the  rock,  which  you  always 
find  in  the  same  situation.’ — Blair.  A man  must  be 
at  all  times  virtuous,  that  is,  in  his  going  in  and  coming 
out,  his  rising  up  and  his  lying  down,  by  day  and  by 
night;  ‘Among  all  the  expressions  of  good  nature,  I 
shall  single  out  that  which  goes  under  the  general  name 
of  charity,  as  it  consists  in  relieving  the  indigent ; that 
being  a trial  of  tins  kind  which  offers  itself  to  us  almost 
at  all  times,  and  in  every  place.’ — Addison.  A virtuous 
man  will  be  ever  happy,  that  is,  in  this  life,  and  the 
life  to  come  ; ‘ Have  you  forgotten  all  the  blessings  you 
have  continued  to  enjoy  ever  since  the  day  that  you 
came  forth  a helpless  infant  into  the  world.’ — Blair. 

TO  STAND,  STOP,  REST,  STAGNATE, 

To  stand,  in  German  stehen,  &c.  Latin  sto,  Greek 
S'sTjpt  to  stand,  Hebrew  to  settle  ; stop,  in  Saxon 
stoppan,&LC.  conveys  the  ideas  of  pressing,  thickening, 
like  the  Latin  stipa,  and  the  Greek  whence  it 

nas  been  made  in  English  to  express  immoveability ; 
rest  is  contracted  from  the  Latin  resisto  or  re  and  sisto 
to  place  or  stand  back;  stagnate,  in  Latin  stagnatus, 
participle  of  stagno,  comes  from  siagnum  a pool,  and 
that  either  from  sto  to  stand,  because  waters  stand 
perpetually  in  a pool,  or  from  the  Greek  <^eyvbi  an  enclo- 
sure, because  a pool  is  an  enclosure  for  waters. 

The  absence  of  motion  is  expressed  by  all  these 
terms ; stand  is  the  most  general  of  all ; to  stand  is 
simply  not  to  move ; to  stop  is  to  cease  to  move : we 
stand  either  for  want  of  inclination  or  power  to  move ; 
but  we  stop  from  a disinclination  to  goon : to  rest  is  to 
stop  from  an  express  dislike  to  motion ; we  may  stop 
for  purposes  of  convenience,  or  because  we  have  no 
farther  to  go,  but  we  rest  from  fatigue  ; to  stagnate  is 
only  a species  of  standing  as  respects  liquids  ; water 
may  both  stand  and  stagnate;  but  tbe  former  implies 
a temporary,  the  latter  a permanent  state : water 
stands  in  a puddle,  but  it  stagnates  in  a pond  or  in  any 
confined  space. 

All  these  terms  admit  of  an  extended  application  ; 
business  stands  still,  or  there  is  a stand  in  business ; 

Whither  can  we  run, 

Where  make  a strewc/ ?—Dryden. 


A mercantile  house  stops,  or  stops  payment,  or  a per 
son  stops  ill  bis  career;  ‘lam  afraid  should  I puts 
stop  now  to  this  design,  now  that  it  is  so  near  being 
compleated,  I shall  find  it  difficult  to  resume  it.’— 
Melmoth  {Pliny).  An  affair  rests  undecided,  or 
in  the  hands  of  a person  ; 

Who  rests  of  immortality  assur’d 
Is  safe,  whatever  ills  are  here  endur’d.— Jenyn3 
Trade  stagnates;  ‘This  inundation  of  stranger^ 
which  used  to  be  confined  to  the  summer,  will  stag- 
nate all  the  winter.’ — Gibbon.  Stand,  stop,  and  rest 
are  likewise  employed  transitively,  but  with  a wide 
distinction  in  the  sense ; to  stand  in  this  case  is  to  set 
one’s  self  up  to  resist;  as  to  stand  the  .rial,  to  stand 
the  test : to  stop  has  the  sense  of  liinder;  as  to  stop  a 
person  w'ho  is  going  on,  that  is,  to  make  him  stop  : t« 
rest  is  to  make  a thing  rest  or  lean ; a person  rests  his 
argument  upon  the  supposed  innocence  of  another 

TO  CHECK,  STOP 

Check,  from  the  German  Schach  chess,  derives  ha 
figurative  signification  of  restraining  the  movements, 
from  checkmate,  a movement  in  that  game  whereby 
one  stops  one  adversary  from  carrying  his  game  any 
farther;  to  stop  (v.  Cessation)  is  to  cause  not  to  move 
at  all : the  growth  of  a plant  is  checked  when  it  does 
not  grow  so  fast  as  usual ; fts  growth  is  stopped  when 
it  ceases  altogether  to  grow  : the  water  of  a river  is 
stopped  by  a dam ; the  rapidity  of  its  course  is  checked 
by  the  intervention  of  rocks  and  sands. 

When  applied  to  persons,  to  check  is  always  con 
trary  to  the  will  of  the  sufferer  ; but  to  stop  is  oftea  a 
matter  of  indifference,  if  not  directly  serviceable ; one 
is  checked  in  his  career  of  success  by  some  untowarc 
event ; ‘ Shall  neither  the  admonitions  which  you  re 
ceive  from  the  visible  inconstancy  of  the  world,  nor 
the  declarations  of  the  Divine  displeasure,  be  suflicien 
to  check  your  thoughtless  career?’ — Blair.  One  b 
stopped  on  a journey  by  the  meeting  of  a friend 
Embosom’d  in  the  deep  where  Holland  lies, 
Methinks  her  patient  sons  before  me  stand, 

Where  the  broad  ocean  leans  against  the  land, 

And  sedulous  to  stop  the  coming  tide, 

Lift  the  tall  rampire’s  artificial  pride.— Goldsmith 
In  a moral  application  these  terms  bear  a siinilat 
analogy;  check  has  the  import  of  diminishing;  stop 
that  of  destroying  or  causing  to  cease : many  evild 
may  be  easily  checked,  to  which  it  would  not  be  easy 
to  put  an  effectual  stop. 

TO  HINDER.  STOP. 

Hinder,  from  hind  or  behind,  signifies  to  hinder  by 
going  behind  or  pulling  one  behind ; to  stop  is  to  make 
to  stand. 

Hindering  refers  solely  to  the  prosecution  of  an 
object;  stop  refers  simply  to  the  cessation  of  motion  ; 
we  may  be  hindered,  therefore,  by  being  stopped  ; but 
we  may  also  be  hindered  without  being  expressly 
stopped,  and  we  may  be  stopped  without  being  him 
dered.  If  the  stoppage  do  not  interfere  with  any 
other  object  in  view,  it  is  a stoppage,  but  not  a hin- 
drance ; as  when  we  are  stopped  by  a friend  while 
walking  for  pleasure ; 

A signal  omen  stopp'd  the  passing  host. 

Their  martial  fury  in  their  wonder  lost. — Pope. 

But  if  stopped  by  an  idler  in  the  midst  of  urgent 
business,  so  as  not  to  be  able  to  proceed  according  tc 
our  business,  this  is  both  a stoppage  and  a hindrance. 
On  the  other  hand  if  we  are  interrupted  in  the  regular 
course  of  our  proceeding,  but  not  compelled  to  stand 
still  or  give  up  our  business  for  any  time,  this  may  be 
a hindrance,  but  not  a stoppage  : in  this  manner,  the 
conversation  of  others,  in  the  midst  of  our  business, 
may  considerably  retard  its  progress,  and  so  far  hinder, 
but  not  expressly  put  a stop  to  the  whole  concern  ; ‘ Is 
it  not  the  height  of  wisdom  and  goodness  too,  iohinder 
the  consummation  of  those  soul-wasting  sins,  bv 
obliging  us  to  withstand  them  in  their  first  infancy  J'— 
South. 

TO  HINDER,  PREVENT,  IMPEDE,  OBSTEFiM: 

Hinder  signifies  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  article 
prevent,  from  pvee  before  and  venio  to  come,  si2iii?ies  to 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  2S<; 


kinder  by  coming  before,  or  to  cross  another  by  the  an- 
ticipation of  his  purpose ; impede^  in  Latin  from  in 
and  pedes  tlie  feet,  signifies  lo  come  between  his  feet 
and  entangle  him  in  his  progress ; ‘ Irnpedire  profec- 
tionem  aut  certe  tardare.’ — Cicero.  Obstruct^  from 
ob  and  struo,  signifies  to  set  up  something  in  one’s  way, 
to  block  up  the  passage. 

Hinder  is  the  most  general  of  these  terms,  as  it  con- 
veys little  more  than  the  idea  which  is  common  to 
them  all,  namely,  that  of  keeping  one  from  his  pur- 
pose. To  hinder  is  commonly  said  of  that  which  is 
rendrred  impossible  for  the  lime  being,  or  merely  de- 
layed ; prevent  is  said  of  that  which  is  rendered  alto- 
gether impracticable.  A person  is  hindered  by  the 
weather  and  his  various  engagements  from  reaching  a 
place  at  the  time  he  intended ; he  is  prevented  but  not 
hindered  by  ill  health  from  going  thither  at  all.  If  a 
friend  calls,  he  hinders  me  from  finishing  the  letter 
which  I was  writing ; if  I wish  to  prevent  my  son 
from  reading  any  book,  I keep  it  out  of  ids  way ; ‘ It  is 
much  easier  to  keepourselves  void  of  resentment,  than 
to  restrain  it  from  excess  when  it  has  gained  admission. 
'I’o  use  the  illustration  of  an  excellent  author,  we  can 
j '•event  the  beginnings  of  some  things,  whose  progress 
afterward  we  cannot  hinder.' — Holland. 

To  hinder  is  an  act  of  the  moment,  it  supposes  no 
design ; prevent  is  a premeditated  act,  deliberated  upon, 
and  adopted  for  general  purposes:  the  former  is  applied 
only  to  the  movements  of  any  particular  individual, 
the  latter  to  events  and  circumstances.  I hinder  a 
person  who  is  running,  if  I lay  hold  of  his  arm  and 
make  him  walk ; it  is  the  object  of  every  good  govern- 
ment to  prevent  offences  rather  than  to  punish  offend- 
ers. In  ordinary  discourse  these  words  fall  very  much 
into  one  another,  when  the  circumstances  of  the  case 
do  not  sufficiently  define,  whether  the  action  in  hand 
oe  altogether  suspended,  or  only  suspended  for  a 
time ; but  the  above  explanation  must  make  it  very 
clear,  that  hinder,  in  its  proper  sense  and  application, 
is  but  a temporary  act,  and  prevent  is  a decisive  and 
permanent  act. 

To  impede  and  obstruct  is  a species  of  hindering 
which  is  said  rather  of  things  tlian  of  persons  ; hinder 
is  said  of  both ; but  hinder  is  commonly  employed  in 
regard  to  trifling  matters,  or  such  as  retard  a person’s 
proceedings  in  the  smallest  degree ; impede  and  ob- 
struct are  acts  of  greater  importance,  or  produce  a 
btill  greater  degree  of  delay.  A person  is  hindered  in 
his  work,  although  neither  impeded  nor  obstructed ; 
but  the  quantity  of  artillery  and  baggage  which  is 
attached  to  an  army  will  greatly  impede  it  in  ils  march ; 
and  the  trees  which  are  thrown  across  the  roads  will 
obstruct  its  march. 

Whatever  causes  a person  to  do  a thing  slower  than 
he  wishes  is  a hindrance ; whatever  binds  him  so  that 
he  cannot  move  freely  forward  is  an  impediment ; 
whatever  acts  upon  the  path  or  passage  so  as  to  pre- 
vent him  from  moving  forward  i«  an  obstruction. 
Every  impediment^  and  obstruction  is  a hindrance, 
though  not  vice  versa.  A person  is  hindered  in  the 
thing  he  is  about  if  he  be  called  off  to  do  something 
else ; ill  health  impedes  a person’s  progress  in  learning ; 
any  foreign  body  lodging  in  the  vessels  of  the  human 
body  obstructs  the  course  of  the  fluids,  and  con- 
sequently brings  on  serious  diseases.  Hindrances 
always  suppose  the  agency  of  a person,  cither  of  the 
one  who  hinders,  or  the  one  who  \?i  hindered ; but  im- 
pediments and  obstructions  may  be  employed  with 
regard  to  the  operations  of  nature  on  inanimate  ob- 
jects. Cold  impedes  the  growth  of  plants ; a dam  ob- 
structs the  course  of  water  ; ‘Truth  was  provoked  to 
ree  herself  thus  baffled  and  impeded  hy  an  enemy 
vvhom  she  looked  on  with  co.ntempt.’ — Johnson. 

This  path  vou  say  is  hid  in  endless  night, 

*T  is  self-conceit  alone  obstructs  your  sight. 

Jenyns. 


DIFFICULTY,  OBSTACLE,  IMPEDIMENT. 

Difficulty,  in  Latin  difficullas  and  difficilis,  com- 
pounded of  tne  privative  ais  and  facilis  easy,  from 
facia  to  do,  signifies  the  thing  not  easy  to  be  done  ; 
obstacle,  in  Latin  obstaculurn,  ixom  obstoXo  stand  in 
the  way,  signifies  the  thing  that  stands  in  the  way  be- 
tween a person  and  the  object  he  has  in  view  ; impedi- 
ment. in  iudLimimpedimentum,  from  mpedfo  compound- 


ed of  in  and  pedes,  signifies  something  that  entangles 
the  feet. 

All  these  terms  include  in  their  signification  that 
which  interferes  either  with  the  actions  or  views  of 
men : the-difficulty*  lies  most  in  the  nature  and  circum- 
stances of  the  thing  itself ; the  obstacle  and  impedi- 
ment consist  of  that  which  is  external  or  foreign : a 
difficulty  interferes  with  the  completion  of  any  work ; 
an  obstacle  interferes  with  the  attainment  of  any  end  , 
an  impediment  interrupts  the  progress,  and  prevents  the 
execution  of  one’s  wishes:  a difficulty  embarrasses,  it 
suspends  the  powers  of  acting  or  deciding ; an  obstacle 
opposes  itself,  it  is  properly  met  in  the  way,  and  inter- 
venes between  us  and  our  object ; an  impediment 
shackles  and  puts  a stop  to  our  proceedings:  we  speak 
of  encountering  a difficulty,  surmounting  an  obstacle, 
and  removing  an  impediment : the  disposition  of  the 
mind  often  occasions  more  difficulties  in  negociations 
than  the  subjects  themselves;  ‘Truth  lias  less  of 
trouble  and  difficulty,  of  entanglement  and  perplexity, 
of  danger  and  hazard  in  it.’— Tillotson.  The  elo- 
quence of  Demosthenes  was  the  greatest  obstacle 
which  Philip  of  Macedon  experienced  in  his  political 
career;  '•  Ox\o  obstacle  must  have  stood  not  a little  in 
the  way  of  that  preferment  after  which  Young  seems 
to  liave  panted.  Though  he  took  orders,  he  never 
entirely  shook  off  politicks.’ — Croft.  Ignorance  of 
Hie  language  is  the  greatest  impediment  which  a 
foreigner  experiences  in  the  pursuit  of  any  object  out 
of  his  own  country  , ‘ Tlie  necessity  of  complying  with 
times,  and  of  sparing  persons,  is  the  great  impedimen 
of  biography.’ — Johnson. 

TO  PREVENT,  ANTICIPATE. 

To  prevent  {v.  To  hinder)  is  literally  to  come  before- 
hand, and  anticipate,  from  ante  and  capio  to  take 
beforehand  : the  former  is  employed  for  actual  occur- 
rences ; the  latter  as  much  for  calculations  as  for 
actions  : prevent  is  the  act  of  one  being  towards  an- 
other; anticipate  is  the  act  of  a being  either  towards 
himself  or  another.  God  is  said  to  prevent  us,  if  he 
interposes  with  his  grace  to  divert  our  purposes  towards 
that  which  is  right ; ‘ Prevent  us,  O Lord,  in  all  our 
doings  with  thy  most  gracious  favour.’ — Common 
Prayer.  We  anticipate  the  happiness  which  we  are 
to  enjoy  in  future ; and  so  in  like  manner  we  may 
anticipate  our  pains; 

Why  should  we 
our  sorrows?  ’T  is  like  those 
Who  die  for  fear  of  death. — Denham. 

We  also  anticipate  what  a person  is  going  to  say  oy 
saying  the  same  thing  before  him.  The  term  prevent, 
when  taken  in  this  its  strict  and  literal  sense,  is  em 
ployed  only  as  the  act  of  the  Divine  Being ; 

But  I do  think  it  most  cowardly  and  vile. 

For  fear  of  what  might  fall,  so  to  prevent 
The  time  of  life. — Shaksteare. 

.Anticipate,  on  the  contrary,  is  taken  only  as  the  act 
of  human  beings  towards  each  other  or  themselves; 

‘ He  that  has  anticipated  the  conversation  of  a wit 
will  wonder  to  what  prejudice  heowes  his  reputation.’ 
— Johnson.  These  words  may,  howe'"-**-,  be  farther 
allied  lo  each  other,  when  under  the  t‘“rm  prevention 
in  its  vulgar  acceptation  is  included  tne  idea  of  hin- 
dering another  in  his  proceedtiigs;  in  which  case  to 
anticipate  is  a species  of  prevention ; that  is,  to  pre- 
vent another  from  doing  a thing  by  doing  it  one’s  self, 
‘I  am  far  from  pretending  to  instruct  the  profession,  or 
anticipating  their  directions  to  such  as  are  under  their 
j government.’ — Arbuthnot. 

TO  PREVENT,  OBVIATE,  PRECLUDE. 

To  prevent  (v.  To  hinder)  is  here  as  in  the  former 
case  the  generick  term,  the  others  are  specifick.  What 
one  prevents  does  not  happen  at  all:  what  one  ob- 
viates ceases  to  happen  in  future;  we  prevent  those 
evils  which  we  know  will  come  to  pass  if  not  pre- 
vented : we  obviate  those  evils  which  we  have  already 
felt ; that  is,  we  prevent  their  repetition.  Crimes  and 
calamities  are  prevented;  difficulties,  objections,  in 
conveniences,  and  troubles,  aie  obviated.  WlieE 

* Vide  Abbe  Girard  : “ Difficult^,  obstacle,  em 
p^chemeut  ” 


260 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


crowds  ccTfect  in  vast  numbers  in  any  small  spot,  it  is 
not  easy  to  prevent  mischief : wise  precautions  may 
be  adopted  to  obviate  the  inconvenience  which  neces- 
sarily attends  a great  crowd. 

Prevent  and  obviate  are  the  acts  of  either  conscious 
or  unconscious  agents : preclude  is  the  act  of  uncon- 
scious agents  only : one  prevents  or  obviates  a thing 
by  the  use  of  means,  or  else  the  things  themselves 
prevent  and  obviate,  as  when  we  say,  that  a person 
prevents  another  from  coming,  or  illness  prevents  him 
from  coming ; a person  obviates  a difficulty  by  a con- 
trivance, a certain  arrangement  or  change  obviates 
every  difficulty.  We  intentionally  prevent  a person 
from  doing  that  which  we  disapprove  of ; his  circum- 
stances preclude  liim  from  enjoying  certain  privileges. 
Prevent  respects  that  which  is  either  good  or  bad ; 
obviate  respects  that  which  is  always  bad;  preclude 
respects  that  which  is  good  or  desirable:  ill-health 
prevents  a person  from  pursuing  his  business;  em- 
ployment prevents  a young  person  from  falling  into 
bad  practices ; 

Ev’ry  disease  of  age  we  may  prevent, 

Like  those  of  youth,  by  being  diligent. — Denham. 
Admonition  often  obviates  the  necessity  of  punish- 
ments; ‘The  imputation  of  folly,  if  it  is  true,  must 
be  suffered  without  hope  ; but  that  of  immorality  may 
be  obviated  by  removing  the  cause.’ — Hawkesworth. 
Want  of  learning  or  of  a regular  education  often  pre- 
cludes a man  from  many  of  the  political  advantages 
which  lie  might  otherwise  enjoy;  ‘Has  not  man  an 
inheritance  to  which  all  may  return,  who  are  not  so 
foolish  as  to  continue  the  pursuit  after  pleasure  till 
every  hope  is  Hawkesworth. 

TO  RETARD,  HINDER. 

To  retard,  from  the  Latin  tardus  slow,  signifying 
to  make  slow,  is  applied  to  the  movements  of  any 
object  forward:  as  in  the  Latin  ‘Impetum  inimici 
tardare.' — Cicero.  To  hinder  {v.  To  hinder)  is  ap- 
plied to  the  person  moving  or  acting:  we  retard  or 
make  slow  the  progress  of  any  scheme  towards  com- 
pletion ; ‘ Nothing  has  tended  more  to  retard  the  ad- 
vancement of  science  than  the  disposition  in  vulgar 
minds  to  vilify  what  they  cannot  comprehend.’ — John- 
son. We  hinder  or  keep  back  the  person  who  is 
completing  the  scheme;  ‘The  very  nearness  of  an 
object  sometimes  hinders  the  sight  of  it.’ — South.  We 
retard  a thing  therefore  often  by  hindering  the  per- 
son ; but  we  frequently  hinder  a person  without  ex- 
pressly retarding,  and  on  the  contrary  the  thing  is 
retarded  without  the  person  being  hindered.  The 
publication  of  a work  is  sometimes  retarded  by  the 
hindrances  which  an  author  meets  with  in  bringing 
it  to  a conclusion;  but  a work  may  be  retarded 
through  the  idleness  of  printers  and  a variety  of  other 
causes  which  are  independent  of  any  hindrance.  So 
in  like  manner  a person  may  be  hindered  in  going  to 
his  place  of  destination ; but  we  do  not  say  that  he 
is  retarded,  because  it  is  only  the  execution  of  an 
object,  and  not  the  simple  movements  of  the  person 
which  are  retarded. 

TO  delay,  defer,  postpone,  procrasti- 
nate, PROLONG,  PROTRACT,  RETARD. 

Delay,  compounded  of  de  and  lay,  signifies  to  lay  or 
keep  back ; defer,  compounded  of  de  and  fer,  in  Latin 
fero,  signifies  to  put  off;  postpone,  compounded  of 
post  and  pone,  from  the  Latin  pono  to  place,  signifies 
to  place  behind  or  after ; precrastinate,  from  pro  and 
eras  to-morrow,  signifies  to  put  off  till  to-morrow ; 
prolonging,  answering  to  the  prolatio  of  the  Latins, 
signifies  the  lengthening  the  period  of  time  for  begin- 
ning or  ending  a thing;  protract,  from  traho  to  draw, 
signifies  to  draw  out  the  time;  and  retard  to  make  a 
thing  hang  in  hand. 

To  delay  is  simply  not  to  commence  action ; to  defer 
and  postpone  are  to  fix  its  commencement  at  a more 
distant  period:  we  may  delay  a thing  for  days,  hours, 
and  minutes;  we  defer  or  postpone  it  for  months  or 
weeks.  Delays  mostly  arise  from  faults  in  the  person 
delaying , they  are  seldom  reasonable  or  advantageous ; 
differing  and  postponing  are  discretionary  acts,  which 
are  jusiified  by  the  circumstances:  indolent  people  are 
most  prone  to  delay ; 


From  thee  both  old  and  young  with  prolit  Icam, 
The  bounds  of  good  and  evil  to  discern ; 

Unhappy  he  who  does  this  work  adjourn. 

And  to  to-morrow  would  the  search  delay ; 

His  lazy  morrow  will  be  like  to-day. — Dryden. 
When  a plan  is  not  maturely  digested,  it  is  prudent  t« 
defer  its  execution  until  eveiy  thing  is  in  an  entire 
state  of  preparation.  Procrastination  is  a culpable 
delay  arising  solely  from  the  fault  of  the  procrasU 
nator;  ‘Cum  plerisque  in  rebis  gerendis  tarditas  et 
procrastinatio  odiosa  est,  turn  hoc  bellum  indigel  cele- 
ritatis.’ — Cicero.  It  is  the  part  of  a dilatory  man  to 
procrastinate  that  which  it  is  both  his  interest  and 
duty  to  perform ; 

Procrastination  is  the  thief  of  time. — Young 

To  defer  is  used  without  regard  to  any  particula? 
time  or  object;  to  postpone  has  always  relation  to 
something  else : it  is  properly  to  defer  until  the  com 
pletion  of  some  period  or  event:  a person  mny  defer 
his  visit  from  month  to  month ; he  postpones  his  visit 
until  the  commencement  of  a new  year:  a tardy  debtor 
delays  the  settlement  of  his  accounts;  a merchant 
defers  the  shipment  of  any  goods  in  consequence  of  the 
receipt  of  fresh  intelligence;  ‘ Never  de/er  that  till  to- 
morrow which  you  can  do  to-day.’ — Budgell.  A 
merchant  postpones  the  shipment  until  after  the  arrival 
of  the  expected  fleet ; ‘ When  I postponed  to  another 
summer  my  journey  to  England,  could  I apprehend 
that  I never  should  see  her  again  !’ — Gibbon. 

We  delay  the  execution  of  a thing  ; we  prolong  or 
protract  the  continuation  of  a thing:  we  retard  the 
termination  of  a thing:  we  may  delay  answering  a 
letter,  prolong  a contest,  protract  a lawsuit,  and  retard 
a publication; 

Perhaps  great  Hector  then  had  found  his  fate, 

But  Jove  and  destiny  prolong'd  his  date.— Pop*. 
To  this  Euryalus:  “ You  plead  in  vain. 

And  \i\ix  protract  the  cause  you  cannot  gain.” 

Virgil 

I see  the  layers  then 

Of  mingled  moulds  of  more  retentive  earths. 

That  while  the  stealing  moisture  they  transmit, 
Retard  its  motion  and  forbid  its  waste. 

Thomson. 

TO  PROROGUE,  ADJOURN. 

Prorogue,  from  the  Latin  prorogo,  signifies  to  put 
off,  and  is  used  in  the  general  sense  of  deferring  foi 
an  indefinite  period ; ‘ A prorogation  is  the  conti- 
nuance of  Parliament  from  one  session  to  another.’— 
Blackstone. 

Adjourn,  from  journde  the  day,  signifies  only  to  put 
off  for  a day  or  some  short  period ; ‘ An  adjourn- 

ment is  no  more  than  a continuance  of  the  session  from 
one  day  to  another.’ — Blackstone.  Prorogueing  is 
applied  to  national  assemblies  only ; adjourning  is 
applicable  to  any  meeting. 


SLOW,  DILATORY,  TARDY,  TEDIOUS. 
iiluw  is  doubtless  connected  with  sluther  and  slide, 
ivhich  kind  of  motion  when  walking  is  the  slowest  and 
the  laziest ; dilatory,  from  the  Latin  defero  to  defer, 
signifies  prone  to  defer ; tardy  is  but  a variation  of 
the  Latin  tardus  slow ; tedious,  from  the  Latin  tcedit 
to  b.e  weary,  signifies  causing  weariness. 

Slow  is  a general  and  unqualified  term  applicable 
to  the  motion  of  any  object  or  to  the  motions  and  ac- 
tions of  persons  in  particular,  and  to  their  disposi 
tions  also;  dilatory  relates  to  the  temper  only  of  per 
sons  : we  are  slow  in  what  we  are  about ; 

The  powers  above  are  slow 
In  punishing,  and  should  not  we  resemble  them  1 
Dryden. 

We  are  dilatory  in  setting  about  a thing ; ‘ A dilatory 
temper  is  unfit  for  a place  of  trust.’ — Addison.  Slow 
is  apiilied  to  corporeal  or  mental  actions;  a person 
may  be  slow  in  walking,  or  slow  in  conceivirg:  tardy 
applies  more  to  what  is  mental  than  to  what  is  cor- 
poreal ; we  are  tardy  in  our  proceedings  or  our  pro- 
gress; we  are  tardy  in  making  up  accounts  or  in  con 
eluding  a treaty ; 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


261 


Death  he  has  oft  accus’d 
Of  tardy  execution,  since  denounc’d 
The  day  of  his  offence.— Milton. 
may  be  slow  with  propriety  or  not,  to  our  own  in- 
convenience or  that  of  others;  when  we  are  tedious 
we  are  always  so  improperly : “ To  be  slow  and  sure” 
is  a vulgar  proverb,  but  a great  truth ; by  this  we  do 
ourselves  good,  and  inconvenience  no  one ; but  he  who 
is  tedious  is  slow  to  the  annoyance  of  others;  a prolix 
writer  must  always  be  tedious^  for  he  keeps  the  reader 
long  in  suspense  before  he  comes  to  the  conclusion  of 
a period , 

Her  sympathizing  lover  takes  his  stand 
High  on  th’  opponent  bank,  and  ceaseless  sings 
The  tedious  time  away. — Thomson. 


TO  LINGER,  TARRY,  LOITER,  LAG,  SAUN 
TER. 

Linger,  from  longer,  signifies  to  make  the  time 
longer  in  doing  a thing ; tarry,  from  tardus  slow,  is 
to  make  the  thing  slow ; loiter  may  probably  come 
frflm  lentus  slow ; lag,  from  lie,  signifies  to  lie  back ; 
saunter  is  derived  from  sancta  terra  the  Holy  Land  ; 
because,  in  the  iime  of  the  crusades,  many  idle  per- 
sons were  goiiig  backwards  and  forwards : hence  idle, 
planless  going,  comes  to  be  so  denominated. 

Suspension  of  action  or  slow  movement  enters  into 
the  meaning  of  all  these  terms;  to  linger  is  to  stop 
altogether,  or  to  move  but  slowly  forward,  and  to  tarry 
Is  properly  to  suspend  one’s  movement : the  former 
proceeds  from  reluctance  to  leave  the  spot  on  which 
we  stand ; tlie  latter  from  motives  of  discretion  : he 
will  naturally  linger  who  is  going  to  leave  the  place  of 
his  nativity  for  an  indefinite  period ; in  which  sense  it 
is  figuratively  applied  to  life  and  other  objects; 

’T  is  long  since  I,  for  my  celestial  wife. 

Loath’d  by  the  Gods,  have  dragg’d  a lingering  life. 

Dryden. 

Those  who  have  much  business  to  transact  will  be  led 
to  tarry  long  in  a place;  ‘Herod  having  tarried  only 
seven  days  at  Rome  for  the  dispatch  of  his  business, 
returned  to  his  ships  at  Brundusium.’ — Prideaux. 
To  loiter  is  to  move  slowly  and  reluctantly ; but,  from 
a bad  cause,  a child  loiters  who  is  unwilling  to  go  to 
school;.* Rapid  wits  loiter,  or  faint,  and  suffer  them- 
selves to  be  surpassed  by  the  even  and  regular  perse- 
verance cf  slower  understandings.’ — Johnson.  To 
lag  is  to  move  slower  than  others ; to  stop  while  they 
are  going  on;  this  is  seldom  done  for  a good  purpose; 
those  who  lag  have  generally  some  sinister  and  pri- 
vate end  to  answer ; 

I shall  not  lag  behind,  nor  err 
The  way,  thou  leading. — Milton. 

To  saunter  is  altogether  the  act  of  an  idler ; those  who 
have  no  object  in  moving  either  backward  or  forward, 
will  saunter  if  they  move  at  all ; ‘ She  walks  all  the 
morning  sauntering  about  the  shop,  with  her  arms 
through  her  pocket  holes.’ — Johnson. 


TO  HASIEN,  ACCELERATE,  SPEED, 
EXPEDITE,  DESPATCH. 

Hasten,  in  French  hatir,  and  in  the  Northern  Ian 
guages  hasten,  &c.,  is  most  probably  connected  with 
heiss  hot,  expressing  what  is  vivid  and  active ; acce- 
lerate, from  celer  quick,  signifies  literally  to  quicken 
for  a specifick  purpose ; speed,  from  the  Greek  o-7r«(5d^w, 
signifies  to  carry  on  diligently;  expedite,  in  Latin 
expedio,  from  ex  and  pes,  signifies  literally  to  remove 
obstacles;  despatch,  in  French  depecher,  from  pes  a 
foot,  signifies  also  putting  off',  or  clearing  away  impedi- 
ments. 

Quickness  in  movement  and  action  is  the  common 
idea  in  all  these  terms,  which  vary  in  the  nature  of 
the  movement  and  the  action.  To  hasten  expresses 
little  more  than  the  general  idea  of  quickness  in 
moving  towards  a point;  thus,  he  hastens  who  runs 
to  get  to  the  end  of  his  journey:  accelerate  expresses 
moreover  the  idea  of  bringing  something  to  a point; 
thus,  every  mechanical  business  is  accelerated  by  the 


ordei  and  distribution  of  its  several  parts ; ‘ Let  the 
aged  consider  well,  that  by  every  intemperate  indul^ 
gence  they  accelerate  decay.’ — Blair.  Jiccelerate  may 
be  employed,  like  the  word  hasten,  for  corporeal  and 
familiar  actions  • the  tailor  accelerates  any  particular 
work  that  he  has  in  hand  by  putting  on  additional 
hands,  or  a compositor  accelerates  the  printing  of  a 
work  by  doing  his  part  with  correctness.  The  word 
s^eed  includes  not  only  quick  but  forward  movement. 
He  who  goes  with  speed  goes  effectually  forward,  and 
comes  to  nis  journey’s  end  the  soonest  This  idea  is 
excluded  from  the  term  haste,  which  may  often  be  a 
planless  unsuitable  quickness.  Hence  the  proverb 
“ The  more  haste,  the  worst  speed;" 

Where  with  like  haste,  though  several  ways  they  run, 

Some  to  undo,  and  some  to  b^e  undone. — Denham. 

Expedite  and  despatch  are  terms  of  higher  import, 
in  application  to  the  most  serious  concerns  in  life ; but 
to  expedite  expresses  a process,  a bringing  forward 
towards  an  end  : despatch  implies  a putting  an  end  lo, 
a making  a clearance.  We  do  every  thing  in  our 
power  to  expedite  a business ; we  despatch  a great  deal 
of  business  within  a given  time.  Expedition  is  requi- 
site for  one  who  executes ; ‘ The  coachman  was  or 
dered  to  drive  on,  and  they  hurried  with  the  utmost 
expedition  to  Hyde  Park  Corner.’ — Johnson.  Des- 
patch is  most  important  for  one  who  determines  and 
directs;  ‘ And  as,  in  races,  it  is  not  the  large  stride,  or 
high  iift,  that  makes  the  speed;  so,  in  business,  the 
keeping  close  to  the  matter,  and  not  taking  of  it  too 
much  at  once,  procureth  despatch' — Bacon.  An  infe- 
riour  officer  must  proceed  with  expedition  to  fulfil  the 
orders,  or  execute  the  purposes  of  his  commander  • a 
general  or  minister  of  state  despatches  the  concerns  of 
planning,  directing,  and  instructing  Hence  it  is  we 
speak  only  of  expediting  a thing  ; but  we  may  speak 
of  despatching  a person,  as  well  as  a thing. 

Every  man  hastens  to  remove  his  property  in  case 
of  fire.  Those  who  are  anxious  to  bring  any  thing  to 
an  end  will  do  every  thing  in  their  power  to  accelerate 
its  progress.  Those  who  are  sent  on  any  pressing 
errand  will  do  great  service  by  using  speed.  The  suc- 
cess of  a military  progress  depends  often  on  the  expe- 
dition with  which  it  is  conducted.  In  the  counting- 
house  and  the  cabinet,  despatch  is  equally  important ; 
as  we  cannot  do  more  than  one  thing  at  a time,  it  is  oi 
importance  to  get  that  quickly  concluded  to  make  way 
for  another 


TO  HASTEN,  HURRY. 

Hasten  signifies  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  article 
hurry,  in  old  French  harier,  probably  comes  from  tha 
Hebrew  “rnH  infiamed,  or  be  in  a hurry. 

To  hasten  and  hurry  both  imply  to  move  forward 
with  quickness  in  any  matter;  but  the  former  may 
proceed  with  some  design  and  good  order,  but  the  latter 
always  supposes  perturbation  and  irregularity.  We 
hasten  in  the  communication  of  good  news,  when  we 
make  efforts  to  convey  it  in  the  shortest  time  possible ; 
‘ Homer,  to  preserve  the  unity  of  action,  hastens  into 
the  midst  of  things,  as  Horace  has  observed.’ — Addi- 
son. We  hurry  to  get  to  an  end,  when  we  impatiently 
and  inconsiderately  press  forward  without  making 
choice  of  our  means ; 

Now ’t  is  nought 

But  restless  hurry  through  the  busy  air, 

Beat  by  unnumber’d  wings. — Thomson. 

To  hasten  is  opposed  to  delay  or  a dilatory  mode  ol 
proceeding ; it  is  frequently  indispensable  to  hasten  in 
the  affairs  of  human  life;  to  hurry  is  opposed  to  deli 
berate  and  cautious  proceeding  ; it  must  always  be 
prejudicial  and  unwise  to  hurry:  men  may  hasteri : 
children  hurry. 

As  epithets,  hasty  and  hurried  are  both  employed  in 
the  bad  sense ; but  hasty  implies  merely  an  overquick 
ness  of  motion  which  outstrips  consideration ; hurried, 
implies  a disorderly  motion  which  springs  from  a dis 
tempered  state  of  mind.  Irritable  people  use  hasty 
expressions;  they  speak  before  they  think:  deranged 
people  walk  with  hurried  steps  the}  follow  the  blind 
impulse  of  undirected  feeling. 


*52  ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


aUICKNESS,  SWIFTNESS,  FLEETNESS, 
CELERITY,  RAPIDITY,  VELOCITY. 

Tliese  terms  are  all  applied  to  the  motion  of  bodies, 
of  which  quickness,  from  quick,  denotes  the  general 
and  simple  idea  that  characterizes  all  the  rest.  Quick- 
ness is  near  akin  to  life,  and  is  directly  opposed  to  slow- 
ness ; ‘ Impatience  of  labour  ceases  those  who  are  most 
distinguished  for  quickness  of  apprehension.’ — John- 
son. Swiftness,  in  all  probability  from  the  German 
schweifen  to  roam  ; and  jleetness,  from  flee  or  fly ; ex- 
press higher  degrees  of  quickness.  Celerity,  probably 
from  celer  a horse ; velocity,  from  volo  to  fly ; and  ra- 
pidity, from  rapio,  to  seize  or  hurry  along,  differ  more 
in  application  than  in  degree.  Quick  and  swift  are  ap- 
plicable to  any  objects;  men  are  quick  in  moving, 
swift  in  running ; dogs  hear  quickly,  and  run  swiftly : 
a mill  goes  quickly  or  swiftly  round,  according  to  the 
force  of  the  wind ; 

Above  the  bounding  billows  swift  tliey  flew. 

Till  now  the  Grecian  camp  appear’d  in  view. 

POPK. 

Fleetness  is  the  peculiar  characteristick  of  winds  or 
horses;  a horse  is  fleet  in  the  race,  and  is  sometimes 
described  to  be  as  fleet  as  the  winds ; 

For  fear,  though  fleeter  than  the  wind. 

Believes ’t  is  always  left  behind. — Butler. 

That  which  we  wish  to  characterize  as  particularly 
quick  in  our  ordinary  operations,  we  say  is  done  with 
celerity ; in  this  manner  our  thoughts  are  said  to  pass 
with  celerity  from  one  object  to  another ; ‘ By  moving 
the  eye  we  gather  up  with  great  celerity  the  several 
parts  of  an  object,  so  as  to  form  one  piece.’ — Burke. 
Those  things  are  said  to  move  with  rapidity  which 
seem  to  hurry  every  thing  away  with  them  ; a river  or 
stream  moves  with  rapidity;  time  goes  on  with  a rapid 
flight; 

Mean  time  the  radiant  sun,  to  mortal  sight 
Descending  swift,  roll’d  down  the  rapid  light. 

Pope. 

Felocity  signifies  the  swiftness  of  flight,  which  is  a mo- 
tion that  e.xceeds  all  others  in  swiftness : hence,  we 
speak  of  the  velocity  of  a ball  shot  from  a cannon,  or 
of  a celestial  body  moving  in  its  orbit;  sometimes 
these  words  rapidity  and  velocity,  are  applied  in  the 
improper  sense  by  way  of  emphasis  to  the  very  swift 
movements  of  other  bodies:  in  this  manner  the  wheel  of 
a carriage  is  said  to  move  rapidly : and  the  flight  of  an 
animal  or  the  progress  of  a vessel  before  the  wind,  is 
compared  to  the  flight  of  a bird  in  point  of  velocity ; 
Lightning  is  productive  of  grandeur  which  it  chiefly 
owes  to  the  velocity  of  its  motion.’ — Burke. 


DILIGENT,  EXPEDITIOUS,  PROMPT. 

All  these  terms  mark  the  quality  of  quickness  in  a 
commendable  degree;  diligent  (from  diligo  to  love 
{v.  Jlctive,  diligent)  marks  the  interest  one  takes  in 
doing  something  ; he  is  * diligent  who  loses  no  time, 
who  keeps  close  to  the  work ; expeditious,  from  the 
Latin  expedio  to  despatch,  marks  the  desire  one  has  to 
complete  the  thing  begun.  He  who  is  expeditious  ap- 
plies himself  to  no  other  thing  that  offers;  he  finishes 
every  thing  in  its  turn  ; prompt,  from  the  Latin  promo 
to  draw  out  or  make  ready,  marks  one’s  desire  to  get 
ready;  he  is  prompt  who  works  with  spirit  so  as  to 
make  things  ready. 

Idleness,  dilatoriness,  and  slowness,  are  the  three  de- 
fects opposed  to  these  three  qualities.  The  diligent 
man  has  no  reluctance  in  commencing  or  continuing 
the  labour,  the  expeditious  man  never  leaves  it  till  it  is 
finisheil  ; the  prompt  man  brings  it  quickly  to  an  end. 
It  is  necessary  to  be  diligent  in  the  concerns  which  be- 
long to  us ; ‘ We  must  be  diligent  in  our  particular 
calling  and  charge,  in  that  province  and  station  which 
God  has  appointed  us,  whatever  it  be.’ — Tillotson. 
We  must  be  expeditious  in  atiy  business  that  requires 
to  be  terminated  ; ‘ The  regent  assembled  an  army  with 
his  usual  expedition,  and  marched  to  Glasgow.’ — Ro- 
bertson. We  must  be  prompt  in  the  execution  of 
orders  that  are  given  to  us  ; 

* Vide  Abbe  Girard : “ Diligent,  expeditif,  prompt.” 


To  him  she  hasted,  in  her  face  excuse 
Came  prologue,  and  a[)ology  too  prompt. 

Which,  with  bland  words  at  will,  she  thus  address  d 

Milton 

DIRECTLY,  IMMEDIATELY,  INSTANTLY, 
INSTANTANEOUSLY . 

Directly  signifies  in  a direct  or  straight  manner 
immediately  wilhonX.  any  medium  or  intervention;  in- 
stantly and  instantaneously,  in  the  space  of  an  instan 
Directly  is  most  applicable  to  the  actions  of  men ; 
immediately  and  instantly  to  either  actions  or  events. 
Directly  refers  to  the  interruptions  which  may  inten. 
tionally  delay  the  commencemeid  of  any  work:  imme- 
diately in  general  refers  to  the  space  of  time  that  inter 
venes.  A diligent  person  goes  directly  to  his  work;  he 
suffers  nothing  to  draw  him  aside:  good  news  is  imme- 
diately spread  abroad  upon  its  arrival ; nothing  inter- 
venes to  retard  it.  Immediately  and  instantly,  or 
instantaneously,  both  mark  a quick  succession  of 
events,  but  the  latter  in  a much  stronger  degree  than 
the  former.  Immediately  is  negative ; it  expresses  sim- 
ply that  nothing  intervenes;  instantly  is  positive,  signi- 
fying the  very  existing  moment  in  which  the  thing  hap 
pens.  A person  who  is  of  a willing  disposition  goes  or 
runs  immediately  to  the  assistance  of  another;  but  the 
ardour  of  affection  impels  hitn  to  fly  instantly  to  liis 
relief,  as  he  sees  the  danger.  A surgeon  does  not  pro- 
ceed directly  to  dress  a wound  ; he  first  examines  it  in 
order  to  ascertain  its  nature;  ‘Besides  those  things 
which  directly  suggest  the  idea  of  danger,  and  those 
which  produce  a similar  effect  from  a mechanical 
cause.  I know  of  nothing  sublime  which  is  not  some 
modification  of  power.’ — Burke.  Men  of  lively  minds 
immediately  see  the  source  of  their  own  errours;  ‘Admi- 
ration is  a short-lived  passion,  that  immediately  decays 
upon  growing  famifiar  with  the  object.’ — Addison 
People  of  delicate  feelings  are  instantly  alive  to  the 
slightest  breach  of  decorum ; 

Sleep  instantly  fell  upon  me. — Milton. 

A course  of  proceeding  is  direct,  the  consequences  are 
immediate,  and  the  effects  instantaneous  ; ‘ A painter 
must  have  an  action,  not  successive,  but  instantaneous  ; 
for  the  time  of  a picture  is  a single  moment  ’ — ^Johnson 

SOON,  EARLY,  BETIMES. 

All  these  words  are  expressive  of  time;  but  socte 
respects  some  future  period  in  general ; early,  or  ere, 
before,  and  betimes,  or  by  the  time,  before  a given  time, 
respect  some  particul^  period  at  no  great  distance.  A 
person  may  come  soon  or  early ; in  the  former  case  he 
may  not  be  long  in  coming  from  the  time  that  the  words 
are  spoken  ; in  the  latter  case  he  comes  before  the  time 
appointed.  He  who  rises  soon  does  nothing  extraordi 
nary ; but  he  who  rises  early  or  betimes  exceeds  the 
usual  hour  considerably.  Soon  is  said  mostly  of  par- 
ticular acts,  and  is  always  dated  from  the  time  of  the 
person  speaking,  if  not  otherwise  expressed ; come  soon 
signifies  after  the  present  moment; 

But  soon,  too  soon!  the  lover  turns  his  eyes ; 

Again  she  falls--again  she  dies — she  dies. — Pope 
Early  and  betimes,  if  not  otherwise  expressed,  have 
always  respect  to  some  specifick  time  appointed;  come 
early,  will  signify  a visit,  a meeting,  and  the  like;  a 
thing  betimes  will  signify  before  the  thing  to  be  done  is 
wanted:  in  this  manner  both  are  employed  for  the 
actions  of  youth.  An  early  attention  to  religious  duties 
will  render  them  habitual  and  pleasing ; ‘ Pope,  not  being 
sent  early  to  school,  was  taught  to  read  by  an  aunt.’-- 
Johnson.  We  must  beain  betimes  to  bring  the  stubborn 
will  into  subjection  ; ‘ Happy  is  the  man  who  betimes 
acquires  a relish  for  holy  solitude.’ — Horqe. 

r CURSORY,  HASTY,  SLIGHT,  DESULTORY 
Cursory,  from  the  Latin  curro,  signifies  run  over  or 
done  in  running;  hasty  applies  to  that  done  in  haste; 
slight  is  a variation  of  light;  desultory,  from  desilio  te 
leap,  signifies  leaped  over. 

CnrsorT/ includes  both  hasty  and  slight;  it  includes 
hasty  inasmuch  as  it  expresses  a quick  motion;  it 
includes  slight  inasmuch  as  it  conveys  the  idea  of  a 
partial  action.  A view  may  be  either  cursory  or  hasty, 
as  the  former  is  taken  by  design,  the  latter  from  car© 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


-n  iiew  may  be  either  cursory  or  slight;  but 
III  ’ CLi  ^'V''  > U)l  so  imperfect  as  the  latter.  A u author 
will  tak.T  ^ cursory  view  of  those  points  which  are  not 
ne-essd/ily  connected  with  his  subject;  ‘ Savage  min- 
gled in  cui  sory  conversation  with  the  same  steadiness 
.rf  attention  as  others  apply  to  a lecture.’— Johnson. 
An  author  who  takes  a hasty  view  of  a subject  will 
mislead  by  his  erroura;  ‘The  emperour  Macrinus  had 
once  resolved  to  abolish  these  rescripts  (of  the  em- 
perors), and  retain  only  the  general  edicts.  He  could 
not  bear  that  the  hasty  and  crude  answers  of  such 
princes  as  Commodus  and  Caracalla  should  be  re- 
verenced as  laws.’ — Blackstone.  He  who  takes  a 
slight  view  of  a subject  will  disappoint  by  the  shallow- 
ness of  his  information;  ‘The  wits  of  Charles’s  time 
had  seldom  more  than  slight  and  superficial  views.’ — 
Johnson.  Between  cursory  and  iesultory  there  is  the 
same  ditference  as  between  running  and  leaping;  we 
run  in  a line,  but  we  leap  from  one  part  to  another; 
so  remarks  that  are  cursory  have  still  more  or  less  con- 
ne.xion,  but  remarks  that  are  desultory  mo,  without  any 
coherence ; ‘ If  compassion  ever’be  felt  from  the  brute 
instinct  of  uninstructed  nature,  U will  only  produce 
eftects  desultory  and  transient.’-  Johnson. 


RASHNESS,  TEMERITY,  HASTINESS, 
PRECIPITANCY 

Rashness  denotes  the  quality  ol  being  ra.sY,  which, 
like  the  German  rasch,  and  our  word  rusA,  comes  from 
the  Latin  rito,  expressing  hurried  and  excess.ve  mo- 
tion , temerity,,  in  Latin  temeritas,  from  temeri,  pos- 
sibly comes  from  the  Greek  r^yepov  at  the  moment, 
denoting  the  quality  of  acting  by  the  impulse  of  the 
moment;  hastiness  denotes  the  quality  of  being  hasty, 
or  impelled  by  an  impatient  feeling  ; precipitancy,^ 
from  the  Latin  prce  and  capio,  signifies  the  quality  or 
disposition  of  taking  things  before  they  ought  to  be 
taken. 

Rashness  and  temerity  have  a close  alliance  with 
each  other  in  sense  ; but  they  have  a slight  difference, 
which  is  entitled  to  notice:  rashness  is  a general  and 
indefinite  term,  in  the  signification  of  which  an  im- 
proper celerity  is  the  leading  idea : this  celerity  may 
arise  either  from  a vehemence  of  character,  or  a tem- 
porary ardour  of  the  mind : in  the  signification  of 
temerity,  the  leading  idea  is  want  of  consideration, 
springing  mostly  from  an  overweening  confidence,  or 
a presumption  of  character.  Rashness  is,  therefore, 
applied  to  our  corporeal  as  well  as  moral  actions,  as 
the  jumping  into  a river,  without  being  able  to  swim, 
or  the  leaping  over  a het/ge,  without  being  an  expert 
horseman ; 

Nature  to  youth  hot  rashness  doth  dispense. 

But  with  cold  prudence  age  doth  recompense. 

Denham. 

Temerity  is  applied  to  our  moral  actions  only,  particu- 
larly such  as  require  deliberation,  and  a calculation  of 
consequences ; ‘ All  mankind  have  a sufficient  plea  for 
some  degree  of  restlessness,  and  the  fault  seems  to  be 
little  more  than  too  much  temerity  of  conclusion  in 
favour  of  something  not  experienced.’ — Johnson. 
Hastiness  and  precipitancy  are  but  modes  or  charac- 
teristicks  of  rashness,  and  consequently  employed  only 
in  particular  cases,  as  hastiness  in  regard  to  our  move- 
ments, and  precipitancy  in  regard  to  our  measures ; 
And  hurry  through  the  woods  with  hasty  step. 
Rustling  and  full  of  hope. — Somerville. 

‘ As  the  chymist,  by  catching  at  it  too  soon,  lost  the 
philosophical  elixir,  so  precipitancy  o?  our  understand- 
ing is  an  occasion  of  errour.’ — Glanville. 


TO  ABIDE,  SOJOURN,  DWELL,  RESIDE, 
INHABIT. 

Abide,  in  Saxon  abitan,  old  German  beiten,  comes 
from  the  Arabick  or  Persian  but,  or  bit,  to  pass  the 
night,  that  is,  to  make  a partial  stay;  sojourn,  in 
French  sejourner,  from  sub  and  diurnus  in  the  day- 
time, signifies  to  pass  the  day,  that  is,  a certain  portion 
of  one’s  time,  in  a place;  dwell,  from  the  Danish 
dwelger  to  abide,  and  the  Saxon  dwelian,  Dutch 
dw^L  n to  wander,  conveys  the  idea  of  a moveable 
''a'3!*a:ion,  such  as  was  the  practice  of  living  formerly? 
m tents.  At  present  it  implies  a perpetual  stay,  which 


26b 

is  expressed  in  common  discourse  by  the  word  live,  for 
passing  one’s  life;  reside,  from  the  Latin  re  and  sideo 
to  sit  down,  conveys  the  full  idea  of  a settlement ; 
inhabit,  froin  the  Latin  habito,  a frequentative  of 
habeo,  signifies  to  have  or  occupy  for  a permanency. 

The  length  of  stay  implied  in  these  terms  is  marked 
by  a certain  gradation. 

Abide  denotes  the  shortest  stay;  to  sojourn  is  of 
longer  continuance;  dwell  comprehends  the  idea  of 
perpetuity,  but  reside  and  inhabit  are  partial  and 
local— we  dwell  only  in  one  spot,  but  we  may  reside 
at  or  inhabit  many  places. 

These  words  have  likewise  a reference  to  the  state 
of  society. 

Abide  and  sojourn  relate  more  properly  to  the  wan- 
dering habits  of  men  in  a primitive  state  of  society. 
Dwell,  as  implying  a stay  under  a cover,  is  universal 
in  its  application ; for  we  may  dwell  either  in  a palace, 
a house,  a cottage,  or  any  shelter.  Dive,  reside,  and 
inhabit  arc  confined  to  a civilized  state  of  society;  the 
former  applying  to  the  abodes  of  the  inferiour  orders, 
the  latter  to  those  of  the  higher  classes.  The  word 
inhabit  is  never  used  but  in  connexion  with  the  place 
inhabited. 

The  Easterns  abode  with  each  other,  sojourned  in  a 
country,  and  dwelt  in  tents.  The  Angels  abode  with 
Lot  one  night ; ‘ From  the  first  to  the  last  of  man’s 
abode  on  earth,  the  discipline  must  never  be  relaxed  of 
guarding  the  heart  from  the  dominion  of  passion.’ — 
Blair.  Abraham  sojourned  in  the  land  of  Canaan ; 

‘ By  the  Israelites’  sojourning  in  Egypt,  God  made  way 
for  their  bondage  there,  and  their  bondage  for  a glorious 
deliverance  through  those  prodigious  manifestations 
of  the  Divine  power.’ — South.  The  Israelites  dwelt 
in  the  land  of  Goshen ; 

Hence  from  my  sight ! Thy  father  cannot  bear  thee ; 
Fly  with  thy  infamy  to  some  dark  cell, 

Where  on  the  confines  of  eternal  night. 

Mourning,  misfortunes,  cares,  and  anguish  dwell. 

Massinger 

Savages  either  dwell  in  the  cavities  which  nature 
has  formed  for  them,  or  in  some  rude  structure  erected 
for  a temporary  purpose  ; but  as  men  increase  in  culti 
vation  they  build  places  for  themselves  which  they 
can  inhabit;  ‘ By  good  company,  in  the  place  which  I 
have  the  misfortune  to  inhabit,  we  understand  not 
always  those  from  whom  good  can  be  learned.’ — 
Johnson.  The  poor  have  their  cottages  in  which  they 
can  live ; the  wealthy  provide  themselves  with  superb 
buildings  in  which  they  reside  ; ‘ Being  obliged  to  re- 
move my  habitation,  I was  led  by  my  evil  genius  to  a 
convenient  house  in  the  street  where  the  nobility  re- 
side.'—ionnsoTf. 

TO  CONTINUE,  REMAIN,  STAY. 

Continue,  from  the  Latin  contineo,  or  con  and  tenco 
to  hold  together,  signifies  to  keep  together  without  in- 
termission ; remain,  in  Latin  remaneo,  is  compounded 
of  re  or  retro  and  maneo,  Greek  pivw,  Hebrew  TDJ7  to 
tarry.  Maneo  signifies  literally  to  tarry  in  a place  during 
I he  night ; whence  the  Latins  called  those  places  Man- 
siones,  where  travellers  passed  a night ; ‘ In  Mainur- 
rharum  urbe  manemus.’ — Horace.  Remaneo  signified 
literally  to  tarry  behind ; ‘ li  qui  per  valetudinis  causam 
remanseiant ;’  stay  is  but  a variation  of  the  word 
stand. 

The  idea  of  confining  one’s  self  to  something  is  com 
mon  to  all  these  terms ; but  continue  applies  often  tc 
the  sameness  of  action,  and  remain  to  sameness  of 
place  or  situation ; the  former  has  most  of  the  active 
sense  in  it,  and  expresses  a state  of  action ; the  latter 
is  altogether  neuter,  and  expresses  a state  of  rest.  We 
speak  of  continuing  a certain  course,  of  continuing  to 
do,  or  continuing  to  be  any  thing ; but  of  remaining  in 
a position,  in  a house,  in  a town,  in  a condition,  and 
the  like  ; ‘Mr.  Pryn  was  sent  to  a castle  in  the  island 
of  Jersey,  Dr.  Bastwick  to  Scilly,  and  Mr.  Burton  to 
Guernsey,  where  they  remained  unconsidered,  and 
truly  I thought  unpitied,  (for  they  were  men  of  nc 
virtue  or  merit)  for  the  space  of  two  years.’ — Cla- 
rendon. 

There  is  more  of  will  in  continuing : more  of  ne- 
cessity and  circumstances  in  remaining.  A person 
continues  in  office  as  long  as  he  can  perform  it  with 
satisfaction  to  himself,  and  his  employers ; ‘ I have 
seen  som6  Roman  Catholick  authors  who  tell  us,  that 


2t4 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES 


ricious  writers  continue  in  purgatory  so  long  as  the  in- 
fluence of  their  writings  continues  upon  posterity.’ — 
Addison.  A sentinel  remains  at  his  poster  station. 
C'.mtinue  is  opposed  to  cease ; remain  is  opposed  to  go. 
Things  continue  in  motion;  they  remain  stationary. 
The  females  among  the  brutes  will  sometimes  continue 
to  feed  their  young,  long  after  they  are  able  to  provide 
for  themselves  ; many  persons  are  restored  to  life  after 
having  remained  several  hours  in  a state  of  suspended 
animation. 

Remain  and  stay  are  both  perfectly  neuter  in  their 
sense,  but  remain  is  employed  for  either  persons  or 
things ; stay  in  this  sense  is  used  for  persons  only.  It 
is  necessary  for  some  species  of  wood  to  remain  long  in 
the  water  in  order  to  be  seasoned ; 

I will  be  true  to  thee,  preserve  thee  ever. 

The  sad  companion  of  this  faithful  breast : 

While  life  and  thought  remain— Kowk. 

Some  persons  are  of  so  restless  a temper,  that  they  can- 
not stay  long  in  a place  without  giving  symptoms  of 
uneasiness  ; 

Where’er  I go,  my  soul  shall  stay  with  thee , 

’T  is  but  my  shadow  that  I take  away. — Dryden. 

When  remain  is  employed  for  persons,  it  is  often  in- 
voluntary, if  not  compulsory;  stay  is  altogether  vo- 
luntary. Soldiers  must  remain  where  they  are  sta- 
tioned. Frfends  stay  at  each  other’s  houses  as  visiters. 
Former  times  afford  many  instances  of  servants  con- 
tinuing faithful  to  their  employers,  even  in  the  season 
of  adversity : but  so  much  are  times  altered,  that  at 
present,  domesticks  never  remain  long  enough  in  their 
places  to  create  any  bond  of  attachment  between 
master  and  servant.  Their  time  of  stay  is  now  limited 
to  weeks  and  months,  instead  of  being  extended  to 
years. 

To  remain  is  frequently  taken  in  the  sense  of  being 
eft  from  other  things,  to  stay  in  that  of  supporting,  in 
which  they  are  perfectly  distinct  from  each  other,  and 
also  from  continue 


TO  CONTINUE,  PERSEVERE,  PERSIST, 
PURSUE,  PROSECUTE. 

To  continue  signifies  the  same  as  in  the  preceding 
article;  \.o  persevere, \\\  French  persevdrer,  Latin  per- 
severare,  compounded  of  per  and  severus  strict  and 
steady,  signifies  to  be  steady  throughout  or  to  the  end ; 
‘ Ad  ultimum  perseverare.’ — Livy.  Persist,  in  French 
persister,  J.&lin  per sisto,  compounded  of  /jcrand  sisto 
or  sto,  signifies  to  stand  by  or  to  a thing  ; ‘ In  proposilo 
versistere.' — CicK  RO.  Pursue  and  prosecute,  in  French, 
poursuivre,  come  from  the  Latin  sequor  to  follow,  that 
is,  prosequor  and  its  participle  prosecutus,  correspond- 
ing with  prosequor,  signifying  to  follow  after  or  keep 
on  with. 

The  idea  of  not  laying  aside  is  common  to  the.se 
terms,  which  is  the  sense  of  tonfinwe  without  any  other 
addition;  the  other  terms,  which  are  all  species  of 
continuing,  include  likewise  some  collateral  idea 
which  distinguishes  them  from  the  first,  as  well  as  from 
each  other.  Continue  is  comparable  with  persevere 
and  persist  in  the  neuter  sense ; with  pursue  and  pro- 
secute in  the  active  sense.  To  continue  is  simply  to  do 
as  one  has  done  hitherto;  ‘ Abdallah  continuing  to  ex- 
tend his  former  improvements,  beautified  this  whole 
prospect  with  groves  and  fountains.’ — Addison.  To 
persevere  is  to  continue  without  wishing  to  change,  or 
from  a positive  desire  to  attain  an  object ; ‘ If  v.  a per- 
severe instudyingto  do  our  duty  towards  God  and  man, 
we  shall  meet  with  the  esteem, love,  and  confidence  of 
those  who  are  around  us.’ — Blair.  To  persist  is  to 
continue  from  a determination  or  will  not  to  cease. 
The  act  of  continuing,  therefore,  specifies  no  charac- 
teristick  of  the  agent ; that  of  persevering  or  persisting 
marks  a direct  temper  of  mind  ; the  former  is  always 
used  in  a good  sense,  the  latter  in  an  indifterent  or  bad 
sense ; ‘ If  they  persist  in  pointing  their  batteries  to 
particular  persons,  no  laws  of  war  forbid  the  making 
reprisals.’ — Addison.  The  Latins  have  not  observed 
this  last  distinction  between  perseverarenmi  per  sister  e, 
for  they  say,  ‘In  errore  perseverare' — Cicero.  ‘In 
e&dem  impudentiA  persisfcre.’ — Livy.  And  probably 
in  imitation  of  them,  examples  are  to  be  found  in  Eng- 
lish authors  of  persevere  in  a bad  sense,  and  persist  in 
a good  sense;  but  modern  writers  have  tuiUomily  ob- 


served the  distinction.  We  continue  from  habit  <x 
casualty : we  persevere  from  reflection  and  the  exer 
cise  of  one’s  judgement:  we  persist  from  attachment, 
It  is  not  the  most  exalted  virtue  to  continue  in  a good 
course,  merely  because  we  have  been  in  the  habits  ot 
so  doing ; what  is  done  from  habit,  merely  without  any 
fi.xed  principle,  is  always  exposed  to  change  from  the 
influence  of  passion  or  evil  counsel : there  is  real 
virtue  in  the  act  perseverance,  without  which  many 
of  our  best  intentions  would  remain  unfulfilled,  and 
our  best  plans  would  be  defeated ; those  who  do  noi 
persevere  can  do  no  essential  good;  and  those  who  do 
persevere  often  effect  what  has  appeared  to  be  im- 
practicable; of  this  truth  the  discoverer  of  America 
is  a remarkable  proof,  who  in  spite  of  every  mortifi- 
cation, rebuff",  and  disappointment,  persevered  in  calling 
the  attention  of  monarchs  to  his  project,  until  he  at 
length  obtained  the  assistance  requisite  for  eflecting  the 
discovery  of  a new  world. 

Persevere  is  employed  only  in  matters  of  some  mo- 
ment, in  things  of  sufficient  importance  to  demand  a 
steady  purpo.se  of  the  mind;  persist  is  employed  in 
the  ordinary  business  of  life,  as  well  as  on  more  im- 
portant occasions ; a learner  perseveres  in  his  studies, 
in  order  to  arrive  at  the  necessary  degree  of  improve 
ment , ‘ Patience  and  perseverance  overcome  the 
greatest  difficulties.’--RicHARDsoN.  A child  persists 
in  making  a request,  until  he  has  obtained  the  objeci 
of  his  desire  ; ‘ ’i'he  Arians  themselves  which  were 
present,  subscribed  also  (to  the  Nicene  creed),  not  that 
they  meant  sincerely  and  in  deed  to  forsake  their 
errour ; but  only  to  escape  deprivation  and  exile,  which 
they  saw  they  could  not  avoid,  openly  persisting  in 
their  former  opinions,  when  the  greater  part  had  con- 
cluded against  them,  and  that  with  the  emperor’s  royal 
assent.’ — Hooker.  There  is  always  wisdom  in  per- 
severance, even  though  unsuccessful ; there  is  mostly 
folly,  caprice,  or  obstinacy  in  persistance:  how  dif- 
ferent the  man  who  perseveres  in  the  cultivation  of  his 
taleijts,  from  him  W'ho  only  persists  in  maintaining 
I falselioodsor  supporting  errours! 

Continue,  when  compared  with  persevere  or  persist, 
is  always  coupled  with  modes  of  action  ; but  in  com- 
parison with  pursue  or  prosecute,  it  is  always  followed 
by  some  object : we  eontinue  to  do,  persevere,  or  per- 
sist in  doing  something  : but  we  continue,  pursue,  07 
prosecute  some  object  which  we  wish  to  bring  to  pe" 
feclion  by  additional  labour. 

Continue  is  here  equally  indefinite,  as  in  the  formei 
case  : pursue  and  prosecute  both  comprehend  collateral 
ideas  respecting  the  dis()osition  of  the  agent,  and  the 
nature  of  the  object:  to  continue  is  to  go  on  with  5 
thing  as  it  has  been  begun  ; to  pursue  and  prosecute  k 
to  continue  by  some  prescribed  rule,  or  in  some  parti 
cular  manner;  a work  is  continued;  a plan,  measure,, 
or  line  of  conduct  is  pursued ; an  undertaking  or  z 
design  is  prosecuted : we  may  continue  the  work  of 
another  in  order  to  supply  a deficiency  ; we  may  pur- 
sue a plan  that  emanates  either  from  ourselves  or  an- 
other : w e prosecute  our  own  work  only  in  order  U 
obtain  some  peculiar  object;  continue,  therefore,  ex- 
presses less  than  pursue,  and  this  less  than  prosecute. 
the  history  of  England  has  been  continued  down  to  the 
present  period  by  different  writers  ; Smollett  has  pur 
sued  the  same  '’Jan  as  Hume,  in  the  continuation  of 
his  history  ; Captain  Cook  prosecuted  his  work  of  dis 
covery  in  three  several  voyages. 

We  continue  the  conversation  v/hich  has  been  inter 
rupted  ; we  pursue  the  subject  which  has  engaged  ouj 
attention  ; we  pursue  a journey  after  a certain  length 
of  stay ; w'e  prosecute  any  particular  journey  which 
is  important  either  on  account  of  its  difficulties  or  ite 
object. 

To  continue  is  in  itself  altogether  an  indifferent  ac- 
tion ; to  pursue  is  always  a commendable  action;  tu 
prosecute  rises  still  higher  in  value  it  is  a mark  of 
great  instability  not  to  continue  any  thing  that  we 
begin  ; ‘ After  having  petitioned  for  power  to  resist 
temptation,  there  is  so  great  an  incongruity  in  not  con- 
tinuing the  struggle,  that  we  blush  at  the  thought,  and 
persevere,  lest  we  lose  all  reverence  for  ourselves.’ — 
Hawkesworth.  It  betrays  a great  want  of  prudence 
and  di.-cernment  not  to  pursue  some  plan  on  every  oc 
casion  which  requires  method ; 

Look  roi  ad  the  habitable  world,  how  few 

Know  tb.  ir  own  good,  or,  knowing  it,  pursue 
Dryden 


EiSGi^iSri  SVNONYMES. 


Will  ye  not  now  Ihe  pair  of  sages  praise, 

Who  ihe  same  end  pursu'd  by  several  ways  ? 

Drydkn. 

It  is  the  characteristick  of  a persevering  mind  to  pro- 
secute whatever  it  has  deemed  worthy  to  enter  upon  ; 

There  will  be  some  study  which  every  muir  more 
zealously  prosecutes,  some  darling  subject  on  which 
he  is  principally  pleased  to  converse.’ — Johnson. 

TO  INSIST,  PERSIST. 

B'^th  these  terms,  being  derived  from  the  Latin  sisto 
to  stand,  express  tire  idsa  of  resting  or  keeping  to  a 
thing ; but  insist  signifies  to  rest  on  a point,  and  persist, 
from  per  through  or  by  (v.  To  continue),  signifies  to 
keep  on  with  a thing  to  carry  it  through.  We  insist 
on  a matter  by  maintaining  it ; we  persist  in  a thing  bj' 
continuing  to  do  it ; we  insist  by  the  force  of  autho- 
rity or  argument ; we  persist  by  the  mere  act  of  the 
will.  A person  insists  on  that  winch  he  conceives  to 
be  his  right : or  he  insists  on  that  which  he  conceives 
to  be  right ; but  he  persists  in  that  which  he  has  no 
will  to  give  up.  To  insist  is  therefore  an  act  of  dis- 
cretion r to  persist  is  mostly  an  act  of  folly  or  caprice ; 
the  former  is  always  taken  in  a good  or  indifferent 
sense  ; the  latter  mostly  in  a bad  sense,  at  least  in  col- 
lorinial  discourse.  A parent  ought  to  insist  on  all  mat- 
ters that  are  of  essential  importance  to  his  children  ; 

‘ This  natural  tendency  of  despotick  power  to  ignorance 
and  barbarity,  though  not  insisted  upon  by  others,  is,  I 
think,  an  inconsiderable  argument  against  that  form  of 
government.’ — Addison.  A spoiled  child  persists  in 
its  follies  from  perversity  of  humour;  ‘So  easy  it  is 
for  every  man  living  to  err,  and  so  hard  to  wrest  from 
any  man’s  mouth  the  plain  acknowledgment  of  errour, 
that  what  hath  been  once  inconsiderately  defended, 
the  same  is  commonly  in  as  long  as  wit,  by 

whetting  itself,  is  able  to  find  out  any  shift,  be  it  never 
BO  slight,  whereby  to  escape  out  of  the  hands  of  pre- 
t«:nt  contradiction.’ — Hooker. 


TENACIOUS,  PERTINACIOUS. 

To  be  tenacious  is  to  hold  a thing  close,  to  let  it  go 
with  reluctance;  to  be  pertinacious  is  to  hold  it  out  in 
spite  of  what  can  be  advanced  against  it,  the  prepositive 
syllable  per  having  an  intensive  force.  A man  of  te- 
nacious temper  insists  on  trifles  that  are  supposed  to 
iffect  his  importance  ; a pertinacious  temper  insists  on 
every  thing  which  is  apt  to  affect  his  opinions.  Tena- 
city and  pertinacity  are  both  foibles,  but  the  former  is 
sometimes  more  e.xcusable  than  the  latter. 

We  may  be  tenacious  of  that  which  is  good,  as 
when  a man  is  tenacious  of  whatever  may  affect  his 
honour  ; ‘ So  tenacious  are  we  of  the  old  ecclesiastical 
modes,  that  very  little  alteration  has  been  made  in 
them  since  the  fourteenth  or  fifteenth  century;  adher- 
ing to  our  old  settled  maxim,  never  entirely,  nor  at 
once,  to  depart  from  antiquity.’ — Burke.  We  cannot 
be  pertinacious  in  any  thing  but  our  opinions,  and 
that  too  in  cases  where  they  are  least  defensible  ; 
‘ The  most  pertinacious  and  vehement  demonstrator 
may  be  wearied  in  time  by  continual  negation.’ — 
Johnson.  It  commonly  happens  that  people  are 
most  tenacious  of  being  thought  to  possess  that  in 
which  they  are  most  deficient,  and  most  pertinacious 
in  maintaining  that  which  is  absurd.  A liar  is  tena- 
cious of  his  reputation  for  truth;  ‘ Men  are  tcnacicws 
of  the  opinions  that  first  possess  them.’ — Locke.  So- 
phists, freethinkers,  and  skeplicks,  are  the  most  perti- 
nacious objectors  to  whatever  is  established  ; ‘ One  of 
the  dissenters  appeared  to  Dr.  Sanderson  to  be  so  bold, 
so  troublesome,  and  illogical  in  the  dispute,  as  forced 
him  to  say,  that  he  had  never  met  with  a man  of 
more  pertinacious  confidence  and  less  abilities.’ — 

W-VLTON. 


CONTINUAL,  PERPETUAL,  CONSTANT. 

Continual,  in  French  continuel,  Latin  enntinuus, 
from  contineo  to  hold  or  keep  together,  signifies  keep- 
ing together  v’ithout  intermission ; perpetual,  in  French 
pcrpfiiiel,  Latin  perpetualis,  from  perpeto,  com- 
pounded of  per  and  peto  to  seek  thoroughly,  signifies 
going  on  every  where  and  at  all  times;  constant,  in 
uatin  constans,  or  con  and  sto,  signifies  the  quality  of 
standing  to  a thing,  or  standing  close  together.  / 


What  is  contr/mal  admits  of  no  inten<iptl<#'j  what 
is  perpetual  admits  of  no  termination.  Thf--"  raay  be 
an  end  to  that  which  is  continual  and  there  nxiy  be 
intervals  in  that  which  is  perpetua^  Rains  are  con- 
tinual in  the  tropical  climates  at  certain  seasons ; 
complaints  among  the  lower  orders  are  perpetual,  but 
they  are  frequently  without  foundation.  There  is  a 
continual  passing  and  repassing  in  the  streets  of  the 
metropolis  during  the  day ; 

Open  your  ears,  for  which  of  you  will  stop 
The  vent  of  hearing  when  loud  rumour  speaks  • 
Upon  my  tongue  continual  slanders  ride, 

The  which  in  every  language  I pronounce, 

Shakspeaf.k. 

The  world,  and  all  that  it  contains,  are  subject  to  per- 
petual change;  ‘If  affluence  of  fortune  unhappily 
concur  to  favour  the  inclinations  of  the  youthful, 
amusements  and  diversions  succeed  in  a perpetual 
round.’— Blair. 

The  continual  is  that  which  admits  of  no  interrup- 
tion, the  constant  is  that  which  admits  of  no  change. 
The  last  twenty-five  years  have  presented  to  the  world 
a continual  succession  of  events,  that  have  exceeded 
in  importance  those  going  before;  the  French  revo- 
lution and  the  atrocities  attendant  upon  it  have  been 
the  constant  theme  of  execration  with  the  well-dis- 
posed part  of  mankind.  To  an  intelligent  parent  it  is 
a continual  source  of  pleasure  to  waten  the  progress  of 
his  child  in  the  aciiuirement  of  knowledge,  and  the  de- 
velopment of  Ins  faculties ; 

’Tis  all  blank  sadness,  or  continual  tears. — Pope. 
It  will  be  the  constant  endeavour  of  a parent  to  train 
him  up  in  prhxiples  of  religion  and  virtue,  while  I 
is  cultivating  his  talents,  and  storing  his  mind  wit, 
science ; 

The  world’s  a scene  of  changes,  and  to  be 

Constant  in  nature  were  inconstancy. — Cowley. 
Continual  is  used  in  the  proper  sense  only,  constant 
is  employed  in  the  moral  sense  o denote  the  temper  of 
the  mind  (d.  Constancy). 

CONTINUAL,  CONTINUED. 

Both  these  terms  mark  length  of  dxration,  but  the 
former  admits  of  a certain  degree  a'  rnterruption, 
which  the  latter  does  not.  What  is  continual  may  have 
frequent  pauses;  what  is  continued  ceases  only  to  ter- 
minate. Rains  are  coritmttaZ ; noises  in  a tumultuous 
street  are  coatmMaf ; the  bass  in  musick  is  said  to  be 
continued  ; the  mirth  of  a drunken  party  is  one  con 
tinned  noise.  Continual  interruptions  abate  the  vigour 
of  application  and  create  disgust : *in  countries  situ- 
ated near  the  poles,  there  is  one  continued  darkness  foi 
the  space  of  five  or  six  months ; during  which  time  the 
inhabitants  are  obliged  to  leave  the  place. 

Continual  respects  the  duration  of  actionsor  circum- 
stances only ; continued  is  likewise  applied  to  the  extent 
or  course  of  things;  rumours  are  contimial;  talking, 
walking,  running,  and  the  like,  are  continual; 

And  gulphy  Simois  rolling  to  the  main. 

Helmets  and  shields  and  godlike  heroes  slain : 

These  turn’d  by  Phoebus  from  their  wonted  ways, 

Delug’d  the  rampire  nine  continual  days.— Pope. 

A line,  a series,  a scene,  or  a stream  of  water,  &c.  is 
continued: 

Our  life  is  one  continued  toil  for  fame.’ — Martyn. 

‘ By  too  intense  and  continued  application,  our  feeble 
powers  would  soon  be  worn  out.’ — Blair. 


CONTINUANCE,  CONTINUATION,  DURA- 
TION. 

Continuance  is  said  of  the  time  that  a thing  con- 
tinues {v.  To  continue) ; continuation  expresses  the 
act  of  continuing  what  has  been  begun.  The  con- 
tinuance of  any  particular  practice  may  be  attended 
with  serious  consequence;  ‘Their  duty  depending 
upon  fear,  the  one  was  of  no  greater  continuance  than 
the  other.’ — Hayward.  The  continuation  of  a work 
depends  on  the  abilities  and  will  of  the  workmen 
'The  Roman  poem  is  but  the  second  part  of  the  Ilias| 
tne  continuation  of  the  same  story.’ — Ray.  Authors 

* Vide  Trussler : “ Continual,  continued  ” 


266 


ENGLISH  SYNONmES. 


have  however  nov  always  observed  this  distinction ; 

Providence  seems  to  have  equally  divided  the  whole 
mass  of  mankind  into  different  sexes,  that  every  woman 
may  have  her  husband,  and  that  both  may  equally 
contribute  to  \he  continuance  of  the  species.’ — Steele. 
‘The  Pythagorean  transmigration,  the  sensual  habita- 
tions of  the  Mahometan,  and  the  shady  realms  of  Pluto, 
do  all  agree  in  the  main  point,  the  continuation  of  our 
existence.’ — Berkeley. 

Continuance  and  duration,  in  Latin  duratio,  from 
dura  to  harden,  or  figuratively  to  last,  are  both  em- 
pk;*yed  for  time ; things  may  be  of  long  continuance, 
or  of  long  duration : but  continuance  is  used  only 
W!  th  regard  to  the  action  ; duration  with  regard  to 
the  thing  and  its  existence.  Whatever  is  occasionally 
done,  and  soon  to  be  ended,  is  not  for  a continuance ; 
whatever  is  made,  and  soon  destroyed,  is  not  of  long 
duration;  there  are  many  excellent  institutions  in 
England  which  promise  to  be  of  no  less  continuance 
than  of  utility  ; ‘ That  pleasure  is  not  of  greater  con- 
tinuance, which  arises  from  the  prejudice  or  malice  of 
its  hearers.’ — Addison.  Duration  is  with  us  a relative 
term ; things  are  of  long  or  short  duration : by  com- 
parison, the  duration  of  the  world  and  all  sublunary 
objects  is  nothing  in  regard  to  eternity;  ‘ Mr.  Locke 
observes,  “ that  we  get  the  idea  of  time  and  duration, 
by  reflecting  on  that  train  of  ideas  which  succeed  one 
another  in  our  minds.”  ’ — Addison. 


CONTINUATION,  CONTINUITY. 

Continuation,  as  may  be  seen  above  {v.  Conti- 
nuance), is  the  act  of  continuing ; contimdty  is  the 
quality  of  continuing  : the  former  is  employed  in  the 
figurative  sense  for  the  duration  of  events  and  actions  ; 
the  latter  in  the  physical  sense  for  the  adhesion  of  the 
component  parts  of  the  bodies.  The  continuation  of 
a history  up  to  the  existing  period  of  the  writer  is  the 
work  of  every  age,  if  not  of  every  year  ; ‘ The  sun 
ascending  into  the  northern  signs  begetteth  first  a tem- 
perate heat,  which  by  his  approach  unto  the  solstice  he 
intendeth ; and  by  continuation  the  same  even  upon 
declination.’ — Brown  [Vulgar  Errours).  There  are 
bodies  of  so  little  continuity  that  they  will  crumble  to 
pieces  on  the  slightest  touch ; ‘ A body  always  per- 
ceives the  passages  by  which  it  insinuates;  feels  the 
impulse  of  anotlier  body  where  it  yields  thereto  : per- 
ceives the  separation  of  its  continuity,  and  for  a time 
resists  it ; in  fine,  perception  is  diffused  through  all 
nature.’ — Bacon. 

The  sprightly  breast  demands 
Incessant  rapture;  life,  a tedious  load, 

Oeny’d  its  continuity  of  joy. — Shenstone. 


DURABLE,  LASTING,  PERMANENT. 

Durable  is  said  of  things  that  are  intended  to  remain 
ft  shorter  time  than  those  which  are  lasting;  and  per- 
manent expresses  less  than  durable;  durable,  from  the 
Latin  durus  hard,  respects  the  textures  of  bodies,  and 
marks  the  capacity  to  holdout ; lasting,  from  the  verb 
.0  last,  or  the  adjective  last,  signifies  to  remain  the 
iaat  or  longest,  and  is  applicable  only  to  that  which 
is  supposed  of  the  longest  duration.  Permanent,  from 
the  Latin  permaneo,  signifie*!  remaining  to  the  end. 

Durable  is  naturally  said  cJ  material  substances ; 
and  lasting  of  those  which  are  sphitual;  although  in 
ordinary  discourse  sometimes  they  exchange  offices  : 
vermanent  applies  more  to  the  affairs  of  ir.en. 

That  Which  perishes  quickly  is  not  durable:  that 
which  ceases  quickly  is  not  lastir,g;  tnat  which  is 
only  for  a time  is  not  permanent  Stone  is  more 
duraf^fe  than  iron,  and  iron  than  wood:  in  the  feudal 
•imes  animosities  between  families  used  lO  be  lasting : 
A clerk  has  not  a permanent  situation  in  an  office. 
However  we  may  boast  of  our  progresf,  in  the  arts,  we 
appear  to  have  lost  the  art  of  making  things  as  durable 
as  they  were  made  in  former  times ; ‘ If  writings  be 
thus  durable,  and  may  pass  from  age  .o  age,  through 
the  whole  course  of  time,  how  c-reful  should  an 
a\ithor  be  of  not  committing  any  thing  to  print  that 
may  corrupt  posterity.’ — Addison.  ”he  writings  of 
the  moderns  wilt  many  of  them  be  aS  lasting  monu- 
ments oT  human  genius  as  those  of  ihe  ancients;  ‘I 
must  desire  iny  fair  readers  to  cive  a proper  direction 
to  their  being  admired",  in  order  t^,  which  they  must 


endeavour  to  make  themselves  the  oljei.ts  of  a rea 
sonable  and  lasting  admiration.’ — Addison.  One 
wlio  is  of  a contented,  moderate  disposition  will  gene 
rally  prefer  a permanent  situation  with  small  gains  tc 
one  that  is  very  lucrative  but  temporary  and  precarious; 
‘Land  comprehends  all  things  in  law  of  a permanent 
substantial  nature.’ — Blackstone. 


DURABLE,  CONSTANT. 

Durability  is  the  property  of  things ; constancy  {v- 
Constancy)  is  the  property  of  either  persons  or  things. 
The  durable  is  that  which  lasts  long.  The  constant  \s 
that  which  continues  without  interruption.  No  du- 
rable connexions  can  be  formed  which  are  founded 
on  vicious  principles ; ‘ Some  states  have  suddeidy 
emerged,  and  even  in  the  depths  of  their  calamity  have 
laid  the  foundation  of  a towering  and  durable  great 
ness.’ — Burke.  Some  persons  are  never  happy  but  in 
a constant  round  of  pleasures;  ‘ Since  we  cannot  pro- 
mise ourselves  constant  health,  let  us  endeavour  ai 
such  a temper,  as  may  be  our  best  support  in  the  decay 
of  it.’ — Steele.  What  is  durable  is  so  from  its  inhe 
rent  property,  but  what  is  constant,  in  regard  to  persons 
or  things,  arises  from  the  temper  of  the  mind;  ‘He 
showed  his  firm  adherence  to  religion  as  modelled  by 
our  national  constitution,  and  was  constant  to  its 
offices  in  devotion,  both  in  publick  and  in  his  family 
— Addison. 


DURATION,  TIME. 

In  the  philosophical  sense,  according  to  Mr.  Locke, 
time  is  that  mode  of  duration  which  is  formed  in  the 
mind  by  its  own  power  of  observing  and  measuring 
passing  objects. 

In  the  vulgar  sense  in  which  duration  is  synonymous 
with  time,  it  stands  for  the  time  of  duration,  and  is 
more  particularly  applicable  to  the  objects  which  are 
said  to  last;  time  being  employed  in  general  for  what- 
ever passes  in  the  world. 

Duration  comprehends  the  beginning  and  end  of 
any  portion  of  time,  that  is  the  how  long  of  a thing ; 
time  is  employed  more  frequently  for  the  particular 
portion  itself,  namely,  the  time  when;  we  mark  the 
duration  of  a sound  from  the  time  of  its  commence 
rnent  to  the  time  that  it  ceases : the  duration  of  a 
prince’s  reign  is  an  object  of  particular  concern  to  his 
subjects  if  he  be  either  very  good  or  the  reverse;  the 
time  in  which  he  reigns  is  marked  by  extraordinary 
events.  An  historian  computes  the  duration  of  reigns 
and  of  events  in  order  to  determine  the  antiquity  of  a 
nation  ; ‘ I think  another  probable  conjecture  (respect- 
ing the  soul’s  immortality)  may  be  raised  from  our  ap- 
petite to  duration  itself.’ — Steele.  An  historian  fixes 
the  exact  time  when  each  person  begins  to  reign  and 
when  he  dies,  in  order  to  determine  the  number  of 
years  that  each  reigned  ; ‘ The  time  of  the  fool  is  long 
because  he  does  not  know  what  to  do  with  it ; that  of 
the  wise  man,  because  he  distinguishes  every  moment 
of  it  with  useful  or  amusing  thought^  —Addison. 

TIME,  SEASON,  TIMELY,  SEASONABLE. 

Time  is  here  thegenerick  term  ; it  is  taken  either  ffii 
the  whole  or  the  part : season  is  any  given  poition  of 
time.  We  speak  of  time  when  the  simple  idea  of  time 
only  is  to  be  expressed,  as  the  time  of  the  day,  or  the 
time  of  the  year;  the  seasore  is  spoken  in  reference  to 
some  circumstances;  the  year  is  divided  into  four 
parts,  called  the  seasons,  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  weather:  hence,  in  general,  that  time  is  called  the 
season  which  is  s+iitable  for  any  particular  purpose , 
youth  is  the  season  for  improvement.  It  is  a matter 
of  necessity  to  choose  the  time;  it  is  an  affair  of  wis 
dom  to  choose  the  season;  ‘ You  will  often  want  re 
ligion  in  times  of  most  danger.’— Chatham.  ‘ Piso’s 
behaviour  towards  us  in  this  season  of  affliction  has 
endeared  him  to  us.’ — Melmoth  {Letters  of  Cicero) 

The  same  distinction  exists  between  the  epithets 
timely  unA  seasonable  as  their  primitives.  The  former 
signifies  within  the  time,  that  is,  before  the  time  is 
past;  the  latter  according  to  the  season  or  what  the 
season  requires.  A timely  notice  prevents  that  which 
would  otherwise  happen  , ‘ It  imports  all  men,  espe- 
cially bad  men,  to  think  on  the  judgement,  that  by  a 
timely  repentance  they  may  prevent  the  wofni  effects 
of  it  ’ — South.  A seasonable  hint  seldom  fails  of  iu 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


m 


effect  because  it  is  seasonable;  What  you  call  a bold, 
is  not  only  the  kindest,  but  the  most  seasonable  pro- 
posal you  could  have  made.’ — Locke.  We  must  not 
2xpeci  to  have  a timely  notice  of  death,  but  must  be 
prepared  to  die  at  any  time ; an  admonition  to  one 
who  IS  on  a sick-bed  is  very  seasonable,  when  given 
by  a minister  of  religion  or  a friend.  The  opposites 
of  these  terms  are  untimely  or  ill-timed  and  unseason- 
able : untimely  is  directly  opposed  to  tmeZy,  signifying 
before  the  time  appointed  ; as  an  untimely  death  ; but 
ill-timed  is  indirectly  opposed,  signifying  in  the  wrong 
time ; as  an  ill-timed  remark. 


TIME,  PERIOD,  AGE,  DATE,  '^RA,  EPOCHA. 

Time  («.  Time)  is,  as  before,  taken  either  from  time 
in  general,  or  time  in  particular ; all  the  other  terms 
are  taken  for  particular  portions  of  time.  Time,  in 
the  sense  of  a particular  portion  of  time,  is  used  inde- 
finitely, and  in  cases  where  the  other  terms  are  not  so 
proper ; ‘ There  is  a time  when  we  should  not  only 
number  our  days,  but  our  hours.’ — Young. 

Time  included  within  any  given  points  is  termed  a 
period,  from  the  Greek  treploSoi,  signifying  a course, 
ro>.md,  or  any  revolution : thus,  the  period  of  day,  or 
of  night,  is  the  space  of  time  comprehended  between 
the  rising  and  setting,  or  setting  and  rising  of  the  sun ; 
the  period  of  a year  comprehends  the  space  which  the 
earth  requires  for  its  annual  revolution.  So,  in  an  ex- 
tended and  moral  application,  we  have  stated 
in  our  life  for  particular  things : during  the  period  of 
infancy  a child  is  in  a state  of  total  dependence  on  its 
parents ; a period  of  apprenticeship  has  been  appointed 
for  youth  to  learn  different  trades  ; ‘ Some  experiment 
would  he  made  how  by  art  to  make  plants  more  last- 
ing than  tlieir  ordinary  ym'od;  as  to  make  a stalk  of 
wheat  last  a whole  year.’ — Bacon.  This  term  is  em- 
ployed not  only  to  denote  the  whole  intervening  space 
of  time,  but  also  the  particular  concluding  point,  which 
makes  it  equivalent  in  sense  to  the  termination  of  the 
existence  of  any  body,  as  to  put  a period  to  one’s  ex- 
istence, for  to  kill  one’s  self,  or  be  Itilled  ; 

But  the  \diSt  period,  and  the  fatal  hour, 

Of  Troy  is  come. — Denham. 

The  age  is  a species  of  period  comprehending  the 
life  of  a man,  and  consequently  referring  to  what  is 
done  by  men  living  within  that  period:  hence  we 
speak  of  the  different  ages  that  have  existed  since  the 
commencement  of  the  world,  and  characterize  this  or 
that  age  by  the  particular  degrees  of  vice  or  virtue, 
genius,  and  the  like,  for  which  it  is  distinguished  ; 
‘ The  story  of  Haman  only  shows  us  what  human  na- 
ture has  too  generally  appeared  to  be  in  every  age.' — 
Blair. 

The  date  is  that  period  of  time  which  is  reckoned 
from  the  date  or  commencement  of  a thing  to  tlie  time 
that  it  is  spoken  of : hence  we  speak  of  a thing  as 
being  of  a long  or  a short  date,  that  is,  of  being  of 
long  or  short  duratiou  ; ‘Plantations  have  one  advan- 
tage in  them  which  is  not  to  be  found  in  most  other 
works,  as  they  give  a pleasure  of  a more  lasting  date.' — 
Addison. 

^ra,  in  Latin  cera,  probably  from  as  brass,  signi 
fying  coin  with  which  one  computes;  and  epocha, 
from  the  Greek  enoxfii  from  ii:fxy>  to  stop,  signifying  a 
resting  place;  both  refer  to  points  of  time  rendered 
remarkable  by  events:  but  the  term  ara  is  more  com- 
monly employed  in  the  literal  sense  for  points  of  com- 
putation in  chronology,  as  the  Christian  (Era;  ‘That 
period  of  the  Athenian  history  which  is  included  within 
the  ara  of  Pisistratus,  and  the  death  of  Menander  the 
comic  poet,  may  justly  be  styled  the  literary  age  of 
Greece.’ — Cumberland.  The  term  epocha  is  inde- 
finitely employed  for  any  period  distinguished  by 
remarkable  events : tlH  grand  rebellion  is  an  epocna 
in  the  history  of  England  ; ‘The  institution  of  this 
library  (by  Pisistratus)  forms  a signal  epocha  in  the  an- 
nals of  literature.’ — Cumberland. 


TIMESERVING,  TEMPORIZING. 

Timeserving  and  temporizing  are  both  applied  to 
the  conduct  of  one  who  adapts  himself  servilely  to  the 
time  and  season ; but  a timeserver  is  rather  active, 
«nd  a temporizer  passive.  A timeserver  avows  those 
opinions  which  will  serve  his  purpose ; the  temporizer 


forbears  to  avow  those  which  are  likely  for  the  time 
being  to  hurt  him.  The  former  acts  from  a desire  of 
gain,  the  latter  from  a fear  of  loss.  Timeservers  are 
of  all  parties,  as  they  come  in  the  way  ; ‘Wild  had 
complied  du  ing  the  late  times,  and  held  in  by  taking 
the  covenant ; so  he  was  hated  by  the  high  men  as  a 
timeserver.' — Burnett.  Temporizers  are  of  no  party, 
as  occasion  requires ; ‘ Feeble  and  temporizing  mea 
sures  will  always  be  the  result,  when  men  assemble  to 
deliberate  in  a situation  where  they  ought  to  act.’— 
Robertson.  Sycophant  courtiers  must  always  b( 
timeservers : ministers  of  state  are  frequently  tempo- 
rizers. 


INSTANT,  MOMENT. 

Instant,  from  sto  to  stand,  signifies  the  point  of  time 
that  stands  over  us,  or  as  it  were  over  our  heads ; mo 
men',  from  the  Latin  momentum,  is  any  small  particle, 
particularly  a small  particle  of  time. 

The  instant  is  always  taken  for  the  time  present; 
the  moment  is  taken  generally  for  either  past,  present, 
or  future.  A dutiful  child  comes  the  instant  he  is 
called  ; a prudent  person  embraces  the  favourable  mo- 
ment. When  they  are  both  taken  for  the  present  time, 
the  instant  expresses  a much  shorter  space  than  the 
moment;  when  we  desire  a person  to  do  a thing  this 
instant,  it  requires  haste ; if  we  desire  him  to  do  it 
this  moment,  it  only  admits  of  no  delay.  Instanta 
neous  relief  is  necessary  on  some  occasions  to  preserve 
life ; ‘ Some  circumstances  of  misery  are  so  powerfully 
ridiculous,  that  neither  kindness  nor  duty  can  with 
stand  them  ; they  force  the  friend,  the  dependant,  oi 
the  child,  to  give  way  to  instantaneous  motions  of 
merriment.’ — Johnson.  A moment's  thought  will  fur- 
nish a ready  wit  with  a suitable  reply ; ‘I  can  easily 
overlook  any  pxGSGuimomentary  sorrow,  when  I reflect 
that  it  is  in  my  power  to  be  hapjiy  a thousand  years 
hence.’— Berkeley. 


TEMPORARY,  TRANSIENT,  TRANSITORY 
FLEETING. 

Temporary,  from  tempus  time,  characterizes  tilal 
which  is  intended  to  last  only  for  a time,  in  distinction 
from  that  which  is  permanent;  offices  depending  upoK 
a state  of  war  are  temporary,  in  distinction  from  those 
which  are  connected  with  internal  policy ; ‘ By  the 
force  of  superiour  principles  the  Ze7Hpora?-y  prevalence 
of  passions  may  be  restrained.’— Johnson.  Tran- 
sient, that  is,  passing,  or  in  the  act  of  passing,  cha- 
racterizes what  in  its  nature  exists  only  for  the  mo 
ment ; a glance  is  transient ; ‘ Any  su^en  diversion 
of  the  sijirits,  or  the  justling  in  of  a transient  thought, 
is  able  to  deface  the  little  images  of  things  (in  the 
memory).’ — South.  Transitory,  that  is,  apt  to  pass 
away,  characterizes  every  thing  in  the  world  which  is 
formed  only  to  exist  for  a time,  and  then  to  pass  away ; 
thus  our  pleasures,  and  our  pains,  and  our  very  being, 
are  denominated  transitory;  ‘Man  is  a transitory 
being.’ — Johnson.  Fleeting,  which  is  derived  from 
the  verb  to  fly  and  flight,  is  but  a stronger  term  to  ex 
press  the  same  idea  as  transitory  ; 

Thus  when  my  fleeting  days  at  last. 

Unheeded,  silently  are  past, 

Calmly  I shall  resign  my  breath. 

In  life  unknown,  forgot  in  death. — Spectator 


COEVAL,  COTEMPORARY. 

Coeval,  from  the  Latin  avum  an  age,  signifies  of  the 
same  age  ; cotemporary,  from  tempus,  signifies  of  the 
same  time. 

An  age  is  a specifically  long  space  of  time  ; a time 
is  indefinite;  hence  the  application  of  the  terms  tc 
things  in  the  first  case,  and  to  persons  in  the  second  i 
the  dispersion  of  mankind  and  the  confusion  of  Ian* 
guages  were  coeval  with  the  building  of  the  tower  of 
Babel ; ‘ The  passion  of  fear  seems  coeval  with  out 
nature.’ — Cumberland.  Addison  was  cotemporary 
with  Swift  and  Pope  ; ‘ If  the  elder  Orpheus  was  the 
disciple  of  Linus,  he  must  have  been  of  too  early  an 
age  to  have  been  cotemporary  with  Hercules ; fo. 
Orpheus  is  placed  eleven  ages  before  the  siege  of 
Troy.'— Cumberland. 


i68 


ENGLISH  SrNONYMES. 


DAILY,  DIURN  \L. 

Daily,  from  day  and  like,  signifies  after  the  manner 
or  in  the  time  of  the  day;  diurnal,  from  dies  day,  sig- 
nifies belonging  to  tt^e  day. 

Daily  is  the  colloquial  term,  which  is  applicable  to 
whatever  passes  in  the  day  time ; diurnal  is  the  scien- 
tifick  term.,  which  applies  to  what  passes  within  or  be- 
longs to  the  astronomical  day:  the  {thysician  makes 
daily  visits  to  his  patients; 

All  creatures  else  forget  their  daily  care. 

And  sleep,  the  common  gift  of  nature,  share. 

Dryden 

The  earth  has  a diurnal  motion  on  its  own  axis; 

Half  yet  remains  unsung,  but  narrow  bound 
Within  the  visible  diurnal  sphere. — Milton. 


NIGHTLY,  NOCTURNAL. 

J^igliMy,  immediately  from  the  word  night,  and 
nocturnal,  from  nox  night,  signify  belonging  to  the 
night,  or  the  night  season;  the  former  is  therefore 
more  familiar  than  the  latter : we  speak  of  nightly 
depredations  to  express  what  passes  every  night,  or 
nightly  disturbances,  nocturnal  dreams,  nocturnal 
visits ; 

Yet  not  alone,  while  thou 
Visit’st  my  slumbers  nightly,  or  when  morn 
Purples  the  east. — Milton. 

Or  save  the  sun  his  labour,  and  that  swift 
JVocturnal  and  diurnal  rhomb  suppos’d 
Invisible  else  above  all  stars,  the  wheel 
Of  day  and  night.— Milton. 

OFTEN,  FREQUENTLY. 

Often,  or  in  its  contracted  form  oft,  comes  in  all 
probability  through  the  medium  of  the  northern  lan- 
guages, from  the  Greek  Hip  again,  and  signifies  properly 
repetition  of  action ; frequently,  from  freqiient  crowded 
or  numerous,  respects  a plurality  or  number  of  objects. 

An  ignorant  man  often  uses  a word  witliout  know- 
ing what  it  means ; ignorant  people  frequently  mis- 
take the  meaning  of  the  words  they  hear.  A person 
goes  out  very  often  in  the  course  of  a week;  he  has 
frequently  six  or  seven  persons  to  visit  him  in  the 
course  of  that  time.  * By  doing  a thing  often  it  be- 
comes habitual ; we  frequently  meet  the  same  persons 
i»  the  route  which  we  often  take; 

Often  from  the  careless  back 
Of  herds  and  flocks  a thousand  tugging  bills 
Pluck  hair  and  wool. — Thomson. 

Here  frequent  at  the  visionary  hour. 

When  musing  midnight  reigns  or  silent  noon, 
Angeiick  harps  are  in  full  concert  heard. 

Thomson. 


OLD,  ANCIENT,  ANTIQUE,  ANTIQUATED, 
OLD-FASHIONED,  OBSOLETE. 

Old,  in  German  alt,  Low  German  old,  &lc.,  comes 
from  the  Greek  twXos  of  yesterday ; ancient,  in  French 
.incien,  and  antique,  antiquated,  all  come  from  the 
Latin  antiquus,  and  antea  before,  signifying  in  general 
before  our  time ; old-fashioned  signifies  after  an  old 
fashion;  obsolete,  in  Latin  obsoletus,  participle  of 
obsoleo,  signifies  literally  out  of  use. 

Old  respects  what  has  long  existed  and  still  exists; 
ancient  what  existed  at  a distant  period,  but  does  not 
necessarily  exist  at  present;  antique,  that  which  has 
been  long  ancient,  and  of  which  there  remain  but  faint 
traces:  antiquated,  old-fashioned,  and  obsolete  that 
which  has  ceased  to  be  any  longer  used  or  esteemed. 
A fashion  is  old  when  it  has  been  long  in  use ; ‘ The 
Venetians  are  tenacious  of  old  laws  and  customs  to 
their  great  prejudice.’ — Addison.  A custom  is  ancient 
when  its  use  has  long  been  passed ; 

But  sev’n  wise  men  the  ancient  world  did  know. 

We  scarce  know  sev’n  who  think  themselves  not  so. 

Denham. 

A bu.'it  or  statue  is  antique  which  is  the  work  of  the 
ancients,  or  made  after  the  manner  of  the  ancient 
works  of  art; 

* VidcTrusler:  “ Often,  frequently.” 


’ Under  an  oak,  whose  antique  root  peeps  out 
Under  the  brook  that  brawls  along  this  wood, 

A poor  sequester’d  stag. 

That  from  the  hunters’  aim  had  ta’en  a hurt, 

Did  come  to  languish. — ?hakspkarb. 

A person  is  antiquated  whose  appearance  is  grown  out 
of  date;  ‘ Whoever  thinks  it  necessary  to  regulate  his 
conversation  by  antiquated  rules,  will  be  rather  de- 
spised for  his  futility  than  caressed  for  his  politeness. 
— Johnson.  Manners  which  are  gone  quite  out  of 
fashion  are  old-f ashioned ; ‘ The  swords  in  the  arsenal 
of  Venice  are  old-fashioned  and  unwieldy.’ — Addi- 
son. A word  or  custom  is  obsolete  which  is  grown  out 
of  use;  Obsolete  words  may  be  laudably  revived, 
when  they  are  more  sounding  or  more  significant  than 
those  in  practice.’ — Dryden. 

The  old  is  opposed  to  the  new  : some  things  are  the 
worse  for  being  old;  other  things  are  the  better 
Ancient  and  antique  are  opposed  to  modern:  all  things 
are  valued  the  more  for  being  ancient  or  antique; 
hence  we  esteem  the  writings  of  the  ancients  above 
those  of  the  moderns.  The  antiquated  is  opposed  to 
the  customary  and  established ; it  is  that  which  we 
cannot  like,  because  we  cannot  esteem  it:  the  old- 
fashioned  is  opposed  to  the  fashionable : there  is  much 
in  the  old-fashioned  to  like  and  esteem;  there  is  much 
that  is  ridiculous  in  the  fashionable ; the  obsolete  is  op- 
posed to  the  current ; the  obsolete  may  be  good ; the 
current  may  be  vulgar  and  mean. 


FRESH,  NEW,  NOVEL,  RECENT,  MODERN. 

Adelung  supposes  the  German  word  frisch  to  be  de 
rived  t'wm  frieren  to  freeze,  as  the  idea  of  coolness  is 
prevalent  in  its  application  to  the  air ; it  is  therefore 
figuratively  applied  to  that  which  is  in  its  first  pure  and 
best  slate  ; new,  in  German  neu,  comes  from  the  Latin 
novus,  and  the  Greek  veos]  recent,  in  Latin  recens,  is 
supposed  to  come  from  re  and  candeo  to  whiten  or  give 
a fair  colour  to,  because  what  is  new  looks  so  much 
fairer  than  what  is  old. 

The  fresh  is  properly  opposed  to  the  stale,  as  the  new 
is  to  the  old:  the  fresh  has  undergone  no  change;  the 
new  has  not  been  long  in  being.  Meat,  beer,  and  pro- 
visions in  general,  are  said  to  be  fresh ; so  likewise  a 
person  is  said  to  he  fresh  who  is  in  his  full  vigour; 

Lo : great  .Eneas  rushes  to  the  fight. 

Sprung  from  a god,  and  more  than  mortal  bold. 
Refresh  in  youth,  and  I in  arms  grown  old. 

Pope 

That  which  is  substantial  and  durable,  as  houses, 
clothes,  books,  or,  in  the  moral  sense,  pleasures,  ice.  ar«> 
said  to  be  new  ; 

Seasons  but  change  new  pleasures  to  produce. 

And  elements  contend  to  serve  our  use. — Jenyns. 

JVovel  is  to  new  as  the  species  to  the  genus : every 
thing  novel  is  new;  but  all  that  is  new  is  not  novel: 
what  is  novel  is  mostly  strange  and  unexpected ; but 
what  is  new  is  usual  and  expected : the  freezing  of  the 
river  Thames  is  a novelty ; the  frpst  in  every  winter  is 
something  were  when  it  first  comes:  that  is  a novel 
sight  which  was  either  never  seen  before,  or  seen  but 
seldom  ; that  is  a new  sight  which  is  s(,en  for  the  first 
time : the  entrance  of  the  French  king  into  the  British 
capital  was  a sight  as  novel  as  it  was  interesting; 

‘ We  are  naturally  delighted  with  noweZty.’— Johnson. 
The  entrance  of  a king  into  the  capital  of  France  was 
a new  sight,  after  the  revolution  which  had  so  long 
existed ; 

'T  is  on  some  evening,  sunny,  grateful,  mild, 

When  nought  but  balm  is  beaming  through  the  woods, 
With  yellow  lustre  bright,  that  the  new  tribes 
Visit  the  spacious  heav’ns. — Thomson. 

Recent  is  taken  only  in  the  improper  application; 
the  other  two  admit  of  both  applications  in  this  case: 
the  fresh  is  said  in  relation  to  what  has  lately  pre- 
ceded ; new  is  said  in  relation  to  what  has  not  long 
subsisted  ; recent  is  used  for  what  has  just  passed  in 
distinction  from  that  which  has  long  gone  by.  A per 
son  is  said  to  give  fresh  cause  of  offence  who  has 
already  offended ; 

That  love  which  first  was  set,  will  first  decay, 

Mine  of  a fresher  dale  will  longer  6‘ay  - Dryden 


ENGLISH  SSNON/MES. 


269 


A thing  receives  a new  name  in  lieu  of  the  one  which 
it  has  long  had ; ‘ Do  not  all  men  complain  how  little 
we  know,  and  how  much  is  still  unknown  ? And  can 
we  ever  know  more,  unless  something  new  be  disco- 
vered ■?’ — Burnet.  A recent  transaction  excites  an 
Interest  which  cannot  be  excited  by  one  of  earlier 
date ; ‘ The  courage  of  the  Parliament  was  increased 
by  two  recent  events  which  had  happened  in  their 
favour.’ — Hume.  Fresh  intelligence  arrives  every  day ; 
it  quickly  succeeds  the  events : that  intelligence  which 
is  recent  to  a person  at  a distance  is  already  old  to  one 
who  is  on  the  spot.  Fresh  circumstances  continually 
arise  to  confirm  reports ; new  changes  continually  take 
place  to  supersede  the  things  that  were  established. 

J^ew  is  said  of  every  thing  which  has  not  before 
existed,  or  not  .in  the  same  form  as  before ; modem, 
from  the  low  Latin  modernus,  changed  as  is  supposed 
from  hodiernus  belonging  to  the  day,  is  said  of  that 
which  is  new  or  springs  up  in  the  present  day  or  age. 
A book  is  new  which  has  never  been  used ; it  is  modern 
if  it  has  never  been  published  before ; so  in  like  man- 
ner principles  are  new  which  have  not  been  broached 
before ; but  they  are  modern  inasmuch  as  they  are  first 
offered  in  the  day  in  which  we  live ; ‘ Some  of  the 
ancient  and  likewise  divers  of  the  modern  writers, 
that  have  laboured  in  natural  magick,  have  noted  a 
sympathy  between  the  sun  and  certain  herbs.’ — 
Bacon. 


TO  REVIVE,  REFRESH,  RENOVATE, 
RENEW. 

Revive,  from  the  Latin  vivo  to  live,  signifies  to  bring 
to  life  again ; to  refresh,  to  make  fresh  again ; to  renew 
and  renovate,  to  make  new  again.  The  restoration  of 
things  to  their  primitive  state  is  the  common  idea  in- 
cluded in  these  terms ; the  difference  consists  in  their 
application.  Revive,  refresh,  and  renovate  are  applied 
to  animal  bodies ; revive  expressing  the  return  of  mo- 
tion and  spirits  to  one  who  was  for  the  time  lifeless ; 
refresh  expressing  the  return  of  vigour  to  one  in  whom 
it  has  been  diminished;  the  air  revives  one  who  is 
^aint  • a cool  breeze  refreshes  one  who  flags  from  the 
neat.  Revive  and  refresh  respect  only  the  temporary 
state  of  the  body ; renovate  respects  its  permanent 
state,  that  is,  the  health  of  the  body ; one  is  revived  j 
and  refreshed  after  a partial  exhaustion ; one’s  health 
is  renovated  after  having  been  considerably  impaired. 

Revive  is  applied  likewise  in  the  moral  sense ; 

’ Herod’s  rage  being  quenched  by  the  blood  of  Ma- 
riamne,  his  love  to  her  again  revived.' — Pridkaux. 
Refresh  and  renovate  mostly  in  the  proper  sense  ; 

Nor  less  thy  world,  Columbus!  drinks,  refresh'd. 
The  lavish  moisture  of  the  melting  year. 

Thomson. 

All  nature  feels  the  renovating  force 
Of  winter. — Thomson. 

Munew  only  in  the  moral  sense ; 

The  last  great  age,  foretold  by  sacred  rhymes, 
Renews  its  finished  course. — Thomson. 

A discussion  is  said  to  be  revived,  or  a report  to  be 
revived;  a clamour  is  said  to  be  renewed,  or  entreaties 
to  be  renewed : customs  are  revived  which  have  lain 
long  dormant,  and  as  it  were  dead ; practices  are  re- 
newed that  have  ceased  for  a time. 


FOREFATHERS,  PROGENITORS,  ANCESTORS. 

Forefathers  signifies  our  fathers  before  us,  and  in- 
cludes our  immediate  parents  ; progenitors,  from  pro 
and  gigno,  signifies  those  begotten  before  us,  exclusive 
of  our  immediate  parents ; ancestors,  contracted  from 
antecessors  or  those  going  before,  is  said  of  those  from 
whom  we  are  remotely  descended. 

Forefathers  is  a partial  and  familiar  term  for  the 
preceding  branches  of  any  family;  ‘ We  passed  slightly 
over  three  or  four  of  our  immediate /ore/atAers  whom 
we  knew  by  tradition.’ — Addison.  Progenitors  is  a 
higher  term  in  the  same  sense,  applied  to  families  of 
distinction  ; we  speak  of  the  forefathers  of  a peasant, 
but  the  progenitors  of  a nobleman  ; 

Each  in  his  narrow  cell  for  overpaid. 

The  rude /ore/a/Aers  of  the  hamlet  sleep. — Gray. 

Suppose  a gentleman,  full  of  his  illustrious  family 


should  see  the  whole  line  of  his  progenitors  pass  ia 
review  before  him  ; with  how  many  varying  passions 
would  he  behold  shepherds,  soldiers,  princes,  and 
beggars,  walk  in  the  procession  of  five  thousand  years 
— Addison.  Forefathers  and  progenitors,  but  parti 
cularly  the  latter,  are  said  mostly  of  individuals,  and 
respect  the  regular  line  of  succession  in  a family;  an- 
cestors is  employed  collectively  as  well  as  indivi- 
dually and  regards  simply  the  order  of  succession:  wf 
may  speak  of  the  ancestors  of  a nation  as  well  as  of 
any  particular  person ; ‘ It  is  highly  laudable  to  pay 
respect  to  men  who  are  descended  from  worthy  ances 
tors.’— Addison.  This  term  may  also  be  applied  figu 
ratively ; 

O majestick  night ! 

Nature’s  great  ancestor! — Young. 

SENIOR,  ELDER,  OLDER. 

These  are  all  comparatives  expressive  of  the  same 
quality,  and  differ  therefore  less  in  sense  than  in  ap 
plication. 

Senior  is  employed  not  only  in  regard  to  the  extent 
of  age,  but  also  to  duration  either  in  office  or  any  given 
situation  ; elder  is  employed  only  in  regard  to  age: 
an  officer  in  the  army  is  a senior  by  virtue  of  having 
served  longer  than  another;  a boy  is  a senior  in  a 
school  either  by  virtue  of  his  age,  his  standing  in  the 
school,  or  his  situation  in  the  class;  ‘Cratinus  was 
senior  in  age  to  both  his  competitors  Eupolis  and  Aris 
tophanes.’ — Cumberland.  When  age  alone  is  to  be 
expiessed,  elder  is  more  suitable  than  senior;  the  elder 
children  or  the  elder  branches  of  a family  are  clearly 
understood  to  include  those  who  have  priority  of  age. 

Senior  and  elder  are  both  employed  as  substantives  ; 
older  only  as  an  adjective ; hence  we  speak  of  the 
seniors  in  a school,  or  the  elders  in  an  assembly  ; but 
an  older  inhabitant,  an  older  family ; 

The  Spartans  to  their  highest  magistrate 
The  name  of  elder  did  appropriate. — Denham 
Since  oft 

Man  must  compute  that  age  he  cannot  feel. 

He  scarce  believes  he ’s  older  for  his  years. — Young 
Elder  has  only  a partial  use  ; older  is  employed  In 
general  cases : in  speaking  of  children  in  the  same 
family  we  may  say,  the  elder  son  is  heir  to  the  estate  ; 
he  is  older  than  his  brother  by  ten  years. 

ELDERLY,  AGED,  OLD. 

These  three  words  rise  by  gradation  in  their  sense ; 
aged  denotes  a greater  degree  of  age  than  elderly ; 
and  old  still  more  than  either. 

The  eZder  ly  man  has  passed  the  meridian  of  life;  ‘I 
have  a race  of  orderly,  elderly,  persons  of  both  sexes, 
at  my  command.’— Swift.  The  aged  man  is  fast  ap 
proaching  the  term  of  human  existence  ; 

A godlike  race  of  heroes  once  I knew. 

Such  as  no  more  these  aged  eyes  shall  view. — Pope. 
The  old  man  has  already  reached  this  term,  or  has 
e.xceeded  it ; 

The  field  of  combat  fills  the  young  and  bold, 

The  solemn  council  best  becomes  the  old.— Pope. 

In  conformity,  however,  to  the  vulgar  prepossession 
against  age  and  its  concomitant  infirmities,  the  terra 
elderly  or  aged  is  always  more  respectful  than  old, 
which  latter  word  is  often  used  by  way  of  reproach, 
and  can  seldom  be  used  free  from  such  an  association^ 
unless  qualified  by  an  epithet  of  praise  as  good  or 
venerable. 

FORMERLY,  IN  TIMES  PAST,  OR  OLD  TIMES, 
DAYS  OF  YORE,  ANCIENTLY,  OR  ANCIENT 
TIMES. 

Formerly  supposes  a less  remote  period  than  intimea 
past ; and  that  less  rer.sote  than  in  days  of  yore  and 
anciently.  The  first  two  may  be  said  of  what  happens 
within  the  age  of  man;  the  last  two  are  extended  to 
many  generations  and  ages.  Any  individual  may  use 
the  word  formerly  with  regard  to  himSelf:  thus  ween 
joyed  our  health  better  formerly  than  now  ; ‘ Men  were 
formerly  disputed  out  of  their  doubts.’ — Addison.  An 
old  man  may  speak  of  times  past,  as  when  he  says 
he  does  not  enjoy  himself  as  he  did  in  times  past  Old 


270  ENGLISH  I 

times,  days  of  yore,  and  anciently,  nre  more  applicable 
to  nations  than  to  individuals ; and  all  these  express 
different  degrees  of  remoteness.  As  to  our  present  pe- 
riod, the  age  of  Q.ueen  Elizabeth  may  be  called  old 
times; 

In  times  of  old,  when  time  was  young, 

And  poets  their  own  verses  sung, 

A verse  could  draw  a stone  or  beam. — Swift. 
The  days  of  Alfred,  and  still  later,  the  daijs  of  yore; 
Thus  Edgar  proud  in  days  of  yore. 

Held  monarchs  labouring  at  the  oar. — Swift. 
The  earliest  period  in  which  Britain  is  mentioned  may 
be  called  ancient  times  ; 

In  ancient  times  the  sacred  plough  employ’d 
The  kings  and  awful  fathers  of  mankind. 

Thomson. 


GENERATION,  AGE. 

Generation  is  said  of  the  persons  who  live  during  any 
particular  period ; and  age  is  said  of  the  period  itself. 

Those  who  are  born  at  the  same  time  constitute  the 
generation;  that  period  of  time  which  comprehends 
the  age  of  man  is  the  age : there  may  therefore  be 
many  generations  spring  up  in  the  course  of  an  age  : 
a fresh  generation  is  springing  up  every  day,  which  in 
the  course  of  an  age  pass  away,  and  are  succeeded  by 
fresh  generations. 

We  consider  man  in  \\\s  generation  as  the  part  which 
he  has  to  perform ; ‘ I often  lamented  that  I was  not 
one  of  that  happy  generation  who  demolished  the  con- 
vents.’— Johnson.  We  consider  the  age  in  which  we 
live  as  to  the  manners  of  men  and  the  events  of  na- 
tions; ‘Throughout  every  age,  God  hath  pointed  his 
peculiar  displeasure  against  the  confidence  of  presump- 
tion, and  the  arrogance  of  prosperity.’— Blair. 

LAST,  LATEST,  FINAL,  ULTIMATE. 

Last  and  latest,  both  from  late,  in  German  letze, 
tome  from  the  Greek  \diaQog  and  Xcncoi  to  leave,  signi- 
fying left  or  remaining  ; final,  {v.  Final; ; ultimate 
comes  from  ultimus  the  last. 

Last  and  ultimate  respect  the  order  of  succession  : 
latest  respect*  the  order  of  time ; final  respects  the 
completion  of  an  object.  What  is  last  or  ultimate  is 
succeeded  by  nothing  else:  what  is  latest  is  not  suc- 
ceeded by  any  great  interval  of  time  ; what  is  final  re- 
quires to  be  succeeded  by  nothing  else.  The  last  is 
opposed  to  the  first;  the  ultimate  is  distinguished  from 
tliat  whicli  might  follow  ; the  latest  is  opposed  to  the 
earliest ; the  final  is  opposed  to  the  introductory  or  be- 
ginning. A person’s  last  words  are  those  by  which 
one  is  guided ; ‘ The  supreme  Author  of  our  being  has 
so  formed  the  soul  of  man  that  nothing  but  himself  can 
be  its  last,  adequate,  and  proper  happiness.’— Addison, 
A man’s  ultimate  object  is  distinguished  from  that  more 
remote  one  which  may  possibly  be  in  his  mind : ‘ The 
ultimate  end  of  man  is  the  enjoyment  of  God,  beyond 
which  he  cannot  form  a wish.’— Grovk.  A conscien- 
tious man  remains  firm  to  his  principles  to  his  catest 
breath  ; a pleasant  comedy  which  paints  the  manners 
of  the  age  is  a durable  work,  and  is  transmitted  to  the 
latest  posterity.’— Hume.  The  final  determination  of 
difficult  matters  requires  caution ; ‘ Final  causes  lie 
more  bare  and  oiien  to  onr  observation,  as  there  are 
often  a greater  variety  that  belong  to  the  same  effect.’ 
—.Addison.  Jealous  people  strive  not  to  be  the  last  in 
any  thing,  the  latest  intelligence  which  a man  gets  of 
his  country  is  acceptable  to  one  who  is  in  distant  quar- 
ters of  the  globe  ; it  requires  resolution  to  take  a final 
leave  of  those  whom  one  holds  near  and  dear. 


LASTLY,  AT  LAST,  AT  LENGTH. 

Lastly,  like  last  {v.  Last),  respects  the  order  of  suc- 
cession; at  last  or  at  length  refer  to  what  has  pre- 
ceded. When  a sermon  is  divided  into  many  heads, 
the  term  lastly  comprehends  the  last  division.  When 
an  affair  is  settled  after  much  difficulty  H is  said  to  be  at 
last  settled;  and  if  it  be  settled  after  a protracted  con- 
tinuance, it  is  said  to  be  setttled  at  length. ; ‘ Lastly, 
opportunities  do  sometimes  offer  in  which  a man  may 
w'^kedly  make  his  fortune  without  fear  of  temporal 
damage  In  such  cases  what  restraintdo  they  lie  under 


who  have  no  regard  beyond  the  grave  V — Blair.  ‘ j3. 
last  being  satisfied  they  had  nothing  to  fear  they  brought 
out  all  their  corn  every  day.’ — Addison.  ‘A  neigh 
bouring  king  made  war  upon  this  female  republick 
several  years  with  various  success,  and  at  length  over 
threw  ffiem  in  a very  great  battle.  — Addison. 


ETERNAL,  ENDLESS,  EVERLASTING. 

The  eternal  is  set  above  time,  the  endless  lies  within 
time,  it  is  therefore  by  a strong  figure  that  we  apply 
eternal  to  any  thing  sublunary  ; although  endless  may 
with  propriety  le  applied  to  that  which  is  heavenly. 
That  is  properly  eternal  which  has  neither  beginning 
nor  end ; that  is  endless  which  has  a beginning,  but  no 
end.  God  is,  therefore,  an  eternal,  but  not  an  endless 
being ; 

Distance  immense  between  the  pow’rs  that  shine 
Above,  eternal,  deathless,  and  divine. 

And  mortal  man  ! — Pope. 

There  is  an  cternaZ  state  of  happiness  or  misery,  which 
awaits  all  men,  according  to  their  deeds  in  this  life ; the 
joys  or  sorrows  of  men  may  be  said  to  be  endless  as 
regards  this  life ; 

The  faithful  Mydon,  as  he  turn’d  from  fight 
His  flying  coursers,  sunk  to  endless  night. — Pope. 
That  which  is  endless  has  no  cessation ; that  which  is 
everlasting  has  neither  interruption  or  cessation.  The 
endless  maybe  said  of  existing  things;  the  everlasting 
naturally  extends  itself  into  futurity ; hence  we  speak 
of  endless  disputes,  an  endless  warfare,  an  everlasting 
memorial,  an  everlasting  crown  of  glory  ; 

Back  from  the  car  he  tufhbles  to  the  ground. 

And  everlasting  shades  his  eyes  surround. — PoPB 


REST,  REMAINDER,  REMNANT,  RESCUE. 

Rest  evidently  comes  from  the  Latin  resto,  which  is 
compounded  of  re  and  sto,  signifying  to  stand  or  re 
main  back;  remamder  literally  signifies  what  remains 
after  the  first  part  is  gone ; remnant  is  but  a variation 
of  remainder ; and  residue,  (lom  resfrZee,  signifies  what 
keeps  back  by  settling. 

All  these  terms  express  that  part  whicli  is  separated 
from  the  other  and  left  distinct : rest  is  the  most  general, 
both  in  sense  and  application  ; the  others  have  a more 
specifick  meaning  and  use ; the  rest  may  be  either  that 
which  is  left  behind  by  itself  or  that  which  is  set  apart 
as  a distinct  [lortion ; the  remainder,  remnant,  and  re- 
sidue are  the  quantities  which  remain  when  the  other 
parts  are  gone.  The  rest  is  said  of  any  part  indefi- 
nitely without  regard  to  what  has  been  taken  or  is  gone ; 

A last  farewell ! 

For  since  a last  must  come,  the  rest  are  vain. 

Like  gasps  in  death  which  but  prolong  our  pain. 

Drydkn. 

But  the  remainder  commonly  regards  the  part  which 
has  been  left  after  a part  has  been  taken:  ‘If  he  to 
whom  ten  talents  have  been  cumniilted,  has  squan 
dered  away  five,  he  is  concernwd  to  make  a double 
improvement  of  the  remainder.' — Rogers.  A person 
may  be  said  to  sell  some  and  give  away  the  rest:  when 
a number  of  hearty  persons  sit  down  to  a meal,  the 
remainder  of  the  provisions,  after  all  have  been  satisfied, 
will  not  be  considerable.  Rest  is  applied  either  to  per- 
sons or  things;  remamrfer  only  to  things:  some  were  of 
that  o(tinion,  but  the  rest  did  not  agree  to  it:  i\^eremain 
der  of  the  paper  was  not  worth  preserving.  Rtmnant_ 
from  remanens  in  Latin,  is  a species  of  remainder, 
applicable  in  the  proper  sense  only  to  cloth  or  what 
ever  remains  unsold  out  of  whole  pieces:  as  a rem 
nant  of  cotton,  linen,  and  the  like  ; but  it  may  be  taken 
figuratively.  iZesfdMc  is  another  species  of  remainder, 
employed  in  ess  famili.ar  matters ; the  remainder  is 
applied  to  that  which  remains  after  a consumption  or 
removal  has  taken  place;  the  residue  is  applied  to  that 
which  remains  after  a division  has  taken  place : hence 
we  speak  of  the  remainder  of  the  corn,  the  remainder 
of  the  books,  and  the  like;  but  the  residue  of  the  pro- 
perty, the  residue  f 7 the  effects,  and  the  like.  The  re- 
mainder, remnant,  and  residue  may  all  be  applied  eithei 
to  moral  or  less  familiar  objects  with  a similar  distinc 
t'on  ‘ Whatever  you  take  from  amusements  or  indo 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


271 


(ence  ^ be  repaid  you  a hundred  fold  for  all  the  re- 
mainder of  your  days.’ — Chatham. 

For  this,  far  distant  from  IheLatian  coast, 

She  drove  tiie  remnant  of  the  Trojan  host. 

Drvden. 

The  rising  deluge  is  not  stopp’d  with  dams, 

But  wisely  managed,  its  divided  strength 
Is  sluiced  in  channels,  and  securely  drained ; 

And  while  its  force  is  spent,  and  unsupply’d, 

The  residue, with  mounds  may  be  restrain’d. 

Shakspeahk. 

TO  SUBSIDE,  ABATE,  INTERMIT. 

A settlement  after  agitation  is  the  peculiar  meaning 
of  subside,  from  the  Latin  sub  and  sedeo,  signifying  to 
settle  to  the  bottom.  That  which  has  been  put  into 
commotion  subsides  ; heavy  particles  subside  in  a fluid 
that  is  at  rest,  and  tumults  are  said  to  subside;  ‘ It  was 
not  long  before  this  joy  subsided  in  the  remembrance 
of  that  dignity  from  which  I had  fallen.’— Hawkes- 
worth.  A diminution  of  strength  characterizes  the 
meaning  of  abate,  which,  from  the  French  abatlre, 
signifies  to  come  down  in  quantity : that  which  has 
been  high  in  action  may  abate;  the  rain  abates  after  it 
has  been  heavy  ; and  a man’s  anger  abates  ; 

But  first  to  heav’n  thy  due  devotions  pay, 

And  annual  gifts  on  Ceres’  altar  lay. 

When  winter’s  rage  abates. — Drydkn. 

Alternate  action  and  rest  is  implied  in  the  word  inter- 
mit, from  the  Latin  inter  between,  and  mitto  to  put, 
signifying  to  leave  a space  or  interval  of  rest  between 
labour  or  action ; ‘ Certain  Indians,  when  a horse  is 
running  in  his  full  career,  leap  down,  gather  any  thing 
from  the  ground,  and  immediately  leap  up  again,  the 
horse  not  intermitting  his  course.’— Wilkins. 


TO  FOLLOW,  SUCCEED,  ENSUE. 

Follow  comes  probably  through  the  medium  of  the 
northern  languages  from  the  Greek  bXKog  a trace,  or 
to  draw ; succeed,  in  Latin  succedo,  compounded 
ut'sub  and  cedo  to  walk  after;  ensue,  in  French  eusuiare, 
Latin  insequor,  signifies  to  follow  close  upon  the  back 
or  at  the  heels. 

Follow  and  succeed  are  said  of  persons  and  things  ; 
ensue  of  things  only  : follow  denotes  the  going  in  order, 
in  a trace  or  line;  succeed  denotes  the  going  or  being  in 
the  sarns  place  immediately  after  another : many  per- 
sons may  follow  each  other  at  the  same  time;  but  only 
one  individual  properly  succeeds  another.  Follow  is 
taken  literally  for  the  motion  of  one  physical  body  in 
relation  to  another ; succeed  is  taken  in  the  moral  sense 
for  taking  the  situation  or  office  of  another;  people 
follow  each  other  in  a procession,  or  one  follows  ano- 
ther to  the  grave  ; a king  succeeds  to  a throne,  or  a son 
succeeds  to  the  inheritance  of  his  father. 

To  follow  in  relation  to  things  is  said  either  simply  of 
the  order  in  which  they  go,  or  of  such  as  go  according 
to  a eonne.xion  between  them ; to  succeed  implies  sim- 
ply to  take  the  place  after  another ; to  ensue  is  to  follow 
by  a necessary  connexion:  people  who  die  quickly  one 
after  the  other  are  said  to  follow  each  other  to  the  grave; 
a youth  of  debauchery  is  followed  by  a diseased  old 
age  ; ‘ If  a man  of  a good  genius  for  fable  were  to  re- 
present the  nature  of  pleasure  and  pain  in  that  way  of 
writing,  he  would  probably  join  them  together  after 
such  a manner  that  it  would  be  impossible  for  the  one  to 
come  into  any  place  without  being  followed  by  the 
other.’ — Addison.  As  in  a natural  tempest  one  wave 
of  the  sea  follows  another  in  rapid  succession,  so  in 
the  moral  tempest  of  political  revolutions  one  mad  con- 
vulsion ir  quickly  succeeded  by  another; 

Ulys!»^s  hastens  with  a trembling  heart, 

Beforj  him  steps,  and  bending  draws  the  dart: 
Forth  flows  the  blood ; an  eager  pang  succeeds, 
Tydides  mounts,  and  to  the  navy  speeds. — Pope. 
Nothing  can  ensue  from  popular  commotions  but  blood- 
shed and  misery ; 

Nor  deem  this  day,  this  battle,  all  you  lose  ; 

A day  more  black,  a fate  more  vile  ensues  : 
Impetuous  Hector  thunders  at  the  wall, 

The  hour,  the  spot,  to  conquer  or  to  fall. — Pope. 
Follow  i,i  used  in  abstiact  propositions:  ensue  is  used 


in  specifick  cases ; sin  and  misery  follow  each  other  at 
cause  and  effect ; quarrels  too  often  ensue  from  the  con- 
versations of  violent  men  who  differ  either  in  religion 
or  politicks. 

TO  FOLLOW,  PURSUE. 

The  idea  of  going  after  any  thing  in  order  to  reach  or 
obtain  it  is  comi.non  t«  these  terms,  but  under  diflerent 
circumstances:  one  follows  (v.  To  follow)  a person 
mostly  with  a friendly  intention ; one  pursues  (v.  To 
continue)  with  a hostile  intention : a person  follows 
his  fellowt-raveller  whom  he  wishes  to  overtake ; 

“ Now,  now,”  said  he,  “ my  son,  no  more  delay, 

I yield,  I follow  where  Heav’n  shows  the  way.” 

Drvden. 

The  officers  of  justice  pursue  the  criminal  whom  they 
wish  to  apprehend ; 

The  same  Rutilians  who  with  nxms  pursue 
The  Trojan  race  are  equal  foes  to  you. — Dryden. 
So  likewise  the  huntsmen  and  hunters  follow  the  dogs 
in  the  chase  ; the  dogs  pursue  the  hare.  In  application 
to  things,  follow  is  taken  more  in  the  passive,  anA  pur- 
sue more  in  the  active  sense : a man  follows  the  plan 
of  another,  and  pursues  his  own  plan ; he  fallows  his 
inclination,  and  pursues  an  object;  ‘The  felicity  is 
when  any  one  is  so  happy  as  to  find  out  and  follow 
what  is  the  proper  bent  of  his  genius.’ — Steele. 

Look  round  the  habitual  world,  how  few 
Know  their  own  good,  or,  knowing  it,  pursue. 

Dryden 

HUNT,  CHASE. 

The  leading  idea  in  the  word  hunt  is  that  of  search- 
ing after;  the  leading  idea  in  the  word  chase  is  that  of 
driving  away,  or  before  one.  In  the  strict  sense,  the 
hunt  is  made  for  objects  not  within  sight;  the  chase  is 
made  after  such  objects  only  as  are  within  sight:  we 
may  hunt,  therefore,  without  chasing ; we  may  chase 
without  hunting:  a person /mnfs  after,  but  dors  not 
chase,  that  which  is  lost ; a boy  chases,  rather  than 
hunts  a butterfly; 

Come  hither,  boy  ! we  ’ll  hunt  to-day 
The  bookworm,  ravening  beast  of  prey 

Parnell 

Greatness  of  mind  and  fortune  loo 
Th’  Olympic  trophies  show  , 

Both  their  several  parts  must  do 
In  the  noble  chase  of  fame.— Cowley. 

When  apfilied  to  field  sports,  the  hunt  commences  as 
soon  as  the  huntsman  begins  to  look  for  the  game;  the 
chase  commences  as  soon  as  it  is  found ; on  this  ground, 
perhaps  it  is,  that  htmt  is  used  in  familiar  discourse, 
to  designate  the  specifick  act  of  taking  this  amusement ; 
and  chase  is  used  only  in  particular  cases  where  the 
peculiar  idea  is  to  be  expressed  ; a fox  hunt,  or  a stag 
hunt,  is  said  to  take  place  on  a particular  day ; or  that 
there  has  been  no  hunting  this  season,  or  that  the  hunt 
has  been  very  bad ; but  we  speak,  on  the  other  hand,  of 
the  pleasures  of  the  chase  : or  say  that  the  chase  lasted 
very  long;  the  animal  gave  a long  chase. 

FOREST,  CHASE,  PARK, 

• Are  all  habitations  for  animals  of  venery : but  the 
forest  is  of  the  fairest  magnitude  and  importance,  it 
being  a franchise  and  the  property  of  the  king ; the 
chase  and  park  may  be  either  publick  or  private  pro- 
perty. The  forest  is  so  formed  of  wood,  and  covers 
such  an  extent  of  ground,  that  it  may  be  tire  haunt  of 
wild  beasts;  of  this  description  are  the  forests  in  Ger- 
many : the  chase  is  an  indefinite  and  open  space  that  is 
allotted  expressly  for  the  chase  of  particular  animals, 
such  as  deer ; the  park  is  an  enclosed  space  that  serves 
for  the  preservation  of  domestick  animals. 

SUCCESSION,  SERIES,  ORDER. 

Succession  signifies  the  act  or  state  of  succeeding  (v 
To  follow) ; series,  {v.  Series)  ; order  {v.  To  place;. 

Succession  (v.  To  follow)  is  a matter  of  necessity  or 
casualty  : things  succeed  each  other,  or  they  are  taken 

Vide  Trusler ; “ Forest,  chase,  park.” 


*72 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


in  succession  either  arbitrarily  or  by  design ; the  series 
{v.  Series)  is  a connected  succession ; the  order  is  the 
ordered  or  arranged  succession.  We  observe  the  sue 
cession  oi  events  as  a matter  of  curiosity;  ‘We  can 
conceive  of  time  only  by  the  succession  of  ideas  one 
o another.’— Hawkksvvorth.  We  trace  the  series 
of  events  as  a matter  of  intelligence;  ‘A  number  of 
distinct  fables  may  contain  all  the  topicks  of  moral 
instruction ; yet  each  must  be  remembered  by  a distinct 
effort  of  the  mind,  and  will  not  recur  in  a series,  be- 
cause they  have  no  connexion  with  each  other.’ — 
Hawkksworth.  We  follow  the  order  which  the  his- 
torian has  pursued  as  a matter  of  judgement ; ‘ In  a;i 
Terse,  however  familiar  and  easy,  the  words  are  ne- 
cessarily thrown  out  of  the  order  in  which  they  are 
commonly  used.’ — Hawkksworth.  The  succession 
may  be  slow  or  quick  ; the  series  may  be  long  or  short; 
the  order  may  be  correct  or  incorrect.  The  present 
age  has  afforded  a quick  succession  of  events,  and  pre- 
sented us  with  a series  of  atrocious  attempts  to  disturb 
the  peace  of  society  under  the  name  of  liberty.  The 
historian  of  these  times  needs  only  pursue  the  order 
which  the  events  themselves  point  out. 

• SUCCESSIVE,  ALTERNATE. 

What  is  successive  follows  directly ; what  is  alter- 
nate follows  indirectly.  A minister  preaches  succes- 
sively who  preaches  every  Sunday  uninterruptedly  at 
the  same  hour;  but  he  preaches  alternately  if  he 
preaches  on  one  Sunday  in  the  morning,  and  the  other 
Sunday  in  the  afternoon  at  the  same  place.  The  sue- 
cessive  may  be  accidental  or  intentional ; the  alternate 
is  mostly  intentional;  it  may  rain  for  three  successi'ye 
days,  or  a fair  may  be  held  for  three  successive  days  ; 

• Think  of  a hundred  solitary  streams  peacefully  gliding 
between  amazing  cliffs  on  one  side  and  rich  meadows 
on  the  other,  gradually  swelling  into  noble  rivers,  suc- 
cessively losing  themselves  in  each  other,  and  all  at 
length  terminating  in  the  harbour  of  Plymouth.’ — 
Gibbon.  Trees  are  placed  sometimes  in  alternate 
order,  when  every  other  tree  is  of  the  same  size  and 
kind  ; ‘ Suffer  me  to  point  out  one  great  essential 
towards  acquiring  facility  in  composition;  viz.  the 
writing  alternately  in  different  measures.’ — Seward. 


NATURALLY,  IN  COURSE,  CONSEQUENTLY, 
OF  COURSE. 

The  connexion  between  events,  actions,  and  things, 
is  expressed  by  all  these  terms.  dVaturalby  signifies 
Recording  to  the  nature  of  things,  and  applies  there- 
fore to  the  connexion  which  subsists  between  events 
according  to  the  original  constitution  or  inherent  pro- 
perties of  things : in  course  signifies  in  the  course  of 
things,  that  is,  in  the  regular  order  that  things  ought 
to  follow : consequently  signifies  by  a consequence, 
that  is,  by  a necessary  law  of  dependence,  which 
makes  one  thing  follow  another:  of  course  signifies  on 
account  of  the  course  which  things  most  commonly  or 
even  necessarily  take  Whatever  happens  naturally, 
happens  as  we  expect  it ; whatever  happens  in  course, 
happens  as  wc  \pprove  of  it;  whatever  follows  conse- 
quently, follows  as  we  judge  it  right ; whatever  follows 
of  course,  follows  as  we  see  it  necessarily.  Children 
«atura%  imitate  cheir  parents:  people  naturally  fall 
into  the  habits  of  those  they  associate  with ; both  these 
circumstances  result  from  the  nature  of  things:  who- 
ever is  made  a peer  of  the  realm,  takes  his  seat  in  the 
upper  house  in  course;  he  requires  no  other  qualifica- 
tion to  entitle  him  to  this  privilege,  he  goes  thither 
according  to  the  established  course  of  things;  conse- 
quently, as  a peer,  ho  is  admitted  without  question; 
this  is  a decision  of  the  judgement  by  which  the  ques- 
tion is  at  once  detennined : of  course  none  are  ad- 
mitted who  are  not  peers ; this  flows  necessarily  out 
of  the  constituted  law  of  the  land. 

JSTaturally  and  in  course  describe  things  as  they 
are;  consequently  and  of  course  represent  them  as 
they  must  be;  naturally  and  in  course  state  facts  or 
realities ; consequently  and  of  course  state  the  in- 
ferences drawn  from  those  facts,  or  consequences  result- 
ing from  them ; a mob  is  naturally  disposed  to  riot, 
and  consequently  it  is  dangerous  to  appeal  to  a nio*;  for 
its  judgement;  the  nobility  attend  at  court  m course, 
that  is,  by  virtue  of  their  rank,  soldiors  La*':,  the 
town  of  course  at  assize  or  •‘lection  umec,  it>'A  i'.,  be- 


cause the  law  forbids  them  to  remain.  JVaturally  ie 
opposed  to  the  artificial  or  forced  ; in  course  is  opposed 
to  the  irregular:  naturally  excludes  the  idea  of  design 
or  purpose ; in  course  includes  the  idea  of  arrange- 
ment and  social  order : the  former  is  applicable  to  every 
thing  that  has  an  independent  existence ; the  latter  is 
applied  to  the  constituted  order  of  society  : the  former 
is,  therefore,  said  of  every  object,  animate  or  inaifi 
mate,  having  natural  properties,  and  performing  natu- 
ral operations;  the  latter  only  of  persons  and  their 
establishment.  Plants  that  require  much  air  naturally 
thrive  most  in  an  open  country ; ‘ Egotists  are  generally 
the  vain  and  shallow  i)art  of  mankind;  people  being 
naturally  full  of  themselves  when  they  have  nothin" 
else  in  them.’ — Addison.  Members  of  a society,  who 
do  not  forfeit  their  title  by  the  breach  of  any  rule  ei 
law,  are  readmitted  in  course,  after  ever  so  long  an 
absence ; ‘ Our  Lord  foresaw,  that  all  the  Mosaic  orders 
would  cease  in  course  upon  his  death.’ — Bkveridqk. 

Consequently  is  either  a speculative  or  a practica' 
inference ; of  course  is  always  practical.  We  know 
that  all  men  must  die,  and  consequently  we  expect  to 
share  the  common  lot  of  humanity : we  see  that  our 
friends  are  particularly  engaged  at  a certain  time* 
consequently  we  do  not  interrupt  them  by  calling  upon' 
them;  ‘ The  forty-seventh  proposition  of  the  first 
book  of  Euclid  is  the  foundation  of  trigonometrv,  aim 
consequently  of  navigation.’— Bartlett.  When  r 
man  does  not  fulfil  his  engagements,  he  cannot  cf 
course  expect  to  be  rewarded,  as  if  he  had  done  hia 
duty;  ‘What  do  trust  and  confidence  signify  in  a 
matter  of  course  and  formality  Stillingflekt. 
In  course  applies  to  what  one  does  or  may  do;  of 
course  applies  to  what  one  must  do  or  leave  undone 
Children  take  possession  of  their  patrimony  in  course 
at  the  death  of  their  parents : while  the  parents  ara 
living,  children  of  course  derive  support  or  assistance 
from  them. 


SUBSEQUENT,  CONSEQUENT,  POSTERIOI'K 

Subsequent,  in  Latin  subsequens,  irom  sub  and  sequot . 
signifies  following  next  in  order  ; consequent,  in  Lati-nj 
consequens,  from  con  and  sequor,  i.  e.  followiii"  in 
conne.\ion ; postcriour,  from  postea  afterward, '’sig 
nifies  literally  that  which  is  after. 

These  terms  are  all  applied  to  events  as  they  follow 
one  another,  but  subsequent  and  consequent  respre; 
the  order  of  events.  Subsequent  simply  denotes  thi, 
order  without  any  collateral  idea:  one  event  is  said  to 
be  subseqxient  to  another  at  any  given  time;  ‘This 
article  is  introduced  as  subsequent  to  the  treaty  of 
Munster,  made  about  1648,  when  England  was  in  the 
utmost  confusion.’— Swift  Consequent  denotes  the 
connexion  between  two  events,  one  of  which  follows 
the  other  as  the  effect  of  a cause  ; ‘This  satisfaction 
or  dissatisfaction,  consequent  upon  a man’s  acting 
suitably  or  unsuitably  to  conscience,  is  a principle  not 
easily  to  be  worn  out.’ — South.  Posteriour  respects 
the  time  of  events;  Hesiod  was  posteriour  to  Homer: 
and  also  the  place  of  things;  ‘Where  the  anteriour 
body  giveth  way  as  fast  as  the  posteriour  cometh  on, 
it  maketh  no  noise,  be  the  motion  never  so  great  ’ 
Bacon. 


ANTECEDENT,  PRECEDING,  FOREGOING 
PREVIOUS  ANTERIOUR,  PRIOR, 
FORMER. 

Antecedent,  in  Latin  antecedens,  that  is,  ante  and 
cedens  going  before;  preceding,  in  CTtim  qircecedens 
going  before;  foregoing,  literally  going  belbre;  pre- 
vious, in  Latin  preevius,  that  is,  pree  and  via  making  a 
way  before;  anteriour,  the  comparative  of  the  Latin 
ante  before;  prior,  in  Latin  prior,  comparative  of 
primus  first ; former,  in  English  the  comparative  of 
first. 

Antecedent,  preceding,  foregoing,  previous,  are 
employed  for  what  goes  or  happens  before;  anteriour, 
prior,  former,  for  what  is,  or  exists  before. 

* Antecedent  marks  priority  of  order,  place,  and 
position,  with  this  peculiar  circumstance,  that  it  de- 
notes the  relation  of  influence,  dependence  and  con- 
nexion established  between  two  objects;  thus,  in  logic 
the  premises  are  called  the  antecedent,  and  the  conclu 

* Vide  Roubaud ; “ Anf^rieur,  ant6c4dent,  precedent  ” 


i!.iNGLlSH  SYNONYMES. 


27j 


rton  th«  consequenl,  in  theology  or  politicks,  the  an- 
tecedent  is  any  decree  or  resolution  whicli  influences 
another  decree  or  action ; in  niatheniaticks,  it  is  tliat 
term  from  which  any  induction  can  be  drawn  to 
another;  in  grammar,  the  antecedent  is  tliat  which 
requires  a particular  regimen  from  its  consequent. 

Antecedent  and  preceding  both  denote  priority  of 
vime,  or  the  order  of  events ; but  the  former  in  a more 
vague  and  indeterminate  manner  Ilian  the  latter.  A 
receding  event  is  that  which  happens  immediately 
efore  the  one  of  which  we  are  speaking;  whereas 
antecedent  may  have  events  or  circumstances  inter- 
vening; ‘The  seventeen  centuries  since  the  birth  of 
Christ  are  antecedent  to  the  eighteenth,  or  the  one  we 
Ive  in ; but  it  is  the  seventeenth  only  which  we  call 
he  preceding  one.’ — Trusler.  ‘Little  attention  was 
paid  to  literature  by  the  Romans  in  the  early  and  more 
martial  ages.  I read  of  no  collections  of  books  ante- 
cedent to  those  made  by  iLmilius  Paulus,  and  Lu- 
cullus.’ — Cumberland.  ‘JiCtters  from  Rome,  dated 
the  thirteenth  instant,  say,  that  on  the  preceding 
Sunday,  his  Holiness  was  carried  in  an  open  chair 
from  St.  Peter’s  to  St.  Mary’s.’— Steele.  An  ante- 
cedent proposition  may  be  separated  from  its  conse- 
quent by  other  propositions ; but  a preceding  proposi- 
t.on  is  closely  followed  by  another.  In  this  sense 
zntecedent  is  opposed  to  posteriour ; preceding  to  suc- 
ceeding. 

Preceding  respects  simply  the  succession  of  times 
and  things ; but  previous  denotes  the  succession  of 
actions  and  events,  with  the  collateral  idea  of  their 
connexion  with  and  influence  upon  each  other:  we 
speak  of  the  preceding  day,  or  the  preceding  chapter, 
merely  as  the  day  or  chapter  that  goes  before;  but 
when  we  speak  of  a previous  engagement  or  a previous 
inquiry,  it  supposes  an  engagement  or  inquiry  prepa- 
ratory to  something  that  is  to  follow.  Previous  is  op- 
posed to  subsequent ; 

A boding  silence  reigns 

Dead  through  the  dun  expanse,  save  the  dull  sound 

That  from  the  mountain,  previous  to  the  storm. 

Rolls  o’er  the  muttering  earth. — Thomson. 
foregoing  is  employed  to  mark  the  order  of  things 
narrated  or  stated ; as  when  we  speak  of  the  fore- 
going statement,  the  foregoing  objections,  or  the 
foregoing  calculation,  &c. ; foregoing  is  opposed  to 
following;  ‘ Consistently  with  the  foregoing  priiiciples 
we  may  define  original  and  native  poetry  to  be  the 
language  of  the  violent  passions,  expressed  in  exact 
measure.’ — Sir  W.  Jones. 

Anteriour^  prior.,  and  former  have  all  a relative 
sense,  and  are  used  for  things  that  are  more  before 
than  others:  anteriour  is  a technical  term  to  denote 
forwardness  of  position,  as  in  anatomy ; the  anteriour 
or  fore  part  of  the  skull,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
hind  part;  so  likewise  the  anteriour  or  fore  front  of  a 
building,  in  opposition  to  the  back  front ; ‘ If  that  be 
the  anteriour  or  upper  part  wherein  the  senses  are 
placed,  and  that  the  posteriour  and  lower  part,  which 
is  opposite  thereunto,  there  is  no  inferiour  or  former 
part  in  this  animal : for  the  senses  being  placed  at 
both  extremes  make  both  ends  anteriour,  which  is 
impossible.’ — Brown.  Prior  is  used  in  the  sense  of 
previous  when  speaking  of  comparatively  two  or  more 
things,  when  it  implies  anticipation  ; a prior  claim  in- 
validates the  one  that  is  set  up;  a prior  engagement 
prevents  the  forming  of  any  other  that  is  proposed ; 
‘ Some  accounts  make  Thamyris  the  eighth  epick  poet 
prior  to  Homer,  an  authority  to  which  no  credit  seems 
due.’ — Cumberland.  Former  is  employed  either  with 
regard  to  times,  as  former  times,  in  contradistinction 
to  later  periods,  or  with  regard  to  propositions,  when 
the  former  or  first  thing  mentioned  is  opposed  to  the 
latter  or  last  mentioned  ; ‘ Former  follies  pass  away 
and  are  forgotten.  Those  which  are  present  strike  ob- 
sei-VTtion  and  sharpen  censure.’ — Blair. 

PRIORITY,  PRECEDENCE,  PRE-EMINENCE, 
PREFERENCE. 

Priority  denotes  the  abstract  quality  of  being  before 
others ; precedence,  from  pree  and  cedo,  signifies  the  state 
of  going  before  ; pre-emmence  signifies  being  more  emi- 
nent or  elevated  than  others ; preference  signifies  being 
put  before  others.  Priority  respects  simply  the  order  of 
•uccession.  and  is  applied  to  objects  either  in  a state  of 
motion  or  rest;  precedence  sbnifies  vrhrity  in  going. 


and  depends  upon  a dght  or  privilege;  pre- eminence 
signifies  priority  in  being,  and  depends  upon  merit , 
preference  signifies  priority  in  placing,  and  depends 
upon  favour.  The  priority  is  applicable  rather  to  the 
thing  than  the  person ; it  is  not  that  which  is  sought 
for,  but  that  which  is  to  be  had:  age  frequently  give.s 
priority  where  every  other  claim  is  wanting ; ‘ A better 
l)lace,  a more  commodious  seat,  priority  in  being  helped 
at  table,  &c.,  what  is  it  but  sacrificing  ourselves  in 
such  trifles  to  the  convenience  and  pleasures  of  others  V 
— Earl  Chatham.  The  immoderate  desire  for  pre- 
cedence is  often  nothing  but  a childish  vanity ; it  is  a 
distinction  that  flows  out  of  rank  and  power:  a noble- 
man claims  a precedence  on  all  occasions  of  ceremony  ; 

‘ Ranks  will  then  (in  the  next  world)  be  adjusted,  an£ 
precedency  set  aright.’ — Addison.  The  love  of  pre 
eminence  is  laudable,  inasmuch  as  it  requires  a degree 
of  moral  worth  which  exceeds  that  of  others ; a general 
aims  at  pre-eminence  in  his  profession  ; ‘ It  is  the  con- 
cern of  mankind,  that  the  destruction  of  order  snould 
not  be  a claim  to  rank ; that  crimes  should  not  be 
the  only  title  to  pre-eminence  and  honour.’ — Burke. 
Those  who  are  anxious  to  obtain  the  best  for  them- 
selves, are  eager  to  have  the  preference:  we  seek  for 
the  preference  in  matters  of  choice;  ‘You  will  agree 
with  me  in  giving  the  preference  to  a sincere  and  sen 
sible  friend.’ — Gibbon. 

TO  EXCEED,  SURPASS,  EXCEL, 
TRANSCEND,  OUTDO. 

Exceed,  from  the  Latin  excedo,  compounded  of  ex 
and  cedo  to  pass  out  of,  or  beyond  the  line,  is  the 
general  term.  Surpass,  compounded  of  sur  over, 
and  pass,  is  one  species  of  exceeding.  Excel,  com- 
pounded of  ex  and  cello  to  lift,  or  move  over,  is  another 
species. 

Exceed,  in  its  limited  acceptation,  conveys  no  idea 
of  moral  desert;  surpass  and  excel  are  always  taken 
in  a good  sense.  It  is  not  so  much  persons  as  things 
whicli  exceed;  both  persons  and  things  surpass;  per- 
sons only  excel.  One  thing  exceeds  another,  as  the 
success  of  an  undertaking  exceeds  tlie  expectations 
of  the  undertaker,  or  a man’s  exertions  exceed  his 
strength ; 

Man’s  boundless  avarice  exceeds. 

And  on  his  neighbours  round  about  him  feeds. 

Waller. 

One  person  surpasses  another,  as  the  English  have 
surpassed  all  other  nations  in  the  extent  of  their  naval 
I power;  or  one  thing  surpasses  another,  as  poetry swr- 
' passes  painting  in  its  effects  on  the  imagination  • 
‘Dryden  often  surpasses  expectation,  and  Pope  nevet 
falls  below  it.’— Johnson.  One  person  excels  an 
other;  thus  formerly  the  Dutch  and  Italians  excellea 
the  English  in  painting; 

To  him  the  king:  How  much  thy  years  excel 
In  arts  of  counsel,  and  in  speaking  well.— Pope 

We  may  surpass  without  any  direct  or  immediate 
effort;  we  cannot  excel  without  effort.  Nations  as 
well  as  individuals  will  surpass  each  other  in  particu 
lar  arts  and  sciences,  as  much  from  local  and  adven 
titious  circumstances,  as  from  natural  genius  and  steady 
application;  no  one  can  expect  to  excel  in  learning, 
whose  indolence  gets  the  better  of  his  ambition.  The 
derivatives  excessive  and  excellent  have  this  obvious 
distinction  between  them,  that  the  former  always  sig- 
nifies exceeding  in  tliat  which  ought  not  to  be  exceeded , 
and  the  latter  exceeding  in  that  where  it  is  honourable 
to  exceed : he  who  is  habitually  excessive  in  any  of  his 
indulgencies,  must  be  insensible  to  the  excellence  of  a 
temperate  life. 

Transcend,  from  trans  beyond,  and  scendo  or  scandc 
to  climb,  signifies  climbing  beyond ; and  outdo  signi- 
fies doing  out  of  the  ordinary  course  : the  former,  like 
surpass,  refers  rather  to  the  state  of  things  • and  outdo, 
like  excel,  to  the  exertions  of  persons:  the  former  rises 
in  sense  above  surpass;  but  the  latter  is  only  em 
ployed  in  particular  cases,  that  is,  to  excel  in  action  : 
excel  is  however  confined  to  that  which  is  good  ; outdo 
to  that  which  is  good  or  bad.  The  genius  of  Hoinei 
transcends  that  of  almost  every  other  poet; 

Auspicious  prince,  in  arms  a mighty  name. 

But  yet  whose  actions  far  transcend  your  fame 
Dryden 

Heliogabalus  outdid  every  other  emperor  in  extrava 


274 


Er^GLISH  SYNONYMES. 


gance;  ‘The  last  and  crowning  istance  of  our  love 
to  our  enemies  is  to  pray  for  them  For  by  this  a man 
would  fain  to  outdo  himself.’-  SotiH. 


EXCELLENCE,  SUPERIORITY. 

Excellence  is  an  absolute  term ; superiority  is  a rela- 
tive term ; many  may  have  excellence  in  the  same  de- 
gree, but  they  must  have  superiority  in  different  de- 
grees ; superiority  is  often  superiour  excellence,  but  in 
many  cases  they  are  applied  to  different  objects. 

There  is  a moral  excellence  attainable  by  all  who 
have  the  will  to  strive  after  it; 

Base  envy  withers  at  another’s  joy. 

And  hates  that  excellence  it  cannot  reach. 

Thomson. 

'I'herois  an  intellectual  and  physical  superiority  which 
is  above  the  reach  of  our  wishes,  and  is  granted  to  a 
few  oi\!y ; ‘ To  be  able  to  benefit  others  is  a condition 
of  freedom  and  superiority.' — Tillotson* 


PRIRIARY,  PRIMITIVE,  PRISTINE, 
ORIGINAL. 

Primary,  from  primus,  signifies  belonging  to  or  like 
the  first ; primitive,  from  the  same,  signifies  according 
to  the  first;  pristine,  in  Latin  pristinus,iwm  prius, 
signifies  in  former  times ; original  signifies  containing 
the  origin. 

The  primary  Aenoies  simply  the  order  of  succession, 
and  is  therefore  the  generick  term  ; primitive,  pristine, 
and  original  include  also  the  idea  of  some  other  re- 
lation to  the  thing  that  succeeds,  and  are  therefore 
modes  of  the  primary.  The  primary  has  nothing  to 
come  before  it ; in  this  manner  we  speak  of  the  pri- 
mary cause  as  the  cause  which  precedes  secondary 
causes;  the  primitive  is  that  after  which  other  things 
arc  formed  ; in  this  manner  a primitive  word  is  that 
after  which,  or  from  which,  the  derivatives  are  formed : 
the  pristine  is  that  which  follows  tlie  primitive,  so  as 
to  become  customary;  there  are  but  few  specimens  of 
the  pristine  purity  of  life  among  the  professors  of 
Christianity:  the  original  is  that  which  either  gives 
birth  to  the  thing  or  belongs  to  that  which  gives  birth 
to  the  thing  ; the  original  meaning  of  a word  is  that 
which  was  given  to  it  by  the  makers  of  the  word. 
The  primary  subject  of  consideration  is  that  which 
should  precede  all  others;  ‘ Memory  is  the  primary 
and  fundamental  power,  without  which  there  could  be 
no  other  intellectual  operation.’ — Johnson.  The  pri- 
mitive state  of  society  is  that  which  was  formed 
/without  a model,  but  might  serve  as  a model ; 
Meanwhile  our  primitive  gxedX  sire  to  meet 
His  godlike  guest  walks  forth. — Milton. 

The  pristine  simplicity  of  manners  may  serve  as  a 
just  pattern  for  the  imitation  of  present  times; 

While  with  her  friendly  clay  he  deign’d  to  dwell, 

Shall  she  with  safety  reach  her  pristine  seat. 

Prior. 

The  original  state  of  things  is  that  which  is  coeval 
with  the  things  themselves;  ‘ As  to  the  share  of  power 
each  individual  ought  to  have  in  the  state,  that  I must 
deny  to  oe  among  the  direct  original  rights  of  man.’ 

Bup  iK. 


SECOND,  SECONDARY,  INFERIOUR. 

Second  and  secondary  both  come  from  the  Latin 
eecundus,  changed  from  sequundus  and  sequor  to  fol- 
low, signifying  the  order  of  succession.  The  former 
simply  expresses  this  order ; but  the  latter  includes 
Ifce  accessory  idea  of  comparative  demerit ; a person 
stands  second  in  a list,  or  a letter  is  second  which  im- 
mediately succeeds  the  first ; 

Fond,  foolish  man  ! With  fear  of  death  surpris’d. 
Which  either  should  be  wish’d  for  or  despis’d  ; 

This,  if  our  souls  with  bodies  death  destroy. 

That,  if  our  souls  a second  life  enjoy. — Denham. 

A consideration  is  secondary,  or  of  secondary  import- 
uice,  which  is  opposed  to  that  which  holds  the  first 
rank;  ‘ Many,  instead  of  endeavouring  to  form  their 
own  opinions,  content  themselves  with  the  secondary 
knowledge  which  a convenient  bench  in  a o tffee-honse 


can  supply.’— Johnson.  Secondary  and  rnferiour  both 
designate  some  lower  degree  of  a quality;  but  se- 
condary is  only  applied  to  the  importance  or  value  of 
things  ; inferiour  is  applied  generally  to  all  qualities : 
a man  of  business  reckons  every  thing  as  secondary 
which  does  not  forward  the  object  he  has  in  view ; 
‘ Whe.  esoever  there  is  moral  right  on  the  one  hand, 
no  sectndary  r'lghi  can  discharge  it.’ — L’Estrangk. 
Men  of  inferiour  abilities  are  disqualified  by  nature 
for  high  and  important  stations,  although  they  may  be 
more  fitted  for  lower  stations  than  those  of  greatei 
abilities ; 

Hast  thou  not  made  me  here  thy  substitute 
And  these  inferiour  far  beneath  me  set  I 

Milton. 

Sometimes  second  is  taken  in  the  sense  of  inferior 
when  applied  to  any  particular  object  compared  wiL 
another ; 

Who  am  alone 

From  all  eternity;  for  none  I, know 

Second  to  me,  or  like. — Milton. 

THEREFORE,  CONSEaUENTLY, 
ACCORDINGLY. 

Therefore,  that  is,  for  this  reason,  marks  a deduc- 
tion ; consequently,  that  is,  in  consequence,  marks  a 
consequence ; accordingly,  that  is,  according  to  some 
thing.  Implies  an  agreement  or  adaptation.  Therefore 
is  employed  particularly  in  abstract  reasoning;  conse- 
quently is  employed  either  in  reasoning  or  in  the  nar- 
rative style  ; accordingly  is  used  principally  in  the 
narrative  style.  Young  persons  are  perpetually  liable 
to  fall  into  errour  through  inexperience;  they  ought 
therefore  the  more  willingly  to  submit  themselves  to 
the  guidance  of  those  who  can  direct  them ; ‘ If  you 
cut  off  the  top  branches  of  a tree,  it  will  not  therefore 
cease  to  grow.’ — Hughes.  The  French  nation  was 
reduced  to  a state  of  moral  anarchy  during  the  revolu- 
tion ; consequently  nothing  but  time  and  good  govern- 
ment could  bring  the  people  back  to  the  use  of  their 
sober  senses ; ‘ Reputation  is  power  ; consequently  to 
despise  is  to  weaken.’ — South.  Every  preparation 
was  made,  and  every  precaution  was  taken ; accord- 
ingly at  the  fixed  hour  they  proceeded  to  the  place  of 
destination;  ‘The  pathetick,  as  Longinus  observes 
may  animate  the  sublime ; but  is  not  essential  to  it 
Accordingly,  as  he  further  remarks,  we  very  often  find 
that  those  who  excel  most  in  stirring  up  the  passions, 
very  often  want  the  talent  of  writing  in  the  sublime 
manner.’ — Addison. 


PREVIOUS,  PRELIMINARY,  PREPARATORY 
INTRODUCTORY. 

Previous,  in  Latin  proevius,  compounded  of  prce  and 
via,  signifies  leading  the  way  or  going  before  •,  prelimi 
nary,  from  proi  and  limen  a threshold,  signifies  be 
longing  to  the  threshold  or  entrance ; preparatory  and 
introductory  signify  belonging  to  a preparation  or  in- 
troduction. 

Previous  denotes  simply  the  order  of  succession  : the 
other  terms,  in  addition  to  this,  convey  the  idea  of  con- 
nexion between  the  objects  which  succeed  each  other 
Previous  applies  to  actions  and  proceedings  In  general  ; 
as  a previous  question,  a precious  inquiry,  a previous 
determination ; ‘ One  step  by  which  a temptation  ap- 
proaches to  its  crisis  is  a previous  growing  familiarity 
of  the  mind  with  the  sin  which  a man  is  tempted  to.’— 
South.  Preliminary  is  employed  only  for  matters  of 
contract;  a preliminary  article,  a preliminary  condi- 
tion, are  what  precede  the  final  settlement  of  any  ques- 
tion ; ‘ I have  discussed  the  nuptial  preliminaries  so 
often,  that  I can  repeat  the  forms  in  which  jointures  are 
settled  and  pin-money  secured.’ — Johnson.  Prepara 
tory  is  employed  for  matters  of  arrangements  ; the  dis- 
posing of  men  in  battle  is  preparatory  to  an  engage- 
ment ; the  making  of  marriage  deeds  and  contracts  is 
preparatory  to  the  final  solemnization  of  the  marriage- 
‘^schylus  is  in  the  practice  of  holding  the  spectator  in 
suspense  by  a preparatory  silence  in  hie  chief  person.’ 
— Cumberland.  Introductory  is  employed  for  matters 
of  science  or  discussion ; as  remarks  are  introductory 
to  the  main  subject  in  question ; compendiums  of  gram 
mar,  geography,  and  the  like,  as  introductory  to  iargei 
works,  are  useful  for  young  people;  ‘Consider  y«ur 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


275 


■eivcs  as  acting  now,  under  the  eye  of  God,  an  introduc- 
tory part  to  a more  important  scene.’— Blair.  Pru- 
dent people  are  careful  to  make  every  previous  inquiry 
before  they  seriously  enter  into  engagements  with 
Grangers:  it  is  impolitick  to  enter  into  details  until  all 
preliminary  matters  are  fu^ly  adjusted;  one  ought 
never  to  undertake  any  important  matter  without  first 
adopting  every  preparatory  measure  that  can  facilitate 
Its  prosecution  : in  complicated  matters  it  is  necessary 
to  have  something  introductory  by  way  of  explanation. 


SERIES,  COURSE. 

Series,  which  is  also  series  in  Latin,  comes  from  sero 
or  necto  to  knit  together,  and  the  Greek  atiptL  a chain, 
and  signifies  the  order  and  connexion,  in  which  things 
follow  each  other ; course,  in  Latin  cursus,  from  the 
verb  curro,  signifies  here  the  direction  in  which  things 
run  one  after  another. 

There  is  always  a course  where  there  is  a series,  but 
not  vice  versd.  Things  must  have  some  sort  of  con- 
nexion with  each  other  in  order  to  form  a series,  but 
they  need  simply  to  follow  in  order  to  form  a course; 
thus  a series  of  events  respects  those  which  flow  out  of 
each  other,  a coarse  of  events,  on  the  contrary,  respects 
those  which  happen  unconnectedly  within  a certain 
space:  so  in  like  manner,  the  numbers  of  a book,  which 
serve  to  form  a whole,  are  a series ; and  a number  of 
lectures  following  each  other  at  a given  time  are  a 
course : hence,  likewise,  the  technical  phrase  infinite 
series  in  algebra. 


COURSE,  RACE,  PASSAGE. 

Course,  from  curro  to  run,  signifies  either  the  act  of 
running,  or  the  space  run  over ; race,  from  run,  signifies 
the  same;  passage,  from  to  pass,  signifies  either  the 
act  of  passing  or  the  space  passed  over. 

With  regard  to  the  act  of  going,  course  is  taken  ab- 
solutely and  indefinitely  ; race  relates  to  the  object  for 
which  we  run ; passage  relates  to  the  place  passed 
over;  thus  a person  may  be  swift  in  cotirse,  obtain  a 
race,  and  have  an  easy  passage  ; 

Him  neither  rocks  can  crush,  nor  steel  can  wound 
When  Ajay  fell  not  on  th’  ensanguined  ground; 

In  standing  fight  he  mates  Achilles’  force, 

Excell’d  alone  in  swiftness  in  the  course. — Pope. 
Unhappy  man  whose  death  our  hands  shall  grace, 
Fate  calls  thee  hence,  and  finish’d  is  thy  race. 

Pope. 

Between  his  shoulders  pierced  the  following  dart. 

And  held  its  passage  through  the  panting  heart. 

Pope. 

We  pursqe  whatever  course  we  think  proper;  we 
run  the  race  that  is  set  before  us.  Course  is  taken 
absolutely  by  itself;  race  is  considered  in  relation  to 
others;  a man  pursues  a certain  course  according  to 
discretion ; he  runs  a race  with  another  by  way  of  com- 
petition. Course  has  a more  particular  reference  to 
the  space  that  is  gone  over;  race  includes  in  it  more 
particularly  the  idea  of  the  mode  of  going:  we  speak 
of  going  in,  or  pursuing  a particular  course  ; but  al- 
ways of  running  a race. 

Course  is  as  often  used  in  the  improper  as  the  proper 
sense;  race  is -seldom  used  figuratively,  except  in  a 
spiritual  application : man’s  success  and  respectability 
in  life  depend  much  upon  the  course  of  moral  conduct 
which  he  pursues ; 

So  Mars  omnipotent  invades  the  plain 
(The  wide  destroyer  of  the  race  of  man) ; 

Terrour,  his  best  loved  son,  attends  his  course. 
Arm’d  with  stern  boldness,  and  enormous  force. 

Pope. 

The  Christian’s  course  in  this  world  is  represented  in 
Scripture  as  a race  which  is  set  before  him ; 

Remote  from  towns  he  ran  his  godly  race. 

Nor  e’er  had  changed,  nor  wish’d  to  change,  his  place. 

Goldsmith. 

Course  may  be  used  in  connexion  with  the  object  passed 
over  or  not;  passage  is  seldom  employed  but  in  the 
direct  connexion ; we  speak  of  a person’s  course  in  a 
place,  or  simply  of  his  course;  but  we  always  speak 
of  a person’s  passage  through  a place ; 

la* 


Direct  against  which  open’d  from  beneath. 

Just  o’er  the  blissful  seat  of  paradise, 

A passage  down  to  earth,  a passage  wide. 

Milton 

Course  and  passage  are  used  for  inanimate  as  well  as 
animate  objects;  race  is  used  for  those  only  which  are 
animate : a river  has  its  course,  and  sometimes  it  is  a 
dangerous  passage  for  vessels ; the  horse  or  man  /uns 
the  race. 


WAY,  ROAD,  ROUT  OR  ROUTE,  COURSE. 

Way  has  the  same  signification  as  given  under  the 
head  of  way;  road  comes  no  doubt  from  ride,  signify- 
ing the  place  where  one  rides ; route  or  rout  comes  in 
all  probability  from  rotundas  round,  signifying  the 
round  which  one  goes  ; course,  from  the  Latin  cursus, 
signifies  the  place  where  one  walks  or  runs.  Way  is 
here  the  generick  term ; it  is  the  path  which  a person 
chooses  at  pleasure  for  himself ; 

He  stood  in  the  gate,  and  asked  of  ev’ry  one 
Which  way  she  took,  and  whither  she  was  gone 
Dryden. 

The. road  is  the  regular  and  beaten  way,  whether  taken 
in  a proper  or  improper  sense  ; ‘ At  our  first  sally  into 
the  intellectual  world,  we  all  march  together  along  one 
straight  and  open  road.' — Johnson.  The  route  is  any 
way  or  road  chosen  for  a particular  purpose,  either  of 
pleasure  or  business.  An  army  or  a company  go  a cer 
tain  route;  ‘ Cortes  (after  his  defeat  at  Mexico)  was 
engaged  in  deep  consultation  with  his  oflicers  con- 
cerning the  route  which  they  ought  to  take  in  their  re- 
treat.’—Robertson.  The  course  is  chosen  in  the  un- 
beaten track ; foot  passengers  are  seen  to  take  a certain 
course  over  fields ; 

Then  to  the  stream  when  neither  friends  nor  force, 

Nor  speed,  nor  art  avail,  he  shapes  his  course. 

Denham 


WAY,  MANNER,  METHOD,  MODE,  COURSE, 
MEANS. 

All  those  words  denote  the  steps  which  are  pursued 
from  the  beginning  to  the  completion  of  any  work. 
The  way  is  both  general  and  indefinite;  it  is  either 
taken  by  accident  or  chosen  by  design.  Whoever  at- 
tempts to  do  that  which  is  strange  to  him,  will  at  first 
do  it  in  an  awkward  way ; ‘ His  way  of  expressing  and 
applying  them,  not  his  invention  of  them  we  must  ad- 
mire.’— Addison.  The  manner  and  the  method  are 
both  species  of  the  way.  The  manner  is  that  which  a 
person  chooses  for  a particular  occasion ; the  manner  of 
conferring  a favour  is  often  more  than  the  favour  itself ; 
* My  mind  is  taken  up  in  a more  melancholy  manner.' — 
Attkrbury.  The  method  is  that  which  a person  con 
ceives  in  his  own  mind;  experience  supplies  men  in  the 
end  with  a suitable  method  of  carrying  on  their  busi- 
ness. The  method  is  said  of  that  which  requires  con- 
trivance ; the  mode,  of  that  which  requires  practice  and 
habitual  attention  ; the  former  being  applied  to  matters 
of  art,  and  the  latter  to  mechanical  actions;  the  master 
has  a good  method  of  teaching  to  write ; the  scholar  has 
a good  or  bad  mode  of  holding  his  pen  ; ‘ Modes  of 
speech,  which  owe  their  prevalence  to  modish  folly,  die 
away  with  their  inventors.’ — Johnson.  The  covn-se 
and  the  means  are  the  way  which  we  pursue  in  our 
moral  conduct:  the  course  is  the  coarse  of  measures 
which  are  adopted  to  produce  a certain  result;  ‘All 
your  sophisters  cannot  produce  any  thing  better  adapted 
to  preserve  a rational  and  manly  freedom  than  the  course 
that  we  have  pursued.’ — Burke.  The  means  collect- 
ively for  the  course  which  lead  to  a certain  end  ; ‘ The 
most  wonderful  things  are  brought  about  in  many 
instances  by  means  the  most  absurd  and  ridiculous.’ — 
Burke.  In  order  to  obtain  legal  redress,  we  must  pur- 
sue a certain  course  in  law ; law  is  one  means  of  gaining 
redress,  which  must  be  adopted  when  all  other  means 
fail. 


SYSTEM,  METHOD. 

System,  in  Latin  systema,  Greek aij^pa,  from  avvi^y^ 
or  cvv  and  15^7/11  to  stand  together,  signifies  that  which 
j is  put  together  so  as  to  form  a whole;  method,  in  Latin 
methodus,  from  the  Greek  perd  and  a way,  signifies 
1 by  distinction  the  was  bv  which  anything  is  effected 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


are 

Sygtc7n  expresses  more  tfian  method,  which  is  but  a 
part  of  system:  system  is  an  arrangement  of  many 
fiingJe  or  individual  objects  according  to  some  given 
rule,  so  as  to  make  them  coalesce.  Method  is  the 
manner  of  this  arrangement,  or  the  principle  upon 
which  this  arrangement  takes  place.  The  term  system 
however  applies  to  a complexity  of  objects,  but  arrange- 
ment, and  consequently  method,  may  be  applied  to  every 
thing  that  is  to  be  put  into  e.xecution.  All  sciences  must 
be  reduced  to  system;  for  without  system  there  is  no 
science ; 

If  a better  system ’s  thine. 

Impart  it  frankly,  or  make  use  of  mine.— Francis. 
All  business  requires  method  ; and  without  method  little 
can  be  done  to  any  good  purpose ; ‘'The  great  defect  of 
the  Seasons  is  the  want  of  method,  but  for  this  I know 
not  that  there  was  any  remedy.’ — Johnson. 


ORDER,  METHOD,  RULE. 

Order  is  applied  in  general  to  every  thing  that  is  dis- 
posed {v.  To  dispose);  method  {v.  System)  and  rule 
iv.  Guide)  are  applied  only  to  that  which  is  done  ; the 
order  lies  in  consulting  the  time,  the  place,  and  the 
object,  so  as  to  make  them  accord  ; the  method  consists 
in  the  right  choice  of  means  to  an  end ; the  rule  consists 
in  that  which  will  keep  us  in  the  right  way.  Where 
there  is  a number  of  objects  there  must  be  order  in  the 
disposition  of  them : there  must  be  order  in  a school  as 
to  the  arrangement  both  of  the  pupils  and  of  the  busi- 
ness: wdiere  there  is  work  to  carry  on,  or  any  object 
to  obtain,  or  any  art  to  follow,  there  must  be  method 
in  the  pursuit ; a tradesman  or  merchant  must  have 
met't^d  in  keeping  his  accounts;  a teacher  must  have 
a 7nethod  for  the  communication  of  instruction ; ‘ It 
wil  be  in  vain  to  talk  to  you  concerning  the  method  I 
think  best  to  be  observed  in  schools.’— Locke.  The 
rule  is  the  part  of  the  method ; it  is  that  on  which  the 
method  rests;  there  cannot  be  method  without  rule, 
but  there  may  be  rule  without  method;  the  method 
varies  with  the  thing  that  is  to  be  done;  the  rule  is 
that  which  is  permanent  and  serves  as  a guide  under 
all  circumstances.  We  adopt  the  method  and  follow 
the  rule.  A painter  adopts  a certain  method  of  pre- 
paring his  colours  according  to  the  rules  laid  down  by 
his  art ; ‘ A rule  that  relates  even  to  the  smallest  part 
cf  our  life,  is  of  great  benefit  to  us,  merely  as  it  is  a 
rule.' — Law. 

Order  is  said  of  every  complicated  machine,  either 
of  a physical  or  a moral  kind : the  order  of  the  uni- 
verse, by  which  every  part  is  made  to  harmonize  to 
the  other  part,  and  all  individually  to  the  whole  col- 
lectively, is  that  which  constitutes  its  principal  beauty: 
as  rational  beings  we  aim  at  introducing  the  same 
order  into  the  moral  scheme  of  society : order  is  there- 
fore that  which  is  founded  upon  the  nature  of  things, 
and  seems  in  its  extensive  sense  to  comprehend  all  the 
rest ; ‘ The  order  and  method  of  nature  is  generally 
very  different  from  our  measures  and  proportions.’ — 
Burke.  Method  is  the  work  of  the  understanding, 
mostly  as  it  is  employed  in  the  mechanical  process ; 
sometimes,  however,  as  respects  intellectual  objects; 
rule  is  said  either  as  it  respects  mechanical  and  phy- 
sical actions  or  moral  conduct. 

The  order  of  society  is  preserved  by  means  of  go- 
vernment, or  authority:  laws  or  rules  are  employed 
by  authority  as  instruments  in  the  preservation  of 
order : no  work  should  be  performed,  whether  it  be 
the  building  a house,  or  the  v/riting  a book,  without 
method ; this  method  will  be  more  or  less  correct,  as  it 
Is  formed  according  to  definite  rules. 

The  term  rule  is,  however,  as  before  observed,  em- 
ployed distinctly  from  either  order  or  method,  for  it  ap- 
plies to  the  moral  conduct  of  the  individual.  The 
Christian  religion  contains  rules  for  the  guidance  of 
our  conduct  in  all  the  relations  of  human  society; 

Their  story  I revolv’d  ; and  reverent  own’d 

Their  polish’d  arts  of  rule,  their  human  virtues. 

Mallet. 

As  epithets,  orderly,  methodical,  and  regular,  are 
applied  to  persons  and  even  to  things,  according  to  the 
above  distinction  of  the  nouns  : an  orderly  man,  or  an 
orderly  society,  is  one  that  adheres  to  the  established 
order  of  things : the  former  in  his  domestick  habits, 
tlie  latter  in  their  publick  capacity,  their  social  meet- 
ings, and  their  social  measures ; 


Then  to  their  dams 

Lets  in  their  young,  and  wondrous  orderly. 

With  manly  haste,  dispatch  this  house- wifery 
Chapman. 

A methodical  man  is  one  who  adopts  methods  in  all  he 
sets  about;  such  a one  may  sometimes  run  into  the 
extreme  of  formality,  by  being  precise  where  precision 
is  not  necessary.  We  cannot  however  speak  of  a 
methodical  society,  for  method  is  altogether  a personai 
quality.  A man  is  regular,  inasmuch  as  hy  follows 
a certain  rule  in  his  moral  actions,  and  thereby  pre 
serves  a uniformity  of  conduct:  a regular  society  is 
one  founded  by  certain  prescribed  riLles. 

A disorderly  person  in  a family  discomposes  its  do 
mestick  economy:  a man  who  is  disorderly  in  hig 
business  throws  every  thing  into  confusion.  It  is  of 
peculiar  importance  for  a person  to  be  viethodical  who 
has  the  superintendence  of  other  people’s  labour: 
much  time  is  lost  and  much  fruitless  trouble  occa 
sioned  by  the  want  of  method;  ' To  begin  methodically 
I should  enjoin  you  travel ; for  absence  doth  remove 
the  cause,  removing  the  object.’— Buckling.  Regu- 
larity of  life  is  of  as  much  more  importance  than  order 
and  method,  as  a man’s  durable  happiness  is  of  more 
importance  than  the  happiness  of  the  moment:  the 
orderly  and  methodical  respect  only  the  transitory 
modes  of  things  ; but  the  regular  concerns  a man  both 
for  body  and  soul ; ‘ He  was  a mighty  lover  of  regu- 
larity and  order,  and  managed  his  afiairs  with  the  ut 
most  exactness.’ — Atterbury. 

These  terms  are  in  like  manner  applied  to  that 
which  is  personal;  we  say,  an  orderly  proceeding,  or 
an  orderly  course  for  what  is  done  in, due  order : a re- 
gular proceeding,  or  a regular  course,  which  goes  on 
according  to  a prescribed  rule ; a methodical  grammar, 
a methodical  delineation,  and  the  like,  for  what  is  done 
according  to  a given  method. 


CLASS,  ORDER,  RANK,  DEGREE. 

Class,  in  French  classe,  Latin  classis,  very  probably 
from  the  Greek  nXdai;,  a fraction,  division,  or  class; 
order,  in  French  ordre,  Latin  ordo,  comes  from  the 
Greek  dpxos  a tow,  which  is  a species  of  .order;  rank, 
in  German  rang,  is  connected  with  row,  &c. ; degree, 
in  French  degri,  comes  from  the  Latin  gradus  a 
step. 

Cla.<is  is  more  general  than  order;  degree  is  more 
specifick  than  rank. 

Class  and  order  are  said  of  the  body  who  are  dis- 
tinguished ; rank  and  degree  of  the  distinction  itself; 
men  belong  to  a certain  class  or  order ; they  hold  a 
certain  rayik ; they  are  of  a certain  degree:  among 
the  Romans  all  the  citizens  were  distinctly  divided  into 
classes  according  to  their  property;  but  in  the  modern 
constitution  of  society,  classes  are  distinguished  from 
each  other  on  general,  moral,  or  civil  grounds ; there 
are  reputable  or  disreputable  classes;  the  labouring 
class,  the  class  of  merchants,  mechanicks,  &c. ; ‘ We 
are  by  our  occupations,  education,  and  habits  of  life, 
divided  almost  into  different  species.  Each  of  these 
classes  of  the  human  race  has  desires,  fears,  and  con 
versation,  vexations  and  merriment,  peculiar  to  itself.’ 
— Johnson.  Order  has  a more  particular  significa- 
tion ; it  is  founded  upon  some  positive  civil  privilege 
or  distinction  ; the  general  orders  are  divided  into 
higher,  lower,  or  middle,  arising  from  tlie  unequal  dis- 
tribution of  wealth  and  power ; the  particular  orders 
are  those  of  the  nobility,  of  the  clergy,  of  freemasonry, 
and  the  like ; ‘ Learning  and  knowledge  are  perfec 
tions  in  us,  not  as  we  are  men,  but  as  we  are  reasonable 
creatures,  in  which  order  of  beings  the  female  world 
is  upon  the  same  level  with  the  male.’ — Addison. 
AawA;  distinguishes  one  individual  from  another;  it  is 
peculiarly  applied  to  the  nobility  and  the  gently:  al 
though  every  man  in  the  community  holds  r certain 
rank  in  relation  to  those  who  are  above  or  'uelow  him  • 

‘ Young  women  of  humble  rank,  and  small  preten- 
sions, should  be  particularly  cautious  how  a vain  am- 
bition of  being  noticed  by  their  superiours  betrays 
them  into  an  attempt  at  displaying  their  unprotecte*’ 
persons  on  a stage.’ — Cumberland.  Degree  like  rank 
is  applicable  to  the  individ'Vr.l,  but  only  in  particular 
cases;  literary  and  scientifick  degrees  are  conferred 
upon  superiour  merit  in  different  d-^partments  of 
science;  there  are  likewise  degrees  in  the  same  rank 
whence  we  speak  of  men  of  high  and  low  degree  . 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


27*: 


Then  learn,  ye  fair ! to  soften  splendour’s  ray, 
Endure  the  swain,  the  youth  of  low  degree. 

Shenstone. 

During  the  French  revolu  tion  the  most  worthless  class, 
from  all  orders,  obtained  the  supremacy  only  to  de- 
«,roy  all  rank  and  deg-'ce,  and  sacrifice  such  as  pos- 
sessed any  wealth,  power,  rank,  or  degree. 

TO  CLASS,  ARRANGE,  RANGE. 

To  class,  from  the  noun  class,  signifies  to  put  in  a 
class;  arrange  and  range  are  both  derived  fro^n  the 
word  rank,  signifying  to  put  in  a certain  rank  or 
order. 

The  general  qualities  and  attributes  of  things  are  to 
be  considered  in  classing;  their  fitness  to  stand  by 
each  other  must  be  considered  in  arranging  them ; 
their  capacity  for  forming  a line  is  the  only  thing  to  be 
attended  to  in  ranging  tliem. 

Classification  serves  the  purposes  of  science;  ar- 
rangement those  of  decoration  and  ornament ; ranging 
those  of  general  convenience;  men  are  classed  into 
different  bodies,  according  to  some  certain  standard  of 
property,  power,  education,  occupation,  &c. ; ‘ We  are 
all  ranked  and  classed  by  him  who  seeth  into  every 
heart.’ — Blair.  Furniture  is  arranged  in  a room 
according  as  it  answers  either  in  colour,  shade,  conve- 
nience of  situation,  &c. ; ‘ In  vain  you  attempt  to  re- 
gulate your  expense,  if  into  your  amusements,  or  your 
society,  disorder  has  crept.  You  have  admitted  a 
principle  of  confusion  which  will  defeat  all  your  plans, 
and  perplex  and  entangle  what  you  sought  to  arrange.' 
— Blair.  Men  are  ranged  in  order  whenever  they 
make  a procession,  or  our  ideas  are  ranged  in  the 
mind;  ‘A  noble  writer  should  be  born  with  this 
faculty,  (a  strong  imagination)  so  as  to  be  well  able 
lO  receive  lively  ideas  from  outward  objects,  to  retain 
them  long,  and  to  range  them  together  in  such  figures 
and  representations  as  are  most  likely  to  hit  the  fancy 
of  the  reader.’ — Addison.  Class ificationis  concerned 
with  mental  objects ; arrangement  with  either  physical 
or  mental  objects ; ranging  mostly  with  physical  ob- 
jects: knowledge,  experience,  and  judgement  are  re- 
quisite in  classing;  taste  and  practice  are  indispen- 
sable in  arranging;  care  only  is  wanted  in  ranging. 
When  applied  to  spiritual  objects,  arrangement  is  the 
ordinary  operation  of  the  mind,  requiring  only  me- 
thodical habits:  classification  is  a branch  of  philosophy 
which  is  not  attainable  by  art  only;  it  requires  a mind 
peculiarly  methodical  by  nature,  that  is  capable  of 
distinguishing  things  by  their  generick  and  specifick 
differences;  not  separating  things  that  are  alike;  nor 
blending  things  that  are  different : books  are  classed  in 
a catalogyie  according  to  their  contents ; they  are  ar- 
ranged in  a shop  according  to  their  size  or  price ; they 
are  ranged  on  a counter  for  convenience:  ideas  are 
classed  by  the  logician  into  simple  and  complex,  ab- 
stract and  concrete : they  are  arranged  by  the  power 
of  reflection  in  the  mind  of  the  thinker:  words  are 
classed  by  the  grammarian  into  different  parts  of 
speech ; they  are  suitably  arranged  fcy  the  writer  in 
different  parts  of  a sentence ; a man  of  business  ar- 
ranges his  affairs  so  as  to  suit  the  time  and  season  for 
every  thing ; a shopkeeper  arranges  his  goods  so  as  to 
have  a place  for  every  thing,  and  to  know  its  place; 
he  ranges  those  things  before  him,  of  wliich  he  wishes 
to  command  a view:  a general  arranges  his  men  for 
the  battle ; a drill  sergeant  ranges  his  men  when  he 
makes  them  exercise. 


TO  DISPOSE,  ARRANGE,  DIGEST. 

To  dispose  signifies  the  same  here  as  in  the  preced- 
ing article ; to  arrange,  from  ar  or  ad  and  range  is  to 
put  in  a certain  range  or  order;  to  digest,  in  Latin  di- 
gestus,  participle  of  digero  or  dis  and  gero,  signifies 
to  gather  apart  with  design. 

The  idea  of  a systematick  laying  apart  is  common  to 
all  and  proper  to  the  word  dispose. 

We  dispose  when  we  arrange  and  digest;  but  we 
do  not  always  arrange  and  digest  w'hen  we  dispose : 
Ihey  differ  in  th  * circumstances  and  object  of  the  ac- 
.ion.  There  is  less  thought  employed  in  disposing 
than  in  a~ranging  and  digesting;  we  may  dispose  or- 
dinary matters  by  simply  assigning  a place  to  each  ; in 
this  manner  trees  are  disposed  in  a row,  but  we  ar- 
ange  and  digest  by  an  intellectual  effort ; in  the  first 


I case  by  putting  those  mgether  which  ought  to  go  toge 
ther;  and  in  the  latter  case  ly  both  separating  that 
which  is  dissimilar,  and  bringing  together  that  which 
is  similar;  in  this  manner  books  are  arranged  in  a 
library  according  to  their  size  or  their  subject ; the  ma- 
terials for  a literary  production  are  digested;  or  the 
laws  of  the  land  are  digested.  What  is  not  wanted 
should  be  neatly  disposed  in  a suitable  place  ; 

Then  near  the  altar  of  the  darting  king. 

Dispos'd  in  rank  their  hecatomb  they  bring. 

Pope. 

Nothing  contributes  so  much  to  beauty  and  convo' 
nience  as  the  arrangement  of  every  thing  according  tr. 
the  way  and  manner  in  which  they  should  follow 
‘ There  is  a proper  arrangement  of  the  parts  in  elastick 
bodies,  which  may  be  Idcilitated  by  use.’ — Cheyne. 
When  writings  are  involved  in  great  intricacy  and  con 
fusion,  it  is  difficult  to  digest  them;  ‘ The  marks  and 
impressions  of  diseases,  and  the  changes,  and  devasta- 
tions they  bring  upon  the  internal  parts,  should  be  very 
carefully  examined  and  orderly  digested  in  the  compa- 
rative anatomy  we  speak  of.’ — Bacon. 

In  an  extended  and  moral  application  of  these  words, 
we  speak  of  a person's  time,  talent,  and  the  like,  being 
disposed  to  a good  purpose  ; 

Thus  while  she  did  her  various  power  dispose. 

The  world  was  free  from  tyrants,  wars,  and  woes. 

Prior. 

We  speak  of  a man’s  ideas  being  properly  arranged , 
‘When  a number  of  distinct  images  are  collected  by 
these  erratick  and  hasty  surveys,  the  fancy  is  busied 
in  arranging  them.’ — Johnson.  We  speak  of  a work 
being  digested  into  a form  ; 

Chosen  friends,  with  sense  refin’d 
Learning  digested  well. — Thomson. 

On  the  disposition  of  a man’s  time  and  property  will 
depend  in  a great  measure  his  success  in  life ; on  the 
arrangement  of  accounts  greatly  depends  his  facility 
in  conducting  business  ; on  the  habit  of  digesting  our 
thoughts  depends  in  a great  measure  the  correctness  of 
thinking. 

DISPOSAL,  DISPOSITION. 

These  words  derive  their  different  meanings  from 
the  verb  to  dispose  {v.  To  dispose),  to  which  they  owe 
their  common  origin. 

Disposal  is  a personal  act ; it  depends  upon  the  will 
of  the  individual:  disposition  is  an  act  of  the  judge 
ment ; it  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  things. 

The  removal  of  a thing  from  one’s  self  is  involved 
in  a disposal;  the  good  order  of  the  things  is  compre- 
hended in  their  disposition.  The  disposal  of  property 
is  in  the  hands  of  the  rightful  owner ; the  success  of  a 
battle  often  depends  upon  the  right  disposition  of  an 
army ; ‘ In  the  reign  of  Henry  the  Second,  if  a man 
died  without  wife  or  issue,  the  whole  of  his  property 
was  at  his  own  disposal ' — Blackstone.  ‘ In  case  a 
person  made  no  disposition  of  such  of  his  goods  as 
were  testable,  he  was  and  is  said  to  die  intestate.’ — 
Blackstone. 


APPAREL,  ATTIRE,  ARRAY. 

Jlpparel,  in  French  appareil,  like  the  word  appa 
ratus,  comes  from  the  Latin  apparatus  or  adparatus, 
signifying  the  thing  fitted  or  adapted  for  another:  at 
tire,  compounded  of  at  or  ad  and  tire,  in  French  tirer, 
Latin  traho  to  draw,  signifies  the  thing  drawn  or  pul 
on  ; array  is  compounded  of  ar  or  ad  and  ray  or  row, 
signifying  the  state  of  being  in  a row,  or  being  in  order. 

These  terms  are  all  applicable  to  dress  or  exterior 
decoration.  Apparel  is  the  dress  of  every  one;  attire 
is  the  dress  of  the  great ; array  is  the  dress  of  parti 
cular  persons  on  particular  occasions:  it  is  the  first 
object  of  every  man  to  provide  himself  with  apparel 
suitable  to  his  station ; ‘ It  is  much,  that  this  depraved 
custom  of  painting  the  face  should  so  long  escape  the 
penal  laws,  both  of  the  church  and  state,  which  have 
been  very  severe  against  luxury  in  apparel.' — Bacon. 
The  desire  of  shining  forth  in  gaudy  attire  is  the  pro 
perty  of  little  minds  ; 

A robe  of  tissue,  stiff  with  golden  wire, 

An  upper  vest,  once  Helen’s  rich  attire. 

Deydkn 


2/8 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES, 


On  festivals  and  solemn  occasions,  it  may  be  proper 
for  those  who  are  to  be  aonspicuous  to  set  themselves 
out  with  a comely  array; 

Shj  seem’d  a virgin  of  the  Spartan  blood, 

With  such  array  Harpalyce  bestrode 
Her  Thracian  courser. — Dkyden. 

Apparel  and  attire  respect  the  quality  and  fashion 
of  the  thing;  but  array  has  regard  to  the  disposition 
of  the  things  with  their  neatness  and  decorum:  ap- 
parel may  be  costly  or  mean ; attire  may  be  gay  or 
shabby;  but  array  will  never  be  otherwise  than  neat 
or  comely. 


TO  PLACE,  DISPOSE,  ORDER. 

To  place  is  to  assign  a place  {v.  Place)  to  a thing  ; to 
dispose  is  to  place  according  to  a certain  rule ; to  order 
is  to  place  in  a certain  order. 

Things  are  often  placed  from  the  necessity  of  being 
placed  in  some  way  or  another:  they  are  disposed  so 
as  to  appear  to  the  best  advantage.. 

Books  are  placed  on  a shelf  or  in  a cupboard  to  be 
out  of  the  way;  they  are  disposed  on  shelves  accord- 
ing to  their  size:  chairs  are  placed  in  different  parts  of 
a room ; prints  are  tastefully  disposed  round  a room. 

Material  objects  only  are  placed.,  in  the  proper  sense 
of  the  term.  Sticks  are  placed  at  certain  distances  for 
purposes  of  convenience ; persons  or  things  are  placed 
in  particular  situations ; 

Our  two  first  parents,  yet  the  only  two 
Of  mankind  in  the  happy  garden  plac'd. — Milton. 
If  I have  a wish  that  is  prominent  above  the  rest,  it 
is  to  see  you  placed  to  your  satisfaction  near  me.’ — 
Shenstone.  It  may  also  be  applied  in  the  improper 
sense  to  spiritual  objects. 

Material  or  spiritual  objects  are  dispos'd  ; 

And  last  the  reliques  by  themselves  dispose, 

Which  in  a brazen  urn  the  priests  enclose. 

D*yden. 

Spiritual  objects  only  are  ordered. 

To  dispose  in  the  improper  sense  is  a more  partial 
action  than  to  order : one  disposes  for  particular  occa- 
sions ; one  orders  for  a permanency  and  in  complicated 
matters:  our  thoughts  may  be  disposed  to  seriousness 
in  certain  cases ; our  thoughts  and  wills  ought  to  be 
ordered  aright  at  all  times.  An  author  disposes  his 
work  agreeably  to  the  nature  of  his  subject ; a trades- 
man orders  his  business  so  as  to  do  every  thing  in  good 
time. 


PLACE,  SITUATION,  STATION,  POSITION, 
POST. 

Place,  in  German  platz,  comes  from  platt  even  or 
open ; situation,  in  Latin  situs,  comes  from  the  Hebrew 
to  put;  station,  from  the  Latin  status  and  sto  to 
stand,  signifies  the  manner  or  place  in  which  an  object 
stands  or  is  put;  position,  in  Latin  positio  or  positus, 
comes  from  the  same  source  as  situs. 

Place  is  the  abstract  or  general  term  that  compre- 
nends  the  idea  of  any  given  space  that  may  be  occu- 
pied : station  is  the  place  where  one  stands  or  is  fixed : 
situation  and  position  respect  the  object  as  well  as  the 
place,  that  is,  they  signify  how  the  object  is  put,  as 
well  as  where  it  is  put  A place  or  a station  may  be 
either  vacant  or  otherwise ; a situation  and  a position 
necessarily  suppose  some  occupied  place.  A place  is 
either  assigned  or  not  assigned,  known  or  unknown, 
real  or  supposed ; ‘ Surely  the  church  is  a place  where 
one  day’s  truce  ought  to  be  allowed  to  the  dissensions 
and  animosities  of  mankind.’ — Burke-  A station  is  a 
specifically  assigned  place  ; 

The  planets  in  their  station  listening  stood. 

Milton. 

We  choose  a place  according  to  our  convenience,  and 
we  leave  it  again  at  pleasure ; but  we  take  up  our  sta- 
tion, and  hold  it  for  a given  period.  One  inquires  for 
a place  which  is  known  only  by  name ; the  station  is 
appointed  for  us,  and  is  therefore  easily  found  out. 
Travellers  wander  from  place  to  place;  soldiers  have 
always  some  station. 

The  terms  place  and  situation  are  said  of  objects 
animate  or  inanimate ; station  cpily  of  animate  objects, 
or  object?  figuratively  considered  as  such ; position 


only  of  inanimate  objects . a person  chooses  a plate, 
a thing  occupies  d,  place,  or  has  aplace  set  apart  for  if 
a station  or  stated  place  must  always  be  assigned  tc 
each  person  who  has  to  act  in  concert  with  others ; 

‘ The  seditious  remained  within  their  station,  which, 
by  reason  of  the  nastiness  of  the  beastly  multitude, 
might  more  fitly  be  termed  a kennei  than  a camp.’ — 
Hayward.  A person  chooses  a situation  according  to 
his  convenience;  ‘A  situation  in  which  I am  as  un- 
known to  all  the  world  as  1 am  ignorant  of  all  that 
passes  in  it  would  exactlysuit  me.’ — Cowper.  A situa- 
tion or  position  is  chosen  for  a thing  to  suit  the  conve 
nience  of  an  individual ; tlie  former  is  said  of  things  as 
they  stand  with  regard  to  others;  the  latter  of  things 
as  they  stand  with  regard  to  themselves.  The  situa- 
tion of  a house  comprehends  the  nature  of  the  place, 
whether  on  high  or  low  ground  ; and  also  its  relation 
to  other  objects,  that  is,  whether  higher  or  lower, 
nearer  or  more  distant:  the  position  of  a window  in  a 
house  is  considered  as  to  whether  it  is  by  the  side  or  in 
front ; the  position  of  a book  is  considered  as  to  whe 
ther  it  stands  leaning  or  upright,  with  its  face  or  back 
forward.  Situation  is  moreover  said  of  things  tha' 
come  thither  of  themselves  ; position  mostly  of  those 
things  that  have  been  put  there  at  will.  The  situation 
of  some  tree  or  rock,  on  some  elevated  place,  is  agree- 
able to  be  looked  at,  or  to  be  looked  from ; ‘ Prince 
Cesarini  has  a palace  in  a pleasant  situation,  and  set 
off  with  many  beautiful  walks.’ — Addison.  The 
faulty  position  of  a letter  in  writing  sometimes  spoils 
the  whole  performance ; ‘ By  varying  the  position  of  my 
eye,  and  moving  it  nearer  to  or  farther  from  the  direct 
beam  of  the  sun’s  light,  the  colour  of  the  sun’s  re- 
flected light  constantly  varied  upon  the  speculum  as  it 
did  upon  my  eye.’ — Newton. 

Place,  situation,  and  station  have  an  improper  sig 
nification  in  respect  to  men  in  civil  society,  that  is, 
either  to  their  circumstances  or  actions.  Post  has  no 
other  sense  when  applied  to  persons.  Place  is  as  in- 
definite as  before  ; it  may  be  taken  for  that  share  which 
we  personally  have  in  society  either  generally,  as  when 
every  one  is  said  to  fill  a place  in  society ; or  particu- 
larly for  a specifick  share  of  its  business,  so  as  to  fill  a 
place  under  government:  situation  is  that  kind  of 
place  which  specifies  either  our  share  in  its  business, 
but  with  a higher  import  than  the  general  term  place, 
or  a share  in  its  gains  and  losses,  as  the  prosperous  or 
adverse  situation  of  a man_:  a station  is  that  kind  of 
place  which  denotes  a share  in  its  relative  consequence, 
power,  and  honour;  in  which  sense  every  man  holds 
a certain  station ; the  post  is  that  kind  of  place  in 
which  he  has  a specifick  share  in  the  duties  of  society : 
the  situation  comprehends  many  duties;  but  the  post 
includes  properly  one  duty  only;  the  word  being 
figuratively  employed  from  the  post,  or  particular  spot 
which  a soldier  is  said  to  occupy.  A clerk  in  a count- 
ing-house fills  a place  : a clergyman  holds  a situation 
by  virtue  of  his  olfice  ; ‘ Though  this  is  a situation  of 
the  greatest  ease  and  tranquillity  in  human  life,  yet 
this  is  by  no  means  fit  to  be  the  subject  of  all  men’s 
petitions  to  God.’— -Rogers.  A clergyman  is  in  the 
station  of  a gentleman  by  reason  of  his  education,  as 
well  as  his  situation ; ‘ It  has  been  my  fate  to  be  en- 
gaged in  business  much  and  often,  by  the  stations  in 
which  I have  been  placed.’ — Atterbury.  A faithful 
minister  will  always  consider  that  his  post  where  good 
is  to  be  done ; ‘ I will  never,  while  I have  health,  be 
wanting  to  my  duty  in  my  post.' — Atterbury. 


PLACE,  SPOT,  SITE. 

A particular  or  given  space  is  the  idea  common  to 
these  terms ; but  the  former  is  general  and  indefinite, 
the  latter  specifick.  Place  is  limited  to  no  size  nor 
quantity,  it  may  be  large : but  spot  implies  a very 
small  place,  such  as  by  a figure  of  speech  is  supposed 
to  be  no  larger  than  a spot : the  term  place  is  employed 
upon  every  occasion ; the  term  spot  is  confined  to  very 
particular  cases  : we  may  often  know  the  place  in  a 
general  way  where  a thing  is,  but  it  is  not  easy  after  a 
course  of  years  to  find  out  the  exact  spot  on  which  it 
has  happened.  The  place  where  our  Saviour  was 
buried  is  to  be  seen  and  pointed  out,  but  not  the  very 
spot  where  he  lay; 

O,  how  unlike  the  place  from  whence  they  fell ! 

Milton. 


ENGLISH 

My  fortune  leads  to  traverse  realms  alone, 

And  find  no  spot  of  all  the  world  my  own. 

Goldsmith. 

The  site  is  the  spot  on  which  any  thing  stands  or  is 
situated  ; it  is  more  commonly  applied  to  a building  or 
any  place  marked  out  for  a specifick  purpose;  as  the 
site  on  which  a camp  had  been  formed ; 

Before  my  view  appear’d  a structure  fair, 

Its  site  uncertain  if  on  earth  or  air.— Poes. 


BACK,  BACKWARD,  BEHIND. 

Back  and  backward  are  used  only  as  adverbs ; be- 
hind either  as  an  adverb  or  a preposition.  Hence  we 
say  to  go  back  or  backward^  to  go  behind  or  behind  the 
wall.  . u j- 

Back  denotes  the  situation  of  being,  and  the  direc- 
tion of  going ; backward^  simply  the  manner  of  going : 
a person  stands  back^  who  does  not  wish  to  be  in  the 
way;  he  goes  backward,  when  he  does  not  wish  to 
turn  his  back  to  an  object ; 

So  rag’d  Tydides,  boundless  in  his  ire. 

Drove  armies  back,  and  made  all  Troy  retire. 

POPK. 

Whence  many  wearied  e’er  they  had  o’erpast 
The  middle  stream  (for  they  in  vain  have  tried) 
Again  return'd  astounded  and  aghast. 

No  one  regardful  look  would  ever  backward  cast. 

Gilbert  West. 

Back  marks  simply  the  situation  of  a place,  behind 
the  situation  of  one  object  with  regard  to  another : a 
person  stands  back,  who  stands  in  the  back  part  of  any 
place ; he  stands  behind,  who  has  any  one  in  the  front 
of  him : the  back  is  opposed  to  the  front,  behind  to  be- 
fore; 

Forth  flew  this  hated  fiend,  the  child  of  Rome, 
Driv’n  to  the  verge  of  Albion,  lingered  there . 
Then,  with  her  James  receding,  cast  behind 
Oni  angry  frown,  and  sought  more  servile  climes. 

Shenstone  (on  Cruelty). 


AFTER,  BEHIND. 

After  respects  order  ; behind  respects  position.  One 
runs  after  a person,  or  stands  behind  his  chair ; after  is 
used  either  figuratively  or  literally : behind  is  used  only 
literally.  Men  hunt  after  amusements;  misfortunes 
come  after  one  another ; a garden  lies  behind  a house ; 
a thing  is  concealed  behind  a bush  ; 

Good  after  ill,  and  after  pain  delight, 

Alternate,  like  the  scenes  of  day  and  night. 

Drydkn. 

Ke  first,  and  close  behind  him  followed  she. 

For  such  was  Proserpine’s  severe  decree. — Dryden. 


UNDER,  BELOW,  BENEATH. 

Under,  like  hind  in  behind,  and  the  German  unter, 
hinter,  &c.,  are  all  connected  with  the  preposition  in 
implying  the  relation  of  enclosure  ; below  denotes  the 
state  of  being  low;  and  beneath  from  the  German 
nieder,  and  the  Greek  vepOe  or  evepde  downwards,  has 
the  same  original  signification.  It  is  evident,  there- 
fore, from  the  above,  that  the  preposition  under  de- 
notes any  situation  of  retirement  or  concealment ; be- 
low any  situation  of  inferiority  or  lowness ; and  be- 
neath, the  same,  only  in  a still  greater  degree.  We  are 
covered  or  sheltered  by  that  which  we  stand  under ; 
wc  excel  or  rise  above  that  which  is  below  us ; we  look 
down  upon  that  which  is  beneath  us : we  live  under  the 
protection  of  government;  the  sun  disappears  when 
it  is  below  ‘he  horizon  ; we  are  apt  to  tread  upon  that 
which  is  altogether  ftcjieatA  us ; ‘The  Jewish  writers 
in  their  chronological  computations  often  shoot  under 
or  over  the  truth  at  their  pleasure.’ — Prideaux.  ‘ All 
sublunary  comforts  imitate  the  changeable  ness,  as  well 
as  feel  ihe  influence,  of  the  planet  they  are  under.' — 
South. 

Our  minds  are  here  and  there,  below,  above ; 

Nothing  that ’s  mortal  can  so  quickly  move. 

Denham. 

‘ How  can  any  thing  better  be  expected  than  rust  and 
canker  when  men  v/ill  rather  dig  their  treasure  from 
beneath  than  fetch  it  from  above.’ — South. 


S^'NONYMES.  27y 

ABOVE,  OVER,  UPON,  BEYOND 
When  an  object  is  above  another,  it  cxceidi  kt  in 
height ; when  it  is  over  another,  it  extends  along  its 
superiour  surface ; when  it  is  upon  another,  it  comes 
in  contact  with  its  superiour  surface ; when  it  is  be- 
yond another,  it  lies  at  a greater  distance.  Trees  fre- 
quently grow  above  a wall,  and  sometimes  the  braikches 
hang  over  the  wall  or  rest  upon  it,  but  they  seldom 
stretch  much  beyond  it ; 

So  when  with  crackling  flames  a caldron  fries, 

The  bubbling  waters  from  the  bottom  rise. 

Above  the  brim  they  force  their  fiery  way; 

Black  vapours  climb  aloft  and  cloud  the  day 

Dryden 

The  geese  fly  o'er  the  barn,  the  bees  in  arms 
Drive  headlong  from  their  waxen  cells  in  swarms 

Dryden 

As  I did  stand  my  watch  upon  the  hill 
I look’d  toward  Birnam,  and  anon  methought 
The  wood  began  to  move. — Shakspeare 
He  that  sees  a dark  and  shady  grove 
Stays  in)t,  but  looks  beyond  it  on  the  sky. 

Herbert 

In  the  figurative  sense  the  first  is  mostly  employed 
to  convey  the  idea  of  superiority,  the  second  of  au 
thority,  the  third  of  immediate  influence,  and  the 
fourth  of  extent.  Every  one  should  be  above  false- 
hood, but  particularly  those  who  are  set  over  others, 
who  may  have  an  influence  on  their  minds  beyond  all 
calculation. 


SITUATION,  CONDITION,  STATE,  PREDICA 
MENT,  PLIGHT,  CASE. 

Situation  {v.  Place)  is  said  generally  of  objects  as 
they  respect  others ; condition  {v.  Condition)  as  they 
respect  themselves.  Whatever  affects  our  property 
our  honour,  our  liberty,  and  the  like,  constitutes  our 
situation ; ‘ The  man  who  has  a character  of  his  own 
is  little  changed  by  varying  his  situation.' — Mrs.  Mon- 
tague. Whatever  affects  our  person  immediately  is 
our  condition : a person  who  is  unable  to  pay  a sum 
of  money  to  save  himself  from  a prison  is  in  a bad 
situation : a traveller  who  is  left  in  a ditch  robbed  and 
wounded  is  in  a bad  condition  ; ‘ It  is  indeed  not  easy 
to  prescribe  a successful  manner  of  approach  to  the 
distressed  or  necessitous,  whose  condition  subjects 
every  kind  of  behaviour  equally  to  miscarriage.’ — 
Johnson.  The  situation  and  condition  are  said  of 
that  which  is  contingent  and  changeable  ; the  state, 
from  the  Latin  sto  to  stand,  signifying  the  point  that  is 
stood  upon,  is  said  of  that  wdiich  is  comparatively 
stable  or  established.  A tradesman  is  in  a good  situa 
tion  who  is  in  the  way  of  carrying  on  a good  trade ; 
his  affairs  are  in  a good  state  if  he  is  enabled  to 
answer  every  demand  and  to  keep  up  his  credit. 
Hence  it  is  that  we  speak  of  the  state  of  health,  an(^ 
the  state  of  the  mind  ; not  the  situation  or  condition, 
because  the  body  and  mind  are  considered  as  to  their 
general  frame,  and  not  as  to  any  relative  or  particular 
circumstances ; so  likewise  we  say  a state  of  infancy,  a 
state  of  guilt,  a state  of  innocence,  and  the  like ; but 
not  either  a situation  or  a condition;  ‘Patience  itself 
is  one  virtue  by  which  we  are  prepared  for  that  state 
in  which  evil  shall  be  no  more.’ — Johnson. 

When  speaking  of  bodies  there  is  the  same  distinc 
tion  in  the  terms,  as  in  regard  to  individuals.  An 
army  may  be  either  in  a situation,  a condition,  or  a 
state.  An  army  that  is  on  service  may  be  in  a critical 
situation,  with  respect  to  the  enemy  and  its  own  com 
parative  weakness ; it  may  be  in  a deplorable  condi- 
tion if  it  stand  in  need  of  provisions  and  necessaries  . 
an  army  that  is  at  home  will  be  in  a good  or  bad  state, 
according  to  the  regulations  of  the  commander-in 
chief.  Of  a prince  who  is  threatened  with  invasion 
from  foreign  enemies,  and  with  a rebellion  from  his 
subjects,  we  should  not  say  that  his  condition,  but  his 
situation,  was  critical.  Of  a prince,  however,  who 
like  Alfred  was  obliged  to  fly,  and  to  seek  safety  in  dis- 
guise and  poverty,  we  should  speak  of  his  hard  condi- 
tion: the  state  of  a prince  cannot  be  spoken  of,  but 
the  state  of  his  affairs  and  government  may  ; hence 
likewise,  state  may  with  most  propriety  be  said  of  a 
nation : but  situation  seldom,  unless  in  respect  to  other 
nations,  and  condition  never.  On  the  other  hand 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


t-BO 

wlien  [speaking  of  tlie  poor,  we  seldom  employ  the 
term  situation,  because  they  are  seldom  considered  as 
a body  m relation  to  other  bodies ; we  mostly  speak  of 
their  condition  as  better  or  worse,  according  as  they 
have  more  or  less  of  the  comforts  of  life ; and  of  their 
state  as  regards  their  moral  habits. 

These  terms  may  likewise  be  applied  to  inanimate 
objects ; and  upon  the  same  grounds,  a house  is  in  a 
good  situation  as  respects  the  surrounding  objects  ; it  is 
in  a good  o’"  bad  condition  as  respects  the  painting, 
cleaning,  and  sxteriour,  altogether ; it  is  in  a bad  state, 
as  respects  die  beams,  plaster,  roof,  and  interiour 
structure,  altogether.  The  hand  of  a watch  is  in  a 
different  situation  every  hour;  the  watch  itself  may 
be  in  a bad  condition  if  the  wheels  are  clogged  with 
dirt ; but  in  a good  state  if  the  works  are  altogether 
sound  and  fit  for  service. 

Situation  and  condition  are  either  permanent  or 
temporary.  The  predicament,  from  the  Latin  pre- 
dico  to  assert  or  declare,  signifies  to  commit  one’s  self 
by  an  assertion ; and  when  applied  to  circumstances, 
it  expresses  a temporary  embarrassed  situation  occa- 
sioned by  an  act  of  one’s  own ; hence  we  always 
speak  of  bringing  ourselves  into  a.  predicament ; 

The  offender’s  life  lies  in  the  mercy 
Of  the  duke  only  ’gainst  all  other  voice. 

In  which  predicament  I say  thou  stand’st. 

Shakspeare. 

Plight,  contracted  from  the  Latin  plicatus,  participle 
of  plico  to  fold,  signifies  any  circumstance  in  which 
one  is  disagreeably  entangled  ; and  case  (v,  Case)  sig- 
nifies any  thing  which  may  befall  us,  or  into  which  we 
fall  mostly,  though  not  necessarily  contrary  to  our  in- 
clination. Those  two  latter  terms  therefore  denote  a 
species  of  temporary  condition;  for  they  both  express 
that  which  happens  to  the  object  itself,  without  refer- 
ence to  any  other.  A person  is  in  an  unpleasant  situa- 
tion who  is  shut  up  in  a stage  coach  with  disagreeable 
company.  He  is  in  an  awkward  predicament  when 
attempting  to  please  one  friend  he  displeases  another. 
He  may  be  in  a wretched  plight  if  he  is  overturned  in 
a stage  at  night,  and  at  a distance  from  any  habita- 
tion ; 

Satan  beheld  ihe\r plight 

And  to  his  mates  thus  in  derision  call’d. — Milton. 
He  will  be  in  evil  case  if  he  is  compelled  to  put  up 
with  a spare  and  poor  diet;  ‘ Our  case  is  like  that  of 
a traveller  upon  the  Alps,  who  should  fancy  that  the 
top  of  the  next  hill  must  end  his  journey,  because  it 
terminates  his  prospect.’ — Addison. 


CASE,  CAUSE. 

Case,  in  Latin  casus,  from  cado  to  fall,  chance, 
happen,  signifies  the  thing  falling  out;  c«ase,  in  French 
cause,  Latin  causa,  is  probably  changed  fiom  case,  and 
the  Latin  casus. 

The  case  is  matter  of  fact;  the  cause  is  matter  of 
tuestion:  a case  involves  circumstances  and  con- 
sequences ; a cause  involves  reasons  and  arguments  : 
acc5eis  something  to  be  learned  ; a cause  is  something 
to  be  decided. 

A case  needs  only  to  be  stated  ; a cause  must  be  de- 
fended : a cause  rn.ay  include  cases,  but  not  vice  versa  ; 
in  all  causes  that  are  to  be  tried,  there  are  many  legal 
cases  that  must  be  cited  ; ‘ There  is  a double  praise 
due  to  virtue  when  it  is  lodged  in  a body  that  seems  to 
have  been  prepared  for  the  reception  of  vice : in  many 
such  cases  the  soul  and  body  do  not  seem  to  be  fel- 
lows.’— Addison.  Whoever  is  interested  in  the  cause 
of  humanity  will  not  be  heedless  of  those  cases  of  dis- 
tress which  are  perpetually  presenting  themselves;  ‘I 
was  myself  an  advocate  so  Ions,  that  I never  mind 
what  advocates  say,  but  what  they  prove,  and  I can 
only  examine  proofs  in  causes  brought  before  me.’ — 
Sir  William  Jones 


CONDITION,  STATION. 

Condition,  in  French  condition,  Latin  conditio,  from 
tondo  to  build  or  form,  signifies  properly  the  thing 
formed;  and  in  an  extended  sense,  the  manner  and 
circumstances  under  which  a thing  is  formed;  station, 
in  French  station,  Latin  static,  from  sto  to  stand,  sig- 
nifies ths  standing  place  or  ooint 


Condition  has  most  relation  to  the  circurnstancei*, 
education,  birth,  and  the  like  ; station  refers  rather  tc 
the  rank,  occupation,  or  mode  of  life  which  one  pur 
sues.  Riches  suddenly  acquired  are  calculated  to  make 
a man  forget  his  original  condition;  ‘The  common 
charge  against  those  who  rise  above  their  original  con 
dition,  is  that  of  pride.’ — Johnson.  There  is  nothing 
which  men  are  more  apt  to  forget  than  the  duties  of 
their  station  ; ‘ The  last  day  will  assign  to  every  one 
a station  suitable  to  the  dignity  of  his  character.’ — 
Addison 

The  condition  of  men  in  reality  is  often  so  different 
from  what  it  appears,  that  it  is  extremely  difficult  to 
form  an  estimate  of  what  they  are,  or  what  they  havi 
been.  I is  the  folly  of  the  present  day,  that  every 
man  is  unwilling  to  keep  the  station  which  has  been 
assigned  to  him  by  Providence.  The  rage  forequality 
destroys  every  just  distinction  in  society ; the  low 
aspire  to  be,  in  appearance,  at  least,  equal  with  theii 
superiours  ; and  those  in  elevated  stations  do  not  hesi 
tate  to  put  themselves  on  a level  with  their  inferioars 

TO  PUT,  PLACE,  LAY,  SET. 

Put  is  in  all  probability  contracted  from  posilus, 
participle  of  pono  to  place ; place  signifies  the  same 
as  in  the  preceding  articles ; lay,  in  Saxon  legan, 
German  legen,  Latin  loco,  and  Greek  "XtYopai,  signifies 
to  cause  to  lie ; set,  in  German  setzen,  Latin  sisto, 
from  sto  to  stand,  signifies  to  cause  to  stand. 

Put  is  the  most  general  of  all  these  terms  ; 

The  labourer  cuts 

Young  slips,  and  in  the  soil  securely pwts. — Dryden. 
Place,  lay , and  set  are  but  modes  of  putting  ; om 
puts,  but  the  way  of  putting  it  is  not  defined  ; we  may 
put  a thing  into  one’s  room,  one’s  desk,  one’s  pocket, 
and  the  like ; but  to  place  is  to  put  in  a specifick  man- 
ner, and  for  a specifick  purpose  ; one  places  a book  on 
a shelf  as  a fixed  place  for  it,  and  in  a position  most 
suitable  to  it ; 

Then  youths  and  virgins,  twice  as  many,  join 
To  place  the  dishes,  and  to  serve  the  wine. 

Dryden. 

To  lay  and  set  are  still  more  specifick  than  place ; the 
former  being  applied  only  to  such  things  as  can  be 
made  to  lie; 

Here  some  design  a mole,  while  others  there 
Ijuy  deep  foundations  for  a theatre. — Dryden. 
And  set  only  to  such  as  can  be  made  to  stand:  a book 
may  be  said  to  be  laid  on  the  table  when  placed  in  a 
downward  position  ; and  set  on  a shelf  when  pZaced  on 
one  end ; we  lay  ourselves  down  on  the  ground  ; we 
set  a trunk  upon  the  ground  ; 

Ere  I could 

Give  him  that  parting  kiss,  which  I had  set 

Between  two  charming  words,  comes  in  my  father. 

Shakspeare 


TO  LIE,  LAY. 

By  a t^ilgar  erronr  these  words  have  been  so  con 
founded  as  to  deserve  some  notice.-  To  ZZ^:  is  neuter 
and  designates  a state;  to  lay  is  active,  and  denotes  an 
action  on  an  object ; it  is  properly  to  cause  to  lie : a 
thing  lies  on  the  table ; some  one  lays  it  on  the  table  • 
he  lies  with  his  fathers ; they  laid  him  with  his  fathers 
In  the  same  manner,  when  used  idiomatically,  we 
say,  a thing  lies  by  us  until  we  bring  it  into  use:  we 
lay  it  by  for  some  future  purpose:  we  lie  down  in  order 
to  repose  ourselves ; we  lay  money  down  by  way  of 
deposite : the  disorder  lies  in  the  constitution  ; we  lay 
the  ill  treatment  of  others  to  heart ; we  lie  with  the 
person  with  whom  we  sleep;  we  lay  a wager  with  a 
person  when  we  stake  our  money  against  his;  ‘Ants 
bite  off  all  the  buds  before  they  lay  it  up,  and,  there- 
fore, the  corn  that  has  lain  in  their  nests  will  produce 
nothing.’ — Addison.  ‘The  church  admits  none  to 
holy  orders  without  laying  upon  them  the  highest  ob 
ligations  imaginable.’ — Beveridge. 

TO  DISORDER,  DERANGE,  DISCONCERT, 
DISCOMPOSE. 

Disorder  signifies  to  put  outof  order , derange,  front 
de  and  range  or  rank,  signifies  to  put  out  cf  the  rank  ir 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


Ar&ich  It  wfiS  placed  ; disconcert^  to  put  out  of  the  con- 
cert or  harmony ; discompose,  to  put  out  of  a state  of 
composure. 

All  these  terms  express  the  idea  of  putting  out  of 
order;  but  the  three  latter  vary  as  to  the  mode  or  ob- 
ject of  the  action.  The  term  disorder  is  used  in  a 
perfectly  indefinite  form,  and  might  be  applied  to  any 
object.  As  everything  may  be  in  order,  so  may  every 
thing  be  disordered;  yet  it  is  seldom  used  except  in 
rtgaid  to  such  things  as  have  been  in  a natural  order. 
Derange  and  disconcert  are  employed  in  speaking  of 
such  things  as  have  been  put  into  an  artificial  order. 
To  derange  is  to  disorder  that  which  has  been  systema- 
tically arranged,  or  put  in  a certain  range  ; and  to  dis- 
concert is  to  disorder  that  which  has  been  put  together 
by  concert  or  contrivance  ; thus  the  body  may  be  dis- 
ordered ; a man’s  affairs  or  papers  deranged;  a scheme 
disconcerted.  To  discompose  is  a species  of  derange- 
ment in  regard  to  trivial  matters : thus  a tucker,  a frill, 
or  a cap  may  be  discomposed.  The  .slightest  change 
of  diet  will  disorder  people  of  tender  constitutions : 
misfortunes  are  apt  to  derange  the  affairs  of  the  most 
prosperous;  the  unexpected  return  of  a master  to  his 
home  disconcerts  the  schemes  which  have  been  formed 
by  the  domesticks;  those  who  are  particular  as  to  their 
appearance  are  careful  not  to  have  any  part  of  their 
dress  discomposed. 

When  ajiplied  to  the  mind  disorder  and  derange  are 
said  of  the  intellect;  disconcert  and  discompose  of  the 
ideas  or  spirits : the  former  denoting  a permanent  state; 
the  latter  a temporary  or  transient  stale.  Tiie  mind  is 
said  to  be  disordered  when  the  faculty  of  ratiocination 
is  in  any  degree  interrupted ; ‘ Since  devotion  itself 
may  disorder  the  mind,  unless  its  heats  are  tempered 
with  caution  or  prudence,  we  should  be  particularly 
careful  to  keep  our  reason  as  cool  as  possible.’ — .‘Addi- 
son. The  intellect  is  said  to  be  deranged  when  it  is 
brought  into  a positive  state  of  incapacity  for  action : 
persons  are  sometimes  disoi-dcrcd  in  their  minds  for. a 
time  by  particular  occurrences,  who  do  not  become 
actually  deranged ; ‘ All  passion  implies  a violent  emo- 
tion of  mind ; of  course  it  is  apt  to  derange  the  regular 
course  of  our  ideas.’ — Blair.  A person  is  said  to  be 
disconcerted  who  suddenly  loses  his  collectedness  of 
hiriking;  ‘ There  are  men  whose  powers  operate  only 
It  leisure  and  in  retirement ; and  whose  intellectual  | 
vigour  deserts  them  in  conversation  ; whom  merriment 
confuses,  and  objection  disconcerts.' — Johnson.  A 
person  is  said  to  be  discomposed  vvlio  loses  his  regu- 
larity of  feeling ; 

But  with  the  changeful  temper  of  the  skies. 

As  rains  condense,  and  sunshine  rarefies. 

So  turn  the  species  in  their  alter’d  minds. 

Compos’d  by  cSlms,  and  discompos'd  by  winds. 

Dryden. 

A sense  of  shame  is  the  most  apt  to  disconcert:  the 
more  irritable  the  temper  the  more  easily  one  is  dis- 
composed. 


DERANGEMENT,  INSANITY,  LUNACY, 
MADNESS,  MANIA. 

Derangement,  from  the  verb  to  derange,  implies  the 
first  stage  of  disorder  in  the  intellect;  insanity,  or  un- 
soundness, implies  positive  disease,  which  is  more  or 
less  permanent ; lunacy  is  a violent  sort  of  insanity, 
which  was  supposed  to  be  influenced  by  the  moon  ; 
madness  and  mania,  from  the  Greek  yaivoyai  to  rage, 
implies  insanity  or  lunacy  in  its  most  furious  and  con- 
firmed stage.  Deranged  persons  may  sometimes  be 
perfectly  sensible  in  every  thing  but  particular  subjects. 
Insane  persons  are  sometimes  entirely  restored.  Lu- 
naticks  have  their  lucid  intervals,  and  maniacks  their 
intervals  of  repose. 

Derangement  may  sometimes  be  applied  to  the  tem- 
porary confusion  of  a disturbed  mind,  which  is  not  in 
full  piyssession  of  all  its  faculties : madness  may  some- 
times be  the  result  of  violently  inflamed  passions: 
and  mania  may  be  applied  to  any  vehement  attachment 
which  takes  possession  of  the  mind ; ‘ The  locomotive 
manta  of  an  Englishman  circulates  his  person,  and  of 
course  his  cash,  into  every  quarter  of  the  kingdom.’— 
Dumber?  and 


MADNESS,  PHRENSY,  RAGE,  FURY. 
Madness  (w.  Derangement) ; phrensy,  in  Latin  phre 
nesis,  Greek  ^pevirig  from  the  mind,  signifies  a 
disordered  mind  ; rage,  in  French  rage,  Latin  rabies  ; 
fury,  in  Latin  furor,  comes  in  all  probability  from 
feror  to  be  carried,  because  fury  carries  a person 
away. 

Madness  and  phrensy  are  used  in  the  physical  and 
moral  sense , rage  and  fury  only  in  the  moral  sense : 
in  the  first  case,  madness  is  a confirmed  derangement 
in  the  organ  of  thought ; phrensy  is  only  a temporary 
derangement  from  the  violence  of  fever;  the  former 
lies  in  the  system,  and  is,  in  general,  incurable;  the 
latter  is  only  occasional,  and  yields  to  the  power  of 
medicine. 

In  the  moral  sense  of  these  terms  the  cause  is  put 
for  the  effect,  that  is,  madness  and  phrensy  are  put  for 
that  excessive  violence  of  passion  by  which  they  are 
caused ; and  as  rage  and  fury  are  species  of  this 
passion,  namely,  the  angry  passion,  they  are  therefore 
to  madness  and  phrensy  sometimes  as  the  cause  is  to 
the  effect : the  former,  however,  are  so  much  more 
violent  than  the  latter,  as  they  altogether  destroy  the 
reasoning  faculty,  which  is  not  expressly  implied  in  the 
signification  of  the  latter  terms.  Moral  madness  dif- 
fers both  in  degree  and  duration  ixom  phrensy:  if  it 
spring  from  the  extravagance  of  rage,  it  bursts  out  into 
every  conceivable  extravagance,  but  is  only  transitory  ; 
if  it  spring  from  disappointed  love,  or  any  other  disap 
pointed  'passion,  it  is  as  permanent  as  direct  physical 
madness  ; 

’T  was  no  false  heraldry  when  madness  drew 
Her  pedigree  from  those  who  loo  much  knew. 

Denham. 

Phrensy  is  always  temporary,  but  even  more  impe 
tuous  than  madness ; in  the  phrensy  of  despair  men 
commit  acts  of  suicide  : in  the  phrensy  of  distress  and 
grief,  people  are  hurried  into  many  actions  fatal  Ic 
themselves  or  others ; 

Whui  phrensy,  shepherd,  has  thy  soul  possessed  1 

Dryden. 

Rage  refers  more  immediately  to  the  agitation  that 
exists  within  the  mind;  fury  refers  to  that  which 
shows  itself  outwardly : a person  contains  or  stifles  his 
rage  ; but  his/wry  breaks  out  into  some  external  mark 
of  violence:  rage  will  subside  of  itself; /wry  spends 
itself;  a person  may  be  choked  with  rage;  but  his 
fury  finds  a vent ; an  enraged  man  may  be  pacified ; a 
furious  one  is  deaf  to  every  remonstrance , 

Desire  not 

To  allay  my  rages  and  revenges  with 

Your  colder  reasons. — Shakspeark. 

Rage,  when  applied  to  persons,  commonly  signifies 
highly  inflamed  anger;  but  it  may  be  employed  for  in- 
flamed passion  towards  any  object  which  is  specified, 
as  a rage  for  musick,  a rage  for  theatrical  perform- 
ances, a fashionable  rage  for  any  whim  of  the  day 
Fury,  though  commonly  signifying  rage  bursting  out, 
yet  may  be  any  impetuous  feeling  displaying  itself  in 
extravagant  action : as  the  Divine /ary  supposed  to  be 
produced  upon  the  priestess  of  Apollo,  by  the  inspi 
ration  of  the  god,  and  the  Bacchanalian /ary,  which 
expression  depicts  the  influence  of  wine  upon  the  body 
and  mind ; 

Confin’d  their  fury  to  those  dark  abodes. — Dryden 
In  the  improper  application,  to  inanimate  objects, 
the  words  rage  and  fury  preserve  a similar  distinction 
the  rage  of  the  heat  denotes  the  excessive  height  to 
which  it  is  risen  ; the /ary  of  the  winds  indicates  their 
violent  commotion  and  turbulence  : so  m like  mannei 
the  raging  of  the  tempest  characterizes  figuratively 
its  burning  anger;  and  the /ary  of  the  flames  marks 
their  impetuous  movements,  their  wild  and  rapid 
spread. 

TO  CONFOUND,  TO  CONFUSE. 

Confound  and  confuse  are  both  derived  from  different 
parts  of  the  same  verb,  namely,  confundo  and  its  par 
ticiple  covfusus,  signifying  to  pour  or  mix  together 
without  design  tliai  which  ought  to  be  distinci. 

Confound  has  an  active  sense ; confuse  a neuter  oi 
reflective  sense:  a person  confounds  one  thing  with 
another ; 


282 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


I to  the  tempest  make  the  poles  resound, 

And  the  conflicting  elements  confound. — Dr\den. 
Objects  become  confused,  or  a person  confuses  him- 
self : it  is  a common  errour  among  ignorant  people  to 
confound  names,  and  among  children  to  have  their 
ideas  confused  on  commencing  a new  study ; 

A confus'd  report  passed  through  my  ears; 

But  full  of  hurry,  like  a morning  dream. 

It  vanished  in  the  bus’ness  of  the  day. — Lee. 

The  present  age  is  distinguished  by  nothing  so  much 
as  by  confounding  alt  distinctioifS,  which  is  a great 
source  of  confusion  in  men’s  intercourse  with  each 
c ther,  both  in  publick  and  private  life. 


CONFUSION,  DISORDER. 

Confusion  signifies  the  state  of  being  confounded 
or  confused  (v.  To  confound);  disorder,  compounded 
of  the  privative  dis  and  order,  signifies  the  reverse  of 
order. 

Confusion  is  to  disorder  as  the  species  to  the  genus ; 
confusion  supposes  the  absence  of  all  order  ; disorder 
the  derangement  of  order;  there  is  always  disorder  in 
confusion,  but  not  always  confusion  in  disorder : a 
routed  army,  or  a tumultuous  mob,  will  be  in  confusion 
and  will  create  confusion  : 

Now  seas  and  earth  were  in  confusion  losb 
A world  of  waters,  and  without  a coast. 

Dryden. 

A whisper  or  an  ill-timed  motion  of  an  individual  con- 
stitutes disorder  in  a school,  or  in  an  army  that  is 
drawn  up ; ‘ When  you  behold  a man’s  affairs  through 
negligence  and  misconduct  involved  in  disorder,  you 
naturally  conclude  that  his  ruin  approaches.’ — Blair. 


DIFFERENCE,  VARIETY,  DIVERSITY, 
MEDLEY. 

Difference  signifies  the  cause  or  the  act  of  differing ; 
variety,  from  various  or  vary,  in  Latin  varius,  pro- 
bably comes  from  varus  a speck  or  speckle,  because 
this  is  the  best  emblem  of  variety  ; diversity,  in  Latin 
fiiioersitas,  comes  from  diverts,  compounded  of  di  and 
verto,  signifying  the  quality  of  being  asunder;  medley 
conies  from  the  word  meddle,  which  is  hut  a change 
from  mingle,  mix,  &.C. 

Difference  and  variety  seem  to  lie  in  the  things  them- 
selves; diversity  and  medley  are  created  either  by  ac- 
cident or  design  ; a difference  may  lie  in  two  objects 
only ; a variety  cannot  exist  without  an  assemblage : a 
difference  is  discovered  by  means  of  a comparison 
which  the  mind  forms  of  objects  to  prevent  confusion  ; 
rarrety  strikes  on  the  mind,  and  pleases  the  imagination 
with  many  agreeable  images ; it  is  opposed  to  dull  uni- 
formity: the  acute  observer  traces  differences,  how- 
ever minute,  in  the  objects  of  his  research,  and  by  this 
means  is  enabled  to  class  them  under  their  general  or 
particular  heads ; ‘ Where  the  faith  of  the  Holy  Church 
is  one,  a difference  between  customs  of  the  church  doth 
no  harm.’— Hooker.  * Nature  affords  such  an  infinite 
variety  in  every  thing  which  exists,  that  if  we  do  not 
perceive  it,  the  fault  is  in  ourselves;  ‘ Homer  does  not 
only  outshine  all  other  poets  in  the  variety,  but  also  in 
the  novelty,  of  his  characters.’ — Addison.  Diversity 
arises  from  an  assemblage  of  objects  naturally  con- 
trasted ; ‘ The  goodness  of  the  Supreme  Being  is  no 
less  seen  in  the  diversity,  than  in  the  multitude  of  liv- 
ing creatures.’— Addison.  A medley  is  produced  by 
an  assemblage  of  objects  so  ill  suited  as  to  produce  a 
ludicrous  effect;  ‘What  unnatural  motions  and  coun- 
ter-ferments must  such  a medley  of  intemperance  pro- 
duce in  the  body  1’— Addison. 

Diversity  exists  in  the  tastes  or  opinions  of  men  ; a 
medley  is  produced  by  the  concurrence  of  such  tastes 
or  opinions  as  can  in  no  wise  coalesce:  where  the 
minds  of  men  are  disengaged  from  the  control  of  au- 
thority, there  will  be  a great  diversity  of  opinions ; 
where  a number  of  men  come  together  with  different 
habits,  we  may  expect  to  find  a medley  oi  characters; 
good  taste  may  render  a diversity  of  colour  agreeable 
to  the  eye  ; caprice  or  bad  taste  will  be  apt  to  form  a 

* Vide .-hbbe Girard : “Difference,  diversity,  variety, 
bigarrure.” 


ridiculous  medley  of  colours  tind  ornaments.  A aivet 
sity  of  sounds  heard  at  a suitable  distance  in  the  still 
ness  of  the  evening,  will  have  an  agreeable  effect  ot 
the  ear ; a medley  of  noises,  whether  heard  near  or  u 
a distance,  must  always  be  harsh  and  offensive. 


DIFFERENCE,  DISTINCTION. 

Difference  {v.  Difference)  lies  in  the  thing ; dis.mo 
tion  {v.  To  abstract)  is  the  act  of  the  person  ; the 
former  is,  therefore,  to  the  latter  as  the  cause  to  the 
effect;  thn  distinction  rests  on  the  difference;  those 
are  equally  bad  logicians  who  make  a distinction 
without  a difference,  or  who  make  no  distinction  where 
there  is  a difference.  Sometimes  distinction  is  put  for 
the  ground  of  distinction,  which  brings  it  nearer  in 
sense  to  difference,  in  which  case  the  former  is  a spe- 
cies of  the  latter : a difference  is  either  external  or 
internal ; a distinction  is  always  external : we  have 
differences  in  character,  and  distinctions  in  dress : the 
difference  between  profession  and  practice,  though  very 
considerable,  is  often  lost  sight  of  by  the  professers  of 
Christianity ; in  the  sight  of  God,  there  is  no  rank  or 
distinction  that  will  screen  a man  from  the  con 
sequences  of  unrepented  sins ; 

O son  of  Tydeus,  cease ! be  wise,  and  see 

How  vast  the  difference  of  the  gods  and  thee. 

^ Pope. 

‘ When  I was  got  into  this  way  of  thinking,  I presently 
grew  conceited  of  the  argument,  and  was  just  prepar- 
ing to  write  a letter  of  advice  to  a member  of  parlia- 
ment, for  opening  the  freedom  of  our  towns  and  trades 
for  taking  away  all  manner  of  distinctions  between 
the  natives  and  foreigners.’— Steele. 


DIFFERENT,  DISTINCT,  SEPARATE. 

Difference  («.  To  differ,  vary)  is  opposed  to  siml 
litude;  there  is  no  difference  between  objects  abso- 
lutely alike;  distinctness  {v.  To  abstract)  is  apposed 
to  identity ; there  can  be  no  distinction  where  there 
is  only  one  and  the  same  being : separation  is  opposed 
to  unity;  there  can  be  no  separation  between  objects 
that  coalesce  or  adhere;  things  may  be  different  and 
not  distinct,  or  distinct  and  not  different : different  is 
said  altogether  of  the  internal  properties  of  things; 
distinct  is  said  of  things  as  objects  of  vision,  or  as  they 
appear  either  to  the  eye  or  the  mind:  when  two  or 
more  things  are  seen  only  as  one,  they  may  be  differ 
ent,  but  they  are  not  distinct;  but  whatever  is  seen  as 
two  or  more  tnings,  each  complete  in  itself,  is  distinct, 
although  it  may  not  be  different:  two  roads  are  said 
to  be  different  which  run  in  different  directions,  but 
they  may  not  be  distinct  when  seen  on  a map:  on  the 
other  hand,  two  roads  are  said  to  be  distinct  when 
they  are  observed  as  two  roads  to  run  in  the  same 
direction,  but  they  need  not  in  any  particular  to  be 
different:  two  stars  of  different  magnitudes  may,  in 
certain  directions,  appear  as  one,  in  which  case  they 
are  different,  but  not  distinct ; two  books  on  the  same 
subject,  and  by  the  same  author,  but  not  written  in 
continuation  of  each  other,  are  distinct  books,  but  not 
different ; 

No  hostile  arms  approach  your  happy  ground  ; 

Far  dff'rent  is  my  fate. — Dryden. 

What  is  separate  must  in  its  nature  be  generally 
distinct ; but  every  thing  is  not  separate  which  ia 
distinct:  when  houses  are  separate  they  are  obviously 
distinct;  but  they  may  frequently  be  distinct  when 
they  are  not  positively  separated : the  distinct  is  mark 
ed  out  by  some  external  sign,  which  determines  itg 
beginning  and  its  end;  the  separate  is  that  which  is 
set  apart,  and  to  be  seen  by  itself:  distinct  is  a term 
used  only  in  determining  the  singularity  or  plurality  of 
objects;  the  separate  only  in  regard  to  their  proximity 
or  to  distance  from  each  other;  we  speak  of  having  a 
distinct  household,  but  of  living  in  separate  apart 
rnents ; of  dividing  one’s  subject  into  distinct  heads 
or  of  making  things  into  separate  parcels:  the  body 
and  soul  are  different,  inasmuch  as  they  have  dif 
ferent  properties  ; they  are  distinct  inasmuch  as  they 
have  marks  by  which  they  may  be  distinguished,  an* 
at  death  they  will  be  sevarate/ 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


283 


His  sefraU  troops  let  every  leader  call, 

Each  strengthen  each,  and  all  encourage  all ; 

What  chief  or  soldier  of  the  num’rous  band. 

Or  bravely  fights  or  ill  obeys  command. 

When  thus  distinct  they  war,  soon  shall  be  known. 

Poi'B. 


DIFFERENT,  SEVERAL,  DIVERS,  SUNDRY, 
VARIOUS. 

All  these  terms  are  employed  to  mark  a number 
(».  To  differ,  waryt ; but  different  is  the  most  indefi- 
nite of  all  these  terms,  as  its  office  is  rather  to  define 
the  quality  than  the  number,  and  is  equally  applicable 
to  few  and  many ; it  is  opposed  to  singularity,  but  the 
other  terms  are  employed  positively  to  express  many. 
Several,  from  to  sever,  signifies  split  or  made  into 
many;  they  may  be  either  different  or  alike:  there 
may  be  several  different  things,  or  several  things  alike ; 
but  there  cannot  be  several  divers  things,  for  the  word 
divers  signifies  properly  many  different.  Sundry,  from 
asunder  or  apart,  signifies  many  things  scattered  or  at 
a distance,  whether  as  it  regards  time  or  space.  Va- 
rious expresses  not  only  a greater  number,  but  a greater 
diversity  than  all  the  rest. 

The  same  thing  often  affects  different  persons  differ- 
ently : an  individual  may  be  affected  several  times  in 
the  same  way ; or  particular  persons  may  be  affected 
at  sundry  times  and  in  divers  manners  ; the  ways  in 
which  men  are  affected  are  so  various  as  not  to  admit 
of  enumeration : it  is  not  so  much  to  understand  dif- 
ferent languages  as  to  understand  several  different 
languages  ; ‘ It  is  astonishing  to  consider  the  different 
degrees  of  care  that  descend  from  the  parent  to  the 
young,  so  far  as  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  leaving 
a posterity.’ — Addison.  ‘ The  bishop  has  several  courts 
under  him,  and  may  visit  at  pleasure  every  part  of  his 
diocess.’ — Blackstone.  Divers  modes  have  been 
suggested  and  tried  for  the  good  education  of  youth, 
but  most  of  too  theoretical  a nature  to  admit  of  being 
reduced  successfully  to  practice ; ‘ In  the  frame  and 
constitution  of  the  ecclesiastical  polity,  there  are  divers 
ranks  and  degrees.’ — Blackstonk.  An  incorrect 
writer  omits  sundry  articles  that  belong  to  a state- 
ment; 

Fat  olives  of  sundry  sorts  appear. 

Of  jMTidry  shapes  their  unctuous  berries  bear. 

Drydkn. 

We  need  not  wonder  at  the  misery  which  is  introduced 
into  families  by  extravagance  and  luxury,  when  we 
notice  the  infinitely  various  allurements  for  spending 
money  which  are  held  out  to  the  young  and  the 
thoughtless;  ‘As  land  is  improved  by  sowing  it  with 
various  seeds,  so  is  the  mind  by  exercising  it  with  dif- 
ferent studies.’ — Melmoth  {Letters  of  Pliny). 

DIFFERENT,  UNLIKE. 

Different  is  positive,  unlike  is  negative : we  look  at 
what  is  different,  and  draw  a comparison  ; but  that 
which  is  unlike  needs  no  comparison  : a thing  is  said 
to  be  different  from  every  other  thing,  or  unlike  to  any 
thing  seen  before ; which  latter  mode  of  expression 
obviously  conveys  less  to  the  mind  than  the  former ; 
‘ How  different  is  the  view  of  past  life  in  the  man  who 
is  grown  old  in  knowledge  and  wisdom  from  that  of 
him  who  is  grown  old  in  ignorance  and  folly.’ — Ad- 
dison. 

How  far  unlike  those  chiefs  of  race  divine. 

How  vast  the  dilf’rence  of  their  deeds  and  mine. 

Pope. 


TO  CHANGE,  ALTER,  VARY. 

Change,  in  French  changer,\s  probably  derived  from 
the  middle  Latin  cambio  to  exchange,  signifying  to 
take  one  thing  for  another ; alter,  from  the  Latin  alter 
another,  signifies  to  make  a thing  otherwise  ; vary,  in 
Latin  vario  to  make  various,  comes  in  all  probability 
from  varus  a spot  or  speckle,  which  destroys  uni- 
formity of  appearance  in  any  surface. 

We  change  a thing  by  putting  another  in  its  place  ; 
we  alter  a thing  by  making  it  dififerent  from  what  it 
was  before;  we  vary  it  by  altering  it  in  different 
manners  and  at  different  times.  We  change  our 
clothes  whenever  we  put  on  others:  the  tailor  alters 


clothes  which  are  found  not  to  fit ; and  he  varies  the 
fashion  of  making  them  whenever  he  makes  new.  A 
man  changes  his  habits,  alters  his  conduct,  and  varies 
his  manner  of  speaking  and  thinking,  according  to  cir- 
cumstances ; ‘ The  general  remedy  of  those  who  are 
uneasy  without  knowing  the  cause  is  change  of  place 
— Johnson. 

All  things  are  but  alter'd,  nothing  dies: 

And  here  and  there  th’  unbodied  spirit  flies; 

By  time,  or  force,  or  sickness,  dispossess’d. 

And  lodges,  where  it  lights,  in  man  cr  beast. 

Dryden. 

‘ In  every  work  of  the  imagination,  the  disposition  ot 
parts,  the  insertion  of  incidents,  and  use  of  decora- 
tions, may  be  varied  a thousand  ways  with  equal  pro 
priety.  ’ — J o h n s o n. 

A thing  is  changed  without  altering  its  kind  ; it  is 
altered  without  destroying  its  identity ; and  it  Is  varied 
without  destroying  the  similarity.  We  change  our 
habitation,  but  it  still  remains  a habitation ; we  alter 
our  house,  but  it  still  remains  the  same  house;  we 
vary  the  manner  of  painting  and  decoration,  but  it 
may  strongly  resemble  the  manner  in  which  it  has 
been  before  executed. 


CHANGE,  VARIATION,  VK  ISSITUDE. 

Change  {v.  To  change,  alter)  is  both  to  vicissitude 
and  variation  as  the  genus  to  the  species.  Every 
variation  or  vicissitude  is  a change,  but  every  change 
is  not  a variation  or  vicissitude ; vicissitude,  in  French 
vicissitude,  Latin  vicissitude,  from  vicissim  by  turns, 
signifies  changing  alternately. 

Change  consists  simply  in  ceasing  to  be  the  same . 
variation  consists  in  being  different  at  different  times  ; 
vicissitude  in  being  alternately  or  reciprocally  different 
and  the  same.  All  created  things  are  liable  to  change  ; 
old  things  pass  away,  all  things  become  new : the 
humours  of  men,  like  the  elements,  are  exposed  to 
perpetual  rjaWatr'ons;  human  affairs,  like  the  seasons, 
are  subject  to  frequent  vicissitudes. 

Changes  in  governments  or  families  are  seldom  at- 
tended with  any  good  effect ; ‘ How  strangely  are  the 
opinions  of  men  altered  by  a change  in  their  condi 
tion.’ — Blair.  Variations  in  the  state  of  the  atmos- 
phere are  indicated  by  the  barometer  or  thermometer; 
‘ One  of  the  company  affirmed  to  us  he  had  actually 
enclosed  the  liquor,  found  in  a coquette’s  heart,  in  a 
small  tube  made  after  the  manner  of  a weather-glass  ; 
but  that  instead  of  acquainting  him  with  the  varia 
tions  of  the  atmosphere,  it  showed  him  the  qualities 
of  those  persons  who  entered  the  room  where  it  stood.’ 
— Addison.  Vicissitudes  of  a painful  nature  are  less 
dangerous  than  those  which  elevate  men  to  an  unusual 
state  of  grandeur.  By  the  former  they  are  brought  to 
a sense  of  themselves ; by  the  latter  they  aie  carrifi 
beyond  themselves ; 

It  makes  through  heaven 
Grateful  vicissitude,  like  day  and  night. 


VARIATION,  VARIETY. 

Variation  denotes  the  act  of  varying  {v.  To  change) ; 
variety  denotes  the  quality  of  varying,  or  the  thing 
varied.  The  astronomer  observes  the  variations  in 
the  heavens  ; the  philosopher  observes  the  variations 
in  the  climate  from  year  to  year ; ‘ The  idea  of  varia- 
tion (as  a constituent  in  beauty),  without  attending  so 
accurately  to  the  manner  of  variation,  has  led  Mr. 
Hogarth  to  consider  angular  figures  as  beautiful.’ — 
Burke.  Variety  is  pleasing  to  all  persons,  but  to  none 
so  much  as  the  young  and  the  fickle:  there  is  an  in- 
finite variety  in  every  species  of  objects  animate  or 
inanimate;  ‘ As  to  the  colours  usually  found  in  beau- 
tiful bodies,  it  may  be  difficult  to  ascertain  them,  be- 
cause in  the  several  parts  of  nature  there  is  an  infinite 
variety.' — Burke. 

INDISTINCT,  CONFUSED 
Indistinct  is  negative;  it  marks  simply  the  want  of 
distinctness  ; confused  is  positive ; it  marks  a posi- 
tive degree  of  indistinctness.  A thing  may  be  indis- 
tinct without  being  confused ; but  it  cannot  be  con- 
fused without  being  indistinct : two  things  may  be  m- 
distinct,  or  not  easily  distinguished  from  each  other; 


284 


EJNGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


but  many  things,  or  parts  of  lire  same  things,  are  con- 
fused : two  letters  in  a word  may  be  indistinct ; but 
the  whole  writings  or  many  words  are  confused; 
Bounds  are  indistinct  which  reach  our  ears  only  in 
part ; but  they  are  confused  if  they  come  in  great 
numbers  and  out  of  all  order.  We  see.  objects  mdrs- 
tinctly  when  we ‘cannot  see  all  the  features  by  which 
they  would  be  distinguished  from  all  objects ; ‘ When 
a volume  of  travels  is  opened,  nothing  is  found  but 
such  general  accounts  as  leave  no  distinct  idea  behind 
them.’ — Johnson.  W e see  an  object  confusedly  when 
every  part  is  so  blended  with  the  other  that  no  one  fea- 
ture can  be  distinguished ; ‘ He  that  enters  a town  at 
night  and  surveys  it  in  the  morning,  then  hastens  to 
another  place,  may  please  himself  for  a time  with  a 
hasty  change  of  scene  and  a confused  remembrance 
of  palaces  and  churches.’— Johnson.  By  means  of 
great  distance  objects  become  indistinct;  from  a de- 
fect in  sight  objects  become  more  confused. 

TO  MIX,  MINGLE,  BLEND,  CONFOUND. 
Mix  is  in  German  mischen,  Latin  misceo,  Greek 
Hebrew  JHQ  ; mingle,,  in  Greek  yiyvvo),  is  but 
a variation  of  mix;  blend,  in  German  blendenio  daz- 
zle, comes  from  blind,  signifying  to  see  confusedly,  or 
confuse  objects  in  a general  way;  confound,  (v.  Con- 
found). 

Mix  is  here  a general  and  indefinite  term,  signifying 
simply  to  put  together ; but  we  may  mix  two  or  several 
things ; we  mingle  several  objects : things  are  mixed 
BO  as  to  lose  all  distinction ; but  they  may  be  mingled 
and  yet  retain  a distinction : liquids  mix  so  as  to  be- 
come one,  and  individuals  mix  in  a crowd  so  as  to  be 
lost ; 

Can  imagination  boast. 

Amid  its  gay  creation,  hues  like  hers. 

Or  can  it  mix  them  with  that  matchless  skill, 

And  lose  them  in  each  other  1— Thomson 
Things  are  mingled  together  of  different  sizes  if  they 
lie  in  the  same  spot,  but  they  may  still  be  distin- 
guished ; 

There  as  I pass’d  with  careless  steps  and  slow. 

The  mingling  notes  came  soften’d  from  below. 

Goldsmith. 

To  blend  is  only  partially  to  mix,  as  colours  blend 
which  fall  into  each  other : to  confound  is  to  mix  in  a 
wrong  way,  as  objects  of  sight  are  confounded  when 
they  are  erroneously  taken  to  be  joined. 

To  mix  and  mingle  are  mostly  applied  to  material 
objects,  except  in  poetry;  to  blend  and  confound  are 
mental  operations,  and  principally  employed  on  spi- 
ritual subjects;  thus,  events  and  circumstances  are 
blended  together  in  a narrative  ; 

But  happy  they ! the  happiest  of  their  kind. 

Whom  gentler  stars  unite,  and  in  one  fate 
Their  hearts,  their  fortunes,  and  their  beings  blend. 

Thomson. 

The  ideas  of  the  ignorant  are  confounded  in  most 
cases,  but  particularly  when  they  attempt  to  think  for 
themselves ; 

And  long  the  gods,  we  know, 

H.ave  grudg’d  thee,  Caesar,  to  the  world  below, 
Where  fraud  and  rapine,  right  and  wrong,  confound. 

Dryden. 


MIXTURE,  MEDLEY,  MISCELLANY. 

Mixture  is  the  thing  mixed  {v.  To  mix) ; medley, 
from  meddle  or  middle,  signifies  what  comes  between 
another;  miscellany,  in  Latin  miscellaneus,  from 
tnisceo  to  mix,  signifies  also  a mixture. 

The  mixture  is  general ; whatever  objects  can  be 
mixed  will  form  a mixture ; a medley  is  a mixture  of 
things  not  lit  to  be  mixed  : and  a miscellany  is  a mix- 
ture of  many  different  things.  Flour,  water,  and  eggs 
may  form  a mixture,  in  the  proper  sense ; but  if  to 
these  were  added  all  sorts  of  spices,  it  would  form  a 
medley;  ‘In  great  villanies,  there  is  often  such  a mix- 
ture of  the  fool,  as  quite  spoils  the  whole  project  of 
the  knave.’ — South. 

More  oft  in  fools’  and  madmen’s  hands  than  sages. 

She  seems  a medley  of  all  ages. — Swift. 

Miscellany  is  a species  of  mixture  applicable  only  to 


intellectual  subjects : the  miscellaneous  is  opposed  w 
that  which  is  systematically  arranged  ; essays  are  mis- 
cellaneous in  distinction  from  works  on  one  particulai 
subject ; ‘ A writer,  whose  design  is  so  comprehensive 
and  miscellaneous  as  that  of  an  essayist,  may  accom 
modate  himself  with  a topick  from  every  scene  of  life 
— Johnson. 


PROMISCUOUS,  INDISCRIMINATE. 
Promiscuous,  in  Latin  promiscuus,  from  promisceo 
or  pro  and  misceo  to  mingle,  signifies  thoroughly  min 
gled  ; indiscriminate,  from  the  Latin  in  privative  and 
discrimen  a difference,  signifies  without  any  difierence 
Promiscuous  is  applied  to  any  number  of  differenr 
objects  mixed  together ; 

Victors  and  vanquish’d  join  promiscuous  cries 

Pope. 

Indiscriminate  is  only  applied  to  the  action  in  which 
one  does  not  discriminate  different  objects : a multi 
tude  is  termed  promiscuous,  as  characterizing  the 
thing;  the  use  of  different  things  for  the  same  pur 
pose,  or  of  the  same  things  for  different  purposes,  is 
termed  indiscriminate,  as  characterizing  the  person  : 
things  become  promiscuous  by  the  want  of  design  in 
anyone;  they  are  indiscriminate  by  the  fault  of  any 
one : plants  of  all  descriptions  are  to  be  found  pro- 
miscuously siiusxeA  in  the  beds  of  a garden  : it  is  folly 
to  level  any  charge  indiscriminately  against  all  the 
members  of  any  community  or  profession  ; ‘ From  this 
indiscriminate  distribution  of  misery,  moralists  have 
always  derived  one  of  their  strongest  moral  arguments 
for  a future  state.’ — Johnson. 


IRREGULAR,  DISORDERLY,  INORDINATE, 
INTEMPERATE. 

Irregular,  thdiX.  is  literally  not  regular,  marks  merely 
the  absence  of  a good  quality ; disorderly,  that  is 
literally  out  of  order,  marks  the  presence  of  a posi- 
tively bad  quality.  What  is  irregular  may  be  so  from 
the  nature  of  the  thing;  what  is  disorderly  is  rendered 
so  by  some  external  circumstance.  Things  are  planted 
irregularly  for  want  of  design ; the  best  troops  are 
apt  to  be  disorderly  in  a long  march.  Irregular  and 
disorderly  are  taken  in  a moral  as  well  as  a natural 
sense ; inordinate,  which  signifies  also  put  out  of 
order,  is  employed  only  in  the  moral  sense.  What  is 
irregular  is  contrary  to  the  rule  that  is  established,  or 
ought  to  be ; what  is  disorderly  is  contrary  to  the 
order  that  has  existed  ; what  is  inordinate  is  contrary 
to  the  order  tliat  is  prescribed  ; what  is  intemperate  is 
contrary  to  the  temper  or  spirit  that  ought  to  be  en- 
couraged. Our  habits  are  irregular  which  are  not 
conformable  to  the  laws  of  social  society ; ‘ In  youth 
there  is  a certain  irregularity  and  agitation  by  no 
means  unbecoming.’ — Melmoth  {Letters  of  Pliny). 
Our  practices  will  be  disorderly  when  we  follow  tJie 
blind  impulse  of  passion ; ‘ The  minds  of  bad  men  are 
disorderly.' — Blair.  Our  desires  w’ill  be  inordinate 
when  they  are  not  unde.-  the  control  of  reason  guided 
by  religion  ; '■Inordinate  passions  are  the  great  dis- 
turbers of  life.’ — Blair.  Our  indulgencies  will  be  in 
temperate  when  we  consult  nothing  but  our  appetites  ; 
‘ Persuade  but  the  covetouj  man  not  to  deify  his  money, 
the  intemperate  man  to  abandon  his  revels,  and  I dare 
undertake  all  their  giant  like  objections  shall  vanish.’ 
— South.  Young  people  are  apt  to  contract  irregular 
habits  if  not  placed  under  the  care  of  discreet  and 
sober  people,  and  made  to  conform  to  the  regulations 
of  domestick  life  : children  are  naturally  prone  to  be- 
come disorderly,  if  not  perpetually  under  the  eye  of  a 
master : it  is  the  lot  of  human  beings  in  all  ages  and 
stations  to  have  inordinate  desires,  which  require  a 
constant  check  so  as  to  prevent  intemperate  conduct 
of  any  kind. 

SEaUEL,  CLOSE. 

Sequel  is  a species  of  close;  it  is  that  which  follows 
by  way  of  termin.ation  ; but  the  close  is  simply  that 
which  closes,  or  puts  an  end  to  any  thing.  There  can- 
not be  a sequel  without  a close,  but  there  mav  be  a 
close  without  a sequel.  A story  may  have  either  a 
sequel  or  a close;  when  the  end  is  detached  from  the 
beginning  so  as  to  follow,  it  is  a sequel;  if  the  begin- 
1 ning  and  end  are  uninterrupted,  it  is  simply  a close 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  m 


When  a work  is  published  in  distinct  parts,  those 
which  follow  at  the  end  may  be  termed  the  sequel : if 
it  appears  all  at  once,  the  concluding  pages  are  the 
zlose.  The  same  distinction  between  these  words  is 
preserved  in  their  figurative  application  ; 

If  black  scandal  or  foul-fac’d  reproach 
Attend  the  sequel  of  your  imposition, 

Your  meer  enforcement  shall  acquittance  me. 

Shakspeark. 

Speedy  death. 

The  close  of  all  my  miseries,  and  the  balm. 

Milton. 

TO  END,  CLOSE,  TERMINATE. 

To  bring  any  thing  to  its  last  point  is  the  common 
idea  in  the  signification  of  these  terms. 

To  end  is  the  simple  action  of  putting  an  end  to, 
without  any  collateral  idea ; it  is  therefore  the  generick 
term.  To  close  is  to  end  gradually,  or  by  shutting  in, 
hence  we  sjeak  of  closing  the  rear,  or  of  a scene 
closing  ; 

Orestes,  Acamas,  in  front  appear. 

And  Q3nomaus  and  Thoon  close  the  rear. — Pope. 
To  terminate  is  to  end  in  a specifick  manner,  hence 
we  speak  with  propriety  of  a road  or  a line  termi- 
nating; ‘ As  I had  a mind  to  know  how  each  of  these 
roads  terminated,  I joined  myself  with  the  assembly 
that  were  in  the  flower  and  vigour  of  their  age,  and 
called  themselves  the  band  of  lovers.’ — Addison. 
They  preserve  this  distinction  in  the  moral  application. 
There  are  persons  even  in  ci^lized  countries  so  igno- 
rant as,  like  the  brutes,  to  entHheir  lives  as  they  began 
them,  without  one  rational  reflection  ; 

Greece  in  her  single  heroes  strove  in  vain, 

Now  hosts  oppose  thee,  and  thou  must  be  slain : 

So  shall  my  days  in  one  sad  tenour  run, 

And  end  with  sorrows  as  they  first  begun. — Pope. 
The  Christian  closes  his  career  of  active  duty  only 
with  the  failure  of  his  bodily  powers  ; 

One  frugal  supper  did  our  studies  close. — Drydrn. 

A person  ends  a dispute,  or  puts  an  end  to  it,  by  yield- 
ing the  subject  of  contest ; he  terminates  the  dispute 
by  entering  into  a compromise  ; ‘ The  wisdom  of  this 
world,  its  designs  and  efficacy,  terminate  on  this  side 
heaven  ’—South. 

END,  EXTREMITY. 

Both  these  words  imply  the  last  of  those  parts  which 
constitute  a thing;  but  the  end  designates  that  part 
generally;  the  extremity  marks  the  particular  point. 
The  extremity  is  from  the  Latin  extremus  the  very  last 
end,  that  which  is  outermost.  Hence  the  end  may  be 
said  of  that  which  bounds  any  thing ; but  extremity 
of  that  which  extends  farthest  from  us : we  may  speak 
of  the  ends  of  that  which  is  circular  in  its  form,  or  of 
that  which  has  no  specifick  form ; 

Now  with  full  force  the  yielding  horn  he  bends. 

Drawn  to  an  arch,  and  joins  the  doubling  ends. — Pope. 
We  speak  of  the  extremities  of  that  only  which  is 
supposed  to  project  lengthwise  ; ‘ Our  female  pro- 
jectors were  all  the  last  .summer  so  taken  up  with  the 
improvement  of  their  petticoats,  that  they  had  not 
time  to  attend  to  any  thing  else ; but  having  at  length 
sufficiently  adorned  their  lower  parts,  they  now  begin 
to  turn  their  thoughts  upon  the  other  extremity.' — Ad 
dison. 

The  end  is  opposed  to  the  beginning;  the  extremity 
to  the  centre  or  point  from  which  we  reckon.  When 
a man  is  said  to  go  to  the  end  of  a journey  or  to  the 
end  of  the  world,  the  expression  is  in  both  cases  inde- 
'inite  and  general ; but  when  he  is  said  to  go  to  the 
extremities  of  the  earth  or  the  extremities  of  a king- 
dom, the  idea  of  relative  distance  is  manifestly  im- 
plied. 

He  who  goes  to  the  end  of  a path  may  possibly  have 
a little  farther  to  go  in  order  to  reach  the  extremity. 
In  the  figurative  application  end  and  extremity  differ 
so  widely  as  not  to  render  any  comparison  needful. 

EXTREMITY,  EXTREME. 

Extremity  is  used  in  the  proper  or  the  improper 
sense ; extreme  in  the  improper  sense : we  speak  of 


the  extremity  of  a line  or  an  avenue,  the  extrcn\ity  of 
distress,  but  the  extreme  of  the  fashion. 

In  the  moral  sense,  extremity  is  applicable  to  the 
outward  circumstances  ; extreme  to  tlie  opinions  and 
conduct  of  men  : in  matters  of  dispute  between  indi- 
viduals it  is  a happy  thing  to  guard  against  coming  lo 
extremities  ; ‘ Savage  suffered  the  utmost  extremities 
of  poverty,  and  often  fasted  so  long  that  he  was  seized 
with  faintness.’ — Johnson.  It  is  the  characteristick 
of  volatile  tempers  to  be  always  in  extremes,  either 
the  extreme  of  joy  or  the  extreme  of  sorrow ; ‘ The 
two  extremes  to  he  guarded  against  are  despotism, 
where  all  are  slaves,  and  anarchy,  where  all  would 
rule  and  none  obey.’— Blair. 


CLOSE,  COMPACT. 

Close,  in  French  clos,  co.mes  from  the  Latin  clausus 
participle  of  claudo  to  shut;  compact,  in  Latin  com- 
pactus,  participle  of  compingo  to  fix  or  join,  signifi«s 
jointed  close  together. 

Proximity  is  expressed  by  both  these  terms ; the 
former  in  a general  and  the  latter  in  a restricted  sense. 
Two  bodies  may  be  close  to  each  other,  but  a body  is 
compact  with  regard  lo  itself. 

Contact  is  not  essential  to  constitute  closeness ; but  a 
perfect  adhesion  of  all  the  parts  of  a body  is  essential 
to  produce  compactness.  Lines  are  close  to  each  olhei 
that  are  separated  but  by  a small  space ; 

To  right  and  left  the  martial  wings  display 

Their  shining  arms,  and  stand  in  close  array ; 

Though  weak  their  spears,  though  dwarfish  be  thep 
height, 

Compact  they  move,  the  bulwark  of  the  fight. 

Sir  Wm.  Jones 

Things  are  rolled  together  in  a compact  form  that  are 
brought  within  the  smallest  possible  space  ; ‘Without 
attraction  the  dissevered  particles  of  the  chaos  could 
never  convene  into  such  great  compact  masses  as  the 
planets.’ — Bentley. 


CLOSE,  NEAR,  NIGH. 

Close  signifies  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  article , 
near  and  nigh  are  in  Saxon  near,  neah  German, 
nah,  &c. 

Close  is  more  definite  than  near : houses  stand  close 
to  each  other  which  are  almost  joined ; men  stano 
close  when  they  touch  each  other ; 

Th’  unwearied  watch  their  listening  leaders  keep. 

And  couching  close,  repel  invading  sleep. — Pope. 
Objects  are  near  which  are  within  sight;  persons  are 
near  each  other  when  they  can  converse  together 
JYear  and  nigh,  which  are  but  variations  of  each  other, 
in  etymology,  admit  of  little  or  no  difference  in  their 
use ; the  former  however  is  the  most  general.  People 
live  near  each  other  who  are  in  the  same  street ; they 
live  close  to  each  other  when  their  houses  are  ad 
joining ; 

O friend ! Ulysses’  shouts  invade  my  ear; 

Distress’d  he  seems,  and  no  assistance  near. — Pope. 

Froui  the  red  field  their  scatter’d  bodies  bear. 

And  nigh  the  fleet  a.funeral  structure  rear. — Pope. 
Close  is  annexed  as  an  adjective ; near  is  employed 
only  as  an  adverb  or  preposition.  We  speak  of  close 
ranks  or  close  lines ; but  not  near  ranks  or  near  lines 

STRAIT,  NARROW. 

Strait,  which  is  otherwise  spelled  straz'^^t,  from  tno 
Latin  strictus  bound,  signifies  bound  tight,  that  is, 
brought  into  a small  compass:  narrow,  which  is  a 
variation  of  near,  expresses  a mode  of  nearness  or 
closeness.  Strait  is  a particular  term  ; narrow  is 
general : straitness  is  an  artificial  mode  of  jiarrow 
ness;  a coat  is  strait  which  is  made  to  compress  the 
body  within  a small  compass : narrow  is  either  the 
artificial  or  the  natural  property  of  a body;  as  a mar 
row  ribbon,  or  a narrow  leaf. 

That  which  is  strait  is  so  by  the  means  of  other 
bodies;  that  which  is  so  of  itself,  as  a piece  of  watet 
confined  close  on  each  side  by  land,  is  called  a strait; 

‘ They  are  afraid  to  meet  her  if  they  have  missed  the 
church;  but  then  they  are  more  airaid  to  sec  her  if 
they  are  laced  as  strait  as  they  can  possibly  bo  ’ - 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


m 


Law.  Whatever  is  bounded  by  sides  that  are  near 
each  other  is  narrow ; thus  a piece  of  land  whose  pro- 
onged  sides  are  at  a small  distance  from  each  other  is 
narrow  ; 

No  narrow  frith 
He  had  to  pass. — Milton. 

The  same  distinction  applies  to  these  terms  in  their 
moral  use:  a person  in  straitened  circumstances  is 
kept,  by  means  of  his  circumstances,  from  incurring 
even  necessary  expenses;  a person  who  is  in  narrow 
circumstances  is  represented  as  having  but  a small  ex- 
tent of  property. 

DISTANT,  FAR,  REMOTE. 

Distant  is  employed  as  an  adjunct  or  otherwise; 
far  is  used  only  as  an  adverb.  We  speak  of  distant 
objects,  or  objects  being  distant;  but  we  speak  of 
things  only  as  being /«r. 

Distant,  in  Latin  distans  compounded  of  di  and 
Stans  standing  asunder,  is  employed  only  for  bodies  at 
rest ; far,  in  German  fern,  most  probably  from  gefah- 
ren,  participle  oifahren,  in  Greek  ndpeiv  to  go,  signifies 
gone  or  removed  away,  and  is  employed  for  bodies 
either  stationary  or  otherwise ; hence  we  say  that  a 
thing  is  distant,  or  it  goes,  runs,  or  flies /ar. 

Distant  is  used  to  designate  great  space ; far  only 
that  which  is  ordinary : the  sun  is  ninety-four  millions 
of  miles  distant  from  the  earth;  a person  lives  not 
very /ar  olf,  or  a person  is /ar  from  the  spot. 

Distant  is  used  absolutely  to  express  an  intervening 
space.  Remote,  in  Latin  remotus,  participle  of  re- 
nioveo  to  remove,  rather  expresses  the  relative  idea  of 
being  gone  out  of  sight.  A person  is  said  to  live  in  a 
distant  country  or  in  a remote  corner  of  any  country. 

These  terms  bear  a similar  analogy  in  the  figurative 
application ; when  we  speak  of  a remote  idea  it  desig- 
nates that  which  is  less  liable  to  strike  the  mind  than 
a distant  idea.  A distant  relationship  between  indivi- 
duals is  never  altogether  lost  sight  of;  when  the  con- 
nexion between  objects  is  very  remote  it  easily  escapes 
observation  ; ‘It  is  a pretty  saying  of  Thales,  “ False- 
hood is  just  as  far  distant  from  truth  as  the  ears  from 
the  eyes,”  by  which  he  would  intimate  that  a wise  man 
tvould  not  easily  give  credit  to  the  reports  of  actions 
A'hich  he  has  not  seen.’ — Spectator. 

O might  a parent’s  careful  wish  prevail. 

Far,  far  from  Ilion  should  thy  vessels  sail. 

And  thou  from  camps  remote  the  danger  shun. 

Which  now,  alas!  too  nearly  threats  my  son. 

Pope. 

SHORT,  BRIEF,  CONCISE,  SUCCINCT, 
SUMMARY. 

Hhort,  in  French  court,  German  kurz,  Latin  curtus, 
Greek  Kvprd;  ; brief,  in  Latin  Greets,  in  Greek  jSpaxt)?: 
concise,  in  Latin  concisus,  signifies  cut  into  a small 
body ; succinct,  in  Latin  succinctus,  participle  of  sue- 
cingo,  signifies  brought  within  a small  compass,  sum- 
mary, V.  Abridgement. 

Short  is  the  geuerick,  the  rest  are  specifick  terms: 
every  thing  which  admits  of  dimensions  may  be  short, 
as  opposed  to  the  long,  that  is,  either  naturally  or  arti- 
ficially ; the  rest  are  species  of  artificial  shortness,  or 
that  which  is  the  work  of  art:  hence  it  is  that  mate- 
rial, as  well  as  spiritual,  objects  may  be  termed  short ; 
but  the  brief,  concise,  succinct,  and  summary,  are  in- 
tellectual or  spiritual  only.  We  may  term  a slick,  a 
letter,  or  a discourse,  short  ; ‘ The  widest  excursions 
of  the  mind  are  made  by  short  flights  frequently  re- 
peated.’—Johnson.  We  speak  of  brevity  only  in  re- 
gard to  the  mode  of  speech ; ‘ Premeditation  of  thought, 
and  brevity  of  expression,  are  the  great  ingredients  of 
that  reverence  that  is  required  to  a pious  and  accept- 
able prayer.’ — South.  Conciseness  and  succinctness 
apply  to  the  matter  of  speech ; ‘ Aristotle  haj  a dry 
conciseness,  that  makes  one  imagine  one  is  perusing  a 
table  of  contents.’ — Gray. 

Let  all  your  precepts  be  succinct  and  clear, 

That  ready  wits  may  comprehend  them  soon. 

Roscommon. 

Summary  regards  the  mode  either  of  speaking  or 
actioE ; 

Nor  spend  their  time  to  show  their  reading, 

She ’d  have  i nummary  proceeding. — Swift 


The  brief  is  opposed  to  the  prolix ; the  concise  and 
succinct  to  the  diffuse ; the  summary  to  the  circune 
stantial  or  ceremonious.  It  is  a matter  of  compara- 
tively little  importance  whether  a man’s  life  be  long  or 
short;  but  it  deeply  concerns  him  that  every  moment 
be  well  spent.  Brevity  of  expression  ought  to  be  con 
suited  by  speakers,  even  more  than  by  writers  ; con 
ciseness  is  of  peculiar  advantage  in  the  formation  of 
rules  for, young  persons  : and  succinctness  is  a requi 
site  in  every  writer,  who  has  extensive  materials  to 
digest : a summary  mode  of  proceeding  may  have  the 
advantage  of  saving  time,  but  it  has  the  disadvantage 
of  incorrectness,  and  often  of  injustice. 


TO  CLOSE,  SHUT. 

Close  is  to  make  close;  shut  is  in  Saxon  scuttan, 
Dutch  schutten,  Hebrew  ano  to  stop  up. 

Close  is  to  shut,  frequently  as  the  means  to  the  end. 
To  close  signifies  simply  to  put  together  ;^o  shut  sig 
nifies  to  put  together  so  close  that  no  opening  is  left. 
The  eyes  are  shut  by  closing  the  eyelids ; the  mouth 
is  shut  by  closing  the  lips.  The  idea  of  bringing  near 
or  joining  is  prominent  in  the  signification  of  close ; 
that  of  fastening  or  preventing  admittance  in  the  word 
shut.  By  the  figure  of  metonymy,  close  may  be  often 
substituted  for  shut ; as  we  may  speak  of  closing  the 
eyes  or  the  mouth ; closing  a book  or  a door  in  the 
sense  of  shutting,  particularly  in  poetry  ; 

Soon  shall  the  sire  Seraglio’s  horrid  gates 
dose  like  the  eternal  bars  of  death  upon  thee. 

w Johnson 

On  the  other  hand,  me  poets  may  sometimes  use 
shut  where  close  would  be  more  appropriate ; 

Behold,  fond  man ! 

See  here  thy  pictur’d  life : pass  some  few  years 
Thy  flowering  spring,  thy  summer’s  ardent  strength 
Thy  sober  autumn  fading  into  age. 

And  pale  conluding  winter  comes  at  last, 

And  shuts  the  scene. — Thomson. 

In  ordinary  discourse,  however,  these  words  are  very 
distinct. 

Many  things  are  closed  which  are  not  to  be  shut,  and 
are  shut  which  cannot  be  closed.  Nothing  can  be 
closed  but  what  consists  of  more  than  one  part ; no- 
thing can  be  shut  but  what  has  or  is  supposed  to  have 
a cavity.  A wound  is  xlosed,  but  cannot  be  sAitt ; a 
window  or  a box  is  shut,  but  not  closed. 

When  both  are  applied  to  hollow  bodies,  close  im 
plies  a stopping  up  of  the  whole,  shut  an  occasional 
stoppage  at  the  entrance.  What  is  closed  remains 
closed;  what  is  shut  may  be  opened.  A hole  in  a 
road,  or  a passage  through  any  place  is  closed ; a gate, 
1 window,  or  a door,  is  shut. 

TO  CLOSE,  FINISH,  CONCLUDE. 

To  close  signifies  literally  to  make  close,  or  bring  as 
near  together  as  they  ought  to  be,  and  in  an  extended 
sense,  to  bring  things  to  the  point  where  they  ought  to 
end;  to /nisA,  from  the  Latin/nts  ati  end,  and  con- 
clude, from  con  and  cludo  or  claudo  to  shut,  have  the 
same  general  and  literal  meaning  as  close. 

To  close  is  to  bring  to  an  end ; to  finish  is  to  make 
an  end  : we  close  a thing  by  ceasing  to  have  any  thing 
more  to  do  with  it;  we  finish  it  by  really  having  no 
more  to  do  to  it.  We  close  an  account  with  a person 
with  whom  we  mean  to  have  no  farther  transactions  ; 
we  finish  thebusiness  which  we  have  begun. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  close  without  finishing, 
but  we  cannot  finish  without  closing.  The  want  of 
time  will  compel  a person  to  close  his  letter  before  he 
has  finished  saying  all  he  wishes.  It  is  a laudable 
desire  in  every, one  to  wish  to  close  his  career  in  life 
honourably,  and  to  finish  whatever  he  undertakes  to 
the  satisfaction  of  himself  and  others. 

To  conclude  is  a species  of  finishing,  that  is  to  say, 
finishing  in  a certain  manner ; we  always/nisA  when 
we  conclude,  but  we  do  not  always  conclude  when  we 
finish.  A history  is  closed  at  a certain  reign;  it 
is  finished  when  brought  to  the  period  proposed ; it 
is  concluded  with  a recapitulation  of  the  leading 
events. 

Close  and  finish  are  employed  generally,  and  in  the 
ordinary  transactions  of  life ; the  former  in  speakini 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  281 


»f  times,  seasons,  periods,  &.c.  the  latter  with  regard 
to  occupations  and  pursuits  ; conclusion  is  used  parti- 
cularly in  speaking  of  moral  and  intellectual  operations. 
A reign,  an  entertainment,  an  age,  a year,  may  have  its 
close ; a drawing,  an  exercise,  a piece  of  work,  may  be 
finished;  a discourse,  a story,  an  affair,  a negotiation 
may  be  concluded.  The  close  of  Alfred’s  reign  was 
more  peaceful  than  the  commencement;  those  who 
are  careful  as  to  what  they  begin  will  be  careful  to 
finish  what  they  have  begun : some  preachers  seldom 
awaken  attention  in  their  hearers  until  they  come  to 
the  conclusion  of  their  discourse ; 

Destruction  hangs  on  every  word  we  speak, 

On  every  thought,  till  the  concluding  stroke 
Determines  all,  and  closes  our  design. 

Addison. 

The  great  work  of  which  Justinian  has  the  credit, 
although  it  comprehends  the  whole  system  of  juris- 
prudence, was  finished,  we  are  told,  in  three  years.’ — ^ 
Sir  Wm.  Jones. 


COMPLETE,  PERFECT,  FINISHED. 

Complete,  in  French  complet,  Latin  completus,  par- 
ticiple of  compleo  to  fill  up,  signifies  the  quality  of 
being  filled,  or  having  all  that  is  necessary;  perfect,  in 
Latin  perfectus,  participle  of  perficio  to  perform  or  do 
thoroughly,  signifies  the  state  of  being  done  thoroughly ; 
finished  marks  the  state  of  bemg  finished  (d.  To  close). 

That  is  complete  which  has  no  deficiency:  that  is 
perfect  which  has  positive  excellence;  and  that  is 
finished  which  has  no  omission  in  it. 

That  to  which  any  thing  can  be  added  is  incom- 
plete ; when  it  can  be  improved  it  is  imperfect ; when 
more  labour  ought  to  be  bestowed  upon  it  it  is  un- 
finished. A thing  is  complete  in  all  its  parts ; ‘ With 
us  the  reading  of  the  Scripture  is  a part  of  our  church 
liturgy,  a special  portion  of  the  service  which  we  do 
to  God,  and  not  an  exercise  to  spend  the  time,  when 
one  doth  wait  for  another  coming,  till  the  assembly  of 
them  that  shall  afterward  worship  him  be  complete.'* 
—Hooker.  A thing  is  perfect  as  to  the  beauty  and 
design  of  the  construction ; ‘ It  has  been  observed  of 
children,  that  they  are  longer  before  they  can  pro- 
nounce perfect  sounds,  because  per/ec<  sounds  are  not 
pronounced  to  them.’ — Hawkksworth.  We  count 
those  things  perfect  which  want  nothing  requisite  for 
the  end,  whereto  they  are  instituted.’ — Hooker.  A 
thing  is  finished  as  it  comes  from  the  hand  of  the 
workman,  and  answ'ers  his  intention.  A set  of  books 
is  not  complete  when  a volume  is  wanting : there  is 
nothing  in  the  proper  sense  perfect  which  is  the  work 
of  man  ; but  the  term  is  used  relatively  for  whatever 
makes  the  greatest  approach  to  perfection : a finished 
performance  evinces  care  and  diligence  on  the  part  of 
the  workman  ; ‘ I would  make  what  bears  your  name 
as  finished  as  my  last  work  ought  to  be ; that  is  more 
finished  than  the  rest.’ — Pope.  A taste  is  said  to  be 
perfect  to  denote  its  intrinsick  excellence,  but  it  is  said 
-o  be  finished  to  denote  its  acquired  excellence : ‘ It  is 
necessary  for  a man  who  would  form  to  himself  a 
finished  taste  of  good  writing,  to  be  well  versed  in  the 
works  of  the  best  criticks,  ancient  and  modern.’ — Ad- 
dison. 

A thing  may  be  complete  or  finished  without  being 
perfect : and  it  may  be  perfect  without  being  either 
complete  or  finished.  A so^nid  is  said  to  be  perfect, 
but  not  complete  or  finished.  The  works  of  the  an- 
cients are,  as  they  have  been  handed  down  to  us,  in- 
complete, and  some  probably  unfinished ; and  yet  the 
greater  part  are  perfect  in  their  way;  the  works  of  the 
moderns  are  mostly  complete  and  finished  ; yet  but  a 
small  part  have  any  claims  even  to  human  perfection. 
The  term  complete  may  be  applied  in  a bad  as  well  as 
good  sense ; a complete  knave  implies  one  who  is 
versed  in  every  part  of  knavery; 

None  better  guard  against  a cheat. 

Than  he  who  is  a knave  complete. — Lewis. 


TO  COMPLETE,  FINISH,  TERMINATE. 

Complete  is  to  make  complete ; finish  and  termi- 
nate have  been  explained  in  the  preceoing  article 
V Toend\, 


We  complete*  what  is  undertaken  by  continuing  to 
labour  at  it ; we  finish  what  is  begun  in  a state  of 
forwardness  by  putting  the  last  hand  to  it ; we  termi- 
nate what  ought  not  to  last  by  bringing  it  to  a close. 
So  that  the  characteristick  idea  of  completing  is  the 
conducting  of  a thing  to  its  final  period  ; that  of  finish 
ing,  the  arrival  at  that  period  ; and  that  of  termi- 
nating, the  cessation  of  a thing. 

Completing  has  properly  relation  to  permanent 
works  only,  whether  mechanical  or  intellectual , we 
desire  a thing  to  be  completed  from  a curiosity  to  see 
it  in  its  entire  state ; ‘ It  is  perhaps  kindly  provided  by 
nature,  that  as  the  feathers  and  strength  of  a bird  grow 
together,  and  her  wings  are  not  completed  till  she  is 
able  to  fly,  so  some  proportion  should  be  preserved  in 
the  human  kind  between  judgement  and  courage.’- 
JoHNsoN.  To  finish  is  employed  for  passing  occupa- 
tions ; we  wish  a thing  finished  from  an  anxiety  to  pro- 
ceed to  something  else,  or  a dislike  to  the  thing  in 
which  we  are  engaged ; ‘ The  artificer,  for  the  manu- 
facture which  he  finishes  in  a day,  receives  a certain 
sum  ; but  the  wit  frequently  gains  no  advantage  from 
a performance  at  which  he  has  toiled  many  months.’ 
— Hawkesworth.  Terminating  respects  discussions, 
differences,  and  disputes.  Light  minds  undertake 
many  things  without  completing  any.  Children  and 
unsteady  people  set  about  many  things  without  finish- 
ing any.  Litigious  people  terminate  one  dispute  only 
to  commence  another. 


CONSUMMATION,  COMPLETION. 

Consummation,  Latin  consummatio,  compounded 
of  con  and  summa  the  sum,  signifies  the  summing  or 
winding  up  of  the  whole — the  putting  a final  period  to 
any  concern ; completion  signifies  either  the  act  of 
completing,  or  the  state  of  being  completed  (u.  To 
complete). 

The  arrival  at  a conclusion  is  comprehended  in  both 
these  terms,  but  they  differ  principally  in  application ; 
wishes  are  consummated;  plans  are  completed:  we 
often  flatter  ourselves  that  the  completion  of  all  our 
plans  will  be  the  consummation  of  all  our  wishes,  and 
thus  expose  ourselves  to  grievous  disappointments; 
the  consummation  of  the  nuptial  ceremony  is  not 
always  the  consummation  of  hopes  and  joys;  it  is  fre- 
quently the  beginning  of  misery  and  disappointment ; 
‘ It  is  not  to  be  doubted  but  it  was  a constant  practice 
of  all  that  is  praiseworthy,  which  made  her  capable 
of  beholding  death,  not  as  the  dissolution  but  the 
consummation  of  life.’— Steele.  We  often  sacrifice 
much  to  the  completion  of  a purpose  which  we  after- 
ward find  not  worth  the  labour  of  attaining ; ‘ He 
makes  it  the  utmost  completion  of  an  ill  character  to 
bear  a malevolence  to  the  best  of  men.’ — Pope. 

As  epithets,  consummate  is  employed  only  in  a bad 
sense,  and  complete  either  in  a good  or  bad  sense 
those  who  are  regarded  as  complete  fools  are  not  un- 
^xe^aent\Y  consummate  knaves:  the  theatre  is  not  the 
only  place  for  witnessing  a farce ; human  life  affords 
many  of  various  descriptions ; among  the  number  of 
which  we  may  reckon  those  as  complete  in  their  kind 
which  are  acted  at  elections,  where  consummate  folly 
and  consummate  hypocrisy  are  practised  by  turns. 


RIPE,  MATURE. 

Ripe  is  the  English,  mature  the  Latin  word ; the 
former  has  a universal  application,  both  proper  and 
improper;  the  latter  has  mostly  an  improper  applica- 
tion. The  illea  of  completion  in  growth  is  simply 
designated  by'the  former  term  ; the  idea  of  moral  per 
fection,  as  far  at  least  as  it  is  attainable,  is  marked  by 
the  latter : fruit  is  ripe  when  it  requires  no  more  sus 
tenance  from  the  parent  stock  ; a judgement  is  mature 
which  requires  no  more  time  and  knowledge  to  render 
it  perfect  or  fitted  for  exercise : in  the  same  manner  a 
project  may  be  said  to  be  ripe  for  execution,  or  a peo- 
ple ripe  for  revolt ; 

So  to  his  crowne,  she  him  restor’d  againe. 

In  which  he  dyde,  made  ripe  for  deatn  by  eld 
Spenser 

On  the  contrary,  reflection  may  be  said  to  be  mature 
to  whicn  sufficiency  of  time  has  been  given,  and  age 


♦ Vide  Girard ; “ Achever,  finir,  terminer 


ENGLISH  SYINONYMES 


may  be  said  to  be  mature  which  has  attained  the 
highest  pitch  of  perfection  ; 

Th’  Athenian  sage,  revolving  in  bis  mind 
This  weakness,  blindness,  madness  of  mankind, 
Foretold  that  in  maturer  days,  though  late 
When  time  should  ripen  the  decrees  of  fate, 

Some  god  would  light  us. — Jenyns. 

Ripeness  is  however  not  always  a good  quality  ; but 
maturity  is  always  a perlection  : the  ripeness  of 
some  fruit  diminishes  the  excellence  of  its  flavour  ; 
there  are  some  fruits  which  have  no  flavour  until 
they  come  to  maturity. 


WHOLE,  ENTIRE,  COMPLETE,  TOTAL, 
INTEGRAL. 

Whole  excludes  subtraction  ; entire  excludes  divi- 
sion ; complete  excludes  deficiency  : a whole  orange 
has  had  nothing  taken  from  it ; an  entire  orange  is  not 
yet  cut ; and  a complete  orange  is  grown  to  its  full 
size.  It  is  possible,  therefore,  for  a thing  to  be  w'ho.e 
and  not  entire ; and  to  be  both,  and  yet  not  complete : 
an  orange  cut  into  parts  is  whole  while  all  the  parts 
remain  together,  but  it  is  not  entire.  Hence  we  speak 
of  a whole  house,  an  entire  set,  and  a complete  book. 
The  wholeness  or  integrity  of  a thing  is  destroyed  at 
one’s  pleasure  ; the  completeness  depends  upon  cir- 
cumstances. 

Total  denotes  the  aggregate  of  the  parts  ; whole  the 
junction  of  all  tlie  parts ; the  former  is,  therefore,  em- 
ployed more  in  the  moral  sense  to  convey  the  idea  of 
extent,  and  the  latter  mostly  in  the  proper  sense. 
Hence  we  speak  of  the  total  destruction  of  the  whole 
city,  or  of  some  particular  houses ; the  total  amount 
of  expenses ; the  whole  expense  of  the  war.  Whole 
and  total  may  in  this  manner  be  employed  to  denote 
things  as  well  as  qualities:  in  regard  to  material  sub- 
stances wholes  are  always  opposed  to  the  parts  of 
which  they  are  composed ; the  total  is  the  collected 
sum  of  the  parts:  and  the  integral  is  the  same  as  the 
integral  number. 

The  first  four  may  likewise  be  employed  as  adverbs ; 
but  wholly  is  a more  familiar  term  than  totally  in  ex- 
pressing tlie  idea  of  extent ; entirely  is  the  same  as 
undividedly;  completely  is  the  same  as  perfectly,  with- 
out any  thing  w'anting.  We  are  wholly  or  totally  ig- 
norant of  the  affair ; we  are  entirely  at  tlie  disposal  or 
service  of  another  ; we  are  completely  at  variance  in 
our  accounts. 

All  these  terms,  except  the  last,  are  applied  to  moral 
objects  with  a similar  distinction  ; 

And  all  so  forming  an  harmonious  whole. 

Thomson. 

‘I'he  €7) trre  conquest  of  the  passions  is  so  difficult  a 
work,  that  they  who  despair  of  it  should  think  of  a 
less  difficult  task,  and  only  attempt  to  regulate  them.’ 
— Stkklk. 

And  oft,  when  unobserv’d. 

Steal  from  the  barn  a straw,  till  soft  and  warm, 
Glean  and  complete,  their  habitation  grows. 

Thomson. 

Nothing  under  a total  thorough  change  in  the  con- 
vert will  suffice.’ — South. 


GROSS,  TOTAL. 

Gross  is  connected  with  the  word  great:  from  tlie 
*dea  of  size  which  enters  into  the  original  meaning  of 
this  term  is  derived  that  of  quantity:  total,  from  the 
Latin  totus,  signifies  literally  the  whole.  The  gross 
implies  that  from  which  nothing  has  been  taken  : the 
total  signifies  that  to  which  nothing  need  be  added : 
the  gross  sum  includes  every  thing  without  regard  to 
what  it  may  be : the  total  includes  every  thing  which 
one  wishes  to  include : we  may,  therefore,  deduct  from 
the  gross  that  which  does  not  immediately  belong  to 
it;  but  the  total  is  that  which  admits  of  no  deduction. 
The  gross  weight  in  trade  is  applicable  to  any  article, 
the  whole  of  which,  good  or  bad,  pure  or  dross,  is 
Included  in  opposition  to  the  neat  weight ; the  total 
amount  supposes  all  to  be  included  which  ought  to 
form  a part,  in  opposition  to  any  smaller  amounts  or 
subdivisions ; when  employed  in  the  improper  sense, 
they  preserve  the  same  distinction  • things  are  said  to 


be  taken  or  considered  in  the  gross,  that  is,  in  the  large 
and  comprehensive  way,  one  witli  another.  ‘ I have 
more  than  once  found  fault  with  those  general  reflec- 
tions which  strike  at  kingdoms  or  coininonwealtlis 
in  the  ^ross.’-- Addison.  Things  are  sail  to  undergo 
a total  change;  ‘Nature  is  either  collected  into  one 
total,  or  diffused  and  distributed.’— Racon. 


TO  ACCOMPLISH,  EFFECT,  EXECUTE, 
ACHIEVE. 

Accomplish,  in  French  accomplir,  is  compounded  of 
the  intensive  syllable  ac  or  ad  and  complir,  in  Latia 
complco  to  complete,  signifying  to  complete  to  the  end  ' 
efffxl,  in  Latin  effcctus,  participle  of  efficio,  compound 
eil  of  ef  and  ex  out  of  or  up,  and  facto  to  make,  sig 
nifies  to  make  up  until  nothing  remains  to  be  done 
execute,  in  Latin  executus,  participle  of  exequor,  com 
pounded  of  ex  and  eguor  or  sequor  to  follow,  signifieo 
to  follow  up  or  carry  through  to  the  end  ; achieve,  in 
French  achever,  from  chef  a chief,  signifies  to  perform 
as  a chief,  or  perfectly. 

We  accomplish  an  object,  a purpose,  eiecwfe 
a project,  achieve  an  enterprise.  Perseverance  is  re- 
quisite for  accomplishing,  means  for  effecting,  abilities 
for  executing,  and  spirit  for  achieving.  Some  persons 
arc  always  striving  to  attain  an  end  without  ever  ac- 
complishing what  they  propose;  ‘It  is  the  first  rule  in 
oratory  that  a man  must  appear  such  as  he  would 
porsuade  others  to  be;  and  that  can  be  accomplished 
only  by  the  force  of  his  life.’— Swift.  It  is  the  part 
of  wisdom  to  suit  the  means  to  the  end  when  we  have 
any  .scheme  to  effect ; ‘ Reason  considers  the  motive, 
the  means,  and  the  end ; and  honours  courage  only 
when  it  is  employed  to  effect  the  purpose  of  virtue.’ — 
Hawkesworth.  Those  who  are  readiest  in  forming 
projects  are  not  always  the  fittest  for  carrying  thein 
into  execution;  ‘We  are  not  to  indulge  our  corporeal 
appetites  with  pleasures  that  impair  our  intellectual 
vigour,  nor  gratify  our  minds  with  schemes  wdiich  we 
know  our  lives  must  fail  in  attempting  to  execute.'— 
Johnson.  That  ardour  of  character  which  impels  to 
X\w.  achievement  of  arduous  undertakings  belongs  but 
to  very  few  ; ‘ It  is  more  than  probable,  that  in  case 
our  freethinkers  could  once  achieve  their  giorions  de- 
sign of  sinking  the  credit  of  the  Christian  religion, 
and  causing  the  revenues  to  be  withdrawn  which  their 
wiser  forefathers  had  appointed  to  the  support  and 
encouragement  of  its  teachers,  in  a little  time  the 
Shaster  would  be  as  intelligible  as  the  Greek  Testa- 
ment.’— Berkeley. 

We  should  never  give  up  what  we  have  the  least 
chance  of  accomplishing,  if  it  be  worth  the  labour, 
nor  pursue  any  plan  which  afford?  us  no  prospect  of 
effecting  what  we  wish ; nor  undertake  what  we  do 
not  feel  ourselves  competent  to  execute,  particularly 
when  there  is  any  thing  extraordinary  to  achieve.  The 
friends  of  humanity  exerted  their  utmost  endeavours 
in  behalf  of  the  enslaved  Africans,  and  after  many 
years’  noble  struggle  at  length  accomplished  their 
wishes  as  far  as  respects  Great  Britain,  by  obtaining 
a legislative  enactment  against  the  slave  trade ; but 
they  have  not  yet  been  able  to  effect  the  total  abolition 
of  this  nefarious  traffick:  the  vices  of  individuals  stii. 
interfere  with  the  due  execution  of  the  laws  of  their 
country:  yet  this  triumph  of  humanity,  as  far  as  it  has 
been  successful,  e.xceeds  in  greatness  the  boldest 
achievements  of  antiquity. 


ACCOMPLISHED,’^  PERFECT. 

These  epithets  express  an  assemblage  of  all  the  qua 
lities  suitable  to  the  subject;  and  mark  the  qualifica 
tion  in  the  highest  degree.  Accomplished  refers  only 
to  the  artificial  refinements  of  the  mind  ; perfect  is  said 
of  things  in  general,  whether  natural  or  artificial 
mental  and  corporeal 

An  acquaintance  with  modern  languages  and  ti.A 
ornamental  branches  of  the  arts  and  sciences  consti- 
tutes a person  accomplished;  ‘ For  who  expects  that, 
under  a tutor,  a young  gentleman  aliould  be  an  accovi 
plished  publick  orator  or  logician.’— Locke.  The 
highest  possible  degree  of  skill  in  any  art  constitutes  a 
man  a perfect  artist ; 

Vide  Abbe  Girard : “ Accompfi,  parfiiit,” 


ENC^LISH  SraONYMES. 


289 


Within  a ken  our  army  lies, 

Our  men  more  perfect  in  tlie  use  of  arms. 

Shakspearb. 

An  accomplished  rnc'ii  needs  no  moral  endowment  to 
entHle  him  to  the  name;  ‘The  English  nation  in  the 
time  of  Shakspeare  was  yet  struggling  to  emerge  from 
barbarity ; and  to  be  able  to  read  and  write  was  an 
accomplishment  still  valued  for  its  rarity.’— Johnson. 
A perfect  man,  if  such  a one  there  could  be,  must 
oe  free  from  every  moral  imperfection,  and  endowed 
with  every  virtue  ; ‘ A man  endowed  with  great  per- 
i'ections,  wi:hout  good  breeding,  is  like  one  who  has 
his  pricket  full  of  gold,  but  always  wants  change  for 
bis  ordinary  occasions.’ — Steele.  Accomplished  is 
eapiied  only  to  persons  ; perfect  is  applicable  not  only 
to  persons  but  to  works,  and  every  thing  else  as  occa- 
sion requires;  it  may  likewise  be  employed  in  a bad 
sense  to  magnify  any  unfavourable  quality.  ' 

QUALIFICATION,  ACCOMPLISHMENT. 

The  qualification  serves  the  purpose  of  utility ; the 
accomplishment  serves  to  adorn:  by  the  first  we  are 
enabled  to  make  ourselves  useful ; by  the  second  we 
are  enabled  to  make  ourselves  agreeable. 

The  qualifications  of  a man  who  has  an  office  to 
perform  must  be  considered : of  a man  who  has  only 
pleasure  to  pursue  the  accomplishments  are  to  be  con- 
sidered. A readiness  with  one’s  pen,  and  a facility  at 
accounts,  are  necessary  qualifications  either  for  a 
school  or  a counting-house ; ‘ The  companion  of  an 
evening,  and  the  companion  for  life,  require  very  dif- 
ferent qualifications. ' — Johnson.  Drawing  is  one  of 
the  most  agreeable  and  suitable  accomplishments  that 
can  be  given  to  a young  person ; ‘Where  nature  be- 
stows genius,  education  will  give  accomplishments' — 
Cumberland. 


TO  FULFIL,  ACCOMPLISH,  REALIZE. 

Vo  fulfil  is  literally  to  fill  quite  full,  that  is,  to  bring 
about  full  to  the  wishes  of  a person  ; accomplish  {v. 
To  accomplish)  is  to  bring  to  perfection,  but  without 
reference  to  the  wishes  of  any  one ; to  realize  is  to 
make  real,  namely,  whatever  has  been  aimed  at.  The 
application  of  these  terms  is  evident  from  their  expli- 
cations: the  wishes,  the  expectations,  the  intentions, 
and  promises  of  an  individual,  are  appropriately  said 
lo  be  fulfilled ; national  projects,  or  undertakings,  pro- 
phecies, and  whatever  is  of  general  interest,  are  said 
to  be  accomplished : the  fortune,  or  the  prospects  of  an 
individual,  or  whatever  results  successfully  from  spe- 
cifick  efforts,  is  said  to  be  realized:  the  fulfilment  of 
wishes  may  be  as  much  the  effect  of  good  fortune  as 
of  design ; ‘ The  palsied  dotard  looks  round  him,  per- 
ceives himself  to  be  alone  ; he  has  survived  his  friends, 
and  he  wishes  to  follow  them ; his  wish  is  fulfilled ; 
he  drops  torpid  and  insensible  into  that  gulf  which  is 
deeper  than  the  grave.’— Hawkesworth.  The  ac- 
complishment of  projects  mostly  results  from  extraor- 
dinary exertion,  as  the  accomplishment  of  prophecies 
results  from  a miraculous  exertion  of  power ; ‘ God 
bless  you,  sweet  boy ! and  accomplish  the  joyful  hope  I 
conceived  of  you.’ — Sir  Philip  Sidney.  The  reali- 
zation of  hopes  results  more  commonly  from  the  slow 
process  of  moderate  well-combined  efforts  than  from 
any  thing  extraordinary;  ‘After  my  fancy  had  been 
busied  in  attempting  to  realize  the  scenes  that  Shaks- 
peare drew,  I regretted  that  the  labour  was  ineffe^ual. 

Hawkesworth.  ^ 


TO  KEEP,  OBSERVE,  FULFIL. 

These  terms  are  synonymous  in  the  moral  sense  of 
abiding  by,  and  carrying  into  execution,  what  is  pre- 
scribed or  set  before  one  for  his  rule  of  conduct:  to 
keep  (u.  To  keep)  is  simply  to  have  by  one  in  such 
manner  that  it  shall  not  depart ; to  observe,  from  the 
Latin  observo,  i.  e.  ob  and  stria?  to  keep  in  one’s  view, 
is  to  keep  with  a steady  attention  ; to  fulfil  (v.  To  ac- 
complish) is  to  keep  to  the  end  or  to  the  full  intent.  A 
day  is  either  kept  or  observed;  yet  the  former  is  not 
only  a more  familiar  term,  but  it  likewise  implies  a 
much  less  solemn  act  than  the  latter;  one  must  add, 
therefore,  the  mode  in  which  it  is  kept,  by  saying  that 
it  is  kept  holy,  kept  sacred  or  kept  as  a day  of  pleasure ; 


the  tenn  observe,  however,  implies  always  that  it  is 
kept  religiously : we  may  keep,  but  we  do  not  observe  a 
birth  day  ; we  keep  or  observe  the  Sabbath. 

To  keep  marks  simply  perseverance  or  continuance 
in  a thing  ; a man  keeps  his  word  if  he  do  not  depart 
from  it; 

It  is  a great  sin  to  swear  unto  a sin. 

But  greater  sin  to  keep  a sinful  oath. — Shakspeare 
To  observe  marks  fidelity  and  consideration ; we  ob- 
serve a rule  when  we  are  careful  to  be  guided  by  it; 
‘ I doubt  whether  any  of  our  authors  have  yet  been 
able  for  twenty  lines  together,  nicely  to  observe  the  true 
definition  of  easy  poetry.’- Johnson.  Tp  fulfil  marks 
the  perfection  and  consummation  of  tha  vhich  one 
has  kept ; we  fulfil  a promise  by  acting  in  strict  con- 
formity to  it;  ‘You  might  have  seen  this  poor  chih! 
arrived  at  an  age  to  fulfil  all  your  hopes,  and  then  you 
might  have  lost  him.’ — Gray. 

A person  is  said  to  keep  the  law  wnen  he  does  not 
commit  any  violent  breach  of  it;  he  observes  every 
minutia  in  ihe  law,  if  he  is  anxious  to  show  himself  a 
good  citizen  ; by  this  conduct  he  fulfils  the  intentions 
of  the  legislator:  St.  Paul  recommends  to  Christians 
to  keep  the  faith,  which  they  can  never  do  effectually, 
unless  they  observe  all  the  precepts  of  our  Saviour,  and 
thereby /itZ^i  the  law:  children  may  A:ee/?  silence  when 
they  are  desired  ; but  it  is  seldom  in  their  power  to  ob 
serve  it  as  a rule,  because  they  have  not  sufficient 
understanding. 

TO  EXECUTE,  FULFIL,  PERFORM 
To  execute  {v.  To  accomplish)  is  more  than  to  fulfil 
and  to  f ulfil  than  to  perforzn,  which  signifies  to  forir 
thoroughly  or  make  complete.  To  execute  is  to  bring 
about  an  end ; it  involves  active  measures,  and  is  pecu- 
liarly applicable  to  that  which  is  extraordinary,  or  that 
which  requires  particular  spirit  and  talents;  schemes 
of  ambition  are  executed,  and  great  designs  are  exe- 
cuted ; 

Why  delays 

His  hand  to  execute  what  his  decree 

Fix’d  on  this  day  1 — Milton. 

To  fulfil  is  to  satisfy  a moral  obligation ; it  is  appll 
cable  to  those  duties  in  which  rectitude  and  equity  are 
involved;  we  fulfil  the  duties  of  citizens,  but  one  may 
also  fulfil  purposes  good  or  bad; 

To  whom  the  v\  hite-arm’d  goddess  thus  replies 
Enough  thou  know’st  the  tyrant  of  the  skies. 
Severely  bent  his  purpose  to  fulfil. 

Unmov’d  his  mind,  and  unrestrain’d  his  will.- Pope 
To  perform  is  to  carry  through  by  simple  action  o 
labour;  it  is  more  particularly  applicable  to  the  ordi 
nary  and  regular  business  of  life  ; we  perform  a work 
or  an  office: 

When  those  who  round  the  wasted  fires  remain, 
Perform  the  last  sad  office  to  the  slain. — Dryden. 
One  executes  according  to  the  intentions  of  others;  the 
soldier  executes  the  orders  of  his  general ; the  mer- 
chant executes  the  commissions  of  his  correspondent ; 
‘ He  casts  into  the  balance  the  promise  of  a reward  to 
such  as  should  execute,  and  of  punishment  to  such  as 
should  neglect,  their  commission.’ — South.  One  ful- 
fils according  to  the  wishes  and  expectations  of  others ; 
it  is  the  part  of  an  honest  man  to  enter  into  no  engage- 
ments which  he  cannot  fulfil ; it  is  the  part  of  a duti- 
ful son,  by  diligence  and  assiduity,  to  endeavour  to 
fulfil  the  expectations  of  an  anxious  parent; 

If  on  my  wounded  breast  thou  drop’st  a tear. 

Think  for  whose  sake  my  breast  that  wound  did  bear. 
And  faithfully  my  last  desires  fulfil. 

As  I perform  my  cruel  father’s  will. 

One  performs  according  to  circumstances,  what  suits 
one’s  own  convenience  and  purposes  ; every  good  man 
is  anxious  to  perform  his  part  in  life  with  credit  and 
advantage  to  himself  and  others;  ‘ He  effectually  pe?-- 
formed  his  part  with  great  integrity,  learning,  and 
acuteness;  with  the  exactness  of  a scholar,  and  the 
judgement  of  a complete  divine.’ — Waterland. 

TO  EFFECT,  PRODUCE,  PERFORM. 

The  two  latter  are  in  reality  included  in  the  former; 
what  is  effected  is  both  produced  and  performed;  bul 


290 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES 


what  is  pmdueed  cr  performed  is  not  always  effected ; 
effect  (v.  Accomplish)  signifies  to  make  out  any  thing ; 
produce^  from  the  Latin  produco,  signifies  literally  to 
draw  forth  ; perform,  compounded  of  per  and  form, 
signifies  to  form  thoroughly  or  carry  through. 

To  produce  signifies  to  bring  something  forth  or 
into  existence ; to  perform,  to  do  something  to  the  end ; 
to  effect  is  to  produce  by  performing ; whatever  is 
effected  is  the  consequence  of  a specifick  design;  it 
always  requires  therefore  a conscious  agent  to  effect ; 
The’  united  powers  of  liell  are  joined  together  for  the 
destruction  of  mankind,  wliich  they  effected  in  part.’ — 
Addison.  What  is  produced  may  follow  incidentally, 
or  arise  from  the  action  of  an  irrational  agent  or  an 
inanimate  object;  ‘Though  prudence  does  in  a great 
measure  produce  our  good  or  ill  fortune,  there  are 
many  unforeseen  occurrences  which  pervert  the  finest 
schemes  that  can  be  laid  by  human  wisdom.’ — Addi- 
son. What  is  performed  is  done  by  specifick  efforts ; 
it  is  therefore  like  what  is  effected,  the  consequence  of 
design,  and  requires  a rational  agent ; ‘Where  there 
is  a power  to  perform,  God  does  not  accept  the  will.’ 
—South. 

Effect  respects  both  the  end  and  the  means  by  which 
it  is  brought  about ; we  speak  of  the  object  to  be 
effected,  and  the  way  of  effecting  it:  produce  lias  a 
particular  reference  to  the  end  or  the  thing  produced; 
perform  to  the  means  or  to  the  course  pursued.  No 
person  ought  to  calculate  on  effecting  a reformation  in 
the  morals  of  men,  without  the  aid  of  religion.  Small 
changes  in  society  often  produce  great  evils.  The  per- 
formance oi  a person’s  duty  is  estimated  according  as 
it  is  faitljful  or  otherwise. 

To  effect  is  said  of  that  which  emanates  from  the 
mind  of  the  agent  himself ; to  perform,  of  that  which 
is  marked  out  by  rule,  or  prescribed  by  another.  We 
effect  a purpose  ; we  perform  a part,  a duty,  or  office. 
A true  Christian  is  always  happy  when  he  can  effect  a 
reconciliation  between  parties  who  are  at  variance:  it 
is  a laudable  ambition  to  strive  to  perform  one’s  part 
creditably  in  society. 


EFFECTIVE,  EFFICIENT,  EFFECTUAL, 
EFFICACIOUS. 

Effective  signifies  capable  of  effecting ; efficient  sig- 
nifies Viter&Wy  effecting ; effectual  and  efficacious  sig- 
nify having  the  effect,  or  possessing  the  power  to  effect. 
The  former  two  are  used  only  in  regard  to  physical 
objects,  the  latter  two  in  regard  to  moral  objects.  An 
army  or  a military  force  is  effective;  ‘ I should  suspend 
my  congratulations  on  the  new  liberties  of  France, 
until  I was  informed  how  it  had  been  combined  with 
government,  with  the  discipline  of  the  armies,  and  the 
collection  of  an  effective  revenue.’ — Burke.  A cause 
is  efficient ; ‘ No  searcher  has  yet  found  the  efficient 
cause  of  sleep.’— Johnson.  A remedy  or  cure  is 
effectual ; ‘ Nothing  so  effectually  deadens  the  taste  of 
the  sublime,  as  that  which  is  light  and  radiant.’ — 
Burke.  A medicine  is  efficacious,  and  in  the  moral 
sense  motives  or  measures  are  termed  efficacious. 

The  end  or  result  is  effectual,  the  means  are  ejffica- 
cious.  No  effectual  stop  can  be  put  to  the  vices  of  the 
lower  orders,  while  they  have  a vicious  example  from 
their  supenours ; ‘ Sometimes  the  sight  of  the  altar, 
and  decent  preparations  for  devotion,  may  compose 
and  recover  the  wandering  mind  more  effectually  than 
a sermon.’ — South.  A seasonable  exercise  of  severity 
on  an  offender  is  often  very  efficacious  in  quelling  a 
spirit  of  insubordination.  When  a thing  is  not  found 
effectual,  it  is  requisite  to  have  recourse  to  farther 
measures ; that  which  has  been  proved  to  be  ineffica- 
cious should  never  be  adopted ; ‘ He  who  labours  to 
lessen  the  dignity  of  human  nature,  destroys  many 
efficacious  motives  for  practising  worthy  actions.’— 
Warton. 


VAIN,  INEFFECTUAL,  FRUITLESS. 

Vain,  V.  Idle ; ineffectual,  that  is,  not  effectual 
Effective) ; fruitless,  that  is,  without  fruit,  signi- 
fies not  producing  the  desired  fruit  of  one’s  labour. 

These  epithets  are  all  applied  to  our  endeavours ; 
but  the  term  vain  is  the  most  general  and  indefinite; 
the  other  terms  are  particular  and  definite.  What  we 
aim  at  as  well  as  what  we  strive  for,  may  be  vain ; 
■Jut  ineffectual  and  fruitless  refer  only  to  the  termina- 


tion of  our  labours.  When  the  object  aimed  at  Is 
general  in  its  import,  it  is  common  to  term  the  endea 
vour  vain  when  it  cannot  attain  this  object  it  is  vatn 
to  attempt  to  reform  a person’s  character  until  he  ia 
convinced  that  lie  stands  in  need  of  reformation  ; 

Vain  is  the  force  of  man 
To  crush  the  pillars  wb*ch  the  piles  sustain. 

Dryden, 

• Nature  aloud  calls  out  for  balmy  rest, 

But  all  in  vain. — Gentleman. 

When  the  means  employed  are  inadequate  for  the  at 
tainment  of  the  particular  end,  it  is  usual  to  call  the 
endeavour  ineffectual;  cool  arguments  will  be  inef 
fectual  in  convincing  any  one  inflamed  with  a parti 
cular  passion ; 

Thou  thyself  with  scorn 
And  anger  would  resent  the  offer’d  wrong, 
Though  ineffectual  found. — Milton. 

When  labour  is  specifically  employed  for  the  attain 
ment  of  a particular  object,  it  is  usual  to  term  it  fruit- 
less if  it  fail : peace-makers  will  often  find  themselves 
in  this  condition,  that  their  labours  will  be  rendered 
fruitless  by  the  violent  passions  of  angry  opponents ; 
‘After  mdiiiy  fruitless  overtures,  the  Inca,  despairing 
of  any  cordial  union  with  a Spaniard,  attacked  him  by 
surprise  with  a numerous  body.’— Robertson 


EFFECT,  CONSEQUENCE,  RESULT,  ISSUE, 
EVENT. 

Effect  signifies  that  which  is  effected  or  produced  by 
an  operating  cause ; consequence,  in  Frencli  conse- 
quence, Latin  consequentia,  from  consequor  to  follow 
signifies  that  which  follows  in  connexion  with  some- 
thing else ; result,  in  French  results,  Latin  resulto  o. 
resultus  and  resilio  to  rebound,  signifies  that  which 
springs  or  bounds  back  from  another  thing;  event  has 
the  s’arne  signification  as  given  under  the  head  of 
Accident;  issue  signifies  that  which  issues  or  flows 
out  of  another  thing. 

Effect  and  consequence  agree  in  expressing  tha* 
which  follows  any  thing,  but  the  former  marks  whaJ 
follows  from  a connexion  between  the  two  objects , 
the  term  consequence  is  not  thus  limited  : an  effect  is 
that  which  necessarily  flows  out  of  the  cause,  betv^een 
which  the  connexion  is  so  intimate  that  we  cannot 
think  of  the  one  without  the  other.  In  the  nature  of 
things,  causes  will  have  effects ; and  for  every  effect 
there  will  be  a cause : a consequence,  on  the  other 
hand,  may  be  either  casual  or  natural ; it  is  that  on 
which  we  cannot  calculate.  Effect  applies  either  to 
physical  or  moral  objects,  consequence  only  to  moral 
subjects. 

There  are  many  diseases  which  are  the  effects  of 
mere  intemperance : an  imprudent  step  in  one’s  first 
setting  out  in  life  is  often  attended  with  fatal  conse- 
quences. A mild  answer  has  the  effect  of  turning 
away  wrath;  ‘A  passion  for  prai&e  produces  very 
good  effects.' — Addison.  The  loss  of  character  is  liie 
general  consequence  of  an  irregular  life;  ‘ Were  it  pos- 
sible for  any  thing  in  the  Christian  faith  to  be  erro- 
neous, I can  find  no  ill  consequences  in  adhering  to  it.’ 
— Addison. 

Consequences  flow  of  themselves  from  the  nature  of 
things ; results  are  drawn.  Consequences  proceed 
from  actions  in  general;  results  proceed  from  parti 
cular  efforts  and  attempts.  Consequences  are  good  oi 
bad ; ‘ Jealousy  often  draws  after  it  a fatal  train  of 
consequences' — Addison.  Results  are  successful  oi 
unsuccessful;  ‘The  state  of  the  world  is  continually 
changing,  and  none  can  tell  the  result  of  the  next 
vicissitude.’ — Johnson. 

We  endeavour  to  avert  consequences  which  threaten 
to  be  bad ; we  endeavour  to  produce  results  that  art 
according  to  our  wishes.  Not  to  foresee  the  conso 
quences  which  are  foreseen  by  others,  evinces  a moic 
than  ordinary  share  of  indiscretion  and  infatuation 
To  calculate  on  a favourable  result  from  an  il.'-judgei 
and  ill-executed  enterprise,  only  proves  a consisten 
blindness  in  the  projector. 

The  term  event  respects  great  undertakings;  issut 
particular  efforts;  consequence  respects  every  thing 
which  can  produce  a consequence.  Hence  we  speak 
of  the  event  of  a war-  the  iss  -e  of  a negotiation 
and  the  consequences  of  either  The  measures  ol 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES  291 


ovenunent  are  often  unjustly  praised  or  blamed  ac- 
cording to  the  event ; ‘ It  has  always  been  the  practice 
of  mankind  to  judge  of  actions  by  the  euents.’— John- 
BON.  The  fate  of  a nation  sometimes  hangs  on  the 
issue  of  a battle;  ‘A  mild,  unruffled,  self-possessing 
mind  is  a blessing  more  important  to  real  felicity  than 
all  that  can  be  g#ned  by  the  triumphant  issue  of  some 
violent  contest.’ — Blair.  The  conquest  of  a nation 
is  one  cf  the  consequences  which  follow  the  defeat  of 
Its  armies ; ‘ Henley  in  one  of  his  advertisements  had 
mentioned  Pope’s  treatment  of  Savage ; this  was  sup- 
posed by  Pope  to  be  the  consequence  of  a complaint 
made  by  Savage  to  Henley,  and  was  therefore  men- 
tioned by  him  with  much  resentment.’— Johnson. 
VVe  must  be  prepared  for  events,  which  are  frequently 
above  our  control ; we  must  exert  ourselves  to  bring 
about  a favourable  issue ; address  and  activity  vyiH 
go  far  towards  ensuring  success:  but  if  after  all  our 
efforts  we  still  fail,  it  is  our  duty  to  submit  with  patient 
resignation  to  the  consequences. 


TO  ARISE,  PROCEED,  ISSUE,  SPRING, 
FLOW,  EMANATE. 

.9rise  in  its  original  meaning  signifies  to  go  upwards 
(w.  To  arise),  but  is  here  taken  in  the  sense  of  coming 
out  from ; proceed,  in  Latin  procedo,  that  is  pro  and 
cedo  to  go,  signifies  to  go  forth  ; issue,  in  French  issue, 
comes  from  the  Latin  isse  or  ivisse,  infinite  of  eo, 
and  the  Hebrew  to  go  out;  spring,  in  German 
springen,  comes  from  rinnen  to  run  like  water,  and  is 
connected  with  the  Greek  (ipveiv  to  pour  out ; flow,  in 
Saxon  fleowan.  Low  German  flogan.  High  German 
Messen,  Latin  &c.,  all  Horn  the  Greek  )3Aow  or 
which  is  an  onomatopeia  expressing  the  mur- 
mur of  waters;  emawate, in  Latin emanatus, participle 
of  emano,  compounded  of  mono  to  flow,  from  the 
Hebrew  Q'p  and  Chaldee  PD  waters,  expressing 
the  motion  of  waters. 

The  idea  of  one  object  coming  out  of  another  is  ex- 
pressed by  all  these  terms,  but  they  differ  in  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  action.  What  comes  up  out  of  a 
body  and  rises  into  existence  is  said  to  arise,  as  the 
mist  which  rises  or  arises  out  of  the  sea  ; 

From  roots  hard  hazels,  and  from  scions  rise 
Tall  ash,  and  taller  oak  that  mates  the  skies. 

Dryden. 

What  comes  forth  as  it  were  gradually  into  observation 
is  said  to  proceed  ; 

Teach  me  the  various  labours  of  the  moon. 

And  whence  proceed  the  eclipses  of  the  sun. 

Dryden. 

Thus  the  light  proceeds  from  a certain  quarter  of  the 
heavens,  or  from  a certain  part  of  a house : what 
comes  out  from  a small  aperture  is  said  to  issue;  thus 
perspiration  issues  through  the  pores  of  the  skin; 
water  issues  sometimes  from  the  sides  of  rocks : what 
comes  out  in  a sudden  or  quick  manqer,  or  comes  from 
some  remote  source,  is  said  to  spring;  thus  blood 
springs  from  an  artery  which  is  pricked ; water 
springs  up  out  of  the  earth  : what  comes  out  in  quan- 
tities or  in  a stream  is  said  to  flow ; thus  blood  flows 
from  a wound  ; to  emanate  is  a species  of  flowing  by  a 
natural  operation,  when  bodies  send  forth,  or  seem  to 
send  forth,  particles  of  their  own  composition  from 
themselves;  thus  light  emanates  from  the  sun. 

This  distinction  in  the  signification  of  these  terms 
Js  kept  up  in  their  moral  acceptation,  where  the  idea 
of  one  thing  originating  from  another  is  common  to 
them  all;  but  in  this  case  arise  is  a general  term, 
which  simply  implies  the  coming  into  existence ; but 
proceed  conveys  also  the  idea  of  a progressive  move- 
ment into  existence.  Every  object  therefore  may  be 
said  to  arise  out  of  whatever  produces  it;  but  it  pro- 
ceeds ffom  It  only  when  it  is  gradually  produced;  evils 
are  continually  arising  in  human  society  for  which 
there  is  no  apecifick  remedy ; ‘The  greatest  misfortunes 
men  fall  into  arise  from  themselves.’ — Steele.  In 
complicated  disorders  it  is  not  always  possible  to  say 
precisely  from  what  the  complaint  of  the  patient 
proceeds ; 

But  whence  proceed  these  hopes,  or  whence  this  dread, 
ff  nothing  really  can  affect  the  dead  ?— Jenyns. 

•esue  is  seldom  used  but  in  application  to  sensible 

JU* 


objects;  yet  we  may  say,  in  conformity  to  the  oiiginal 
meaning,  that  words  issue  from  the  mouth ; 

As  when  some  huntsman  with  a flying  spear 
From  the  blind  thicket  wounds  a stately  deer, 

Down  his  cleft  side  while  fresh  the  blood  distils. 

He  bounds  aloft  and  scuds  from  hills  to  hills. 

Till  life’s  warm  vapour  issuing  through  the  wound 
Wild  mountain  wolves  the  fainting  beast  surround. 

Pope. 

‘ Providence  is  the  great  sanctuary  to  the  afflicted  who 
maintain  their  integrity,  and  often  there  has  issued 
from  this  sanctuary  the  most  seasonable  relief.’ — Blair. 
The  idea  of  the  distant  source  or  origin  is  kept  up 
in  the  moral  application  of  the  term  spring,  when 
we  say  that  actions  spring  from  a generous  or  corrupt 
principle ; 

All  from  utility  this  law  approve. 

As  every  private  bliss  must  spring  from  social  love 

Jenyns. 

The  idea  of  a quantity  and  a stream  is  preserved  In 
the  moral  use  of  the  terms  flow  and  emanate ; but  the 
former  may  be  said  of  that  which  is  not  inherent  in 
the  body : the  latter  respects  that  only  which  forms  a 
component  part  of  the  body ; God  is  the  spring  whence 
all  our  blessings  flow : all  authority  emanates  from 
God,  who  is  the  supreme  source  of  all  things:  theolo- 
gians, when  speaking  of  God,  say  that  the  Son 
emanates  from  the  Father,  and  the  Holy  Ghost  from 
the  Father  and  the  Son,  and  that  grace  flows  upon  us 
incessantly  from  the  inexhaustible  treasures  of  Divine 
mercy  ; ‘ As  light  and  heat  flow  from  the  sun  as  theit 
centre,  so  bliss  and  ^oy  flow  from  the  Deity.’ — Blair. 
‘ As  in  the  next  world  so  in  this,  the  only  solid  bless- 
ings are  owing  to  the  goodness  of  the  mind,  not  the 
extent  of  the  capacity;  friendship  here  is  an  ema 
nation  from  the  same  source  as  beatitude  there  ’ 
Pope. 


TO  RISE,  ISSUE,  EMERGE. 

To  rise  {v.  To  arise)  may  either  refer  to  open  o. 
enclosed  spaces ; issue  {v.  To  arise)  and  emerge,  in 
Latin  emergo  to  rise  out  of,  have  both  a reference  to 
some  confined  body ; a thing  may  either  rise  in  a body, 
without  a body,  or  out  of  a body;  but  they  issue  and 
emerge  out  of  a body.  A thing  may  either  rise  in  a 
plain  or  a wood;  it  issues  out  of  a wood:  it  may 
either  rise  in  water  or  out  of  the  water ; it  emerges 
from  the  water;  that  which  rises  out  of  a thing  comes 
into  view  by  becoming  higher : in  this  manner  an  air 
balloon  might  rise  out  of  a wood ; 

Ye  mists  and  exhalations  that  now  rise. 

In  honour  to  the  world’s  great  author  rise. 

Milton 

That  which  issues  comes  out  in  a line  with  the  object . 
horsemen  issue  from  a wood  ; that  which  issues  comes 
from  the  very  depths  of  it,  and  comes  as  it  were  ou‘ 
as  a part  of  it;  ‘Does  not  the  earth  quit  scores  with 
all  the  elements  in  the  noble  fruits  and  productions 
that  issue  from  itP — South.  That  which  emerges 
proceeds  from  the  thing  in  which  it  has  been,  as  it 
W'ere,  concealed ; 

Let  earth  dissolve,  yon  ponderous  orbs  descend. 
And  grind  us  into  dust,  the  soul  is  safe. 

The  man  emerges. — Young. 

Hence  in  a moral  or  extended  application,  a person  is 
said  to  rise  in  life  without  a reference  to  his  former 
condition  ; but  he  emerges  from  obscurity  : colour  fises 
in  tfie  face ; but  words  issue  from  the  mouth 


OFFSPRING,  PROGENY,  ISSUE. 

Offspring  is  that  which  springs  off  or  from  ; progeny 
that  whiciris  brought  forth  or  out  of ; issue  that  which 
issues  or  proceeds  from;  and  all  in  relation  to  the 
family  or  generation  of  the  human  species.  Offspring 
is  a familiar  term  applicable  to  one  or  many  children , 
progeny  is  employed  only  as  a collective  noun  for  a 
number ; wwe  is  used  in  an  indefinite  manner  without 
particular  legard  to  number.  When  we  speak  of  the 
children  themselves,  we  denominate  them  the  off- 
spring; ‘ The  same  cause  that  has  drawn  the  hatred 
of  God  and  man  upon  the  father  of  liars  may  justly 
entail  it  upon  his  offspring  tor  ’ — South.  When  wr 


L'N'GLISH  SYNONYMES. 


29« 


speak  of  the  parents,  we  denominate  the  children 
their  progeny; 

The  base,  degen’rate  iron  offspring  ends, 

A golden  progeny  from  Heav’n  descends. 

Drvden. 

A child  is  said  to  be  the  only  offspring  of  his  parents, 
or  he  is  said  to  be  the  offspring  of  low  parents  ; a man 
is  said  to  have  a numerous  or  a healthy  progeny^  or  to 
leave  his  progeny  in  circumstances  of  honour  and 
prosperity.  The  issue  is  said  only  in  regard  to  a man 
that  is  deceased;  he  dies  with  male  or  female  issae  ; 
with  or  without  issue;  his  property  descends  to  his 
male  issue  in  a direct  line ; 

Next  him  King  Leyr,  in  happy  place  long  reigned. 
But  had  no  issue  male  him  to  succeed. — Spenser. 


ORIGIN  ORIGINAL,  BEGINNING,  RISE, 
SOURCE. 

Origin  or  original  both  come  from  the  Latin  orior 
to  rise : the  former  designating  the  abstract  property  of 
rising;  the  lattet  the  thing  that  is  risen.  The  origin 
is  said  only  of  things  that  rise ; the  original  is  said  of 
those  which  give  an  origin  to  another:  the  origin 
serves  to  date  the  existence  of  a thing ; the  original 
serves  to  show  the  author  of  a thing,  and  is  opposed  to 
tlie  copy.  The  origin  of  the  world  is  described  in  the 
first  chapter  of  Genesis ; Adam  was  the  original  from 
whom  alt  the  human  race  has  sprung; 

And  had  his  better  half,  his  bride. 

Carv’d  from  th’  original,  liisside. — Butler. 

The  origin  lias  respect  to  the  cause ; the  beginning 
to  the  period  of  existence;  every  thing  owes  its  exist- 
ence to  the  origin ; it  dates  its  existence  from  the  be- 
ginning: there  cannot  be  an  origin  without  a begin- 
ning ; but  there  may  be  a beginning  where  we  do  not 
speak  of  an  origin.  We  look  to  the  origin  of  a thing 
in  order  to  learn  its  nature ; ‘ Christianity  explains  the 
origin  of  all  the  disorders  which  at  present  take  place 
on  earth.’ — Blair.  We  look  to  the  beginning  in  order 
to  learn  its  duration  or  other  circumstances; 

But  wit  and  weaving  had  the  same  beginning, 

Pallas  first  taught  in  poetry  and  spinning.-^SwipT. 
When  we  have  discovered  the  origin  of  a quarrel,  we 
are  in  a fair  way  of  becoming  acquainted  with  the 
aggressors;  when  we  trace  a quarrel  to  the  beginning, 
we  may  easily  ascertain  how  long  it  has  lasted. 

The  origin  and  the  rise  are  both  employed  for  the 
primary  state  of  existence;  but  the  latter  is  a much 
more  familiar  term  than  the  former ; we  speak  of  the 
origin  of  an  empire,  the  originf>i  a family,  the  origin 
of  a dispu^,  and  the  like;  but  we  say  that  a river 
takes  its  rise  from  a certain  mountain,  that  certain 
disorders  take  their  rise  from  particular  circumstances 
which  happen  in  early  life  : it  is  moreover  observable 
that  the  origin  is  confined  solely  to  the  first  commence- 
ment of  a thing’s  existence ; but  the  Wse  comprehends 
its  gradual  progress  in  the  first  stages  of  its  existence ; 

‘ The  friendship  which  is  to  be  practised  or  expected 
by  common  mortals  must  take  its  rise  from  mutual 
pleasure.’ — Johnson.  The  origin  of  the  noblest  fami- 
lies is  in  the  first  instance  sometimes  ignoble;  the 
largest  rivers  take  their  rise  in  small  streams.  We 
iook  to  the  origin  as  to  the  cause  of  existence:  we 
look  to  the  rise  as  to  the  situation  in  which  the  thing 
commences  to  exist,  or  the  process  by  which  it  grows 
up  jnto  existence.  It  is  in  vain  to  attempt  to  search 
the  origin  of  evil,  unless  as  we  find  it  explained  in 
the  word  of  God.  Evil  diseases  take  their  rise  in 
certain  parts  of  the  body,  and  after  lying  for  some  time 
dormant,  break  out  in  after-life. 

The  origin  and  rise  are  said  of  only  one  subject ; 
the  source  is  said  of  that  which  produces  a succession 
of  objects;  the  origin  of  evil  in  general  has  given  rise 
to  much  speculation  ; the  love  of  pleasure  is  the  source 
Bf  incalculable  mischiefs  to  individuals,  as  well  as  to 
"ociety  at  large; 

Famous  Greece, 

That  source  of  art  and  cultivated  thought 

Which  they  to  Rome,  and  Romans  hither  brought. 

Waller. 

The  origin  exists  but  once;  the  source  is  lasting; 

One  source  of  the  sublime  is  infinity.’- -Burke.  The 


origin  of  every  family  is  to  be  jtraced  to  our  first  parent 
Adam  : we  have  a never-failing  source  of  consolatior 
in  religion. 

TO  BEGIN,  COMMENCE,  ENTER  UPON. 

Begin,  in  German  beginnen,  is  compounded  of  b 
and  ginnen,  probably  a frequentative  of  gehen  to  go, 
signifying  to  go  first  to  a thing ; commence,  in  French 
commencer,  is  not  improbably  derived  from  the  Latin 
commendo,  signifying  to  betake  one’s  self  to  a thing ; 
e7iter,  in  Latin  intro  within,  signifiesj  with  the  prepo- 
sition upon,  to  go  into  a thing. 

Begin  and  commence  are  so  strictly  allied  in  signi 
nification,  that  it  is  not  easy  to  discover  the  difference 
in  their  application  ; although  a minute  difference  does 
exist.  To  begin  respects  the  order  of  time  ; ‘ W’hea 
beginning  to  act  your  part,  what  can  be  of  greater 
moment  than  to  regulate  your  plan  of  conduct  with 
the  most  serious  attention  1’ — Blair.  To  commence 
implies  the  exertion  of  setting  about  a thing;  ‘By  the 
destina'iiori  of  his  Creator,  and  the  necessities  of  his 
nature,  man  commences  at  once  an  active,  not  merely 
a contemplative,  being.’— Blair.  Whoever  begins  a 
dispute  is  termed  the  aggressor ; no  one  shouid  com- 
mence a dispute  unless  he  can  calculate  the  conse- 
quences, and  as  this  is  impracticable,  it  is  better  never 
to  commence  disputes,  particularly  such  as  are  to  be 
decided  by  law.  Begin  is  opposed  to  end : commence 
to  complete:  a person  begins  a thing  with  a view  of 
ending  it ; he  commences  a thing  with  a view  of  com 
pleting  it. 

To  begin  is  either  transitive  or  intransitive ; to  com 
mcnce  is  mostly  transitive  : a speaker  begins  by  apo- 
logizing ; he  commences  his  speech  with  an  apology : 
happiness  frequently  ends  where  prosperity  begins ; 
whoever  commences  any  undertaking,  without  esti- 
mating his  own  power,  must  not  expect  to  succeed. 

To  begin  is  used  either  for  things  or  persons  ; to 
commence  for  persons  only ; all  things  have  their  be 
ginning  ; in  order  to  effect  any  thing,  we  must  make  a 
commencement : a word  begins  with  a particular  letter, 
or  a line  begins  with  a particuiar  word ; a person  coin 
menccs  his  career.  Lastiy,  begin  is  more  colloquial 
than  commence : thus  we  say,  to  begin  the  work  ; to 
commence  the  operation  ; to  begin  one’s  play;  to  com- 
mence the  pursuit : to  begin  to  write ; to  commence  the 
letter. 

To  commence  and  enter  upon  are  as  closely  allied  in 
sense  as  the  former  words ; they  differ  princii)ally  in 
ap[)lication  : to  commence  seems  rather  to  denote  tb: 
making  an  experiment ; 

If  wit  so  much  from  ign’rance  undergo, 

Ah ! let  not  learning  too  commence  its  foe  ! 

Pope 

To  enter  upon,  that  of  first  doing  what  has  not  been 
tried  before;  we  commence  an  undertaking;  ‘If  any 
man  has  a mind  to  enter  upon  such  a voluntary  absti 
nence,  it  might  not  be  improper  to  give  him  the  cau 
tion  of  Pythagoras,  in  particular : Abstine  a fabis, 
that  is,  say  the  interpreters,  “ meddle  not  with  elec 
tions.’” — Addison.  We  enter  upon  an  employment; 
speculating  people  are  very  ready  to  commence  schemes , 
considerate  people  are  always  averse  to  entering  upon 
any  office,  until  they  feel  themselves  fully  adequate  to 
discharge  its  duties. 

TO  MAKE,  FORM,  PRODUCE,  CREATE. 

' The  idea  of  giving  birth  to  a thing  is  common  to  all 
these  terms,  which  vary  in  the  circumstances  of  tho 
action:  to  make  {v.  To  make)  is  the  most  general  and 
unqualified  term  ; to  form  signifies  to  give  a form  to  a 
thing,  that  is,  to  make  it  after  a given  form  {v.  Form); 
to  produce  [v.  To  effect)  is  to  bring  forth  into  the  light 
to  call  into  existence;  to  create  {v.  To  cause)  is  tt 
bring  into  existence  by  an  absolute  exercise  of  power 
to  make  is  the  simplest  action  of  all,  and  comprehend 
a simple  combination  by  the  smallest  efforts ; to  fom 
requires  care  and  attention,  and  greater  efforts;  t» 
produce  requires  time,  and  also  labour;  whatever  ie 
put  together  so  as  to  become  another  thing,  is  maae : s 
chair  or  a table  is  made  : whatever  is  put  into  any  dis- 
tinct/orni  is  formed  ; the  potter  forms  the  clay  into  aa 
earthen  vessel : whatever  emanates  from  a thing,  so 
as  to  become  a distinct  object,  is  produced;  fire  is  often 
produced  by  the  violent  friction  of  tw'o  p’eces  of  wood 


EKGLl^H  SYNONYMLS. 


293 


with  each  oilier.  The  process  of  viakivg  is  always 
performed  by  some  conscious  agent,  who  employs 
either  mechanical  means,  or  the  simple  exercise  of 
power . a bird  makes  its  nest ; man  makes  various 
things,  by  the  exercise  of  his  understanding  and  his 
limbs;  the  Almighty  Maker  has  made  every  thing  by 
his  word.  The  process  of  forming  does  not  always 
require  a conscious  agent;  things  are  likewise /ormed 
of  themselves;  or  they  are /ormed  by  the  active  opera- 
tions of  other  bodies ; melted  lead,  when  thrown  into 
water,  will  form  itself  into  globules  and  masses  of 
various  shapes;  hard  substances  are  formed  in  the 
human  body  which  give  rise  to  the  disease  termed  the 
gravel.  What  is  produced  is  oftener  produced  by  the 
process  of  nature,  than  by  any  express  design;  the 
earth  produces  all  kinds  of  vegetables  from  seed ; 
animals,  by  a similsr  process,  produce  their  young. 
Create^  in  this  natural  sense  of  the  term,  is  employed 
as  the  act  of  an  intelligent  being,  and  that  of  the 
Supreme  Being  only;  it  is  the  act  of  making  by  a 
simple  effort  of  power,  without  the  use  of  materials, 
and  without  any  process. 

They  are  all  employed  in  the  moral  sense,  and  with 
a similar  distitiction : make  is  indefinite ; we  may 
make  a thing  that  is  difficult  or  easy,  simple  or  com- 
plex ; we  may  make  a letter,  or  make  a poem  ; we  may 
make  a word,  or  make  a contract ; ‘ In  every  treaty 
those  concessions  which  he  (Charles  I.)  thought  he 
could  not  maintain,  he  never  could  by  any  motive  or 
persuasion  be  induced  to  make.' — Hume.  To  form  is 
the  work  either  of  intelligence,  or  of  circumstances  : 
education  has  much  to  do  in  forming  the  habits,  but 
nature  has  more  to  do  in the  disposition  and 
the  mind  altogether  ; sentiments  are  frequently /orracd 
by  young  people  before  they  have  sufficient  maturity 
of  thought  and  knowledge  to  justify  them  in  coming 
to  any  decision  ; ‘Homer’s  and  Virgil’s  heroes  do  not 
form  a resolution  without  the  conduct  and  direction  of 
some  deity.’ — Addison.  To  produce  is  the  effect  of 
great  mental  exertion ; or  it  is  the  natural  operation 
of  things:  no  industry  could  ever  produce  a poem  or  a 
work  of  the  imagination  : but  a history  or  a work  of 
science  may  be  produced  by  the  force  of  mere  labour. 
All  things,  both  in  the  moral  and  intellectual  world, 
are  linked  together  upon  the  simple  principle  of  cause 
and  effect,  by  which  one  thing  is  the  producer.,  and  the 
other  the  thing  produced:  quarrels  produce  hatred, 
and  kindness  produces  love  ; as  heat  produces  inflam- 
mation and  fever,  or  disease  produces  death ; ‘A  su- 
pernatural effect  is  that  which  is  above  any  natural 
power,  that  we  know  of,  to  produce.' — Tillotson. 
Since  genius  is  a spark  of  the  Divine  jmwer  that  acts 
Dy  its  own  independent  agency,  the  property  of  crea- 
tion has  been  figuratively  ascribed  to  it;  the  creative 
power  of  the  human  mind  is  a faint  emblem  of  that 
power  which  brought  every  thing  into  existence  out  of 
nothing. 

A wondrous  hieroglyphic  robe  she  wore. 

In  which  all  colours  and  all  figures  were. 

That  nature  or  that  fancy  can  cr-eate.— Cowley. 


FORM,  FIGURE,  CONFORMATION. 

Form,  in  French /ornre,  Latin /orTuu,  most  probably 
from  (pdfiripa  and  to  bear,  signifies  properly  the 

image  borne  or  stamped ; figure  (v.  Figure)  signifies 
the  image  feigned  or  conceived  ; conformation,  in 
French  conformation,  in  Latin  conformatio,  from  con- 
form, signifies  the  image  disposed  or  put  together. 

* Form  is  the  generick  term  ; figure  and  conforma- 
tion are  special  terms.  TJie  form  is  the  work  either 
of  nature  or  art;  it  results  from  the  arrangement  of 
the  parts  ; the^o-ure  is  the  work  of  design  : it  includes 
the  general  contour  or  outline:  the  conformation  in- 
cludes such  a disposition  of  the  parts  of  a body  as  is 
adapted  for  performing  certain  functions.  Form  is 
the  property  of  every  substance ; and  the  artificial 
^orm  approaches  nearest  to  perfection,  as  it  is  most 
latural ; 

Matter,  as  wise  logicians  say. 

Cannot  without  a form  subsist, 

Ar\A  form,  say  I as  well  as  they. 

Must  fail  if  matter  brings  no  grist. — Swift. 

* Vide  Girard'  “Fagon,  figure,  forme,  ronforma- 


The  figure  is  the  fruit  of  the  imagination ; it  is  the  re 
presentation  of  the  actual  form  that  belongs  to  things  • 
it  is  more  or  less  just  as  it  approaches  to  the  form  of 
the  thing  itself ; ‘ When  Caesar  was  one  of  the  masters 
of  the  Roman  mint,  he  placed  the  figure  of  an  ele- 
phant upon  the  reverse  of  the  publick  money ; the 
word  Caesar  signifying  an  elephant  in  the  Punick 
language.’ — Addison.  Conformation  is  said  only  with 
regard  to  animal  bodies ; nature  renders  it  more  or  less 
suitable  aosording  to  the  accidental  occurrence  of  phy 
sical  causes ; ‘ As  the  conformation  of  their  organs 
are  nearly  the  same  in  all  men,  so  the  manner  of  per- 
ceiving external  objects  is  in  all  men  the  same.’— 
Burke.  The  erect  form  of  man  is  one  of  the  distin- 
guishing marks  of  his  superiority  over  every  other  ter- 
restrial being  : the  human  figure  when  well  painted  is 
an  object  of  admiration : the  turn  of  the  mind  is 
doubtless  influenced  by  the  conformation  of  the  bodily 
organs.  A person’s  form  is  said  to  be  handsome  or 
ugly,  common  or  uncommon;  his to  be  correct 
or  incorrect ; a conformation  to  be  good  or  bad. 
Heathens  have  worshipped  the  Deity  under  various 
forms  ; mathe  matical  figures  are  the  only  true  figures 
with  which  .ae  are  acquainted  ; the  craniologist  af- 
fects to  judf^j  of  characters  by  the  conformation  of  the 
skull. 

F'orm  'jd  figure  are  used  in  a moral  application, 
although  conformation  is  not. 

We  speak  of  adopting  a form  of  faith,  a form  of 
words,  a form  of  godliness; 

O ceremony!  show  me  but  thy  worth. 

Art  thou  aught  else  but  place,  degree,  and  form, 
Creating  fear  and  awe  in  other  men  1 

Shakspkare. 

We  speak  of  cutting  a showy,  a dismal,  or  ridiculous 
figure ; ‘ Those  who  make  the  greatest  figure  in  most 
arts  and  sciences  are  universally  allowed  to  be  of  the 
British  nation.’ — Addison.  Form  may  also  some 
times  be  taken  for  the  person  who  presents  the /or?M/ 
L6,  in  the  deep  recesses  of  the  wood, 

Before  my  eyes  a beauteous /orwi  appears  ; 

A virgin’s  dress,  and  modest  looks,  she  wears. 

Wynne. 

The  word  figure  is  also  used  in  a similar  manner. 


TO  FORM,  FASHION,  MOULD,  SHAPE 

To  form  is  to  put  into  a form,  which  is  here  as  bo 
fore  (y.  Form)  the  generick  term  ; to  fashion  is  to  put 
into  a particular  or  distinct  form:  to  mould  is  to  put 
into  a set  form  : to  shape  is  to  form  simply  as  it  re 
spects  the  exteriour.  As  every  thing  receives  a form 
when  it  receives  existence,  to  form  conveys  the  idea 
of  producing ; ‘ Horace  was  intimate  with  a prince  of 
the  greatest  goodness  and  humanity  imaginable  : and 
his  court  was  formed  after  his  example.’ — Steele. 
When  we  wish  to  represent  a thing  as  formed  in  any 
distinct  or  remarkable  way,  we  may  speak  of  it  as 
fashioned  : ‘ By  the  best  information  that  I could  get 
of  this  matter,  I am  apt  to  think  that  this  prodigious 
pile  was  fashioned  into  the  shape  it  now  bears  by 
several  tools  and  instruments,  of  which  they  have  a 
wonderful  variety  in  this  country.’— Addison.  God 
formed  man  out  of  the  dust  of  the  ground  ; he  fa- 
shioned him  after  his  own  image.  VVhen  we  wish  to 
represent  a thing  as  formed  according  to  a precise  rule, 
we  should  say  it  was  moulded ; thus  the  habits  of  a 
man  are  moulded  at  the  will  of  a superiour ; 

How  dare  you,  mother,  endless  date  demand. 

For  vessels  moulded  by  a mortal  hand  ? — Dryden. 
When  we  wish  to  represent  a thing  as  receiving  the 
accidental  qualities  which  distinguish  it  from  others, 
we  talk  of  shaping  it;  the  potter  shapes  the  clay; 
the  milliner  shapes  the  bonnet;  a man  shapes  hia 
actions  to  the  humours  of  another ; ‘ Those  nature 
hath  shaped  with  a great  head,  narrow  breast,  and 
shoulders  sticking  out,  seem  much  inclined  to  a con- 
sumption.’— Harvey. 

Nature  has /o?-?ne<Z  all  animated  beings  with  an  In 
stinctive  desire  of  self-preservation.  Creatures  fa- 
shioned like  ourselves  with  flesh  and  blood  cannot  at- 
tain to  the  perfection  of  spiritual  beings.  It  is  sup- 
posed by  some  that  the  human  mind  may  be  mouldca 
upon  the  principles  of  art  at  the  will  of  the  irstructer, 
with  the  same  ease  that  wax  may  be  shaped  into  the 


S94 


ENGLISH  ST^NONYMES. 


figure  of  a Hrd,  a beast,  or  a man,  at  the  pleasure  of 
the  artist.  This  is  however  true  only  in  part. 

TO  FORM,  COMPOSE,  CONSTITUTE. 

Form  (v.  Form,  figure)  signifies  to  give  a form ; 
compose  has  the  same  signification  as  given  under^the 
head  To  compose,  settle;  and  constitute  that  given 
under  the  head  of  To  constitute. 

Form  is  a generick  and  indefinite  term.  To  coia- 
pose  and  constitute  are  modes  of  forming.  These 
words  may  be  employed  either  to  designate  modes  of 
action,  or  to  characterize  things.  Things  may  be 
formed  either  by  persons  or  things  ; they  are  composed 
ind  constituted  only  by  conscious  agents : thus  per- 
sons/orwi  things,  or  things /orm  one  another : thus  we 
form  a circle,  or  the  reflection  of  the  light  after  rain 
forms  a rainbow.  Persons  compose  and  constitute: 
thus  a musician  composes  a piece  of  musick,  or  men 
constitute  laws.  Form  in  regard  to  persons  is  the  act 
of  the  will  and  determination ; 

The  liquid  ore  he  drained 
Into  fit  molds  prepar’d  ; from  which  he  form'd 
First  his  own  tools.— Milton. 

Compose  is  a work  of  the  intellect ; ‘ Words  so  pleasing 
to  God  as  those  which  the  Son  of  God  himself  hath 
composed,  were  not  possible  for  men  to  frame.’ — 
Hooker.  Constitute  is  an  act  of  power,  which  men 
must  submit  to.  We  form  a party ; we  form  a plan  ; 
we  compose  a book  ; men  constitute  governments, 
offices,  &c. 

When  employed  to  characterize  things, /orm  signi- 
fies simply  to  have  a form,  be  it  either  simple  or  com- 
plex; compose  and  constitute  are  said  only  of  those 
things  which  have  complex /oj-ms ; the  former  as  re- 
specting the  material,  the  latter  the  essenti:il  parts  of 
an  object : thus  we  may  say  that  an  object  forms  a 
circle,  or  a semiciicle,  or  the  segment  of  a circle ; ‘ All 
animals  of  the  same  kind  which  form  a society  are 
more  knowing  than  others.’ — Addison.  A society  is 
composed  of  individuals ; 

Nor  did  Israel  ’scape 

Th’  infection,  when  their  borrow’d  gold  composed 

The  calf  in  Oriel. — Milton. 

Law  and  order  constitute  the  essence  of  society ; ‘ To 
receive  and  to  communicate  assistance  constitutes  the 
happiness  of  human  life.’— Johnson.  So  letters  and 
syllables  compose  a word ; but  sense  is  essential  to  con- 
stitute a word. 


FORMAL,  CEREMONIOUS. 

Formal  and  ceremonious,  from  form  and  ceremony 
'v.  Form,  ceremony),  are  either  taken  in  an  indifferent 
fe<*nsc  with  respect  to  what  contains  form  and  cere- 
mony, or  in  a bad  sense,  as  expressing  the  excess  of 
form  and  ceremony.  A person  expects  to  have  a 
formal  dismissal  before  he  considers  himself  as  dis- 
missed ; people  of  fashion  pay  each  other  ceremonious 
visits,  by  way  of  keeping  up  a distant  intercourse. 
Whatever  communications  arc  made  from  one  govern- 
ment to  another  must  be  made  in  a formal  manner ; 
‘ As  there  are  formal  and  written  leagues,  respective 
to  certain  enemies ; so  there  is  a natural  and  tacit  con- 
federation among  all  men  against  the  common  enemies 
of  human  society.’— Bacon.  It  is  the  business  of  the 
church  to  regulate  the  ceremonious  part  of  religion. 
‘ tinder  a different  economy  of  religion,  God  was  more 
tender  of  the  shell  and  ceremonious  part  of  his  wor- 
ship.’— South. 

Formal,  in  the  bad  sense,  is  opposed  to  easy : cere- 
monious to  the  cordial.  A formal  carriage  prevents  a 
oerson  from  indulging  himself  in  the  innocent  fami- 
liarities of  friendly  intercourse; 

Formal  in  apparel. 

In  gait  and  countenance  surely  like  a father. 

Shakspeare. 

A ceremonious  carriage  puts  a stop  to  all  hospitality 
and  kindness.  Princes,  in  their  formal  intercourse 
with  each  other,  know  nothing  of  the  pleasures  of  so- 
ciety; ceremonious  visitants  give  and  receive  enter- 
tainments, without  tasting  any  of  the  enjoyments 
which  flow  from  the  reciprocity  of  kind  offices  ; ‘ From 
the  moment  one  sets  up  for  an  author,  one  must  be 
treated  as  ceremoniously,  that  is,  as  unfaithfully,  “ as 
a king’s  favourite,  or  as  a king.”’ — Pope. 


TO  CAUSE.  OCCASION,  CREATE. 

To  cause,  from  the  substantive  cause,  naturally  sig 
nifies  to  be  the  cause  of;  occasion,  from  the  noun  oc 
casion,  signifies  to  be  the  occasion  of;  create,  in  Latin 
creatus,  participle  of  creo,  comes  from  the  Greek  Kpiu 
to  command,  and  Ktpaivu)  to  perform. 

What  is  caused  seems  to  follow  naturally ; what  ia 
occasioned  follows  incidentally;  what  is  created  re- 
ceives its  existence  arbitrarily.  A wound  causes  pain ; 
accidents  occasion  delay;  busy-bodies  create  misch.ef. 

The  misfortunes  of  the  children  cause  great  afflic 
tion  to  the  parents ; 

Scarcely  an  ill  to  human  life  belongs, 

But  what  our  follies  cause,  or  mutual  wrongs. 

Jenyns. 

Business  occasions  a person’s  late  attendance  at  a 
place ; The  good  Psalmist  condemns  the  fooliih 
thoughts  which  a reflection  on  the  prosperous  Stan 
of  his  affairs  had  sometimes  occasional  in  him.’ — At 
TERBURY.  Disputes  aud  misunderstandings  create  ani- 
mosity and  ill-will ; ‘ As  long  as  the  powers  or  abilities 
which  are  ascribed  to  others  are  exerted  in  a sphere 
of  action  remote  from  ours,  and  not  brought  into  com- 
petition with  talents  of  the  same  kind  to  which  we 
have  pretensions,  they  create  no  jealousy.’ — Blair 
The  cause  of  a person’s  misfortunes  may  often  be 
traced  to  his  own  misconduct:  the  improper  beha- 
viour of  one  person  may  occasion  an  ther  to  ask  for 
an  explanation;  jealousies  are  created  in  the  minds  of 
relatives  by  an  unnecessary  reserve  and  distance. 


TO  MAKE,  DO,  ACT. 

Make,  in  Dutch  maken,  Saxon  macan,  &c.,  comes 
from  the  Greek  signifying  to  put  together 

with  art ; do,  in  German  than,  comes  probably  from 
the  Greek  dcivai  to  put,  signifying  to  put,  or  put  in 
order,  to  bring  to  pass ; act,  in  Latin  actus,  from  ago 
to  direct,  signifies  literally  to  put  iu  motion. 

We  cannot  make  without  doing,  but  we  may  do 
{v.  To  act)  without  making : to  do  is  simply  to  move 
for  a certain  end  ; to  make  is  to  do,  so  as  to  bring  some- 
thing into  being,  which  was  not  before:  we  make  a 
thing  what  it  was  not  before ; we  do  a thing  in  the 
same  manner  as  we  did  it  before;  what  is  made  is 
either  belter  or  worse,  or  the  same  as  another  ; 
Empire  ! thou  poor  and  despicable  thing  I 
When  such  as  these  make  and  unmake  a king. 

Drydkn 

What  is  done,  is  done  either  wisely  or  unwisely ; 

What  shall  I do  to  be  forever  known. 

And  make  the  age  to  come  my  own. — Cowley. 
We  act  whenever  we  do  any  thing,  but  we  may  act 
without  doing  any  thing.  The  verb  act  is  always  in- 
transitive ; and  do  transitive ; we  do  something,  but 
not  act  something.  The  act  approaches  nearest  to  the 
idea  of  move;  it  is  properly  the  exertion  of  power 
corporeal  or  mental : do  is  closely  allied  to  effect ; it  is 
the  producing  an  effect  by  such  au  exertion.  They 
act  very  unwisely  wlio  attempt  to  do  more  than  their 
abilities  will  enable  them  to  complete : whatever  we 
do,  let  us  be  careful  to  act  considerately;  ‘We  have 
made  this  a maxim,  “That  a man  who  is  commonly 
called  good-natured  is  hardly  to  be  thanked  for  what 
he  does,  because  half  that  is  acted  about  him  is  done 
rather  by  his  sufferance  than  approbation.”  ’ — Steele 


ACTION,  ACT,  DEED. 

The  words  action,  act,  and  deed,  though  derived 
from  the  preceding  verbs,  have  an  obvious  distinction 
in  their  meaning. 

* We  mark  the  degrees  of  action  which  indicate 
energy;  we  mark  the  number  of  acts  which  may  serve 
to  designate  a habit  or  character:  we  speak  of  a lively, 
vehement,  or  impetuous  action;  a man  of  action,  in 
distinction  from  a mere  talker  or  an  idler;  whatevei 
rests  without  influence  or  movement  has  lost  its  ac- 
tion: we  speak  of  many  acts  of  a particular  kind, 
we  call  him  a fool  who  commits  continued  acts  of 
folly ; and  him  a niggard  who  commits  nothing  but 
acts  of  meanness. 

Jlction  IS  a continued  exertion  of  power ; act  fa  i 
Roubaud ; “ Acte,  action  ” 


ENG.JSH  SYiNONYMES. 


235 


Wngic  exertion  of  power , cli  i piiyfical  movement ; the 
simple  acting.  Our  actions  are  our  works  in  the 
strict  sense  of  the  word ; our  acts  are  the  operations 
of  our  faculties.  The  character  of  a man  must  be 
judged  by  his  actions-,  the  merit  of  actions  depends 
on  the  motives  that  give  rise  to  them:  the  act  of 
speaking  is  peculiar  to  man  ; but  the  acts  of  walking, 
running,  eating,  &c.  are  common  to  all  animals. 

Actions  may  be  considered  either  singly  or  col- 
lectively ; acts  are  regarded  only  individually  and 
specifically : we  speak  of  all  a man’s  actions,  but  not 
all  his  acts  ; we  say  a good  action,  a virtuous  action,  a 
charitable  as-Aion ; but  an  act,  not  an  action  of  good- 
ness, an  act  of  virtue,  an  act  of  faith,  an  act  of  cha- 
rity, and  the  like.  It  is  a good  action  to  conceal  the 
faults  of  our  neighbours ; but  a rare  act  of  charily 
among  men.  Many  noble  actions  are  done  in  private, 
the  consciousness  of  which  is  the  only  reward  of  the 
doer ; the  wisest  of  men  may  occasionally  commit 
acts  of  folly  which  are  not  imputable  to  their  general 
character  ; ‘ Many  of  those  actions  which  are  apt  to 
procure  fame  are  not  in  their  nature  conducive  to  our 
ultimate  happiness.’ — Addison.  Nothing  can  be  a 
greater  act  of  imprudence  than  not  to  take  an  occa- 
sional review  of  our  past  actions;  ‘I  desire  that  the 
same  rule  may  be  extended  to  the  whole  fraternity  of 
heathen  gods ; it  being  my  design  to  condemn  every 
poem  to  the  flames,  in  which  Jupiter  thunders  or 
exercises  any  act  of  authority  which  does  not  belong 
to  him.’— Addison. 

Action*  is  a term  applied  to  whatever  is  done  in 
general ; act  to  that  which  is  remarkable  or  that  re- 
quires to  be  distinguished.  The  sentiments  of  the 
heart  are  easier  to  be  discovered  by  one’s  actions  than  by 
one’s  words : it  is  an  heroick  act  to  forgive  our  enemy, 
when  we  are  in  a condition  to  be  revenged  on  him. 
The  good  man  is  cautious  in  all  his  actions  to  avoid 
even  the  appearance  of  evil;  a great  prince  is  anxious 
to  mark  every  year  by  some  distinguished  act  of  wis- 
dom or  virtue. 

Act  and  deed  are  both  employed  for  what  is  re- 
markable ; but  act  denotes  only  one  single  thing  done  ; 

Who  forth  from  nothing  call’d  this  comely  frame. 

His  will  and  act,  his  word  and  work  the  same. 

Prior. 

Deed  implies  some  complicated  performance,  some- 
thing achieved  : we  display  but  one  quality  or  power 
in  performing  an  act;  we  display  many,  both  phy- 
sical and  mental,  in  performing  a deed.  A prince  dis- 
tinguishes himself  by  acts  of  mercy;  the  commander 
rtf  an  army  by  martial  deeds  ; 

I on  the  other  side 

Us’d  no  ambition  to  commend  my  deeds  ; 

The  deeds  themselves,  though  mute,  spoke  loud  the 
doer. — Milton. 

Acts  of  disobedience  in  youth  frequently  lead  to  the 
perpetration  of  the  foulest  deeds  in  more  advanced 
life. 

DEED,  EXPLOIT,  ACHIEVEMENT,  FEAT. 

Deed,  from  do,  expresses  the  thing  done  ; exploit,  in 
French  exploit,  most  probably  changed  ixom  explica- 
tus,  signifies  the  thing  unfolded  or  displayed  ; achieve- 
ment, from  achieve,  signifies  the  thing  achieved  ; feat, 
in  French  fait,  Latin /actum,  from  facio,  signifies  the 
thing  done. 

The  first  three  words  rise  progressively  on  each 
other : deeds,  compared  with  the  others,  is  employed 
for  that  which  is  ordinary  or  extraordinary ; exploit 
and  achievement  are  used  only  for  the  extriordinary  ; 
the  latter  in  a higher  sense  than  the  former. 

Deeds  must  always  be  characterized  as  good  or  bad, 
magnanim«us  or  atrocious,  and  the  like,  except  in 
poetry,  where  the  term  becomes  elevated  ; 

Great  Pollio ! thou  for  whom  thy  Rome  prepares 

The  ready  triumph  of  thy  finish’d  wars  ; 

Is  there  in  fate  an  hour  reserv’d  for  me 

To  sing  thy  deeds  in  numbers  worthy  thee  7 

Drydkn. 

Exploit  and  achievement  do  not  necessarily  require 
any  epithets;  they  are  always  taken  in  the  proper 
sense  for  something  great.  Exploit,  when  compared 

* Girard  “ Action,  acte,” 


with  achievement,  is  term  used  in  piam  prose;  it 
designates  not  so  much  what  is  great  as  what  is  real  ■ 
achievement  is  most  adapted  to  poetry  and  romance ; 
it  soars  above  what  the  eye  sees,  and  the  ear  hears,  and 
affords  scope  for  the  imagination.  Martial  deeds  arc 
as  interesting  to  the  reader  as  to  the  performer : the 
pages  of  modern  history  will  be  crowded  with  the 
exploits  of  Englishmen  both  by  sea  and  land,  as  those 
of  ancient  and  fabulous  history  are  with  the  achieve 
ments  of  their  heroes  and  demi-gods.  An  exploit 
marks  only  personal  bravery  in  action ; an  achieve- 
ment denotes  elevation  of  character  in  every  respect, 
grandeur  of  design,  promptitude  in  execution,  and 
valour  in  action.  ' 

An  exploit  may  be  executed  by  the  design  and  at  the 
will  of  another ; a common  soldier  or  an  army  may 
perform  exploits ; 

High  matter  thou  enjoin’st  me,  O prime  of  men.' 

Sad  task  and  hard  ; for  how  shall  I relate 

To  human  sense  th’  invisible  exploits 

Of  warring  spirits  1 — Milton. 

An  achievement  is  designed  and  executed  by  the 
achiever;  Hercules  is  distinguished  for  his  achieve- 
ments: and  in  the  same  manner  we  speak  of  the 
achievements  of  knights-errant  or  of  great  comman- 
1 ders  ; 

Great  spoils  and  trophies  gain’d  by  thee  they  bear, 

Then  let  thy  own  achievements  be  thy  share. 

Drydkn. 

Feat  approaches  nearest  to  exploit  in  signification ; 
the  former  marks  skill,  and  the  latter  resolution.  The 
feats  of  chivalry  displayed  in  justs  and  tournaments 
were  in  former  limes  as  much  esteemed  as  warlike 
exploits  ; 

Much  I have  heard 

Of  thy  prodigious  might,  and /eats  perform’d. 

Milton. 

Exploit  and  feat  are  often  used  in  derision,  to  mark 
the  absence  of  those  qualities  in  the  actions  of  indivi- 
duals. The  soldier  who  atfects  to  be  foremost  in  situa- 
tions where  there  is  no  danger  cannot  be  more  pro- 
perly derided  than  by  terming  his  action  an  exploit . 
he  who  prides  himself  on  the  display  of  skill  in  the 
performance  of  a paltry  trick  may  be  laughed  at  foi 
having  performed  a feat. 

ACTION,  GESTURE,  GESTICULATION,  POS 
TURE,  ATTITUDE,  POSITION. 

Action  is  either  the  act  of  acting,  or  the  manner  oi 
acting ; gesture,  in  French  geste,  Latin  gestus,  par 
ticiple  of  gero  to  carry  one’s  self,  signifies  the  manner 
of  carrying  one’s  body  ; gesticulation,  in  Latin  ges 
ticulatio,  comes  from  gesticulor  to  make  many  ge.<i 
tures ; posture,  in  French  posture,  Latin  positura  l 
position,  comes  from  positus,  participle  of  pono,  signi- 
fying the  manner  of  placing  one’s  self ; attitude,  in 
French  attitude,  Italian  attitudine,  is  changed  from 
aptitude,  signifying  a propriety  as  to  disposition. 

All  these  terms  are  applied  to  the  state  of  the  body  ; 
the  former  three  indicating  a state  of  motion  ; the 
latter  two  a state  of  rest.  Action  respects  the  move- 
ments of  the  body  in  general ; gesture  is  an  action 
indicative  of  some  particular  state  of  mind  ; gesticu- 
lation is  a species  of  artificial  gesture.  Raising  the 
arm  is  an  action  ; bowing  is  a gesture. 

Actions  may  be  ungraceful;  gestures  indecent  A 
suitable  action  sometimes  gives  great  force  to  the  words 
that  are  uttered  ; ‘ Cicero  concludes  his  celebrated 
hook  “de  Oratore”  with  some  precepts  for  pronun- 
ciation and  action,  without  which  part  he  aflirms  that 
the  best  orator  in  the  world  can  never  succeed.’ — 
Hughes.  Gestures  often  supply  the  place  of  lan- 
guage between  people  of  different  nations  ; ‘ Our  best 
actors  are  somewhat  at  a loss  to  support  themselves 
with  proper  gesture,  as  they  move  from  any  considera- 
ble distance  to  the  front  of  the  stage.’ — Steele.  Ac- 
tions characterize  a man  as  vulgar  or  well-bred  ; 'res- 
tures  mark  the  temper  of  the  mind.  There  are  nftiny 
actions  which  it  is  the  object  of  education  to  prevent 
from  growing  into  habits ; savages  express  the  vehe- 
ment passions  of  the  mind,  by  vehement  gestures  oi; 
every  occasion,  even  in  their  amusements.  An  extra- 
vagant or  unnatural  ge.Aure  is  termed  a ffesticvlation  ; 
« sycophant,  who  wishes  to  cringe  into  favour  with 


m 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


rne  great,  deals  largely  in  gesticulation  to  mark  his 
devotion  ; a buffoon  who  attempts  to  imitate  the  ges- 
tures of  another  will  use  gesticulation ; and  the  mon- 
key who  apes  the  actions  of  human  beings  does  so  by 
means  of  gesticulations  ; ‘Neither  the  judges  of  our 
laws,  nor  the  representatives  of  the  people,  would  be  j 
much  affected  by  laboured  gesticulation^  or  believe 
any  man  the  more,  because  he  rolled  his  eyes,  or 
puffed  his  cheeks.’ — Johnson. 

Posture  * is  a mode  of  placing  the  body  more  or 
less  differing  from  the  ordinary  habits  ; attitude  is  the 
manner  of  keeping  the  body  more  or  less  suitable  to 
the  existing  circumstances.  A posture,  however  con- 
venient, is  never  assumed  without  exertion ; it  is  there- 
foro  willingly  changed : an  attitude,  though  not  usual, 
is  still  according  to  the  nature  of  things;  it  is  therefore 
readily  preserved.  A posture  is  singular;  it  has  some- 
thing in  it  which  departs  from  the  ordinary  carriage 
of  the  body,  and  makes  it  remarkable ; ‘ Falsehood  in 
a short  time  found  by  experience,  that  her  superiority 
consisted  only  in  the  celerity  of  her  course,  and  the 
change  of  her  posture.' — Johnson.  An  attitude  is 
striking;  it  is  the  natural  expression  of  character  or 
impression;  ‘Falsehood  always  endeavoured  to  copy 
the  mien  and  attitudes  of  truth.’— Johnson.  A brave 
man  will  put  himself  into  a posture  of  defence,  with- 
out assuming  an  attitude  of  defiance. 

Strange  and  forced  positions  of  the  body  are  termed 
postures ; noble,  agreeable,  and  expressive  forms  of 
carriage,  are  called  attitudes : mountebanks  and  clowns 
pul  themselves  into  ridiculous  postures  in  order  to 
excite  laughter;  actors  assume  graceful  attitudes  to 
represent  their  characters.  Postures  are  to  the  body 
wliat  grimaces  are  to  the  face;  attitudes  are  to  the 
body  what  air  is  to  the  figure;  he  who  in  attempting 
to  walk  assumes  the  attitude  of  a dancer,  puts  himself 
into  a ridiculous  posture;  a graceful  and  elegant  atti- 
..ude  in  dancing  becomes  an  aftecled  and  laughable 
posture  in  another  case. 

Postures  are  sometimes  usefully  employed  in  stage 
d iticing ; the  attitudes  are  necessarily  employed  by 
painters,  sculptors,  dancing  masters,  and  other  artists. 
Posture  is  said  of  the  whole  body  ; the  rest,  of  parti- 
cular limbs  or  parts.  Attitude  and  posture  are  figu- 
ratively applied  to  other  objects  besides  the  body: 
armies  assume  a menacing  attitude ; in  a critical  jios- 
ture  of  affairs,  extraordinary  skill  is  required  on  the 
part  of  the  government;  ‘Milton  has  presented  this 
violent  spirit  (Moloch)  as  the  first  that  rises  in  that 
assembly  to  give  his  opinion  upon  their  present  pos- 
ture of  affairs.’ — Addison. 

Position,  when  compared  with  posture,  is  taken  only 
in  regard  to  persons,  in  which  case  the  posture,  as  ob- 
served above,  is  a species  of  position,  namely,  an  arti- 
ficial position:  if  a person  stands  tiptoe,  in  order  to  1 
see  to  a greater  distance,  he  may  be  said  to  put  him- 
self into  that  position;  but  if  a dancer  do  the  same, 
as  a part  of  his  performance,  it  becomes  a posture : so, 
likewise,  when  one  leans  against  the  wall  it  is  a lean- 
ing position  ; ‘ Every  step,  in  the  progression  of  exist- 
ence, changes  our  position  with  resjiect  to  the  tilings  | 
about  us.’ — Johnson.  But  when  one  theatrically  bends 
his  body  backward  or  forward,  it  is  a posture:  one 
may,  in  the  same  manner,  sit  in  an  erect  position,  or 
in  a reclining  posture;  ‘ When  I entered  his  room,  he 
was  sitting  in  a contemplative  posture,  with  his  eyes 
fixed  upon  the  ground  , after  he  had  continued  in  his 
reverie  near  a quarter  of  an  hour,  he  rose  up  and 
seemed  hy  his  gestures  to  take  leave  of  some  invisible 

guest.’— IIaWKES  WORTH. 

ACTION,  AGENCY,  OPERATION. 

Action  (v.  To  act)  is  the  effect,  agency  the  cause. 
/Iction  is  inherent  in  the  subject ; 

noble  English,  that  could  entertain 

With  half  their  forces  the  full  power  of  France, 

And  let  another  half  stand  laughing  by. 

All  out  of  work,  and  cold  for  action. — Sh.xksi'eare. 
Agency  is  something  exleriour  ; it  is,  in  fact,  putting  a 
thing  into  action : in  this  manner,  the  whole  world  is 
in  action  through  the  agency  of  the  Divine  Being ; 
‘A  few  advances  there  are  in  the  following  papers 
tending  to  assert  tho  superintendence  and  agency  of 
Providence  in  the  natural  world.’— Woodward.  Somc- 

* Rouba id.  “Posture,  attitude  ’ 


times  the  word  actior,  is  taken  in  the  sense  of  acting 
upon,  when  it  approaches  still  nearer  to  agency;  ‘ It 
is  better  therefore  that  the  earth  should  move  about  its 
own  centre,  and  make  those  useful  vicissitudes  of  night 
and  day,  than  expose  always  the  same  side  to  the  action 
j of  the  sun.’ — Bentley.  Operation,  from  the  Latin 
operatio,  and  opera  labour  or  opus  need,  signifying  the 
work  that  is  needful,  is  action  for  a specifick  end,  and 
according  to  a rule  ; as  the  operation  of  nature  in  the 
article  of  vegetation ; 

The  tree  whose  operation  brings 

Knowledge  of  good  and  ill,  shun  tho  i to  taste. 

Milton. 

ACTIVE,  DILIGENT,  INDUSTRIOUS,  ASSIDU 
OUS,  LABORIOUS. 

Active,  from  the  verb  to  act,  implies  a propensity  tc 
act,  to  be  doing  something  without  regard  to  the  nature 
of  the  object ; diligent,  in  French  diligent,  Latin  dili- 
gens,  participle  of  diligo  to  choose  or  like,  implies  an 
attachment  to  an  object,  and  consequent  attention  tc 
it ; industrious,  in  French  industrieux,  Latin  indus- 
trius,  is  pro'bably  formed  from  intro  within  and  struo 
to  build,  make,  or  do,  signifying  an  inward  or  tho- 
rough inclination  to  be  engaged  in  some  serious  work ; 
assiduous,  in  French  assidu,  in  Latin  assiduus,  is 
compounded  of  as  or  ad  and  siduus  from  sedeo  to  sit, 
signifying  to  sit  close  to  a thing  ; laborious,  in  French 
laborieux,  Latin  laboriosus,  from  labour,  implies  be- 
longing to  labour,  or  the  inclination  to  labour. 

We  are  active  if  we  are  only  ready  to  exert  our 
powers,  whether  to  any  end  or  not;  ‘Providence  has 
made  the  human  soul  an  active  being.’ — Johnson. 
We  are  diligent  when  we  are  active  for  some  specifick 
end ; ‘ A constant  and  unfailing  obedience  is  above  the 
reach  of  terrestrial  rZrlio-encc.’ — Johnson.  We  are  m- 
dustrious  when  no  time  is  left  unemployed  in  some 
serious  pursuit;  ‘It  has  been  observed  by  writers  of 
morality,  that  in  order  to  quicken  human  industry. 
Providence  has  so  contrived  that  our  daily  food  is  not 
to  be  procured  without  much  pains  and  labour.’— 
Addison.  We  are  assiduous  if  we  do  not  leave  a 
thing  until  it  is  finished ; ‘ If  ever  a cure  is  performed 
on  a patient,  where  quacks  are  concerned,  they  can 
claim  no  greater  share  in  it  than  Virgil’s  lapis  in  the 
curing  of  lEncas;  he  tried  his  skill,  was  very  assi- 
duous about  the  wound,  and  indeed  was  the  only 
visible  means  that  relieved  the  hero;  but  the  poet 
assures  us  it  was  the  particular  assistance  of  a deity 
that  speeded  the  operation.’ — Pearce.  We  are  labo- 
rious when  the  bodily  or  mental  powers  are  regularly 
employed  in  some  hard  labour;  ‘If  we  look  into  the 
brute  creation,  we  find  all  its  individuals  engaged  in  a 
j painful  and  laborious  way  of  life  to  procure  a neces- 
sary subsistence  for  themselves.’— Addison. 

A man  may  be  active  without  being  diligent,  since 
he  may  employ  himself  in  what  is  of  no  importance ; 
but  he  can  scarcely  be  diligent  without  being  active, 
since  diligence  supposes  some  degree  of  activity  in 
I one’s  apitlication  to  a useful  object.  A man  may  be 
diligent  without  being  industrious,  for  he  may  dili- 
gently employ  himself  about  a particular  favourite 
object  wiiiiout  employing  himself  constantly  in  the 
same  way ; and  he  may  be  industrious  without  being 
diligent,  since  diligence  implies  a free  exercise  of  tiie 
mental  as  well  as  corporeal  powers,  but  industry  ap- 
plies principally  to  manual  labour.  Activity  and  dili- 
gence are  therefore  commonly  the  property  of  lively  or 
strong  minds,  but  industry  may  be  associated  with 
moderate  talents.  A man  may  be  diligent  without 
being  assiduous  ; but  he  cannot  be  assiduous  without 
being  diligent,  for  assiduity  is  a sort  of  persevering 
diligence.  A man  may  be  industrious,  without  being 
laborious,  but  not  viceversd;  for  laboriousness  is  a 
severer  kind  of  industry. 

The  active  man  is  never  easy  without  an  employ- 
ment ; the  diligent  man  is  contented  with  the  employ 
nient  he  has;  the  industrious  man  goes  from  one  em 
ploynient  to  the  other;  the  assiduous  man  seeks  to 
attain  the  end  of  his  employment;  ihalaborious  man 
spares  no  pains  or  labour  in  following  his  employment. 

Activity  is  of  great  importance  for  those  who  have 
the  management  of  public  concerns;  diligence  \n  busi- 
ness contributes  greatly  to  success  : industry  is  of  great 
value  in  obtainin"  a livelihood;  withoui  assiduity  nr. 
advances  can  be  made  in'  science  or  literature;  an*' 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


•291 


fvitiioui  laborious  exertions,  considerable  attainments 
are  not  to  be  expected  in  many  literary  pursuits. 

Active  minds  set  on  foot  inquiries  to  which  the  in- 
dustrious ihy  assiduous  application,  and  diligent  if  not 
laborious  research,  often  aflord  satisfactory  answers. 

ACTIVE,  BRISK,  AGILE,  NIMBLE. 

Active  signifies  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  article ; 
brisk  has  a common  origin  with  fresh,  which  is  in 
Saxon  fersh,  Dutch  frisck  or  bersk,  Danish  frisk, 
fersk,  &c. ; agile,  in  Latin  agilis,  comes  from  the  same 
verb  as  active,  signifying  a fitness,  a readiness  to  act  or 
move;  nimble  is  probably  derived  from  the  Saxon 
nemen  to  take,  implying  a fitness  or  capacity  to  take 
any  thing  by  a celerity  of  movement.  ' 

respects  one’s  transactions;  briskness,  one’s 
sports : men  are  active  in  carrying  on  business ; chil- 
dren are  brisk  in  their  play.  Agility  refers  to  the  light 
and  easy  carriage  of  tiie  body  in  springing ; nirnble- 
ncss  to  its  quick  and  gliding  movements  in  running. 
A rope-dancer  is  agile;  a female  moves  nimbly. 

Activity  results  from  ardour  of  mind ; ‘ There  is  not 
a more  painful  action  of  the  mind  than  invention  ; yet 
in  dreams  it  works  with  that  ease  and  activity,  that 
we  are  nut  sensible  when  the  faculty  is  employed.’ — 
Addison.  Briskness  springs  from  vivacity  of  feeling ; 

‘ I made  my  next  application  to  a widow,  and  attacked 
her  so  briskly  that  1 thought  myself  within  a fortnight 
of  her.’ — Budgkll.  Agility  is  produced  by  corporeal 
viiiour,  and  habitual  strong  exertion;  ‘When  the 
Prince  touched  his  stirrup,  and  was  going  to  speak, 
the  officer,  with  an  incredible  agility,  threw  himself  on 
the  earth  and  kissed  liis  feet.’ — Stickle.  JiTimbleness 
results  from  an  effort  to  move  lightly  ; 

O friends,  I hear  the  tread  of  nimble  feet 
Hasting  this  way. — Milton. 

ACTIVE,  BUSY,  OFFICIOUS. 

A'Moe  signifies  the  same  as  before;  busy,  in  Saxon 
gebisged,  from  bisgian,  in  German  beschdfftigt,  from 
bcschdfftigen  to  occupy,  and  schaffen  to  make  or  do, 
implies  a propensity  to  be  occupied  ; officious,  in  French 
offeieax,  Latin  officiosus,  from  offeium  duty  or  service, 
signifies  a propensity  to  perform  some  service  or  office. 

Active  respects  the  liabit  or  disposition  of  the  mind ; 
busy  and  q^crows,  either  the  disposition  of  the  mind, 
or  the  employment  of  the  moment;  the  former  regards 
every  species  of  employment ; the  latter  only  particular 
kinds  of  employment.  An  active  person  is  ever  ready 
to  be  employed ; a person  is  busy,  when  he  is  actually 
employed  in  any  object;  he  is  onerous,  when  he  is 
employed  for  others. 

Active  is  always  taken  in  a good,  or  at  least  an  in- 
different sense ; it  is  opposed  to  lazy ; ‘ The  pursuits  of 
the  active  part  of  mankind  are  either  in  the  paths  of 
religion  and  virtue,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  in  the  roads 
to  wealth,  honour,  or  pleasures.’ — Addison.  Busy, 
as  it  respects  occupation,  is  mostly  in  a good  sense ; 
‘ We  see  multitudes  busy  in  the  pursuit  of  riches,  at 
the  expense  of  wisdom  and  virtue.’ — Johnson.  It  is 
opposed  to  being  at  leisure  ; as  it  respects  disposition, 
it  is  always  in  a bad  sense;  ‘The  air-pump, the  baro- 
meter, the  quadrant,  and  the  like  inventions,  were 
thrown  out  to  those  busy  spirits  (politicians),  as  tubs 
and  barrels  are  to  a whale,  that  he  may  let  the  ship 
sail  on  without  disturbance.’ — Addison.  Officious  is 
never  taken  in  a good  sense;  it  implies  being  busy 
without  discretion.  To  an  active  disposition,  nothing 
is  more  irksome  than  inaction  ; but  it  is  not  concerned 
to  inquire  into  the  utility  of  the  action.  It  is  better  for 
a person  to  be  busy  than  quite  unemployed  ; but  a 
busy  person  will  employ  liimaelf  about  the  concerns  of 
others,  when  he  has  none  of  his  own  sufficiently  im- 
portant to  engage  his  attention ; an  officious  person  is 
as  unfortunate  as  he  is  troublesome;  when  he  strives 
to  serve  he  ha.s  the  misfortune  to  annoy  ; ‘ I was  forced 
to  quit  my  first  lodgings  by  reason  of  an  officious  land- 
lady, that  would  be  asking  me  every  morning  how  I 
had  slept.’ — Addison. 

SEDULOUS,  DILIGENT,  ASSIDUOUS. 

Sedulous,  from  the  Latin  sedulus  and  sedeo,  signifies 
sitting  close  to  a thing  ; diligent,  v.  Active,  diligent ; 
'tssiduous,  V.  Active,  diligent 


The  idea  of  application  is  expressed  by  these  epi 
thets,  but  sedulous  is  a particular,  diligent  is  a general 
term  : one  is  sedulous  by  habits  ; one  is  diligent  either 
habituallj’  or  occasionally : a sedulous  scholar  pursues 
his  studrjs  with  a regular  and  close  application  ; a 
scholar  may  be  diligent  at  a certain  period,  though  not 
invariably  so.  Sedulity  seems  to  mark  the  very  essen- 
tial property  of  application,  that  is,  adhering  closely  tc 
an  object;  but  diligence  expresses  one’s  attachment  tc 
a thing,  as  evinced  by  an  eager  pursuit  of  it;  the 
former,  therefore,  bespeaks  the  steadiness  of  the  cha- 
racter ; the  latter  merely  the  turn  of  one’s  inclination  ; 
one  is  sedulous  from  a conviction  of  the  importance 
of  the  thing  one  may  be  diligent  by  fits  and  starts, 
according  to  the  humour  of  the  moment. 

Assiduous  and  sedulous  both  express  the  qualify  of 
sitting  or  sticking  close  to  a thing,  but  the  former  may, 
like  diligent,  be  employed  on  a partial  occasion ; the 
latter  is  always  permanent:  we  may  be  assiduous  in 
our  attentions  to  a person  ; but  we  are  sedulous  in  the 
important  concerns  of  life.  Sedulous  peculiarly  re- 
spects the  quiet  employments  of  life ; a teacher  may 
be  entitled  sedulous ; ‘ One  thing  I would  offer  is  that 
he  would  constantly  and  sedulously  read  Tully,  which 
will  insensibly  work  him  into  a good  Latin  style.’ — 
Locke.  Diligent  respects  the  active  employments; 

‘ I would  recommend  a diligent  attendance  on  the 
courts  of  justice  (to  a student  for  the  bar).’ — Dunning. 
One  is  diligent  at  work:  assiduity  holds  a middle 
rank  ; it  may  be  employed  equally  for  that  which 
requires  active  exertion,  or  otherwise ; we  may  be 
assiduous  in  the  pursuits  of  literature,  or  we  may  be 
assiduous  in  our  attendance  upon  a person,  or  the  per 
formance  of  any  office  ; 

And  thus  the  patient  dam  assiduous  sits, 

Not  to  be  tempted  from  her  tender  task. 

Thomson. 


READY,  APT,  PROMPT. 

Ready,  from  the  German  bereiien  to  prepare,  sign! 
ties  prepared ; apt,  in  Latin  aptus,  signifies  literally 
fit ; prompt,  in  Latin  promptus,  from  promo  to  draw 
forth,  signifies  literally  drawn  to  a point. 

Ready  is  in  general  applied  to  that  which  has  been 
intentionally  prepared  for  a given  purpose  ; 

The  god  himself  with  ready  trident  stands 

And  opes  the  deep,  and  spreads  the  movimi  sands. 

Dryden. 

Promptness  and  aptness  are  species  of  readiness, 
which  lie  in  the  personal  endowments  or  disposition; 
hence  we  speak  of  things  being  ready  for  a journey  ; 
persons  being  apt  to  learn,  or  prompt  to  obey  or  to 
reply.  Ready,  when  applied  to  persons,  characterizes 
the  talent ; as  a ready  wit.  dpt  characterizes  the 
habits ; as  apt  to  judge  by  appearance,  or  apt  to 
decide  hastily  ; and  is  also  employed  in  the  same  sense 
figuratively ; ‘ Poverty  is  apt  to  betray  a man  into 
envy,  riches  into  arrogance.’ — Addison.  Prompt  cha- 
racterizes more  commonly  the  particular  action,  and 
denotes  the  willingness  of  the  agent,  and  the  quickness 
with  which  he  performs  the  action ; as  prompt  in  ex- 
ecuting a command,  or  prompt  to  listen  to  what  is  said ; 
so  likewise  whnn  applied  to  things  personal ; 

Let  not  the  fervent  tongue. 

Prompt  to  deceive,  with  adulation  smooth 
Gain  on  your  purpos’d  will. — Thomson. 

ALERTNESS,  ALACRITY. 

Alertness,  from  ales  a wing,  designates  corporeal 
activity  or  readiness  for  action ; alacrity,  from  acer 
sharp,  brisk,  designates  mental  activity. 

We  proceed  with  alertness,  when  the  body  is  in  ita 
full  vigour ; 

The  wings  that  waft  our  riches  out  of  sight 
Grow  on  the  gamester’s  elbows ; and  the  alert 
And  nimble  motion  of  those  restless  joints 
That  never  tire,  soon  fans  them  all  away. 

COWPKR 

We  proceed  with  alacrity  when  the  mind  is  in  fufi 
pursuit  of  an  object;  ‘In  dreams  it  is  wonderful  to 
observe  with  what  sprighiliness  an  1 ft/acrity  the  sou. 
exerts  herself  ’— .Apcison. 


298  cLNGLiSH  SYNONYMES.  . 


ACTOR,  AGENT. 

These  terms  vary  according  to  the  different  senses 
of  the  verb  from  which  they  are  drawn;  actor  is  used 
for  one  who  does  any  thing  or  acts  a part ; ‘ Of  all  the 
patriarchal  histories,  that  of  Joseph  and  his  brethren 
is  the  most  remarkable,  for  the  characters  of  the  actors, 
and  the  instructive  nature  of  the  events.’ — Blair.  An 
agent  is  one  who  puts  other  things  in  action,  particu- 
larly as  distinguished  from  the  patient  or  thing  acted 
upon  ; ‘They  produced  wonderful  effects,  by  the  pro- 
per application  of  agents  to  patients.’— Temple.  The 
agent  is  also  an  active  being,  or  one  possessing  the 
faculty  of  action ; 

Heav’n  made  us  agents  free  to  good  or  ill, 

And  forc’d  it  not,  tho’  he  foresaw  the  will. 

Dryden. 

An  agent  in  a piece  of  fiction  is  the  being  who  per- 
forms the  actions  narrated ; ‘ I expect  that  no  Pagan 
agent  shall  be  introduced  into  the  poem,  or  any  fact 
related  which  a man  cannot  give  credit  to  with  a good 
conscience.’ — Addison.  Hence  it  is  that  the  word 
actor  is  taken  in  the  sense  of  a player,  and  an  agent 
In  the  mercantile  sense  of  a factor,  or  one  who  acts  in 
another’s  stead. 


ACTOR,  PLAYER,  PERFORMER. 

The  actor  and  player  both  perform  on  a stage  ; but 
the  former  is  said  in  relation  to  the  part  that  is  acted, 
the  latter  to  the  profession  that  is  followed.  We  may 
be  actors  occasionally  without  being  players  profes- 
sionally, but  we  may  be  players  without  deserving  the 
name  of  actors.  Those  who  personate  characters  for 
their  amusement  are  actors  but  not  players : those 
who  do  the  same  for  a livelihood  are  players  as  well  as 
actors;  hence  we  speak  of  a company  of  players,  not 
actors.  So  likewise  in  the  figurative  sense,  whoever 
acts  a part,  real  or  fictitious,  that  is,  on  the  stage  of 
life,  or  the  stage  of  a theatre,  is  an  actor;  ‘Our 
orators  (says  Cicero)  are  as  it  were  the  actors  of 
truth  itself;  and  the  players  the  imitators  of  truth.’ — 
Hughes.  But  he  only  is  a player  who  performs  the 
fictitious  part ; hence  the  former  is  taken’'"  in  a bad  or 
good  sense,  according  to  circumstances;  ‘Cicero  is 
known  to  have  been  the  intimate  friend  of  Pwoscius  the 
actor.' — Hughes.  Player  is  always  taken  in  a less 
favourable  sense,  from  lire  artificiality  which  attaches 
to  his  profession ; 

All  the  world ’s  » stage. 

And  all  the  men  and  women  merely  players. 

Shakspeare. 

The  term  performer  is  now  used  in  the  sense  of  one 
who  perforins  a part  in  a theatrical  exhibition,  and  for 
the  most  part  in  application  to  the  individual  in  esti- 
mating the  merits  of  his  performance,  as  a good  or  bad 
performer. 


ACTUAL,  REAL,  POSITIVE. 

Actual,  in  French  actuel,  Latin  actualis,  from  actio 
a deed,  signifies  belonging  to  the  thing  done;  real,  in 
French  reel,  Latin  realis,  from  res,  signifies  belonging 
to  the  thing  as  it  is ; positive,  in  French  positif,  Latin 
positivus,  from  pono  to  place  or  fix,  signifies  the  state 
or  quality  of  being  fixed,  established. 

What  is  actual  has  proof  of  its  existence  within 
itself,  and  may  be  exposed  to  the  eye  ; what  is  real  may 
be  satisfactorily  proved  to  exist ; and  what  is  positive 
precludes  the  necessity  of  a proof.  Actual  is  opposed 
to  the  supposititious,  conceived  or  reported ; real  to 
the  feigned,  imaginary ; positive  to  the  uncertain, 
doubtful. 

Whatever  is  the  condition  of  a thing  for  the  time 
being  is  the  actual  condition  ; sorrows  are  real  which 
How  from  a substantial  cause;  proofs  are  positive 
which  leave  the  mind  in  no  uncertainty.  The  actual 
Slate  of  a nation  is  not  to  be  ascertained  by  individual 
instances  of  poverty,  or  the  reverse;  there  are  but 
few,  if  any,  real  objects  of  compassion  among  com- 
mon beggars;  many  positive  facts  have  been  related 
of  the  deception  which  they  have  practised.  By  an 
actual  survey  of  human  life,  we  are  alone  enabled  to 
form  just  opinions  of  mankind;  ‘The  very  notion  of 

* Vide  Girard-.  ‘Acieur  comedien.’ 


any  duration  being  psl  implies  that  it  was  once  pre 
sent;  for  the  idea  of  be'ng  once  present  is  actually  in- 
cluded in  the  idea  of  its  being  past.’— Addison.  It  is 
but  too  frequent  for  men  to  disguise  their  real  senti 
merits,  although  it  is  not  always  possible  to  obtain 
positive  evidence  of  their  insincerity;  ‘We  may  and 
do  converse  with  God  in  person  really,  and  to  all  the 
purposes  of  giving  and  receiving,  though  not  visibly,* 
—South.  ‘ Dissimulation  is  taken  for  a man’s  posi 
live  professing  himself  to  be  what  he  is  not.’— South 


TO  PERPETRATS,  COMMIT. 

The  idea  of  doing  something  wrong  is  common  tu 
these  terms  ; but  perpetrate,  from  the  Latin  perpetro, 
compounded  of  per  and.petro,  in  Greek  n-puTTw,  signi- 
fying thoroughly  to  compass  or  bring  about,  is  a much 
more  determined  proceeding  than  that  of  committing 
One  may  commit  offences  of  various  degree  and  mag- 
nitude ; but  one  perpetrates  crimes  only,  and  those  of 
the  more  heinous  kind.  A lawless  banditti,  wire 
spend  their  lives  in  the  perpetration  of  the  most  horrid 
crimes,  are  not  to  be  restrained  by  the  ordinary  course 
of  justice ; 

Then  shows  the  forest  which,  in  after-times. 
Fierce  Romulus,  for  perpetrated  crimes, 

A refuge  made.’— Dryden. 

He  who  commits  any  offence  against  the  good  order  o 
society  exposes  himself  to  the  censure  of  otliers,  w'bo 
may  be  his  inferiours  in  certain  respects  ; ‘ The  mis 
carriages  of  the  great  designs  of  princes  are  of  little 
use  to  the  bulk  of  mankind,  who  seem  very  little  inter 
ested  in  admonitions  against  errours  w'hich  they  can- 
not commit.' — Johnson. 


INACTIVE,  INERT,  LAZY,  SLOTHFUL, 
SLUGGISH. 

A reluctance  to  bodily  exertion  is  common  to  all 
these  terms.  Inactive  is  the  most  general  and  un- 
qualified term  of  all ; it  expresses  simply  the  want  of 
a stimulus  to  exertion  ; inert  is  something  more  posi- 
tive, from  the  Latin  iners  or  .sine  arte  without  art  or 
mind  ; it  denotes  a specifick  deficiency  either  in  body 
or  mind;  lazy,  which  has  the  same  signification  as 
given  under  the  head  of  Idle ; slothful,  from  slow,  that 
is,  full  of  slowness  ; and  sluggish  from  slug,  that  is, 
like  a slug,  drowsy  and  heavy,  all  rise  upon  one  an- 
other to  denote  an  expressly  defective  temperament  of 
the  body  which  directly  impedes  action. 

To  be  inactive  is  to  be  indisposed  to  action  ; that  is, 
to  the  performance  of  any  office,  to  the  doing  any  spi" 
cifick  business  r to  be  inert  is  somewhat  more ; it  is  to 
be  indisposed  to  movement ; to  be  lazy  is  to  move  with 
pain  to  one’s  self : to  be  slothful  is  never  to  move 
otherwise  than  slowly:  to  be  sluggish  is  to  move  in  a 
sleepy  and  heavy  manner. 

A person  may  be  inactive  from  a variety  of  inci- 
dental causes,  as  timidity,  ignorance,  modesty,  and  the 
like,  which  combine  to  make  him  averse  to  enter  upon 
any  business,  or  take  any  serious  step  ; a person  may 
be  inert  from  temporary  indispo,-ition ; but  laziness, 
slothfulness,  and  sluggishness  are  inherent  physical 
defects:  laziness  is  how'ever  not  altogether  inde 
pendent  of  the  mind  or  the  will;  but  slothfulness  and 
sluggishness  are  purely  the  offspring  of  nature,  or, 
which  is  the  same  thing,  habit  suiicrinduced  upon  na- 
ture. A man  of  a mild  character  is  frequenily  inactive; 
he  wants  that  ardour  which  impels  perpetually  to  ac 
tion ; he  wishes  for  nothing  with  sufficient  warmth  to 
make  action  agreeable;  he  is  therefore  inactive  by  a 
natural  consequence ; 

Virtue  conceal’d  within  our  breast 
Is  inactivity  at  best.— Swift. 

Hence  the  term  inactive  is  properly  applied  to  matter , 
What  laws  are  these  ? instruct  us  if  you  can  ; 
There’s  one  design’d  for  brutes  and  one  for  man. 
Another  guides  inactive  matter’s  course. 

Jenyns. 

Some  diseases,  particularly  of  the  melancholy  kind, 
are  accompanied  with  a strong  degree  of  inertness; 
since  they  seem  to  deprive  the  frame  of  its  ordinary 
powers  to  action,  and  to  produce  a certain  degree  of 
torpor.  Hence  the  term  is  emploved  to  express  a 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


. 299 


want  ol  th<  power  of  action  in  the  strongest  possible 
degree,  as  displayed  in  the  inanimate  part  of  the  crea- 
tion, 

Informer  of  the  planetary  train. 

Without  whose  quickening  glanct,  iheir  cumbrous 
orbs 

Were  brute,  unlovely  mass,  inert  and  dead. 

Thomson. 

Lazy  people  move  as  if  their  bodies  were  a burden  to 
themselves;  they  are  fond  of  rest,  and  particularly 
averse  to  be  put  in  action ; but  they  will  sometimes 
move  quickly,  and  perform  much  when  once  impelled 
to  move ; ‘ The  first  canto  (in  Thomson’s  Castle  pf  In- 
dolence) opens  a scene  of  lazy  luxury  that  fills  the  ima- 
gination.’—Johnson.  Slothf  ul  people  never  vary  their 
pace ; they  have  a physical  impediment  in  themselves 
to  quick  motion ; 

Falsely  luxurious,  will  not  man  awake. 

And,  springing  from  the  bed  of  sloth,  enjoy 
The  cool,  the  fragrant,  and  the  silent  hour  1 

Thomson. 

Sluggish  people  are  with  difficulty  brought  into  ac- 
tion; it  is  their  nature  to  be  in  a state  of  stupor; 
‘ Conversation  would  become  dull  and  vapid,  if  negli- 
gence were  not  sometimes  roused,  and  sluggishness 
quickened  by  due  severity  of  reprehension.’ — John- 
son. 


IDLE,  LAZY,  INDOLENT. 

Idle  is  in  German  eitel  vain ; lazy,  in  German  lassfg, 
comes  from  the  Latin  lassus  weary,  because  weari- 
ness naturally  engenders  laziness;  indolent,  in  Latin 
indolens,  signifies  without  feeling,  having  apathy  or 
unconcern 

A pronensity  to  inaction  is  the  common  idea  by 
which  these  words  are  connected ; they  differ  in  the 
cause  and  degree  of  the  quality;  idle  expresses  less 
than  lazy,  and  lazy  less  than  indolent : one  is  termed 
idle  who  will  do  nothing  useful ; one  is  lazy  who  will 
do  nothing  at  all  without  great  reluctance ; one  is  in- 
dolent who  does  not  care  to  do  any  thing  or  set  about 
anything.  There  is  no  direct  inaction  in  the  idler; 
for  a child  is  idle  who  will  not  learn  his  lesson,  but  he 
is  active  enough  in  that  which  pleases  himself;  there 
is  an  aversion  to  corporeal  action  in  a lazy  man,  but 
not  always  to  mental  action  ; he  is  lazy  at  work,  lazy 
in  walki^^  or  lazy  in  sitting ; but  he  may  not  object 
to  anyeiiTfiioyment,  such  as  reading  or  thinking,  which 
leaves  his  body  entirely  at  rest ; an  indolent  man,  on 
the  contrary,  fails  in  activity  from  a defect  both  in  the 
mind  and  the  body;  he  will  not  only  not  move,  but  he 
will  not  even  think,  if  it  give  him  trouble ; and  trifling 
exertions  of  any  kind  are  sufficient,  even  in  prospect, 
to  deter  him  from  attempting  to  move. 

Idleness  is  common  to  the  young  and  the  thought- 
less, to  such  as  have  not  steadiness  of  mind  to  set  a 
value  on  any  thing  which  may  be  acquired  by  exer- 
iion  and  regular  employment;  the  idle  man  is  opposed 
to  one  that  is  diligent;  ‘As  pride  is  sometimes  hid 
under  humility,  idleness  is  often  covered  by  turbulence 
and  hurry.’ — Johnson.  Laziness  is  frequent  among 
those  who  are  compelled  to  work  for  others ; it  is  a 
habit  of  body  superinduced  upon  one’s  condition; 
those  who  should  labour  are  often  the  most  unwilling 
to  move  at  all,  and  since  the  spring  of  the  mind  which 
should  iinpd  them  to  action  is  wanting,  and  as  they 
are  continually  under  the  necessity  of  moving  at  the 
will  of  another,  they  acquire  an  habitual  reluctance  to 
any  motion,  and  find  their  comfort  in  entire  inaction, 
nence  laziness  is  almost  confined  to  servants  and  the 
labouring  classes;  laziness  is  opposed  to  industry; 
‘ Wicked  condemned  men  will  ever  live  like  rogues, 
and  not  fall  to  work,  but  be  lazy  and  spend  victuals.* 
— Bacon.  Lazy  may  however  be  applied  figuratively 
to  other  objects ; 

The  daw, 

The  rook,  and  magpie,  to  the  gray-grown  oaks, 
That  the  calm  village  in  their  verdant  arms 
Sheltering  embrace,  direct  their  lazy  flight. 

Thomson. 

Indolence  is  a physical  property  of  the  mind,  a want 
of  motive  or  purpose  to  action ; the  indolent  man  is 
not  so  fond  of  his  bodily  ease  as  the  lazy  man,  but  he 
shrinks  from  every  species  of  exertion  still  more  than 


the  latter;  indolence  is  a disease  most  observable  in 
the  higher  classes,  and  even  in  persons  of  the  highest 
intellectual  endowments,  in  whom  there  should  be  the 
most  powerful  motives  to  exertion  ; the  indolent  stands 
in  direct  opposition  to  nothing  but  the  general  term 
active ; ‘Nothing  is  so  opposite  to  the  true  enjoyment 
of  life  as  the  relaxed  and  feeble  state  of  an  indolent 
mind.’ — Blair. 

The  life  of  a common  player  is  most  apt  to  breed  an 
habitual  idleness;  as  they  have  no  serious  employ- 
ment to  occupy  their  hands  or  their  heads,  they  grow 
averse  to  every  thing  which  would  require  the  e.xercise 
of  either ; the  life  of  a common  soldier  is  apt  to  breed 
laziness : lie  who  can  sit  or  lie  for  twelve  hours  out 
of  the  twenty-four,  will  soon  acquire  a disgust  to  any 
kind  of  labour,  unless  he  be  naturally  of  an  active 
turn  : the  life  of  a rich  man  is  mo.st  favourable  to  mdo- 
lence;  he  who  has  everything  provided  at  his  hand, 
not  only  for  the  necessities,  but  the  comforts  of  life, 
may  soon  become  averse  to  every  thing  that  wears  the 
face  of  exertion ; he  may  become  indolent,  if  he  be  net 
unfortunately  so  by  nature. 


IDLE,  LEISURE,  VACANT. 

Idle  signifies  here  emptiness  or  the  absence  of  that 
which  is  solid ; leisure,  otherwise  spelled  leasure,  comes 
from  lease,  as  in  the  compound  release,  and  the  Latin 
laxo  to  make  lax  or  loose,  that  is,  loosed  or  set  free ; 
vacant,  in  Latin  vacans,  from  vaco  to  free  or  be  empty, 
signifies  the  same. 

Idle  is  opposed  here  to  busy ; at  leisure  simply  to 
employed ; he  therefore  who  is  idle,  instead  of  being 
busy,  commits  a fault;  which  is  not  always  the  case 
with  him  who  is  at  leisure  or  free  from  his  employ- 
ment. Idle  is  therefore  always  taken  in  a sense  more 
or  less  unfavourable ; leisure  in  a sense  perfectly  in- 
different ; if  a man  says  of  himself  that  ho  has  spent 
an  idle  hour  in  this  or  that  place  in  amusement,  com- 
pany, and  the  like,  he  means  to  signify  he  would  have 
spent  it  better  if  any  thing  had  offered ; on  the  other 
hand,  he  would  say  that  he  spends  his  leisure  mo- 
ments in  a suitable  relaxation ; he  who  values  his 
time  will  take  care  to  have  as  few  idle  hours  as  pos- 
sible ; ‘ Life  is  sustained  with  so  little  labour,  that  the 
tediousness  of  idle  time  cannot  otherwise  be  supported 
(than  by  artificial  desires).’ — Johnson.  But  since  no 
one  can  always  be  employed  in  severe  labour,  he  will 
occupy  his  leisure  hours  in  that  which  best  suits  his 
taste ; 

Here  pause,  my  Gothick  lyre,  a little  while; 

The  leisure  hour  is  all  that  thou  canst  claim. 

Beattie 

Idle  and  leisure  are  said  in  particular  reference  to 
the  time  that  is  employed  ; vacant  is  a more  general 
term,  that  simply  qualifies  the  thing ; an  idle  hour  is 
without  any  employment ; a vacant  hour  is  in  general 
free  from  the  employments  with  which  it  might  be 
filled  up;  a person  has  leisure  time  according  to  his 
wishes  ; but  he  may  have  vacant  time  from  necessity, 
that  is,  when  he  is  in  want  of  employment ; ‘ Idleness 
dictates  expedients,  by  which  life  may  be  passed  unpro- 
fitably,  without  the  tediousness  of  many  vacant  hours  ’ 
— Johnson. 


IDLE,  VAIN 

Idle,  V.  Idle,  lazy ; vain,  in  Latin  vanus,  is  proba 
bly  changed  from  vacancus,  signifying  empty. 

These  epithets  are  both  opposed  to  the  solid  or  sub- 
stantial ; but  idle  has  a more  particular  reference  to 
what  ought  or  ought  not  to  engage  the  time  or  atten- 
tion ; vain  seems  to  qualify  the  thing  without  any 
such  reference.  A pursuit  may  be  termed  either  idle 
or  vain;  in  the  former  case,  it  reflects  immediately  on 
the  agent  for  not  employing  his  time  on  something 
more  serious  ; but  in  the  latter  case,  it  simply  charac- 
terizes the  pursuit  as  one  that  will  be  attended  with  no 
good  consequences;  when  we  consider  ourselves  as 
beings  who  have  but  a short  time  to  live,  and  tha 
every  moment  of  that  time  ought  to  be  thoroughly  well 
spent,  we  shall  be  careful  to  avoid  all  idle  concerns  ; 
when  we  consider  ourselves  as  rational  beings,  who 
are  responsible  for  the  use  of  those  powers  with  which 
we  have  been  invested  by  our  Almighty  Maker,  we 
shall  be  careful  to  reject  all  vain  concerns ; an  idU 


300 


ExNGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


effort  is  made  by  one  who  does  not  care  to  exert  him 
self  for  any  useful  purpose,  who  works  only  to  please 
himself ; a vain  effort  may  be  made  by  one  who  is  in 
a state  of  desperation.  These  terms  preserve  the  same 
distinction  when  applied  to  other  objects ; 

And  let  no  spot  of  idle  earth  be  found, 

But  cultivate  the  genius  of  the  ground. — Dryden. 

Deluded  by  vain  opinions,  we  look  to  the  advantages 
9f  fortune  as  our  ultimate  goods.’ — Blair. 


HEAVY,  DULL,  DROWSY. 

Heavy  is  allied  to  both  dull  and  drowsy^  but  the  lat- 
ter have  no  close  connexion  with  each  other. 

Heavy  and  dull  are  employed  as  epithets  both  for 
persons  and  things  ; heavy  characterizes  the  corporeal 
state  of  a person  ; dull  qualifies  the  spirits  or  the  un- 
derstanding of  the  subject.  A person  has  a heavy 
look  whose  temperament  seems  composed  of  gross  and 
weighty  materials  which  weigh  him  down  and  impede 
his  movements ; he  has  a dull  countenance  in  whom 
the  ordinary  brightness  and  vivacity  of  the  mind  is 
wanting : heavy  is  either  a characteristick  of  the  con- 
stitution, or  only  a particular  state  arising  from  exter- 
nal or  internal  causes; 

Heavy  with  age,  Entellus  stands  his  ground. 

But  with  his  warping  body  wards  the  wound. 

Dryden. 

Dullness  as  it  respects  the  frame  of  the  spirits,  is  a 
partial  state  ; as  it  respects  the  mental  vigour,  it  is  a 
characteristick  of  the  individual ; 

O thou  dull  god  ! why  liest  thou  with  the  vile 

In  loathsome  beds : and  leav’st  the  kingly  couch, 

A watch-case  to  a common  larum  bell  ? 

Shaespeare. 

It  is  a misfortune  frequently  attached  to  those  of  a 
corpulent  habit  to  be  very  heavy : there  is  no  one  who 
from  the  changes  of  the  atmosphere  may  not  be  occa- 
sionally heavy.  Those  who  have  no  resources  in 
themselves  are  always  dull  in  solitude : those  who  are 
not  properly  instructed,  or  have  a deficiency  of  capa- 
city, will  appear  dull  in  all  matters  of  learning. 

Heavy  is  either  properly  or  improperly  applied  to 
things  which  are  conceived  to  have  an  undue  tendency 
to  press  jr  lean  downwards:  dull  is  in  like  manner 
employed  for  whatever  fails  in  the  necessary  degree  of 
brightness  or  vivacity  ; the  weather  is  heavy  when  the 
air  is  full  of  thick  and  weighty  materials;  it  may  be 
dull  from  the  intervention  of  clouds. 

Heavy  and  drowsy  are  both  employed  in  the  sense 
of  sleepy ; but  the  former  is  only  a particular  state, 
the  latter  particular  or  general ; all  persons  may  be 
occasionally  heavy  or  drowsy ; some  are  habitually 
drowsy  from  disease;  they  likewise  differ  in  degree; 
the  latter  being  much  the  greater  of  the  two ; and 
occasionally  they  are  applied  to  such  things  as  produce 
sleepiness ; 

And  drowsy  tinklings  lull  the  distant  fold. — Gray. 

TO  SLEEP,  SLUMBER,  DOZE,  DROWSE,  NAP. 

Sleep,  in  Saxon  slwpan,  Low  German  slap,  German 
schlaf,  is  supposed  to  come  from  the  Low  German  slap 
or  slack  slack,  because  sleep  denotes  an  entire  relaxa- 
tion of  the  physical  frame  ; slumber,  in  Saxon  slume- 
ran,&,c.  is  but  an  intensive  verb  of  schlummern,  which 
is  a variation  from  the  preceding  slcepan,  &c. ; doze, 
in  Low  German  dusen,  is  in  all  probability  a variation 
from  the  French  dors,  and  the  Latin  dormio  to  sleep, 
which  was  anciently  dermio,  and  comes  from  the  Greek 
6ep/xa  a skin,  because  people  lay  on  skins  when  they 
slept ; drowse  is  a variation  of  doze  ; nap  is  in  all  pro- 
bability a variation  of  nob  and  nod. 

Sleep  is  the  general  term,  which  designates  in  an 
indefinite  manner  that  stale  of  the  body  to  which  all 
animated  beings  are  subject  at  certain  seasons  in  the 
course  of  nature  ; to  slumber  is  to  sleep  lightly  and 
softly  ; to  doze  is  to  incline  to  sleep,  or  to  begin  sleep- 
ing; \onap  is  to  sleep  for  a lime:  every  one  who  is 
not  indisposed  sleeps  during  the  night , those  who  are 
accustomed  to  wake  at  a certain  hour  of  the  morning 
commonly  s.umber  only  after  that  lime;  there  are 
«aany  who  though  they  cannot  sleep  in  a carnage 


will  yet  be  obliged  to  dozs  if  they  travel  in  the  night 
in  hot  climates  the  middle  of  the  day  is  commonly 
chosen  for  a nap. 


SLEEPY,  DROWSY,  LETHARGICK. 

Sleepy  {v.  To  sleep)  expresses  either  a temporary  oj 
a permanent  state : drowsy,  which  comes  from  the 
Low  German  drusen,  and  is  a variation  of  doze  (u.  To 
sleep)  expresses  mostly  a temporary  state : lethargick, 
from  lethargy,  in  Latin  lethargia,  Greek  Xtidapyia^ 
compounded  ofXydr]  forgetfulness,  and  dpyos  swift,  sig 
nifying  a proneness  to  forgetfulness  or  sleep,  describes 
a permanent  or  habitual  state. 

Sleepy,  as  a temporary  state,  expresses  also  what  is 
natural  or  seasonable  ; drowsiness  expresses  an  inch 
nation  to  sleep  at  unseasonable  hours : it  is  natural  to 
be  sleepy  at  the  hour  when  we  are  accustomed  to  retire 
to  rest ; it  is  common  to  be  drowsy  when  sitting  still 
after  dinner.  Sleepiness,  as  a permanent  state,  is  ait 
infirmity  to  which  some  persons  are  subject  constitu 
tionally;  lethargy  is  a disease  with  which  people, 
otherwise  the  most  wakeful,  may  be  occasionally  at- 
tacked. 


INDOLENT,  SUPINE,  LISTLESS,  CARELESS 
Indolent,  v.  Idle,  lazy;  supine,  in  Latin  supinus, 
from  super  above,  signifies  lying  on  one’s  back,  or  with 
one’s  face  upward,  which,  as  it  is  the  action  of  a lazy 
or  idle  person,  has  been  made  to  represent  the  quali- 
ties themselves  ; listless,  without  h'st,*in  German  lust 
desire,  signifies  without  desire ; careless  signifies  with- 
out care  or  concern. 

These  terms  represent  a diseased  or  unnatural  state 
of  the  mind,  when  its  desires,  w’hich  are  the  spring 
of  action,  are  in  a relaxed  and  torpid  state,  so  as  to 
prevent  the  necessary  degree  of  exertion.  Indolence 
has  a more  comprehensive  meaning  than  supineness, 
and  this  signifies  more  than  listlessness  or  careless 
ness : indolence  is  a general  indisposition  of  a person 
to  exert  either  his  mind  or  his  body  ; supineness  is  a 
similar  indisposition  that  shows  itself  on  particular 
occasions:  there  is  a corporeal  as  well  as  a mental 
cause  for  indolence  ; but  supineness  lies  principally  in 
the  mind : corpulent  and  large-made  people  are  apt  to 
be  indolent ; but  timid  and  gentle  dispositions  are  apt 
to  be  supine.  An  indolent  person  sets  all  labour,  both 
corporeal  and  mental,  at  a distance  from  him ; it  i& 
irksome  to  him ; 

Hence  reasoners  more  refined  but  not  more  wise 
Their  whole  existence  fabulous  suspect. 

And  truth  and  falsehood  in  a lump  reject ; 

Too  indolent  to  learn  what  may  be  known. 

Or  else  too  proud  that  ignorance  to  own. 

Jenyns. 

A supine  person  objects  to  undertake  any  thing  which 
threatens  to  give  him  trouble; 

With  what  unequal  tempers  are  we  fram’d! 

One  day  the  soul,  supine  with  ease  and  fulness. 
Revels  secure.  Rowe. 

The  indolent  person  is  so  for  a permanency  ; he  al- 
ways seeks  to  be  waited  upon  rather  than  wait  on  him- 
self ; and  as  far  as  it  is  possible  he  is  glad  for  another  to 
think  for  him,  rather  than  to  burden  himself  with 
thought ; the  supine  person  is  so  only  in  matters  that 
require  more  than  an  ordinary  portion  of  his  exertion  ; 
he  will  defer  such  business,  and  sacrifice  his  interest  to 
his  ease.  The  indolent  and  supine  are  not,  how'ever, 
like  the  listless,  expressly  without  desire:  an  indo 
lent  or  supine  man  has  desire  enough  to  enjoy  what  is 
within  his  reach,  although  not  always  sufficient  desire 
to  surmount  the  aversion  to  labour  in  trying  to  obtain 
it;  the  listless  man,  on  the  contrary,  is  altogether 
without  the  desire,  and  is  in  fact  in  a state  of  moral  tor 
por,  which  is  however  but  a temporary  or  partial  state 
arising  from  particular  circumstances  ; after  the  mind 
has  been  wrought  up  to  the  highest  pitch,  it  will  some- 
times sink  into  a state  of  relaxation  in  which  it  ap 
patently  ceases  to  have  any  active  principle  within 
itself.  Indolence  is  a habit  of  both  body  and  mind  ; su- 
pineness is  sometimes  only  a mode  of  inaction  flowing 
out  of  a particular  frame  of  mind;  li  sties  sues  s on]v 
a certain  frame  of  mind:  an  active  person  may  some 
limes  be^wj;inein  setting  about  a business  which  run* 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  . 301 


countei  to  his  feelings ; a listless  person,  on  the  other 
hand,  if  he  be  habitually  so,  v/ill  never  be  active  in  any 
thing,  because  he  will  liave  no  impulse  to  action  ; 
Sullen,  methinks,  and  slow  the  morning  breaks. 

As  if  the  sun  were  listless  to  appear.— Drydkn. 

Carelessness  expresses  less  than  any  of  the  above ; 
for  though  a man  who  is  indolent^  supine^  and  listless, 
is  naturally  careless,  yet  carelessness  is  properly  ap- 
plicable to  such  as  have  no  such  positive  disease  of 
mind  or  body.  The  careless  person  is  neither  averse 
to  labour  or  thought,  nor  devoid  of  desire,  but  wants 
in  reality  that  care  or  thought  which  is  requisite  for 
his  state  or  condition.  Carelessness  is  rather  an  errour 
of  the  understanding,  or  of  the  conduct,  than  the 
will ; since  the  careless  would  care,  be  concerned  for, 
or  interested  about  things,  if  he  could  be  brought  to 
reflect  on  their  importance,  or  if  he  did  not  for  a time 
forget  himself; 

Fert  love  with  her  by  joint  commission  rules. 

Who  by  false  arts  and  popular  deceits. 

The  careless,  fond,  unthinking  mortal  cheats, 

POMFRKT. 

TO  STIR,  MOVE. 

Stir,  in  German  stqren,  old  German  stiren  or  steren, 
Latin  turbo,  Greek  tvp(3ti  or  d6pv(5os  trouble  or  tumult ; 
move,  V.  Motion. 

Stir  IS  here  a specifick,  move  a generick  term  ; to  stir  is 
tomove  so  as  to  disturb  the  rest  and  composure  either 
of  the  body  or  mind ; 

I've  read  that  things  inanimate  have  mov'd, 

And  as  with  living  souls  have  been  inform’d. 

By  magic  numbers  and  persuasive  sounds. 

Congreve. 

At  first  the  groves  are  scarcely  seen  to  stir. 

Thomson. 

Hence  the  term  stir  is  employed  to  designate  an  im- 
proper or  unauthorized  motion  ; children  are  not  allow- 
ed lo  stir  from  their  seats  in  school  hours ; a soldier 
must  not  stir  from  the  post  which  he  has  to  defend. 
Atrocious  criminals  or  persons  raving  mad  are  bound 
hand  and  foot,  that  they  may  not  stir. 

MOTION,  MOVEMENT. 

These  are  both  abstract  terms  to  denote  the  act  of 
moving,  but  motion  is  taken  generally  and  abstractedly 
from  the  thing  that  moves : movement,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  taken  in  connexion  with  the  agent  or  thing 
that  moves  ; hence  we  speak  of  a state  of  motion  as 
opposed  to  a state  of  rest,  of  perpetual  motion,  the  laws 
of  motion,  and  the  like  ; on  the  other  hand,  to  make  a 
movement  when  speaking  of  an  army,  a general  move- 
tnewt  when  speaking  of  an  assembly. 

When motionis  qualified  by  the  thing  that  moves,  it 
denotes  a continued  motion ; but  movement  implies 
only  a particular  motion : hence  we  say,  the  motion  of 
the  heavenly  bodies,  the  motion  of  the  earth  ; a person 
is  in  continual  motion,  or  an  army  is  in  motion ; but  a 
person  makes  a movement  who  rises  or  sits  down,  or 
goes  from  one  chair  lo  another ; the  different  move- 
ments of  the  springs  and  wheels  of  any  instrument ; 

It  is  not  easy  to  a mind  accustomed  to  the  inroads  of 
troublesome  thoughts  to  expel  them  immediately  by 
putting  better  images  into  Tnotion.’— Johnson. 

Nature  I thought  perform’d  too  mean  a part, 

Forming  her  movements  to  the  rules  of  art. — PpiOR. 

MOVING,  AFFECTING,  PATHETICK. 

The  moving  is  in  general  whatever  moves  the  affec- 
tions or  the  passions ; the  affecting  and  pathetick  are 
what  move  the  affections  in  different  degrees.  The 
good  or  bad  feelings  maj  be  moved;  the  tender  feel- 
ings only  are  affected.  A field  of'  battle  is  a moving 
spectacle ; ‘ There  is  something  so  moving  in  the  very 
image  of  weeping  beauty.’— Steele.  The  death  of 
King  Charles  was  an  affecting  spectacle;  ‘I  do  not 
remember  to  have  seen  any  ancient  or  modern  story 
more  off ecting them  aletterof  Anne  ofBoulogne.’— Ad- 
dison. The  affecting  acts  by  means  of  the  senses,  as 
well  as  the  understanding.  The  pathetick  applies  only 
« what  is  addressed  to  the  heart  ; hence,  a sight  or 
a description  is  affecting;  but  an  address  is  vathetick; 


What  think  you  of  the  ba.d’s  enchanting  art 
Which  whether  he  attempts  to  warm  the  heart 
With  fabled  scenes,  or  charm  the  car  with  rhyme, 
Breathes  all  pathetick,  lovely,  and  sublime  1 

Jknyns 

TO  COME,  ARRIVE. 

Come  is  general ; arrive  is  particular. 

Persons  or  things  come ; persons  only,  or  what  u 
personified,  arrive. 

To  come  specifies  neither  time  nor  manner ; arrival  ia 
employed  with  regard  tq  some  particular  period  or  cir 
cumstances.  The  coming  of  our  Saviour  was  pre- 
dicted by  the  prophets;  the  arrival  of  a messenger  is 
expected  at  a certain  hour.  We  know  that  evils  must 
come,  but  we  do  wisely  not  to  meet  them  by  anticipa- 
tion ; the  arrival  of  a vessel  in  the  haven,  after  a long 
and  dangerous  voyage,  is  a circumstance  of  general 
interest  in  the  neighbourhood  where  ithappens; 

Hail,  rev’rend  priest!  to  Phoebus’  awful  dome, 

A suppliant  ^ from  great  Atrides  come. — Pope. 

Old  men  love  novelties  ; the  last  arriv'd 
Still  pleases  best,  the  youngest  steals  their  smiles 

Young, 


TO  ADVANCE,  PROCEED. 

To  advance  (v.  Advance)  is  to  go  towards  acme 
point;  to  proceed,  from  the  Latin  procedo,  is  to  go 
onward  in  a certain  course.  The  same  distinction  is 
preserved  between  them  in  their  figurative  acceptation 

A person  advances  in  the  world,  who  succeeds  in  his 
transactions  and  raises  himself  in  society ; he  pro- 
ceeds in  his  business,  when  he  carries  it  on  as  he  has 
done  before ; ‘ It  is  wonderful  to  observe  by  what  a 
gradual  progress  the  world  of  life  advances  through  a 
prodigious  variety  of  species,  before  a creature  is 
formed  that  is  complete  in  all  its  senses.’ — Addison. 
‘ If  the  scale  of  being  rises  by  such  a regular  progress 
so  high  as  man,  we  may  by  a parity  of  reason  suppose 
that  it  still  proceeds  gradually  through  those  beings 
which  are  of  a superiour  nature  to  him.’— Addison 

One  advances  by  proceeding,  and  one  proceeds  in 
order  to  advance. 

Some  people  pass  their  lives  in  the  same  situation 
without  advancing.  Some  are  always  doing  without 
proceeding. 

Those  who  make  considerable  progress  in  learning 
stand  the  fairest  chance  of  being  advanced  to  dignity 
and  honour. 


PACE,  STEP. 

Pace,  in  French  ;7as,  Latin  jsassMs,  comes  from  the 
Hebrew  3 to  pass,  and  signifies  the  act  of  passing, 
or  the  ground  passed  over ; step,  which  comes  through 
the  medium  of  the  northern  languages,  from  the  Greek 
signifies  the  act  of  stepping,  or  the  ground 
stepped  over. 

As  respects  the  act,  pace  expresses  the  aeneral  man 
ner  of  passing  on,  or  moving  the  body  ; step  implies  the 
manner  of  treading  with  the  foot;  the  pace  is  distin- 
guished by  being  either  a walk  or  a run  ; and  in  regard 
to  horses,  a trot  or  a gallop  ; the  step  is  distinguished 
by  the  right  or  the  left,  the  forward  or  the  backward. 
The  same  pace  may  be  modified  so  as  to  be  more  or 
less  easy,  more  or  less  quick ; the  step  may  vary  as  it 
is  light  or  heavy,  graceful  or  ungraceful,  long  or  short. 
We  may  go  a slow  pace  with  long  ste-ps,  or  we  may  gc 
a quick  pace  with  short  steps.  A slow  pace  is  best 
suited  to  the  solemnity  of  a funeral ; a long  step  must 
be  taken  by  soldiers  in  a slow  march. 

As  respects  the  space  pas.sed  or  stepped  over,  the 
pace  is  a measured  distance,  formed  by  a long  step; 
the  step,  on  the  other  hand,  is  indefinitely  employed  fot 
any  space  stepped  over,  but  particularly  that  ordinary 
space  which  one  steps  over  without  an  effort.  A 
thousand  paces  was  the  Roman  measurement  for  a 
mile.  A step  or  two  designates  almost  the  shortesi 
possible  distance ; 

To-morrow,  to-morrow,  and  to-morrow. 

Creeps  in  a stealing  pace  from  day  to  day. 

Shakspkare 

Grace  was  in  all  her  steps,  heaven  in  her  eye, 

In  everv  gesture  dignity  and  love.— Milton 


302 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


ONWARD,  FORWARD,  PROGRESSIVE. 

Onward  is  taken  in  the  literal  sense  of  going  nearer 
to  an  object : forward  is  taken  in  the  sense  of  going 
from  an  object,  or  going  farther  in  the  line  before  one : 
progressive  has  the  sense  of  going  gradually  or  step 
by  step  before  one. 

A person  goes  onward  who  does  not  stand  still ; he 
goes  forward  who  does  not  recede  ; he  goes  progres- 
sively who  goes  forward  at  certain  intervals. 

Onward  is  taken  only  in  the  proper  acceptation  of 
travelling ; the  traveller  who  has  lost  his  way  feels  it 
necessary  to  go  onward  with  the  hope  of  arriving  at 
some  point ; 

Remote,  unfriended,  melancholy,  slow. 

Or  by  the  lazy  Scheld,  or  wandering  Po, 

Or  onward  where  the  rude  Carinthian  boor 
Against  the  houseless  stranger  shuts  the  door, 
Where’er  I roam,  whatever  realms  to  see, 

My  heart  untra veil’d  fondly  turns  to  thee. 

Goldsmith. 

Forward  is  employed  in  the,  improper  as  we!!  as  the 
proper  application  ; a traveller  goes  forward  in  order 
to  reach  his  point  of  destination  as  quickly  as  possi- 
ble ; a learner  uses  his  utmost  endeavsurs  in  order  to 
get  forward  in  his  learning ; ‘ Harboqd  the  chairman 
was  much  blamed  for  his  rashness ; he  said  the  duty 
of  the  chair  was  always  to  set  things /orzoard.’— Bur- 
nett. Progressively  is  employed  only  in  the  impro- 
per application  to  what  requires  time  and  labour  in 
order  to  bring  it  to  a conclusion : every  man  goes  on 
progressively  in  his  art,  until  he  arrives  at  the  point 
of  perfection  attainable  by  him ; 

Reason  progressive^  instinct  is  complete.— Young. 


EXCURSION,  RAMBLE,  TOUR,  TRIP,  JAUNT. 

Excursion  signifies  going  out  of  one’s  course,  from 
the  Latin  ex  and  cursus  a course  or  prescribed  path : 
a ramble^  from  roam,  of  which  it  is  a frequentative, 
is  a going  without  any  course  or  regular  path  ; tour, 
fron;  the  word  turn  or  return,  is  a circuitous  course:  a 
trip,  from  the  Latin  tripudio  to  go  on  the  toes  like  a 
dancer,  is  properly  a pedestrian  excursion  or  tour,  or 
any  short  journey  that  might  be  made  on  foot:  jaunt, 
.8  from  the  French  jante  the  felly  of  a wheel,  and 
‘’anter  to  put  the  felly  in  motion. 

To  go  abroad  in  a carriage  is  an  idle  excursion,  or 
one  taken  for  mere  pleasure : travellers  who  are  not 
contented  with  what  is  not  to  be  seen  from  a high 
road  make  frequent  excursions  into  the  interiour  of  the 
country ; ‘ I am  now  so  rus-in-urbeish,  I believe  I 
shall  stay  here,  except  little  excursions  and  vagaries, 
for  a year  to  come.’ — Gray.  Those  who  are  fond  of 
rural  scenery,  and  pleased  to  follow  the  bent  of  their 
inclinations,  make  frequent  rambles;  ‘ I am  going  on 
a short  ramble  to  my  Lord  Oxford’s.’ — Pope.  Those 
who  set  out  upon  a sober  scheme  of  enjoyment  from 
travelling,  are  satisfied  with  making  the  tour  of  some 
one  country  or  more ; ‘ My  last  summer’s  tour  was 
through  Worcestershire,  Gloucestershire,  Monmouth- 
shire, and  Shropshire.’ — Gray.  Those  who  have  not 
much  time  for  pleasure  take  trips;  ‘I  hold  the  reso- 
lution I told  you  in  my  last  of  seeing  you  if  you 
cannot  take  a trip  hither  before  I go.’— Pope.  Those 
who  have  no  better  means  of  spending  their  time  make 
jaunts ; ‘ If  you  are  for  a merry  jaunt.  I’ll  try  for 
once  who  can  foot  it  farthest.’ — Dryden. 


JOURNEY,  TRAVEL,  VOYAGE. 

Journey,  from  the  French  journde  a day’s  work, 
and  Latin  diurnus  daily,  signifies  the  course  that  is 
taken  in  the  space  of  a day,  or  in  general  any  com- 
paratively short  passage  from  one  place  to  another: 
travel,  from  the  French  travailler  to  labour,  signifies 
such  a course  or  passage  as  requires  labour,  and  causes 
fatigue ; in  general  any  long  course : voyage  is  most 
probably  changed  from  the  Latin  via  a way,  and  ori- 
inally  signified  any  course  or  passage  to  a distance, 
ut  is  now  confined  to  passages  by  sea. 

We  take  journeys  in  different  parts  of  the  same 
country  ; we  make  voyages  by  sea,  and  travel  by  land. 

Journeys  are  taken  in  different  parts  of  the  same 
I'ounti  v for  a soecificK  busine.ss  • 


To  Paradise,  tne  nappy  seat  of  man. 

His  journey's  end,  and  our  beginning  wo.— Milton 

Travels  are  made  by  land  for  amusement  or  informa- 
tion ; ‘ In  my  travels  I had  been  near  their  setting 
out  in  Thessaly,  and  at  the  place  of  theit  landing  in 
Carniola.’ — Brown.  Voyages  are  made  by  captains 
or  merchants  for  purposes  of  commerce ; ‘ Our  ships 
went  sundry  voyages  as  well  to  the  pillars  of  Hercules 
as  to  other  parts  in  the  Atlantick  and  Mediterranean 
seas.’ — Bacon. 

We  estimate  yoMrneys  by  the  day,  as  one  or  tw 
days’  journey  ; 

Scarce  the  sun 

Hath  finished  half  his  journey. 

We  estimate  travels  and  voyages  by  the  months  and 
years  that  are  employed ; 

Cease  mourners ; cease  complaint,  and  weep  no  more, 
Your  lost  friends  are  not  dead,  but  gone  before, 
Advanc’d  a stage  or  two  upon  that  road 
Which  you  must  travel  in  the  steps  they  trode. 

CuMSailLAND. 

Calm  and  serene,  he  sees  approaching  death, 

As  thq,safe  port,  th’  peaceful  silent  shore. 

Where  he  may  rest,  life’s  tedious  voyage  o’er. 

Jknyns. 

The  Israelites  are  said  to  have  journeyed  in  the 
wilderness  forty  years,  because  they  went  but  short 
distances  at  a time.  It  is  a part  of  polite  education 
for  young  men  of  fortune  to  travel  into  those  countries 
of  Europe  which  comprehend  the  ‘grand  tour’  as  it  is 
termed.  A voyage  round  the  world,  which  was  at  first 
a formidable  undertaking,  is  now  become  familiar  to 
the  mind  by  its  frequency. 


ARISE  OR  RISE,  MOUNT,  ASCEND,  CLIMB, 
SCALE. 

Jlrise,  V.  To  arise ; mount,  from  the  Latin  mgns 
a mountain,  signifies  to  go  as  it  were  up  a mountain ; 
ascend,  in  Latin  ascendo,  compounded  of  ad  and 
scando,  signifies  to  climb  up  towards  a point ; climb., 
in  German  klimmcn,  is  probably  connected  with  klam- 
mer  a hook,  signifying  to  rise  by  a hook  ; scale,  in 
French  escalader,  Italian  scalare,  Latin  scala  a ladder, 
signifies  to  rise  by  a ladder. 

The  idea  of  going  upwards  is  common  to  all  these 
terms ; arise  is  used  only  in  the  sense  of  simply  get 
ting  up ; 

Th’  inspected  entrails  could  no  fates  foretell. 

Nor,  laid  on  altars,  did  pure  flames  arise. 

Dryden. 

But  rise  is  employed  to  express  a continued  motion 
upward ; 

To  contradict  them,  see  all  nature  rise  1 

What  object,  what  event  the  moon  beneath. 

But  argues  or  endears  an  after-scene  ? — Youno. 

A person  arises  from  his  seat  or  his  bed  ; a bird  rises 
in  the  air ; the  silver  of  the  barometer  rises : the  first 
three  of  these  terms  convey  a grad.aiion  in  their  sense ; 
to  arise  or  rise  denotes  a motion  to  a less  elevated 
height  than  to  mount,  and  to  mount  that  which  is  less 
elevated  than  ascend:  a person  rises  from  his  seat, 
mounts  a hill,  and  ascends  a mountain  ; 

At  length  the  fatal  fabrick  mounts  the  walls. 

Big  with  destruction.— Dryden. 

We  view  a rising  land  like  distant  clouds ; 

The  mountain  tops  confirm  the  pleasing  sight. 

And  curling  smoke  ascending  from  their  height. 

Dryden. 

Jlrise  and  rise  are  intransitive  only;  the  rest  are 
likewise  transitive ; we  rise  from  a point,  we  mount 
and  ascend  to  a point,  or  we  mount  and  ascend  some 
thing ; an  air  balloon  rises  when  it  first  leaves  the 
ground  ; it  mounts  higher  and  higher  until  it  is  out  of 
sight;  but  if  it  ascends  too  high  it  endangers  the  life 
of  the  aerial  adventurer. 

Climb  and  scale  express  a species  of  rising ; te 
climb  is  to  rise  step  by  step,  by  clinging  to  a certain 
body  ; to  scale  is  to  rise  by  an  escalade,  or  species  of 
ladder,  employed  in  mounting  the  walls  of  fortified 
towns  trees  and  mountains  are  climbed  r wal.'.s  are 
scaled 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES 


303 


While  you  (a.as,  that  I should  find  it  so) 

To  shun  my  sight,  your  native  soil  forego, 

And  climb  the  frozen  Alps,  and  tread  the  eternal  snow. 

Dryden. 

But  brave  Messapus,  Neptune’s  warlike  son, 

Broke  down  the  pallisades,  the  trenches  won. 

And  loud  for  ladders  calls,  to  scale  the  town. 

Dryden. 


TO  FALL,  DROP,  DROOP,  SINK,  TUMBLE. 
Fa/Z,  V.  Fall ; drop  and  droop,  in  German  tropfen, 
Low  German,  &c.  druppcn,  is  an  onomatopeia  of  the 
falling  of  a drop  ; sink,  in  German  sinken,  is  an  in- 
tensive of  siegen  to  incline  downward ; tumble,  in 
German  tummeln,  is  an  intensive  of  taumeln  to  reel 
backwards  and  forwards. 

Fall  is  the  generick,  the  rest  specifick  terms:  to 
drop  is  to  fall  suddenly  ; to  droop  is  to  drop  in  part ; 
to  sink  is  to  fall  gradually';  to  tumble  is  to  fall  awk- 
wardly or  contrary  to  the  usual  mode.  In  cataracts 
the  water  falls  perpetually  and  in^  mass ; in  rain  it 
drops  partially  ; in  ponds  the  water  sinks  low.  The 
head  droops,  but  the  body  may  fall  or  drop  from  a 
height,  it  may  sink  down  to  the  earth,  it  may  tumble 
j’  accident;^ 

Yet  come  it  will,  the  day  decreed  by  fates 
(How  my  heart  trembles,  while  my  tongue  relates!) 
The  day  when  thou,  imperial  Troy ! must  bend, 

\nd  see  thy  warriours  fall  and  glories  end. — Pope. 
The  wounded  bird,  ere  yet  she  breathed  her  last. 
With  flagging  wings  alighted  on  the  mast, 

A moment  hung,  and  spread  her  pinions  there. 

Then  sudden  dropp'd  and  left  her  life  in  air. — Pope. 
Thrice  Dido  tried  to  raise  her  drooping  head. 

And  fainting,  thrice  fell  grov’ling  on  the  bed. 

Dryden. 

Down  sunk  the  priest ; the  purple  hand  of  death 
Clos’d  his  dim  eye,  and  fate  suppress’d  his  breath. 

Pope. 

Full  on  his  ankle  dropp'd  the  pond’rous  stone. 

Burst  the  strong  nerves,  and  crush’d  the  solid  bone. 
Supine  he  tumbles  on  the  crimson’d  sands.— Pope. 

Fall,  drop,  and  sink  are  employed  in  a moral  sense ; 
droop  in  the  physical  sense.  A person  falls  from  a 
state  of  prosperity ; words  drop  from  the  tips,  and  sink 
into  the  heart.  Corn,  or  the  price  of  corn,  falls ; a 
subject  drops ; a person  sinks  into  poverty  or  in  the 
estimation  of  the  world. 


TO  SLIP,  SLIDE,  GLIDE. 

Slip  is  in  Low  German  slip  an,  from  the  Latin  labor 
lo  slip,  and  libc  to  pour,  which  comes  from  the  Greek 
\ei(3oiJiai  to  pour  down  as  water  does,  and  the  Hebrew 
3^0  to  turn  aside;  slide  is  a variation  of  slip,  and 
glide  of  slide. 

To  slip  is  an  involuntary,  and  slide  a voluntary 
motion  : those  who  go  on  the  ice  in  fear  will  slip  ; ‘A 
skilful  dancer  on  the  ropes  slips  willingly,  and  makes 
a seeming  tumble  that  you  may  think  him  in  great 
hazard,  while  he  is  only  giving  you  a proof  of  dexterity.’ 
—Dryden.  Boys  slide  on  the  ice  by  way  of  amuse- 
ment ; 

Thessander  bold,  and  Sthenelus  their  guide. 

And  dire  Ulysses  down  the  cable /Zide. — Dryden. 
To  slip  and  slide  are  lateral  movements  of  the  feet : 
but  to  glide  is  the  movement  of  the  whole  body,  and 
just  that  easy  motion  which  is  made  by  slipping,  sliding, 
flying,  or  swimming : a person  glides  along  the  surface 
of  the  ice  when  he  slides ; a vessel  glides  along 
through  the  water ; 

And  softly  let  the  running  waters  ^Zide.-^^RYDEN. 

In  the  moral  and  figurative  application,  a person  slips 
who  commits  unintentional  errours,  or  the  thoughts 
slip  away  contrary  to  our  Intention ; Every  one  finds 
that  many  of  the  ideas  which  he  desired  to  retain  have 
irretrievably  slipped  away.’ — Johnson.  A person  slides 
into  a course  of  life,  who  wittingly,  and  yet  without 
(liffcnlty,  falls  into  the  practice  and  habits  which  are 
rer  immended  ; he  glides  through  life  if  he  pursues  his 
. « 111  p smoo'hly  and  without  interruption 


TO  STAGGER,  REEL,  TOTTER. 

Stagger  is  in  all  probability  a frequentative  from  the 
German  steigen,  and  the  Greek  to  go,  signify- 

ing to  go  backward  and  forward  ; to  reel  signifies  to  po 
like  a i-eel. in  a winding  manner;  totter  most  probably 
comes  from  the  German  zittern  to  tremble,  because  m 
totter  is  a tremulous  action. 

All  these  terms  designate  an  involuntary  and  an  un 
steady  motion ; they  vary  both  in  the  cause  and  tho 
mode  of  the  action  ; staggering  and  reeling  are  occa- 
sioned either  by  drunkenness  or  sickness ; 

Natheless  it  bore  his  foe  not  from  his  sell. 

But  made  him  stagger  as  he  were  not  well. 

Spenser. 

The  clouds,  commix’d 

With  stars,  swift  gliding  sweep  along  the  sky : 

All  nature  reels. — Thomson. 

Tottering  is  purely  the  effect  of  weakness,  particular!? 
the  weakness  of  old  age:  a drunken  man  always  stag 
gers  as  he  walks;  one  who  is  giddy  reels  from  one 
part  to  another:  to  stagger  is  a much  less  degree  of 
unsteadiness  than  to  reel ; for  he  who  staggers  is  only 
thrown  a little  out  of  the  straight  path,  but  he  who 
reels  altogetlier  loses  his  equilibrium  ; reeling  is  com- 
monly succeeded  by  falling.  To  stagger  and  reel  are 
said  as  to  the  carriage  of  the  whole  body  ; but  totter 
has  particular  reference  to  the  limbs;  the  knees  and 
the  legs  totter,  and  consequently  the  footsteps  become 
tottering.  In  an  extended  application,  the  moMPiains 
may  be  said  io  stagger  and  to  reel  in  an  earthquake; 
houses  may  totter  from  their  very  bases ; 

Troy  nods  from  high,  and  totters  to  her  fall. 

Duyden. 

In  a figurative  application,  the  faith  or  the  rissolution 
of  a person  staggers  when  its  hold  on  the  mind  is 
shaken,  and  begins  to  give  way : a nation  or  a govern 
ment  will  totter  when  it  is  torn  bi  intestine  convul 
sions. 


TO  DRAW,  DRAG,  HAUL  OR  HALE,  I ULL 
PLUCK,  TUG. 

Draw  comes  from  the  Latin  traho  to  draw,  and  the 
Greek  Sptzoau)  to  lay  hold  of ; drag  through  the  me 
dium  of  the  German  tragen  to  carry,  comes  also  from 
traho  to  draw ; haul  or  hale  comes  from  the  Greek 
to  draw  ; pull  is  in  all  probability  changed  frompellc 
to  drive  or  thrust;  pluck  is  in  the  German pImc&cti, 
&c. ; tug  conies  from  the  German  ziehen  to  pull. 

Draw  expresses  herfe  the  idea  common  to  the  first 
three  terms,  namely,  of  putting  a body  in  motion  from 
behind  oneself  or  towards  oneself ; to  drag  is  to  draw 
a thing  with  violence,  or  to  draw  that  which  makes 
resistance  ; to  haul  is  to  drag  it  with  still  greater  vio- 
lence. A cart  is  draicji;  a body  is  dragged  along  the 
ground ; or  a vessel  is  hauled  to  the  shore  ; 

Furious  he  said,  and  tow’rd  the  Grecian  crew, 
(Seiz’d  by  the  crest)  the  unhappy  warriour  drew ; 
Struggling  he  follow’d,  while  th’  embroider’d  thong. 
That  ty’d  his  helmet,  dragg'd  the  chief  along. 

Pope 

Some  hoisting  levers,  some  the  wheels  prepare. 

And  fasten  to  the  horse’s  feet;  the  rest 
With  cables  haul  along  the  unwieldy  beast. 

Dryden. 

To  pull  signifies  only  an  effort  to  draio  without  the 
idea  of  motion : horses  pull  very  long  sometimes  be- 
fore they  can  draw  a heavily  laden  cart  up  hill ; ‘ Two 
magnets  are  placed,  one  of  them  in  the  roof  and  the 
other  in  the  floor  of  Mahomet’s  burying-place  at 
Mecca,  and  pull  the  impostor’s  iron  coffin  with  such 
an  equal  attraction,  that  it  hangs  in  the  air  between 
both  of  them.’ — Addison.  To  pluck  is  to  pull  with  a 
sudden  twitch,  in  order  to  separate ; thus  feathers  are 
plucked  from  animals ; 

Even  children  follow’d  with  endearing  wile, 

AnA  pluck'd  his  gown,  to  share  the  good  man’s  smile 
Goldsmith. 

To  tug  is  to  pull  with  violence ; thus  men  tug  at  the 
oar; 

Clear’d,  as  I thought,  and  fully  fix’d  at  length 
To  learn  the  cause,  I tugg'd  with  all  my  strength 

Dryden 


504 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


In  the  moral  application  we  may  be  drawn  by  any 
'.ning  which  can  act  on  the  mind  to  bring  us  near  to  an 
/bject,  wc  are  dragged  only  by  means  of  force;  we 
4uU  a thing  towards  us  by  a direct  effort ; 

Hither  we  sail’d,  a voluntary  throng, 

To  avenge  a private,  not  a publick  wrong ; 

What  else  to  Troy  the  assembled  nations  draws, 

But  thine,  ungrateful  1 and  thy  brother’s  cause. 

Pope. 

’T  is  long  since  I for  my  celestial  wife, 

Loath’d  by  the  gods  have  dragg'd  a lingering  life. 

Pope. 

Hear  this,  remember,  and  our  fury  dread. 

Nor  jjullth’  unwilling  vengeance  on  thy  head. 

Pope. 

To  haul,  pluck,  and  tug  are  seldom  used  but  in  the 
physical  application. 


TO  CAST,  THROW,  HURL. 

Cast  probably  comes  from  casus,  participle  of  cado 
to  fall,  signifying  to  make  or  to  let  fall ; throw,  in 
Saxon  thrawan,  is  most  probably  a variation  of  thrust, 
in  Latin  frado,  Chaldee  terad  to  thrust  repeatedly; 
hurl,  like  the  word  whirl,  comes  from  the  Saxon 
hirjiven,  kiveorfian,  German,  &c.  wirbel,  Teutonic 
loirvel,  Danish  hvirvel,  hvirvler,  Latin  verto,  gyro, 
which  are  alt  derived  from  the  Hebrew  round, 
signifving  to  turn  round. 

Cast  conveys  simply  the  idea  of  laying  aside,  or  put- 
ting from  one’s  self;  throw  and  hurl  designate  more 
specifically  the  mode  of  the  action  : cast  is  an  indif- 
ferent action,  whether  it  respects  ourselves  or  others ; 
throw  always  marks  a direct  motive  of  dislike  or 
toHtempt.  What  is  not  wanted  is  cast  off ; clothes 
which  are  no  longer  worn  are  cast  off ; what  is  worth- 
less or  hurtful  is  thrown  away;  the  dross  is  separated 
from  the  wheat  and  thrown  away  ; bad  habits  cannot 
be  thrown  off  too  soon. 

Cast,  as  it  respects  others,  is  divested  of  all  per- 
sonalities; but  nothing  is  thrown  at  any  one  without 
an  intention  of  oflending  or  hurting  ; a glance  is  cast 
at  a person,  or  things  are  cast  before  him  ; but  insi- 
nuations are  (Arotore  out  against  a person;  things  are 
thrown  at  him  with  the  view  of  striking. 

Cast  requires  no  particular  effort;  it  amounts  in 
genera  to  no  more  than  let  fall  or  go  : throw  is  fre- 
quently accompanied  with  violence.  Money  is  cast 
into  a bag  ; stones  are  thrown  from  a great  distance : 
animals  cast  their  young  at  stated  periods;  a horse 
throws  his  rider  ; a lawless  man  throws  off  constraint ; 
As  far  as  I could  cast  my  eyes 
Upon  the  sea,  something  methought  did  rise 
Like  bluish  mists. — Dryden. 

O war,  thou  son  of  hell ! 

Whom  angry  heavens  do  make  their  minister. 
Throw  in  the  frozen  bosoms  of  our  part 
Hot  coals  of  vengeance ! — Sh.a.kspeare. 

Hurl  is  a violent  species  of  throwing  employed  only 
on  e.xtraordinary  occasions,  expressive  of  an  unusual 
degree  of  vehemence  in  the  agent,  and  an  excessive 
provocation  on  the  part  of  the  sufferer : the  hurler, 
the  thing  hurled,  and  the  cause  of  hurling,  correspond 
in  magnitude ; a mighty  potentate  is  hurled  from  his 
throne  by  some  power  superiour  to  his  own  ; Milton 
represents  the  devils  as  hurled  from  Heaven  by  the 
word  of  the  Almighty  ; the  heathen  poets  have  feigned 
a similar  story  of  the  giants  who  made  war  against 
Heaven,  and  were  hurled  by  the  thunderbolts  of  Jupiter 
down  to  the  earth , 

Wreath  my  head 

With  flaming  meteors,  load  my  arms  with  thunder. 

Which  as  I nimbly  cut  my  cloudy  way 

I’ll  hurl  on  this  ungrateful  earth.— Tate. 

TO  SPRING,  START,  STARTLE,  SHRINK. 

Spring,  V To  spring ; start  is  in  all  probability  an 
intensive  of  stir ; startle  is  a frequentative  of  start ; 
shrink  is  probably  an  intensive  of  sink,  signifying  to 
sink  into  itself. 

The  idea  of  a sudden  motion  is  expressed  by  all 
these  terms,  but  the  circumstances  and  node  differ  in 
all  strincr  iv  To  arise') ’s  indefinite  in  these  respects. 


and  is  therefore  the  most  general  term.  To  spring 
and  start  may  be  either  voluntary  or  involuntary 
movements,  but  spring  is  mostly  voluntary,  and  start, 
which  is  an  intensive  of  stir,  is  mostly  involuntary ; » 
person  springs  out  of  a place,  or  one  animal  springs 
upon  another ; 

Death  wounds  to  cure  ; we  fall,  we  rise,  we  reign 
Spring  from  oui  fetters,  and  fasten  in  the  skies. 

Youkg 

A person  or  animal  starts  from  a certain  point  to  begin 
running,  or  starts  with  fright  from  one  side  to  tlie 
other ; 

A shape  within  the  wat’ry  gleam  appear’d. 

Bending  to  looK  on  me : I started  back. 

It  started  back. — Milton. 

To  startle  is  always  an  involuntary  action ; a ho 
starts  by  suddenly  flying  from  the  point  on  which  i-e 
stands  ; but  if  he  startles  he  seems  to  fly  back  cn  him- 
self and  stops  his  course; 

’T  is  listening  fear  and  dumb  amazement. 

When  to  the  stcmtled  eye  the  sudden  glance 
Appears  far  south,  eruptive  through  the  cloud. 

Thomson 

To  spring  and  start  therefore  always  carry  a person 
farther  from  a given  point ; but  startle  and  shrink  arc 
movements  within  one’s  self ; startling  is  a sudden 
convulsion  of  the  frame  which  makes  a person  to  stand 
in  hesitation  whether  to  proceed  or  not ; shrinking  is 
a contraction  of  the  frame  within  itself;  ‘There  is  a 
horrour  in  the  scene  of  a ravaged  country  which  makes 
nature  shrink  back  at  the  reflection.’ — Herring.  Any 
sudden  and  unexpected  sound  makes  a person  startle  ; 
the  approach  of  any  frightful  object  makes  him  shrink 
back : spring  and  start  are  employed  only  in  tlie  pro- 
per sense  of  corporeal  movements ; startle  and  shrink 
are  employed  in  regard  to  the  movements  of  the  mind 
as  well  as  the  body. 


TO  SHAKE,  AGITATE,  TOSS. 

Shake,  in  German  schiitten,  Latin  quatio,  Hebrew 
“nty  to  shed ; agitate,  in  Latin  agito,  is  a frequenta- 
tive of  ago  to  drive,  that  is,  to  drive  different  ways ; 
toss  is  probably  contracted  from  the  Latin  torsi,  pre 
terite  of  torquco  to  twirl. 

A motion  more  or  less  violent  is  signified  by  all  these 
terms,  which  differ  both  in  the  manner  and  the  cause  o. 
the  motion.  Shake  is  indefinite,  it  may  differ  in  de- 
gree as  to  the  violence ; tfl  agitate  and  toss  rise  in 
sense  upon  the  word  shake:  a breeze  shakes  a leaf,  a 
storm  agitates  the  sea,  and  the  waves  toss  a vessel  to 
and  fro:  large  and  small  bodies  may  be  shaken  ; large 
bodies  are  agitated:  a handkerchief  may  be  shaken  ; 
the  earth  is  agitated  by  an  earthquake.  What  is 
shaken  and  agitated  is  not  removed  from  its  place ; 
but  what  is  tossed  is  thrown  from  place  to  place.  A 
house  may  frequently  be  shaken,  v.’fiile  the  foundation 
remains  good  ; ‘ An  unwholesome  blast  of  air,  a cold, 
or  a surfeit,  may  shake  in  piecfjs  a man’s  ha)dy 
fabrick.’ — South.  The  waters  are  most  agitated 
while  they  remain  within  their  bounds  : ‘ We  all  must 
have  observed  that  a speaker  agitated  with  [lassion,  or 
;in  actor,  who  is  indeed  strictly  an  imitator,  are  perpe 
tually  changing  the  tone  and  pitch  of  their  voice  as 
the  sense  of  their  words  varies.’ — Sir  Wm.  Jones.  A 
ball  is  tossed  from  hand  to  hand  ; 

Toss' d all  the  day  in  rapid  circles  round. 

Breathless  I fell. — Pope. 

To  shake  and  toss  are  the  acts  either  of  persons  or 
things;  to  agitate  is  the  act  of  things,  when  taken  in 
the  active  sense.  A person  shakes  the  hand  of  another, 
or  the  motion  of  a carriage  shakes  persons  in  general^ 
and  agita^  those  who  are  weak  in  frame  ; a chik 
tosses  his  ^d  about,  or  the  violent  motion  of  a vessel 
tosses  every  thing  about  which  is  in  it.  To  shake  arises 
from  external  or  Internal  causes ; we  may  be  shaken 
by  others,  or  shake  ourselves  from  cold  , to  agitate  nnd 
toss  arise  always  from  some  external  action,  direct  or 
indirect;  the  body  may  be  a gitated  hy  \\o\e\\\  concus 
sion  from  without,  or  from  the  action  of  perturbed 
feelings:  the  body  may  be  tossed  by  various  circum- 
stances, and  the  mind  may  be  tossed  to  and  fro  by  the 
violent  ac'ion  of  the  passions.  Hence  the  nropriety  of 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES 


flsing:  the  terms  jn  the  moral  application.  The  resolu- 
tion is  shaken,  as  the  tree  is  by  the  wind  : 

Not  my  firm  faith 

Can  by  his  fraud  be  shaken  or  seduc’d. — Milton. 
The  mind  is  agitated  like  troubled  waters ; ‘ His  mother 
could  no  longer  bear  the  agitations  of  so  many  passions 
as  thronged  upon  her.’ — Tatlkr.  A person  is  tossed 
to  and  fro  in  the  ocean  of  life,  as  the  vessel  is  tossed  by 
Jie  waves ; 

Your  mind  is  tossing  on  the  sea, 

There  where  your  argosies 

Do  overpeer  the  petty  traftickers.— Shakspeare. 


SHOCK,  CONCUSSION. 

Shock  denotes  a violent  shake  or  agitation;  con- 
cussion, a shaking  together.  The  sfuock  is  often  in- 
stantaneous, but  does  not  necessarily  extend  beyond 
the  act  of  the  moment;  the  concussion  is  perinaneni 
in  its  consequences,  it  tends  to  derange  the  system. 
Hence  the  ditferent application  of  the  terms:  the  shock 
may  affect  either  the  body  or  the  mind  ; the  concussion 
affects  properly  only  the  body,  or  corporeal  objects  ; a 
violent  and  sudden  blow  produces  a shock  at  the  mo- 
ment it  is  given  ; but  it  does  not  always  produce  a con- 
cussion : the  violence  of  a fall  will,  however,  some- 
times produce  a concussion  in  the  brain,  which  may 
affect  the  intellects.  Sudden  news  of  an  exceedingly 
ainful  nature  will  often  produce  a shock  on  the  mind  ; 
ut  time  mostly  serves  to  wear  away  the  effect  which 
has  been  produced. 

TO  SHOOT,  DART. 

To  shoot  and  dart,  in  the  proper  sense,  are  clearly 
distinguished  from  each  other,  as  expressing  different 
modes  of  sending  bodies  to  a distance  from  a given 
point.  From  the  circumstances  of  the  actions  arise 
their  different  application  to  other  objects  in  the  im- 
proper sense  ; as  that  which  proceeds  by  shooting  goes 
unexpectedly,  and  with  great  rapidity,  forth  from  a 
body,  so,  in  the  figurative  sense,  a plant  shoots  up  that 
cemes  so  unexpectedly  as  not  to  be  seen  ; a star  is  said 
to  shoot  in  the  sky,  which  seems  to  move  in  a shooting 
manner,  from  one  place  to  another:  a dart,  on  the 
jther  hand,  or  that  which  is  darted,  moves  tlirough  the 
lir  visibly,  and  with  less  rapidity:  hence  the  quick 
movements  of  persons  or  animals,  are  described  by  the 
word  dart;  a soldier  darts  forward  to  meet  his  anta- 
|onist;  a hart  darts  past  any  one  in  order  to  make  her 
escape. 

TO  REBOUND,  REVERBERATE,  RECOIL. 

To  rebound  is  to  bound  or  spring  back : a ball  re- 
bounds. To  reverberate  is  to  verberate  or  beat  back : a 
sound  reverberates  when  it  echoes.  To  recoil  is  to 
coil  or  whirl  back  : a snake  recoils.  They  preserve 
the  same  distinction  in  their  figurative  application ; 
‘ Honour  is  but  the  reflection  of  a man’s  own  actions 
shining  bright  in  the  face  of  all  about  him,  and  from 
thence  rebounding  upon  himself.’ — South.  ‘ You 
seemed  to  reverberate  upon  me  with  the  beams  of  the 
sun  ’ — Howel. 

Who  in  deep  mines  for  hidden  knowledge  toils. 

Like  guns  o’ercharg’d,  breaks,  misses,  or  recoils. 

Denham. 


TO  SHAKE,  TREMBLE,  SHUDDER,  QUIVER, 
QUAKE. 

Shake,  shudder,  quiver,  and  quake,  all  come  from  the 
Latin  quatio  or  cutio  to  shake,  through  the  medium  of 
the  German  schuttcln,  schutten,  the  Italian  scussere, 
and  the  like  ; tremble  comes  from  the  Latin  tremo. 

To  shake  is  a generick  term,  the  rest  are  but  modes  of 
shaking ; to  tremble  is  to  shake  from  an  inward  cause, 
or  what  appears  to  be  so : in  this  manner  a person 
trembles  f.om  fear,  from  cold,  or  weakness ; and  a leaf 
which  is  imperceptibly  agitated  by  the  air  is  also  said  to 
tremble  ; to  shudder  is  to  tremble  violently  : to  quiver 
and  qv.ake  are  both  to  tremble  quickly  ; but  the  former 
de.notes  rather  a vibratory  motion,  as  the  point  of  a 
spear  when  thrown  asainst  wood;  the  latter  a quick 
motion  of  the  whole  body  as  in  the  case  of  bodies  that 

20 


305 

have  not  suIBcieui  consistency  in  themselves  to  remain 
still . 

Tlie  rapid  radiance  instantaneous  strikes 

Th’  illumin’d  mountain,  through  the  forest  streatns, 

Shakes  on  the  floods,— Thomson. 

The  trembling  pilot,  from  his  rudder  torn. 

Was  lieadlong  hurl’d. — Dryden. 

He  said,  and  hurl’d  against  the  mountain  side 
His  quivering  spear. — Dryden. 

Thereto  as  cold  and  dreary  as  a snake. 

That  seem’d  to  tremble  evermore  and  quake. 

Spenser 

TO  PALPITATE,  FLUTTER,  PANT,  GASP. 
Palpitate,  in  Latin  palpitatus,  from  palpito,  is  a 
frequentative  of  the  Greek  TrdAAw  to  vibrate  ; flutter  is 
a frequentative  of  fly,  signifying  to  fly  backward  and 
forward  in  an  agitated  manner  ; pant,  probably  de- 
rived from  pent,  and  the  Latin  pendo  to  hang  in  a state 
of  suspense,  so  as  not  to  be  able  to  move  backward  or 
forward,  as  is  the  case  with  the  breath  when  one  pants ; 
gasp  is  a variation  of  gape,  which  is  the  ordinary  ac- 
companiment in  the  action  of  gasping. 

These  terms  agree  in  a particular  manner,  as  they 
respect  the  irregular  action  of  the  heart  or  lungs  : the 
two  former  are  said  of  the  heart;  and  the  two  latter  of 
the  lungs  or  breath;  to  palpitate  expresses  that  which 
is  strong  ; it  is  a strong  beating  of  the  blood  against  the 
vessels  of  the  heart ; ‘ No  plays  have  oflener  filled  the 
eyes  with  tears,  and  the  breast  with  palpitation,  than 
those  which  are  variegated  with  interludes  of  mirth.’ — 
Johnson.  'Yo  fluUer  expresses  that  which  is  rapid  ; it 
is  a violent  and  alternate  motion  of  the  blood  back- 
ward and  forward ; 

She  springs  aloft,  with  elevated  pride. 

Above  the  tangling  mass  of  low  desires. 

That  bind  the  fluttering  crowd. — Thomson. 

Fear  and  suspense  produce  commonly  but 

joy  and  hope  produce  a fluttering : panting  is,  with 
regard  to  the  breath,  w\\bX  palpitating  is  with  regard  tt 
the  heart ; panting  is  occasioned  by  the  inflated  state 
of  the  respiratory  organs  which  renders  this  palpi 
tating  necessary : 

All  nature  fades  extinct,  and  she  alone, 

Heard,  felt,  and  seen,  possesses  every  thought, 

Fills  every  sense,  and  pants  in  every  vein. 

Thomson. 

differs  from  the  former,  inasmuch  as  it  denotes 
a direct  stoppage  of  the  breath;  a cessation  of  action 
in  the  respiratory  organs : * 

Had  not  the  soul  this  outlet  to  the  skies. 

In  this  vast  vessel  of  the  universe. 

How  should  we  gasp,  as  in  an  empty  void  ! 

Yotmo 

Al.ARM,  TERROUR,  FRIGHT,  CONSTER 
NATION. 

Alarm,  in  French  alarmcr,  is  compounded  of  al  or 
ad  and  armes  arms  signifying  a cry  to  arms,  a signal 
of  danger,  a call  to  defence ; terrour,  in  Latin  terror, 
comes  from  terreo  io  produce  fear;  fright,  from  the 
German  furchl  fear,  signifies  a state  of  fear:  conster- 
nation,\n  Latin  c on  s ter  natus,  from  consterno  to  lay  low 
or  prostrate,  expresses  the  mixed  emotion  of  terrour 
and  amazement  which  confounds. 

Alarm  springs  from  any  sudden  signal  that  announces 
the  approach  of  danger.  Terrour  springs  from  any 
event  or  phenomenon  that  may  serve  as  a prognostic 
of  some  catastrophe.  It  supposes  a less  distinct  view 
of  danger  than  alarm,  and  affords  room  to  the  imagina 
tion,  which  commonly  magnifies  objects.  Alarm  there 
fore  makes  us  run  to  our  defence,  and  terrour  disarms 
us  ; 

None  so  lencwn’d 

With  breathing  brass  to  kindle  fierce  alarms. 

Dryden. 

‘ I was  once  in  a mixed  assembly,  that  was  full  of  noise 
and  mirth,  when  on  a sudden  an  old  woman  unluckily 
observed,  there  were  thirteen  of  us  in  company.  The 
remark  struck  a panick  terrour  into  several  of  us  ’ - 
Addison. 

Fright  is  a less  vivid  emotion  than  either,  as  itariteo 


306 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES 


from  the  simple  appearance  of  danger.  It  is  more  per- 
sonal than  either  aZarm  or  terrour ; for  we  may  be 
alarmed  or  terrified  for  others,  but  we  are  mostly 
frightened  for  ourselves.  Consternation  is  stronger 
than  either  terrour  or  affright ; it  springs  from  the 
view  of  some  very  serious  evil ; ‘ I have  known  a sol 
dier  that  has  entered  a breach  affrighted  at  his  owj 
shadow’. — Addison. 

The  son  of  Pelias  ceased ; the  chiefs  around 

In  silence  wrapt,  in  consternation  drown’d. — Pope. 

Marm  affects  the  feelings,  terrour  the  understanding, 
and  fright  the  senses;  consternation  seizes  the  whole 
mind,  and  benumbs  the  faculties. 

Cries  alarm;  horrid  spectacles  terrify;  a tumult 
frightens;  a sudden  calamity  fills  with  consternation. 

One  is  filled  with  alarm.,  seized  with  terrour,  over- 
whelmed with  fright  or  constei-nation. 

We  are  alarmed  for  what  we  apprehend;  we  are 
terrified  by  what  we  imagine  ; we  are  frightened  by 
what  we  see;  consternation  may  be  produced  by  what 
we  learn.  > 

TO  DISMAY,  DAUNT,  APPAL. 

Dismay  is  probably  changed  from  the  French  des- 
mouvoir,  signifying  to  move  or  pull  down  the  spirit ; 
dmint,  changed  from  the  Latin  domitus  conquered, 
signifies  to  bring  down  the  spirit ; appal,  compounded 
of  the  intensive  ap  or  ad  and  palleo  to  grow  pale,  sig- 
nifies to  make  pale  with  fear. 

The  effect  of  fear  on  the  spirit  is  strongly  expressed 
by  all  these  terms ; but  dismay  expresses  less  than 
daunt,  and  this  than  appal.  We  are  dismayed  by 
alarming  circumstances  ; we  are  daunted  by  terrifying  ; 
we  are  appalled  by  horrid  circumstances.  A severe  de- 
feat will  dismay  so  as  to  lessen  the  force  of  resistance ; 

So  flies  a herd  of  beeves,  that  hear,  dismay'd. 

The  lions  roaring  through  the  midnight  shade. 

Pope. 

The  fiery  glare  from  the  eyes  of  a ferocious  beast  will 
daunt  him  who  was  venturing  to  approach ; 
love  got  such  heroes  as  my  sire,  whose  soul 
No  fear  could  daunt,  nor  earth,  nor  hell  control. — Pope. 
The  sight  of  an  apparition  will  appal  the  stoutest 
heart ; 

Now  the  last  ruin  the  whole  host  appals; 

. Now  Greece  had  trembled  in  her  wooden  walls. 

But  wise  Ulysses  call’d  Tydides  forth. — Pope. 

30LD,  FEARLPSS,  INTREPID,  UNDAUNTED. 

Bold,  V.  .Audacity;  fearless  signifies  without  fear 
(».  To  apprehend)  ; intrepid,  compounded  of  in  pri- 
vative and  trepidus  trembling,  marks  the  total  absence 
of  fear ; undaunted,  of  un  privative,  and  daunted, 
ftom  the  Latin  domitatus,  participle  of  domitare  to 
impress  with  fear,  signifies  unimpressed  or  unmoved 
at  the  prospect  of  danger. 

Boldness  is  positive ; fearlessness  is  negative ; we 
may  therefore  be  fearless  without  being  bold,  or  Jfear- 
less  through  boldness ; 

Such  unheard  of  prodigies  hang  o’er  us. 

As  make  the  boldest  tremble.— Young. 
Fearlessness  is  a temporary  state  : we  may  be /earless 
of  danger  at  this,  or  at  that  time ; fearless  of  loss,  and 
the  like ; 

The  careful  hen 

Calls  all  her  chirping  family  around. 

Fed  and  defended  by  the/earZess  cock. — Thomson. 

Boldness  is  a characteristick ; it  is  associated  with 
constant  fearlessness ; 

His  party,  press’d  with  numbers,  soon  grew  faint. 

And  would  have  left  their  charge  an  easy  prey ; 

While  he  alone,  undaunted  at  the  odds. 

Though  hopeless  to  escape,  fought  well  and  bravely. 

Rowe. 

Intrepidity  and  undauntedness  denote  a still  higher 
degree  of  fearlessness  than  boldness  : boldness  is  con- 
fident, it  forgets  the  consequences  ; intrepidity  is  col- 
lected, it  sees  the  danger,  and  faces  it  with  composure ; 
undauntedness  is  associated  with  unconquerable  firm- 
ness and  resolution  ; it  is  awed  by  nothing : the  bold 
man  proceeds  on  his  enterprise  with  spirit  and  viva- 


city ; the  intrepid  man  calmly  advances  to  the  scene 
of  death  and  destruction  ; ‘ I could  not  sufficiently 
wonder  at  the  intrepidity  of  those  diminutive  mortals, 
who  durst  venture  to  walk  upon  my  body,  withoii 
trembling.’ — Swift.  The  undaunted  man  keeps  hi* 
countenance  in  the  season  of  trial,  in  the  midst  of  the 
most  terrifying  and  overwhelming  circumstances. 

These  good  qualities  may,  without  great  care,  de 
generate  into  certain  vices  to  which  they  cje  closely 
allied. 

Of  the  three,  boldness  is  the  most  questionable  in 
its  nature,  unless  justified  by  the  absolute  urgency  cf 
the  case ; in  maintaining  the  cause  of  truth  again*' 
the  lawless  and  oppressive  exercise  of  power,  it  ii 
an  essential  quality,  but  it  may  easily  degenerate  Intc 
insolent  defiance  and  contempt  of  superiours ; it  may 
lead  to  the  provoking  of  resentment  and  courting  of 
persecution.  Intrepidity  may  become  rashness  if  the 
contempt  of  danger  lead  to  an  unnecessary  exposure 
of  the  life  and  person.  Undauntedness,  in  the  pre- 
sence of  a brutal  tyrant,  may  serve  to  baffle  all  his 
malignant  purposes  of  revenge ; but  the  same  spirit 
may  be  employed  by  the  hardened  villain  to  preserve 
himself  from  detection. 


MANLY,  MANFUL. 

Manly,  or  like  a man,  is  opposed  to  juvenile  or  pue- 
rile, and  of  course  applied  to  those  who  are  fitted  to 
act  the  part  of  men  ; ‘ I love  a manly  freedom  as  much 
as  any  of  the  band  of  cashierers  of  kings.’— Burke. 
Manful,  or  full  of  manhood,  is  opposed  to  effeminate, 
and  is  applicable  to  particular  persons,  or  persons  in 
particular  cases;  ‘ I opposed  his  whim  manfully,  which 
I think  you  will  approve  of.’— Cumberland.  A pre- 
mature manliness  in  young  persons  is  hardly  less  un- 
seemly than  a want  of  manf  ulness  in  one  who  is  called 
upon  to  display  his  courage. 


FEARFUL,  DREADFUL,  FRIGHTFUL,  TRE 
MENDOUS,  TERRIBLE,  TERRIFICK, 
HORRIBLE,  HORRID. 

Fearful  here  signifies  full  of  that  which  causes 
fear  {v.  Marm) ; dreadful,  full  of  what  causes  dread 
(v.  Apprehension) ; frightful,  full  of  what  causes 
fright  {v.  Afraid)  or  apprehension  ; tremendous,  that 
which  causes  trembling ; terrible,  or  terrifick,  causing 
terrour  {v.  Alarm) ; horrible,  ox  horrid,  ctinsinghorr our 
The  application  of  these  terms  is  easily  to  be  disco- 
vered by  these  definitions:  the  first  two  affect  the 
mind  more  than  the  senses ; all  the  others  affect  the 
senses  more  than  the  mind  : a contest  is  fearful  when 
the  issue  is  important,  but  the  event  doubtful ; 

She  wept  the  terronrs  of  the  fearful  wave. 

Too  oft,  abas ! the  wandering  lover’s  grave. 

Falconer. 

The  thought  of  death  is  dreadful  to  one  who  feels 
himself  unprepared ; 

And  dar’st  thou  threat  to  snatch  my  prize  away, 

Due  to  the  deeds  of  many  a dreadful  day  1 — Pope. 

The  frightful  is  less  than  the  tremendous ; the  tre 
mendous  than  the  terrible ; the  terrible  than  the  hor 
rible  : shrieks  may  be  frightful; 

Frightful  convulsions  writh’d  his  tortur’d  limbs 

Fenton 

The  roaring  of  a lion  is  terrible; 

Was  this  a face  to  be  expos’d 
In  the  most  terrible  and  nimble  stroke 
Of  quick,  cross  lightning? — Shakspeare. 
Thunder  and  lightning  may  be  tremendcus,  or  con 
vulsions  may  be  tremendous  ; the  glare  in  the  eye  of 
a ferocious  beast  is  terrifick;  ‘ Out  of  the  limb  of  the 
murdered  monarchy  has  arisen  a vast,  tremendous, 
unformed  spectre,  in  a far  more  terrifick  guise  than 
any  which  ever  yet  overpowered  the  imagination  of 
man.’— Burke.  The  actual  spectacle  of  killing  is  her 
rible  or  horrid  ; 

Deck’d  in  sad  triumph  for  the  mournful  field 

O’er  her  broad  shoulders  hangs  his  horrid  shield 

Pope. 

In  their  general  application,  these  terms  are -often  cm 
ployed  promiscuously  to  characterize  whatever  pru 
duces  very  strong  impressions ; hence  we  ma  >'  speak  of 


- 307 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES 


n frightful^  dtadful,  terrible,  or  horrid  dream  ; or 
frightful,  dreadful,  or  terrible  tempest ; dreadful,  ter- 
rible Dv  horrid  consequences. 

TO  APPREHEND,  FEAR,  DREAD. 

Jlpprehend,  in  French  apprdhender,  Latin  apprc- 
hendo,  compounded  of  ap  and  prehendo  to  lay  hold  of, 
in  a moral  sense  signifies  to  seize  with  the  understand- 
ing ; fear  comes  in  all  probability  through  the  medium 
of  the  Latin  paijor  and  vereor,  from  the  Greek  ^piaau) 
to  feel  a shuddering ; dread,  in  Latin  territo,  comes 
from  the  Greek  rapdaau}  to  trouble,  signifying  to  fear 
with  exceeding  trouble. 

These  words  rise  progressively  in  their  import; 
they  mark  a sentiment  of  pain  at  the  prospect  of  evil : 
but  the  sentiment  oi' apprehension  is  simply  that  of 
uneasiness ; that  of  fear  is  anxiety  ; that  of  dread  is 
wretchedness.  s. 

We  apprehend  an  unpleasant  occurrence ; we  fear 
a misfortune ; we  dread  a calamity.  What  is  possi- 
ble is  apprehended ; ‘ Our  natural  sense  of  right  and 
wrong  produces  an  apprehension  of  merited  punish- 
ment, when  we  have  committed  a crime.’— Blair. 
What  is  probable  i?,  feared;  ‘That  which  is  feared 
may  sometimes  be  avoided : but  that  which  is  regretted 
to-day  may  be  regretted  again  to-morrow.’— Johnson. 
The  symptom  or  prognostick  of  an  evil  is  dreaded  as  if 
•.he  evil  Hself  were  present ; 

All  men  think  all  meti  mortal  but  themselves. 

Themselves,  when  some  alarming  shock  of  fate 

Strikes  through  their  wounded  hearts  the  sudden 
dread.— Young. 

Jlpprehend  respects  things  only ; fear  and  dread  relate 
to  persons  as  well  as  things ; we  fear  the  person  who 
has  the  power  of  inflicting  pain  or  disgrace  -;  we  dread 
him  who  has  no  less  the  will  than  the  power. 

Fear  is  a salutary  sentiment  in  society,  it  binds  men 
together  in  their  several  relations  and  dependencies, 
and  atfords  the  fullest  scope  for  the  exercise  of  the 
benevolent  feelings;  it  is  the  sentiment  of  a child 
towards  its  parent  or  instructor ; of  a creature  to  its 
Creator ; it  is  the  companion  of  love  and  respect  to- 
wards men,  of  adoration  in  erring  and  sinful  mortals 
towards  their  Maker.  Dread  is  altogether  an  irksome 
sentiment ; with  regard  to  our  fellow-creatures,  it  arises 
out  of  the  abuse  of  power : we  dread  the  tyrant  who 
delights  in  punishing  and  tormenting , his  image  haunts 
the  breast  of  the  unhappy  subject,  his  shadow  awakens 
terrour  as  the  approach  of  some  direful  misfortune : 
with  regard  to  our  Maker  it  springs  from  a conscious- 
ness of  guilt,  and  the  prospect  of  a severe  and  ade- 
quate punishment : the  wrath  of  God  may  justly  be 
dreaded. 


AWE,  REVERENCE,  DREAD 

Jlwe,  probably  from  the  German  achten,  conveys  the 
idea  of  regarding ; reverence,  in  French  reverence, 
Latin  revercntia,  comes  from  revereor  to  fear  strongly  ; 
dread,  in  Saxon  dread,  comes  from  the  Latin  territo 
to  frighten,  and  Greek  rapdoaio  to  trouble. 

Awe  and  reverence  both  denote  a strong  sentiment 
of  respect,  mingled  with  some  emotions  of  fear , but 
the  former  marks  the  much  stronger  sentiment  of  the 
two  : dread  is  an  un mingled  senliipent  of  fear  for  one’s 
personal  security.  Awe  may  be  awakened  by  the  help 
of  the  senses  and  understanding;  reverence  by  that  of 
the  understanding  only;  and  dread  principally  by  that 
of  the  imagination. 

Sublime,  sacred,  and  solemn  objects  awaken  awe ; 
they  cause  the  beholder  to  stop  and  consider  whether 
he  is  worthy  to  approach  them  any  nearer ; they  rivet 
his  mind  and  body  to  a spot,  and  make  him  cautious, 
lest  by  his  presence  he  should  contaminate  that  which 
is  hallowed ; ‘ It  were  endless  to  enumerate  all  the 
passages,  both  in  the  sacred  and  profane  writers,  which 
establish  the  general  sentiment  of  mankind  concerning 
the  inseparable  union  of  a sacred  and  reverential  awe 
with  our  ideas  of  the  Divinity.’ — Burke.  Exalted  and 
noble  objects  produce  reverence;  they  lead  to  every 
outward  mark  of  obeisance  and  humiliation  which  it  is 
possible  for  a man  to  express ; ‘ If  the  voice  of  universal 
nature,  the  experience  of  all  ages,  the  liglrt  of  reason, 
and  the  immediate  evidence  of  my  senses,  cannot 
»»;>'ake  me  to  a dependence  upon  my  God,  a reverence 

00'* 


for  his  religion,  and  an  humble  opinion  of  myself, 
what  a lost  creature  am  I.’— Cu.mberland.  Terrifick 
objects  excite  dread : tliey  cause  a shuddering  of  the 
animal  frame,  and  a revulsion  of  the  mind  which,  it 
attended  with  nothing  but  pain ; 

To  Phoebus  next  my  trembling  steps  be  led. 

Full  of  religious  doubts  and  awful  dread. 

Dryden. 

When  the  creature  places  himself  in  the  presence  of 
the  Creator ; when  he  contemplates  the  Immeasurable 
distance  which  separates  himself,  a frail  and  finite 
mortal,  from  his  infinitely  perfect  Maker  ; he  a^ 
proaches  with  awe;  even  the  sanctuary  where  he  i« 
accustomed  thus  to  bow  before  the  Almighty  acquires 
the  power  of  awakening  the  same  emotions  in  his 
mind.  Age,  wisdom,  and  virtue,  whqn  combined  in 
one  person,  are  never  approached  without  reverence; 
the  possessor  has  a dignity  in  himself  that  checks  the 
haughtiness  of  the  arrogant,  that  silences  the  petu- 
lance of  pride  and  self-conceit,  that  stills  the  noise  and 
giddy  mirth  of  the  young,  and  communicates  to  all 
around  a sobriety  of  mien  and  aspect.  A grievous 
offender  is  seldom  without  dread;  his  guilty  con 
science  pictures  every  thing  as  the  instrument  of  ven 
geance,  and  every  person  as  denouncing  his  merited 
sentence. 

The  solemn  stillness  of  the  tomb  will  inspire  awe, 
even  in  the  breast  of  hinj  who  has  no  dread  of  death. 
Children  should  be  early  taught  to  have  a reverence  for 
the  Bible  as  a book,  in  distinction  from  all  other  books. 


AFRAID,  FEARFUL,  TIMOROUS,  TIMID. 

Afraid  is  changed  from  af eared,  signifying  in  a state 
of  fear;  fearful,  as  the  words  of  which  it  is  com 
pounded  imply,  signifies  full  of  fear;  timorous  and 
timid  come  from  the  Latin  timor  fear,  timidus  fearful 
and  timeo  to  fear. 

The  first  denotes  a temporary  state,  the  three  last  a 
habit  of  the  mind. 

Afraid  may  be  used  either  in  a physical  or  moral 
application,  either  as  it  relates  to  ourselves  only  or  to 
others ; fearful  and  timorous  are  only  applied  physi- 
cally and  personally ; timid  is  mostly  used  in  a moral 
sense. 

It  is  the  character  of  the  fearful  or  timorous  pe 
son  to  be  afraid  of  what  he  imagines  would  hurt  him 
self;  it  is  not  necessary  for  the  prospect  of  danger  tc 
exist  in  order  to  awaken  fear  in  such  a disposition ; 
‘ To  be  always  afraid  of  losing  life  is,  indeed,  scarcely 
to  enjoy  a life  that  can  deserve  the  care  of  preserva- 
tion.’— Johnson.  It  is  the  characteristick  of  the  timid 
person  to  be  afraid  of  offending  or  meeting  with  some 
thing  painful  from  others ; such  a disposition  is  pre- 
vented from  following  the  dictates  of  its  own  mind ; 
‘ He  who  brings  with  him  into  a clamorous  multitude 
the  timidity  of  recluse  speculation,  will  suffer  himself 
to  be  driven  by  a burst  of  laughter  from  the  fortresses 
of  demonstration.’— Johnson. 

Between  fearful  and  timorous  there  is  little  distinc 
tion,  either  in  sense  or  application,  except  that  we  say 
fearful  of  a thing,  not  timorous  of  a thing;  ‘ By  I 
know  not  what  impatience  of  raillery,  he  is  wonder 
fully /ear/ul  of  being  thought  too  gi  eat  a believer’ 
Steele. 

Then  birds  in  airy  space  might  a^fely  move, 

\nd  tim'rous  hares  on  heaths  securely  rove. 

Dryden. 


xD  FRIGHTEN,  INTIMIDATE. 

Between  frighten  and  intimidate  there  is  the  same 
difference  as  between  fright  {v.  Alarm)  and  fear 
(v.  To  apprehend) ; the  danger  that  is  near  or  before 
the  eyes  frightens;  that  which  is  seen  at  a distance 
intimidates . hence  females  are  ohencx  frightened,  and 
men  are  oftener  intimidated:  noises  will  frighten; 
threats  may  intimidate:  we  may  run  away  when  we 
are  frightened;  we  waver  in  our  resolution  when  we 
are  intimidated : we  fear  immediate  bodily  harm  when 
we  are  frightened;  we  fear  harm  to  our  property 
as  well  as  our  persons  when  we  are  intimidated: 
frighten,  therefore,  is  always  applied  to  animals,  but 
intimidate  never ; 

And  perch,  a horrour ! on  his  sacred  crown 
If  that  such  pvofanation  were  permitted 


308 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


Of  the  bystanders,  who  witn  reverend  care 

Fright  them  away. — Cumberland. 

Cortes,  unwilling  to  employ  force,  endeavoured  alter- 
nately to  sooth  and  intimidate  Montezuma.’ — Ro- 
bertson. 

FORMIDABLE,  DREADFUL,  TERRIBLE, 
SHOCKING. 

Formidable  is  applied  to  that  which  is  apt  to  excite 
fear  {v.  To  apprehend) ; dreadful  (u.  To  apprehend)  to 
what  is  calculated  to  excite  dread  ; terrible  (tj.  Alarm) 
to  that  which  excites  terrour ; and  from  to 

shake  is  applied  to  that  which  violently  shakes  or  agi- 
tates (u.  To  agitate).  The  formidable  acts  neither 
suddenly  nor  violently;  ‘France  continued  not  only 
powerful  hat  formidable  to  the  hour  of  the  ruin  of  the 
monarchy.’ — Burke.  The  dreadful  may  act  violently, 
but  not  suddenly:  thus  the  appearance  of  an  army 
may  be  formidable ; that  of  a field  of  battle  is  dread- 
ful; 

Think,  timely  think,  on  the  last  dreadf  ul  day. 

Drydkn. 

The  terrible  and  shocking  act  both  suddenly  and  vio- 
lently ; but  the  former  acts  both  on  the  senses  and  the 
imagination,  the  latter  on  the  moral  feelings  only: 
thus  the  glare  of  a tiger’s  eye  is  terrible;  the  unex- 
pected news  of  a friend’s  death  is  shocking ; ‘ When 
men  are  arrived  at  thinking  of  their  very  dissolution 
with  pleasure,  how  few  things  are  there  that  can  be 
terrible  to  them.’— Steele.  ‘ Nothing  could  be  more 
shocking  to  a generous  nobility,  than  the  intrusting  to 
mercenary  hands  the  defence  of  those  territories  which 
had  been  acquired  or  preserved  by  the  blood  of  their 
ancestors.’ — Robertson. 


TREMBLING,  TREMOUR,  TREPIDATION. 

All  these  terms  are  derived  from  the  very  same 
source  {v.  Agitation).,  and  designate  a general  state  of 
agitation  : trembling  is  not  only  the  most  familiar  but 
also  the  most  indefinite  term  of  the  three  ; trepidation 
and  tremour  are  species  of  trembling.  Trembling 
expresses  any  degree  of  involuntary  shaking  of  the 
frame,  from  the  affection  either  of  the  body  or  the 
mind;  cold,  nervous  affections,  fear,  and  the  like,  are 
the  ordinary  causes  of  trembling  ; 

And  with  unmanly  tremblings  shook  the  car. 

Pope. 

Tremour  is  a slight  degree  of  trembling,  which  arises 
only  from  a mental  affection ; when  the  spirits  are  agi- 
tated, the  mind  is  thrown  into  a tremour  by  any  trifling 
incident;  ‘Laughter  is  a vent  of  any  sudden  joy  that 
strikes  upon  the  mind,  which,  being  too  volatile  and 
strong,  breaks  out  in  this  tremour  of  the  voice.’ — 
Steele.  Trepidation  is  more  violent  than  either  of 
the  two,  and  springs  from  the  defective  state  of  the 
mind,  it  shows  itself  in  the  action,  or  the  different 
movements  of  the  body;  those  who  have  not  the  re- 
quisite composure  of  mind  to  command  themselves  on 
all  occasions  are  apt  to  do  what  is  required  of  them 
with  trepidation ; ‘ The  ferocious  insolence  of  Crom- 
well, the  rugged  brutality  of  Harrison,  and  the  general 
trepidation  of  fear  and  wickedness  (in  the  rebel  parlia- 
ment) would  make  a picture  of  unexampled  variety.’ 
— Johnson.  Trembling  is  either  an  occasional  or  an 
habitual  infirmity ; there  is  no  one  who  may  not  be 
sometimes  seized  with  a trembling,  and  there  are  those 
who,  from  a lasting  disease  or  from  old  age,  are  never 
rid  of  it ; tremour  is  but  occasional,  and  consequently 
depends  rather  on  the  nature  of  the  occasion  ; no  one 
who  has  a proper  degree  of  modesty  can  make  his  first 
appearance  in  publick  without  feeling  a tremour:  tre- 
pidation may  be  either  occasional  or  habitual,  but 
oftener  the  latter,  since  it  arises  rather  from  the  weak- 
ness of  the  mind  than  the  strength  of  the  cause. 

Trembling  and  tremulous  are  applied  as  epithets, 
either  to  persons  or  things  : a trembling  voice  evinces 
trepidation  of  mind,  a tremulous  voice  evinces  a 
tremour  of  mind : notes  in  musick  are  sometimes 
trembling;  the  motion  of  the  leaves  of  trees  is  tremu- 
lous ; 

And  rend  the  trembling  unresisting  prey. — Pope. 

As  thus  th’  effulgence  tremulous  I drank 

With  cherish’d  gaze. — Thomson. 


AGITATION,  EMOTION,  TREPIlAnOIf, 
TREMOUR 

Agitation,  in  Latin  agitatio,  from  agito,  signifiep 
the  state  of  being  agitated ; emotion,  in  Latin  emotio, 
from  emotus,  participle  of  emoveo,  compounded  of 
out  of  and  moveo  to  move,  signifies  the  state  of  being 
moved  out  of  rest  or  put  in  motion ; trepidation,  in 
'LoXm’trepidatio,  from  trepido  to  tremble,  compounded 
of  tremo  and  pede  to  tremble  with  the  feet,  signifies 
the  condition  of  trembling  in  all  one’s  limbs  from  head 
to  foot ; tremour,  v.  Trembling. 

Agitation  refers  either  to  the  body  or  mind,  emotion 
to  the  mind  only;  tremour  mostly,  and  trepidation 
only,  to  the  body. 

Agitation  of  mind  is  a vehement  struggle  between 
contending  feelings;  emotion  is  the  awakening  but 
one  feeling;  which  in  the  latter  case  is  not  so  vehe 
nient  as  in  the  former.  Distressing  circumstances  pro- 
duce agitation;  ‘The  seventh  book  affects  the  ima- 
gination like  the  ocean  in  a calm,  and  fills  the  mind 
of  the  reader  without  producing  in  it  any  thing  like 
tumult  or  agitation.' — Addison  (Ore  Milton).  Affect- 
ing and  interesting  circumstances  produce  emotions; 
‘The  description  of  Adam  and  Eve  as  they  first  ap- 
peared to  Satan,  is  exquisitely  drawn,  and  sufficient  to 
make  the  fallen  angel  gaze  upon  them  with  all  those 
emotions  of  envy  in  which  he  is  represented.’ — Addi- 
son (Ore  Milton). 

Agitations  have  but  one  character,  namely,  that  of 
violence:  emotions  vary  with  the  object  that  awakens 
them ; they  are  emotions  either  of  pain  or  pleasure, 
of  tenderness  or  anger;  they  are  either  gentle  or  strong, 
faint  or  vivid. 

With  regard  to  the  body,  agitation  is  more  than  tre- 
pidation, and  the  latter  more  than  tremour : the  two 
former  attract  the  notice  of  the  bystander ; the  latter 
is  scarcely  visible. 

Agitations  of  the  mind  sometimes  give  rise  to  dis- 
torted and  extravagant  agitations  of  the  body;  emo- 
tions of  terrour  or  horrour  will  throw  the  body  into  a 
trepidation;  or  any  publick  misfortune  may  produce 

trepidation  among  a number  of  persons;  ‘His  first 
action  of  note  was  in  the  battle  of  Lepanto,  where  the 
success  of  that  great  day,  in  such  trepidation  of  the 
state,  made  every  man  meritorious.’ — Wotton.  Emo- 
tions of  fear  will  cause  a tremour  to  run  through  the 
whole  frame;  ‘He  fell  into  such  a universal  tremour 
of  all  his  joints,  that  when  going  his  legs  tremblen 
under  him.’— Hervey. 


TO  ACTUATE,  IMPEL,  INDUCE 

Actuate,  from  the  Latin  actum  an  action,  implies  tc 
call  into  action ; impel,  in  Latin  impello,  is  com- 
pounded of  in  towards  and  pello  to  drive,  signifying 
to  drive  towards  an  object;  induce,  in  Latin  induce, is 
compounded  of  in  and  duce,  signifying  to  lead  towards 
an  object. 

One  is  actuated  by  motives,  impelled  by  passions, 
and  induced  by  reason  or  inclination. 

Whatever  actuates  is  the  result  of  reflection : it  is 
a steady  and  fixed  principle  : whatever  impels  is  mo- 
mentary and  vehement,  and  often  precludes  reflection . 
whatever  induces  is  not  vehement,  though  often  mo- 
mentary. 

We  seldom  repent  of  the  thing  to  which  we  are 
actuated ; as  the  ifrinciple,  whether  good  or  bad,  is 
•not  liable  to  change  ; ‘ It  is  observed  by  Cicero,  that 
men  of  the  greatest  and  the  most  shining  parts  are 
most  actuated  by  ambition.’ — Addison.  We  may  fre- 
quently be  impelled  to  measures  which  cause  serious 
repentance ; 

When  youth  impelVd  him,  and  when  love  inspir’d, 

The  listening  nymphs  his  Dorick  lays  admir’d. 

Sir  Wm.  Jones. 

The  thing  to  which  we  are  induced  is  seldom  of  suffi 
cient  importance  to  call  for  repentance  ; 

Induced  by  such  examples,  some  have  taught 
That  bees  have  portions  of  ethereal  thought. 

Dryden. 

Revenge  actuates  men  to  commit  the  most  horrid 
deeds  ; anger  impels  them  to  the  most  imprudent  ac 
tions;  phlegmatick  people  are  not  easily  induced  tC 
take  any  one  measure  in  preference  to  another 


i^NGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


.309 


TO  EXCITE,  INCITE,  PROVOKE. 

Excite^  V.  To  awaken ; incite,  v.  To  encourage ; 
rovoke,  v.  To  aggravate. 

To  excite  is  said  more  particularly  of  the  inward 
feelings  ; incite  is  said  of  the  external  actions ; provoke 
is  said  of  both. 

A person’s  passions  are  excited ; he  is  incited  by  any 
particular  passion  to  a course  of  conduct ; a particular 
feeling  is  provoked,  or  he  is  provoked  by  some  feeling 
to  a particular  step.  Wit  and  conversation  excite 
mirth ; 

Can  then  the  sons  of  Greece  (the  sage  rejoin’d) 
Excite  compassion  in  Achilles’  mind  1 — Pope. 

Men  ate  incited  by  a lust  for  gain  to  fraudulent  prac- 
tices ; 

To  her  the  god ; Great  Hector’s  soul  incite 
To  dare  the  boldest  Greek  to  single  fight, 

Till  Greece  provok'd  from  all  her  numbers  show 
A warriour  worthy  to  be  Hector’s  foe — Pope. 
Men  are  provoked  by  the  opposition  of  others  to  intem- 
perate language  and  intemperate  measures ; ‘ Among 
the  other  torments  whicTii  this  passion  produces,  we 
may  usually  observe,  that  none  are  greater  mourners 
than  jealous  men,  when  the  person  who  provoked  their 
jealousy  is  taken  from  them.’ — Addison.  To  excite  is 
very  frequently  used  in  a physical  acceptation ; incite 
always,  and  provoke  mostly,  in  a moral  application. 
We  speak  of  exciting  hunger,  thirst,  or  perspiration  ; 
of  inciting  to  noble  actions ; of  provoking  imperti- 
nence, provoking  scorn  or  resentment. 

When  excite  and  provoke  are  applied  to  similar 
objects,  the  former  designates  a much  stronger  action 
than  the  latter.  A thing  may  excite  a smile,  but  it 
provokes  laughter ; it  may  excite  displeasure,  but  it 
provokes  anger ; it  may  excite  joy  or  sorrow,  but  it 
provokes  to  madness. 


TO  PRESS,  SaUEEZE,  PINCH,  GRIPE. 

Press,  in  Latin  pressus,  participle  of  premo,  which 
probably  comes  from  the  Greek  Pdprjpa  ; squeeze,  in 
Saxon  quisan,  Latin  quasso,  Hebrew  to  press 

together;  pinch  is  but  a variaiion  frmn  pin,  spine; 
gripe,  from  the  German  greifen,  signifies  to  seize, 
like  the  word  grapple  or  grasp,  the  Latin  rapio,  the 
Greek  ypint^o)  to  fish  or  catch,  and  the  Hebrew 
to  catch. 

The  forcible  action  of  one  body  on  another  is  in- 
cluded in  all  these  terms.  In  the  word  press  this  is 
the  only  idea ; the  rest  differ  in  the  circumstances. 
We  may  press  with  the  foot,  the  hand,  the  whole 
body,  or  any  particular  limb  ; one  squeezes  commonly 
with  the  hand ; one  pinches  either  with  the  fingers, 
or  an  instrument  constructed  in  a similar  form  ; one 
gripes  with  teeth,  claws,  or  any  instrument  that  can 
gain  a hold  of  the  object.  Inanimate  as  well  as  ani- 
mate objects  ox  pinch;  but  to  squeeze  and  gripe 
are  more  properly  the  actions  of  animate  objects  ; the 
former  is  always  said  of  persons,  the  latter  of  animals ; 
stones  press  that  on  which  they  rest  their  weight ; a 
door  which  shuts  of  itself  may  pinch  the  fingers  ; one 
squeezes  the  hand  of  a friend  ; lobsters  and  many 
other  shell-fish  gripe  whatever  comes  within  their 
claws. 

In  the  figurative  application  they  have  a similar  dis- 
tinction ; we  press  a person  by  importunity,  or  by 
some  coercive  measure;  ‘ All  these  women  (the  thirty 
wives  of  Orodes)  pressed  hard  upon  the  old  king,  each 
soliciting  for  a son  of  her  own.’ — Prideaux.  An  ex- 
tortioner squeezes  in  order  to  get  that  which  is  given 
with  reluctance  or  difficulty;  ‘ Venlidius,  receiving 
great  sums  from  Herod  to  promote  his  interest,  and 
at  the  same  time  greater  to  liinder  it,  squeezed  eacli 
of  them  to  the  utmo.st,  and  served  neither.’ — Pri- 
deaux. A miser  pinches  himself  by  contracting  his 
s.ibsistence ; 

Better  dispos’d  lo  clothe  the  tatter’d  wretch, 

Who  shrinks  beneath  the  blast,  to  feed  the  poor 
Pinch'd  with  afflictive  want. — Somerville. 

A covetous  person  gripes  all  that  comes  within  his 
possession;  How  can  he  be  envied  for  his  felicity 
who  is  conscious  that  a very  short  time  will  give  him 
Up  to  the  gripe  of  poverty.’ — Johnson. 


TO  RUB,  CHAFE,  FRET,  GALL. 

To  rub,  through  the  medium  of  the  northern  lun 
guages,  comes  from  the  Hebrew  3 It  is  the  generick 
term,  expressing  simply  the  act  of  moving  bodies  when 
in  contact  with  each  other ; to  chafe,  from  the  French 
chauffer,  and  the  Latin  calfacere  to  make  hot,  signi- 
fies to  rub  a thing  until  it  is  heated  ; to  fret,  like  the 
word  fritter,  comes  from  the  Latin  frio  to  crumble, 
signifying  to  wear  away  by  rubbing:  to  gall,  from 
the  noun  gall,  signifies  to  make  as  bitter  or  painful  as 
gall,  that  is,  to  wound  by  rubbing.  Things  are  rubbed 
sometimes  for  purposes  of  convenience;  but  they  are 
chafed,  fretted,  and  galled  injuriously : the  skin  is 
liable  to  chafe  from  any  violence ; leather  will  fret 
from  the  motion  of  a carriage ; when  the  skin  is  once 
broken,  animals  will  become  galled  by  a continuance 
of  the  friction.  These  terms  are  likewise  used  in  the 
moral  or  figurative  sense  to  denote  the  actions  of 
things  on  the  mind,  where  the  distinction  is  clearly 
kept  up.  We  meet  with  rubs  from  the  opposing  sen- 
timents of  others;  ‘A  boy  educated  at  home  meets 
with  continual  rul^  and  disappointments  (when  he 
comes  into  the  world).’ — Beattie.  The  angry  hu 
mours  are  chafed  ; 

Accoutred  as  we  were,  we  both  plung’d  in 
The  troubled  Tiber,  chafing  with  the  shores. 

Shakspeare 

The  mind  is  fretted  and  made  sore  by  the  frequen', 
repetition  of  small  troubles  and  vexations ; 

And  full  of  indignation  frets. 

That  women  should  be  such  coquettes. — Swift 
The  pride  is  galled  by  humiliation  and  severe  degra 
dations ; 

Thus  every  poet  in  his  kind 
Is  bit  by  him  that  comes  behind. 

Who,  tho’  too  little  to  be  seen. 

Can  tease  and  gall,  «nd  give  the  spleen.— Swift. 


EBULLITION,  EFFERVESCENCE,  FERMENT 
ATION. 

These  technical  terms  have  a strong  resemblance  iq 
their  signification,  but  they  are  not  strictly  synony 
mous ; having  strong  characteristick  differences. 

Ebullition,  from  the  Latin  ebullitio  and  ebullio 
compounded  of  e and  bullio  to  boil  forth,  marks  the 
* commotion  of  a liquid  acted  upon  by  fire,  and  in 
chymistry  it  is  said  of  two  substances,  which  by  pene 
trating  each  other  occasion  bubbles  to  rise  up ; effer- 
vescence, from  the  Latin  effervescentia  and  effervesce 
to  grow  hot,  marks  the  commotion  which  is  excited  in 
liquors  by  a combination  of  substances;  such  as  ot 
acids,  which  are  mixed  and  commonly  produce  heat ; 
fermentation,  from  the  Latin  fermentatio  and  fermen- 
tum  or  fervimentum,  from  ferveo  to  grow  hot,  marks 
the  internal  movement  which  is  e-vcited  in  a liquid  of 
itself,  by  which  its  components  undergo  such  a change 
or  decomposition,  as  to  form  a new  body. 

Ebullition  is  a more  violent  action  than  efferves- 
cence; fermentation  is  more  gradual  and  permanent 
than  either.  Water  is  exposed  to  ebullition  when 
acted  upon  by  any  powerful  degree  of  external  heat ; 
iron  in  aqua  forlis  occasions  an  eff'ervescence ; beer 
and  wine  undergo  a fermentation  before  they  reach  a 
state  of  perfection. 

These  words  are  all  employed  in  a figurative  sense, 
which  is  drawn  from  their  physical  application.  The 
passions  are  exposed  to  ebullitions,  in  which  they 
break  forth  with  all  the  violence  that  is  observable  in 
water  agitated  by  excessive  heat;  ‘ Milbourn,  indeed, 
a clergyman,  attacked  it  (Dryden’s  Virgil),  but  his 
outrages  seem  to  be  the  ebullitions  of  a mind  agitated 
by  stronger  resentment  than  bad  poetry  can  excite.’- 
Johnson.  The  heart  and  affections  are  exposed  to 
effervescence  when  powerfully  awakened  by  particular 
objects  , ‘ Dryden’s  was  not  one  of  the  gentle  bosoms  . 
he  hardly  conceived  love  but  in  its  turbulent  effer 
vcscence  with  some  other  desires.’ — Johnson.  Minds 
are  said  to  be  in  a ferment  which  are  agitated  by  con- 
flicting feelings;  ‘ The  tumult  of  the  world  raises  that 
eager  fermentation  of  spirit  which  will  ever  be  sending 

♦ Vid:;Beauz6e;  “Ebullition,  effervescence,  ferment 
ation.” 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


3i0 

forth  the  dangerous  fumes  of  folly.’— Blair.  Ebulli- 
tion and  effervescence  are  applicable  only  to  indivi- 
duals ; fermentation  to  one  or  many. 

If  the  angry  humours  of  an  irascible  tempei  be  not 
restrained  in  early  life,  they  but  too  frequently  break 
forth  in  the  most  dreadful  ebullitions  in  maturer  years ; 
religious  zeal,  when  not  constrained  by  the  sober  exer- 
cise of  judgement,  and  corrected  by  sound  knowledge, 
is  an  unhappy  effervescence  that  injures  the  cause 
which  it  espouses,  and  often  proves  fatal  to  the  indi- 
vidual by  whom  it  is  indulged : the  ferment  which 
was  produced  in  the  publick  mind  by  the  French  revo- 
ution  exceeded  every  thing  that  is  recorded  in  history 
of  popular  commotions  in  past  ages,  and  will,  it  is  to 
be  hoped,  never  have  its  parallel  at  any  future  period. 
Tl'.ere  can  be  no  ebullition  or  fermentation  without 
effervescence  ; but  there  may  be  effervescence  without 
either  of  the  former. 


INTOXICATION,  DRUNKENNESS,  INFATUA- 
TION. 

Intoxication^  from  the  Latin  toxicum  a poison,  sig- 
nifies imbued  with  a poison ; dninkenness  signifies  the 
state  of  having  drunk  overmuch  ; infatuation^  from 
fatuus  foolish,  signifies  making  foolisJi. 

Intoxication  and  drunkenness  are  used  either  in 
the  proper  or  the  improper  sense ; infatuation  in  the 
improper  sense  only.  Intoxication  is  a general  state  ; 
drunkenness  a particular  state,  intoxiention  may  be 
produced  by  various  causes  ; drunkenness  is  produced 
only  by  an  immoderate  indulgence  in  some  intoxicating 
liquor : a person  may  be  intoxicated  by  the  smell  of 
strong  liquors,  or  by  vapours  which  produce  a similar 
effect ; he  becomes  drunken  by  the  drinking  of  wine 
or  other  spirits.  In  the  improper  sense  a deprivation 
of  one’s  reasoning  faculties  is  the  common  idea  in  the 
signification  of  all  these  terms.  The  intoxication  and 
drunkenness  spring  from  the  hitemperate  state  of  the 
feelings ; the  infatuation  springs  from  the  ascendancy 
of  the  passions  over  the  reasoning  powers.  A person 
is  intoxicated  with  success,  drunk  with  joy,  and  in- 
fatuated by  an  excess  of  vanity,  or  an  impetuosity  of 
character;  ‘This  plan  of  empire  was  not  taken  up  in 
the  first  intoxication  of  unexpected  success.’— Burke. 

Passion  is  the  drunkenness  of  the  mind.’— South. 
‘A  sure  destruction  impends  over  those  infatuated 
princes,  who,  in  the  conflict  with  this  new  and  unheard 
of  power,  proceed  as  :f  they  were  engaged  in  a war 
that  bore  a resemblance  to  their  former  contests.’— 
Burke. 

A person  who  is  naturally  intoxicated  reels  and  is 
giddi^ ; he  who  is  in  the  moral  sense  intoxicated  is  dis- 
orderly and  unsteady  in  his  conduct;  vl  drunken  man  is 
deprived  of  the  use  of  ali  his  senses,  and  in  the  moral 
sense  he  is  bewildered  and  unable  to  collect  himself. 
An  infatuated  man  is  not  merely  foolish  but  wild  • he 
carries  his  folly  to  the  most  extravagant  pitch. 


TU  AWAKEN,  EXCITE,  PROVOKE,  ROUSE, 
STIR  UP. 

To  awaken  is  to  make  awake  or  alive ; to  excite,  in 
Latin  cxcito,  compounded  of  the  intensive  syllables  ex 
and  cito,  In  Hebrew  r\D  to  move,  signifies  to  move  out 
of  p state  of  rest ; provoke,  fioin  the  Latin  provoco  to 
call  forth,  signifies  to  call  forth  the  feelings ; to  rouse 
is  t ) cause  them  to  rise ; and  to  stir,  from  the  Ger- 
man siHren,  and  the  Latin  turbo,  is  to  put  in  com- 
motion. 

To  excite  imd  provoke  convpy  the  idea  of  producing 
BORiething;  rouse  and  stir  up  that  of  only  calling  into 
action  that  which  previously  exists;  to  awaken  is  used 
in  either  sense. 

To  aivaken  Is  a gentler  action  than  to  excite,  and  this 
i.s  gentler  than  to  provoke.  We  awaken  by  a simple 
eflbrt ; we  excite  by  repeated  efforts  or  forcible  means ; 
we  provoke  by  words,  looks,  or  actions.  The  tender 
feelings  are  awakened ; affections  or  the  passions  in 
general  are  excited ; the  angry  passions  are  commonly 
p -ovoked.  Objects  of  distress  awaken  a sentiment  of 
pity,  competition  among  scholars  excites  a spirit  of 
emulation;  taunting  words  provoke  antrer. 

.liwaken  is  applied  only  to  the  individual  and  what 
(>asses  within  him;  excite  is  api)licable  to  the  outward 
Lircumstances  of  oie  or  many;  provoke  is  applicable 


to  the  conduct  or  temper  of  one  or  many.  The  atten 
tion  is  awakened  by  interesting  sounds  that  strike  upot 
the  ear ; the  conscience  is  awakened  by  the  voice  of 
the  preacher,  or  by  passing  events;  ‘The  soul  has  its 
curiosity  more  than  ordinarily  awakened  when  it  turns 
its  thoughts  Ufion  the  conduct  of  such  who  have 
behaved  themselves  with  an  equal,  a resigned,  a cheei 
ful,  a generous,  or  heroic  temper  in  the  extremity  of 
death.’ — Steele.  A commotion,  a tumult,  or  a re 
bellion  is  excited  among  the  people  by  the  active  efforts 
of  individuals  • ‘In  our  Saviour  was  no  form  of  come 
liness  than  men  should  desire,  no  artifice  or  trick  t' 
catch  ajrplause,  or  to  ezefte  surprise.’— Cumberland. 
Laughter  or  contempt  is  provoked  by  preposieiwwi 
conduct; 

See,  Mercy ! see  with  pure  and  loaded  hands 

Before  thy  shrine  my  country’s  genius  stands. 

When  he  whom  e’en  our  joys /iroroAe, 

The  fiend  of  nature  join’d  his  yoke. 

And  rush’d  in  wrath  to  make  our  isles  his  prey  ; 

I’hy  form  from  out  thy  sweet  abode, 

O’ertook  him  on  the  blasted  road. — Collins. 

To  awaken  is,  in  the  moral,  as  in  the  physical  sense, 
to  call  into  consciousne.ss  from  a state  of  unconscious 
ness;  to  rouse  is  forcibly  to  bring  into  action  that 
which  is  in  a state  of  inaction ; and  stir  up  is  to  bring 
into  a state  of  agitation  or  commotion.  We  are 
awakened  from  an  ordinary  state  by  ordinary  means  ; 
we  are  roused  from  an  extraordinary  state  by  extra- 
ordinary means  ; we  are  stirred  up  from  an  ordinary 
t»»  an  extraordinary  state.  The  mind  of  a child  is 
awakened  by  the  action  on  its  senses  as  soon  as  it  is 
born  ; 

The  spark  of  noble  courage  now  awake  (awaken) 

And  strive  your  excellent  self  to  excel. — Spenser. 
Some  persons  are  not  to  be  roused  from  their  stupor  by 
any  thing  but  the  most  awful  events  ; 

Go,  study  virtue,  rugged  ancient  worth ; 

Rouse  up  that  flame  our  great  forefathers  felt 

SlIlRLEV 

’fhe  passions,  particularly  of  anger,  are  in  some  pei 
sons  stirred  up  by  trifling  circumstances  ; ‘ The  use  of 
the  passions  is  to  stir  up  the  mind,  and  put  it  upon 
action,  to  awake  the  understanding,  and  to  enforce  the 
will.’ — Abdison. 

The  conscience  is  sometimes  awakened  for  a time, 
but  the  sinner  is  not  roused  to  a sense  of  his  danger 
or  to  any  exertions  for  his  own  safety,  until  an  intem- 
perate zeal  is  stirred  up  in  him  by  means  of  enthu- 
siastic preaching,  in  which  case  the  vulgar  proverb  is 
verified,  that  the  remedy  is  as  bad  as  the  disease. 
Death  is  a scene  calculated  to  awaken  some  feeling  in 
the  most  obdurate  breast ; 

The  fair 

Repairs  her  smiles,  awakens  ev’ry  grace. 

And  calls  forth  all  the  wonders  of  her  face. — Pope 
The  tears  and  sighs  of  the  afflicted  ezerte  a sentiment 
of  commiseration;  the  most  equitable  administration 
of  justice  may  excite  murmurs  among  the  discontented ; 
the  relation  of  worthy  deeds  may  excite  to  honour  and 
virtue;  ‘ That  kind  of  poetry  which  excites  io  virtue 
the  greatest  men,  is  of  greatest  use  to  human  kind.’ — 
Dryden.  a harsh  and  unreasonable  reproof  will 
provoke  a reply  : or  affronts  provoke  resentment ; 

Such  acts 

Of  contumacy  will  provoke  the  Highest. — Miatun. 
Continued  provocations  and  affronts  may  r-ortse  a sense 
of  injuries  in  the  meekest  breast;  ‘The  heat  with 
which  Luther  treated  his  adversaries,  though  strained 
too  far,  was  extremely  well  fitted  by  the  providence  of 
God  to  rouse  up  a people,  the  mostphlegmatick  of  any 
in  Christendom.’ — Atterbury.  Nothing  is  so  cal- 
culated to  stir  up  the  rebellious  spirits  of  men  as  the 
harangues  of  political  demapgues;  ‘The  turbulent 
and  dangerous  are  for  embroiling  councils,  stirring  up 
seditions,  and  subverting  constitutions,  out  of  a mere 
restlessness  of  temper.’ — Steele. 

TO  ENCOURAGE,  COUNTENANCE,  SANC- 
TION, SUPPORT. 

Encourage  has  here  the  same  general  sfgnificatiua 
as  in  the  preceding  article;  countenance  signifies  to 
. keep  in  countenance , sanction,  in  French  sanction^ 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


batin  sanctio  from  sanctus  sacred,  signifies  to  ratify  a 
decree  or  ordinance  ; in  an  extended  sense  to  make 
iny  thing  binding ; support,  in  French  supporter, 
Latin  supporto,  compounded  of  sup  or  sub  and  porto 
o bear,  signifies  to  bear  from  underneatli,  lo  bear  up. 

These  terms  are  allied  in  their  application  to  persons 
or  things  personal ; persons  or  things  are  encouraged 
diViA  sxipported , persons  are  countenanced;  things  are 
sanctioned;  measures  or  persons  are  encouraged  dinA 
supported  by  every  means  which  may  forward  the 
object;  persons  are  coM7tfenanced  in  their  proceedings 
by  the  apparent  approbation  of  others;  measures  are 
sanctioned  by  the  consent  or  approbation  of  others. 

To  encourage  is  a general  and  indefinite  term,  we 
may  encourage  a person  or  his  conduct  by  various 
ways:  ‘Every  man  encourages  the  practice  of  that 
vice  which  he  commits  in  appearance,  though  he 
avoids  it  in  fact.’ — Hawkksworth.  Countenancing 
is  a direct  mode  of  encouragement,  it  consists  of  some 
outward  demonstration  of  regard  or  good  will  towards 
the  person ; ‘ A good  man  acts  with  a vigour  and  suf- 
fers with  a patience  more  than  hunran,  when  he  be- 
lieves hxmsoM  countenanced  by  the  Almighty.’ — Blair. 
There  is  most  of  authority  in  sanctioning ; it  is  the 
lending  of  a name,  an  authority,  or  an  influence,  in 
order  to  streirgthen  and  confirm  the  thing;  ‘Men  of 
the  greatest  sense  are  always  diffident  of  their  private 
judgement,  until  it  receives  a sanction  from  the  pub- 
lick.’ — Addison.  There  is  most  of  assistance  and  co- 
operation in  support;  it  is  the  employment  of  means 
to  an  end ; ‘ The  apparent  insufficiency  of  every  indi- 
vidual to  his  own  happiness  or  safety  compels  us  to 
seek  from  one  another  assistance  and  support.''^ 
Johnson.  Persons  in  all  conditions  may  encourage 
and  support ; superiours  only  can  countenance  or 
sanction:  those  who  countenance  evil  doers  give  a 
sanction  to  their  evil  deeds  ; those  who  support  either 
an  individual  or  a cause  ought  to  be  satisfied  that  they 
are  entitled  to  support. 

rO  ENCOURAGE,  ANIMATE,  INCITE,  IMPEL, 
URGE,  STIMULATE,  INSTIGATE. 

Encourage,  compounded  of  en  or  in  and  courage, 
signifies  to  inspire  with  courage;  animate,  in  Latin 
animatus,  participle  of  animo  and  anima  the  soul, 
signifies  in  the  proper  sense  to  give  life,  and  in  the 
moral  sense  to  give  spirit ; incite,  from  the  Latin  cito, 
and  the  Hebrew  flQ  to  stir  up,  signifies  to  put  into 
motion  towards  an  object;  impel  signifies  the  same  as 
in  the  preceding  article ; urge,  in  Latin  urgeo,  comes 
from  the  Greek  root  «pyfa)  to  set  to  work;  stimulate, 
from  the  Latin  stimulus  a spur  or  goad,  and  instigate, 
'’rom  the  Latin  and  Greek  signify  literally 
to  goad. 

The  idea  of  actuating,  or  calling  into  action,  is  com- 
mon to  these  terms,  which  vary  in  the  circumstances 
of  the  action. 

Encouragement  acts  as  a persuasive,  animate  as  an 
impelling  or  enlivening  cause:  those  wlio  are  weak 
require  to  be  encouraged ; those  who  are  strong  be- 
come stronger  by  being  animated : the  former  require 
to  have  their  difficulties  removed,  their  powers  reno- 
vated, their  doubts  and  fears  dispelled  ; the  latter  may 
have  their  hopes  increased,  their  prospects  brightened, 
and  their  powers  invigorated  ; we  are  encouraged  not 
to  give  up  or  slacken  in  our  exertions ; we  are  ani- 
mated to  increase  our  efforts  : the  sinner  is  encouraged 
by  offers  of  pardon,  through  the  merits  of  a Redeemer, 
to  turn  from  his  sinful  ways;  ‘ He  would  have  women 
follow  the  camp,  to  be  spectators  and  encouragers  of 
noble  actions.’ — Burton.  The  Christian  is  animated 
by  the  prospect  of  a blissful  eternity,  to  go  on  from 
perfection  to  perfection  ; ‘He  that  prosecutes  a lawful 
purpose,  by  lawful  means,  acts  always  with  the  appro- 
bation of  his  own  reason : he  is  animated  through  the 
course  of  his  endeavours  by  an  expectation  which  he 
knows  to  be  just.’ — Johnson. 

What  encourages  and  animates  acts  by  the  finer 
feelings  of  our  nature  ; what  incites  acts  through  the 
medium  of  our  desires : we  are  encouraged  by  kind- 
ness ; we  are  animated  by  the  hope  of  reward ; we 
are  incited  by  the  desire  of  distinction  or  the  love  of 
gain  ; ‘ While  a rightful  claim  to  pleasure  or  to  afflu- 
ence must  be  procured  either  by  slow  industry  or  un- 
certain hazard,  there  will  always  be  multitudes  whom 
Mwardice  or  impatience  incite  to  more  safe  and  speedy 


311 

methods  of  getting  wealth.’— Johnson.  What  impels 
urges,  stimulates,  and  instigates,  acts  forcibly,  be  the 
cause  internal  or  external : we  are  impelled  and  stimu- 
lated mostly  by  what  is  internal ; we  are  urged  and 
instigated  by  both  the  internal  and  external,  but  par- 
ticularly the  latter  : we  are  impelled  by  motives ; W'e 
are  stimulated  by  passions ; we  are  urged  and  insti- 
gated by  the  representations  of  others : a benevolent 
man  is  impelled  by  motives  of  humanity  to  relieve  the 
wretched ; 

So  Myrrha’s  mind,  impelVd  on  either  side, 

Takes  ev’ry  bent,  but  cannot  long  abide. 

Dryden. 

An  ardent  mind  is  stimulated  by  ambition  to  great 
efforts ; ‘ Some  persons  from  the  secret  stimulations  of 
vanity  or  envy,  despise  a valuable  book,  and  throw 
contempt  upon  it  by  wholesale.’ — Watts.  We  are 
urged  by  entreaties  to  spare  those  who  are  in  our 
power ; one  is  instigated  by  malicious  representations 
to  take  revenge  on  a supposed  enemy. 

We  may  be  impelled  aii-d  urged  though  not  properly 
stimulated  or  instigated  by  circumstances ; in  this 
case  the  two  former  differ  only  in  the  degree  of  force 
in  the  impelling  cause : less  constraint  is  laid  on  the 
will  when  we  are  impelled,  than  when  we  are  urged, 
which  leaves  no  alternative  or  choice : a monarch  is 
sometimes  impelled  by  the  state  of  the  nation  to  make 
a peace  less  advantageous  than  he  would  otherwise 
do; 

Thus,  while  around  the  wave- subjected  soil 
Impels  the  natives  to  repeated  toil. 

Industrious  habits  in  each  bosom  reign. 

Goldsmith. 

A prince  may  be  urged  by  his  desperate  condition  to 
throw  himself  upon  the  mercy  of  the  enemy ; 

What  I have  done  my  safety  urg'd  me  to. 

Shaespbare. 

A man  is  impelled,  by  the  mere  necessity  of  choosing, 
to  take  one  road  in  preference  to  another ; he  is  urged 
by  his  pecuniary  embarrassments  to  raise  money  at  a 
great  loss. 

We  may  be  impelled,  urged,  and  stimulated  to  that 
which  is  good  or  bad  ; we  are  never  instigated  to  that 
which  is  good  : we  may  be  impelled  by  curiosity  to 
pry  into  that  which  does  not  concern  us ; .we  may  be 
urged  by  the  entreaties  of  those  we  are  connected  with 
to  take  steps  of  which  we  afterward  repent,  or  have 
afterward  reason  to  approve;  ‘The  magistrate  cannot 
urge  obedience  upon  such  potent  grounds  as  the  minis- 
ter.’— South.  We  may  be  stimulated  by  the  desire 
of  distinction  or  by  necessity ; 

For  every  want  that  stimulates  the  breast 
Becomes  a source  of  pleasure  when  redres’d. 

Goldsmith. 

Those  who  are  not  hardened  in  vice  requiie  the  insti 
gation  of  persons  more  abandoned  than  themselves 
before  they  will  commit  any  desperate  act  of  wicked- 
ness ; ‘ There  are  few  instigations  in  this  country  to 
a breach  of  confidence.’ — Hawkesw'orth. 

The  encouragement  and  incitement  are  the  abstract 
nouns  either  for  the  act  of  encouraging  or  inciting ^ 
or  the  thing  that  encourages  or  incites : the  encou- 
ragement of  laudable  undertakings  is  itself  laudable; 
a single  word  or  look  may  be  an  encouragement ; 

For  when  he  dies,  farewell  all  honour,  bounty. 

All  generous  encouragement  of  arts. — Otway. 

The  incitement  of  passion  is  at  all  times  dangerous, 
but  particularly  in  youth  ; money  is  said  to  be  an  in- 
citement to  evil ; the  prospect  of  glory  is  an  incitement 
to  great  actions ; 

Let  his  actions  speak  him,  and  this  shield, 

Let  down  from  heaven,  that  to  his  youth  will  yield 

Such  copy  of  incitement. — B.  Jonson. 

Incentive,  which  is  another  derivative  from  incite,  has 
a higher  application  for  things  that  incite,  being  mostly 
applied  to  spiritual  objects : a religious  man  wants  nt, 
incentives  to  virtues;  ids  own  breast  furnishes  him 
with  those  of  the  noblest  kind  ; ‘ Even  the  wisdom  of 
God  hath  not  suggested  more  pressing  motives,  more 
powerful  incentives  to  charity,  than  these,  that  we 
shall  be  judged  by  it  at  the  last  dreadful  day.’ — At- 
TKRBURY.  Impulse  is  the  d 'l  ivati  ve  from  impel,  apd 
denotes  the  act  of  impelling  jr  the  thing  that  impels 


3\2 


ENGLISH  SYNON^MES. 


stimulus,  wliicli  is  the  root  of  the  woid  stimulate,  na- 
turally designates  the  instrument,  namely,  the  spur  or 
goad  with  which  one  is  stimulated:  hence  we  speak 
of  acting  by  a blind  impulse,  or  of  wanting  a stimulus 
to  exertion  ; ‘ If  these  little  impulses  set  the  great 
wheels  of  devotion  on  work,  the  largeness  and  height 
cf  that  shall  net  at  all  be  prejudiced  by  the  smallness 
of  the  occasion.’ — South. 


TO  ENCOURAGE,  ADVANCE,  PROMOTE, 
PREFER,  FORWARD. 

To  encourage  signifies  the  same  as  in  the  preceding 
article  ; advance,  from  the  Latin  advcnio-to  come  near, 
signifies  here  to  cause  to  come  near  a point ; promote, 
from  the  Latin  promoveo,  signifies  to  move  forward ; 
prefer,  from  the  Latin  prcefero,  or  fero  and  prce,  to  set 
before,  signifies  to  set  up  before  others;  to  forward  is 
to  put  forward. 

The  idea  of  exerting  one’s  influence  to  the  advan- 
tage of  an  object  is  included  in  the  signification  of  all 
these  terms,  which  differ  in  the  circumstances  and 
mode  of  the  action : to  encourage,  advance,  and  pro- 
mote are  applicable  to  both  persons  and  things ; prefer 
to  persons  only;  forward  to  things  only. 

First,  as  to  persons,  encourage  is  partial  as  to  the 
end,  and  indefinite  as  to  the  means : w'e  may  encourage 
a person  in  any  thing,  however  trivial,  and  by  any 
means : thus  we  may  encourage  a child  in  his  rude- 
ness, by  not  checking  him;  or  we  may  encourage  an 
artist  or  a man  of  letters  in  some  great  national  work  ; 
but  to  advance,  promote,  and  prefer  are  more  general 
n their  end,  and  specifick  in  the  means ; a person  may 
advance  himself,  or  may  be  advanced  by  others  ; he  is 
promoted  and  preferred  only  by  others:  a person’s  ad- 
vancement may  he  the  fruit  of  his  industry,  or  result 
from  the  efforts  of  his  friends  ; promotion  and  prefer- 
ment are  the  w'ork  of  otie’s  friends  ; the  former  in  re- 
gard to  offices  in  general,  the  latter  mostly  in  regard  to 
ecclesiastical  situations : it  is  the  duty  of  every  one  to 
encourage,  to  the  utmost  of  his  power,  those  among 
the  poor  who  strive  to  obtain  an  honest  livelihood  ; 
‘ Religion  depends  upon  the  encouragement  of  those 
that  are  to  dispense  and  assert  it.’ — South.  It  is  every 
man’s  duty  to  advance  himself  in  life  by  every  legiti- 
mate means;  ‘ No  man’s  lot  is  so  unalterably  fixed  in 
this  life,  but  that  a thousand  accidents  may  either  for- 
ward or  disajipoint  his  advancement.' — Hughes.  It 
is  the  duty  and  the  pleasure  of  every  good  man  in  the 
state  to  promote  those  who  slmw  themselves  deserving 
of  promotion]  ‘Your  zeal  in  promoting  my  interest 
deserves  my  warmest  acknowledgments.’ — Beattie. 
It  is  the  duty  of  a minister  to  accept  of  preferment 
when  it  offers,  but  it  is  not  his  duty  to  be  solicitous  for 
it;  ‘ If  I were  now  to  accept  preferment  in  the  church, 
I should  be  aiiprehensive  that  I might  strengthen  the 
hands  of  the  gainsayers.’ — Beattie. 

When  taken  in  regard  to  things,  encourage  is  used 
in  an  improper  or  figurative  acceptation  ; the  rest  are 
applied  properly:  we  encourage  an  undertaking  by 
giving  courage  to  the  undertaker;  ‘ The  great  encr/fi- 
ragement  which  has  been  given  to  learning  for  some 
years  last  past,  has  made  our  own  nation  as  glorious 
upon  this  account  as  for  its  late  triumphs  and  con- 
quests.’— Addison.  But  when  we  speak  of  advancing 
a cause,  or  promoting  an  interest,  or  forwarding  a 
purpose,  the  terms  properly  convey  the  idea  of  keep- 
ing things  alive,  or  in  a motion  towards  some  desired 
end  : to  advance  is  however  generally  used  in  relation 
to  v/hatever  admits  of  extension  and  aggrandizement; 
promote  is  applied  to  whatever  admits  of  being  brought 
to  a point  of  maturity  or  perfection;  ‘I  love  to  see  a 
man  zealous  in  a good  matter,  and  especially  when  his 
zeal  shows  itself  for  advancing  morality,  and  pro- 
moting the  happiness  of  mankind.’ — Addison.  For- 
ward is  but  a partial  term,  employed  in  the  sense  of 
promote  in  regard  to  particular  objects;  thus  we  ad- 
vance religion  or  learning ; we  promote  an  art  or  an 
Invention  ; we  forward  a plan  ; ‘ It  behooves  us  not  to 
be  wanting  to  ourselves  in  forwarding  the  intention  of 
nature  by  the  culture  of  our  minds.’ — Berkeley. 

TO  ENCOURAGE,  EMBOLDEN. 

To  encourage  is  to  give  courage,  and  to  embolden  to 
make  bold  ; the  formty  impelling  to  action  in  general. 


the  latter  to  that  which  is  more  difficult  or  dangerous  j 
we  are  encouraged  to  persevere:  the  resolution  it 
thereby  confirmed : we  are  emboldened  to  begin ; the 
spirit  of  enterprise  is  roused.  Success  encourages ; 
the  chance  of  escaping  danger  emboldens. 

Outward  circumstances,  however  trivial,  serve  to 
encourage; 

Intrepid  through  the  midst  of  danger  go. 

Their  friends  encourage  and  amaze  the  foe. 

* Dryden, 

The  urgency  of  the  occasion,  or  the  importance  of  thft 
subject,  serves  to  embolden; 

Embolden'd  then,  nor  hesitating  more, 

Fast,  fast  they  plunge  amid  the  flashing  wave. 

Thomson 

A kind  word  or  a gentle  look  encourages  the  suppliant 
to  tender  his  petition  ; where  the  cause  of  truth  and- 
religion  is  at  stake,  the  firm  believer  is  emboldened  to 
speak  out  with  freedom : timid  dispositions  are  not  to 
be  encouraged  always  by  trivial  circumstancujs,  but 
sanguine  dispositions  are  easily  emboldened ; the  most 
flattering  representations  of  friends  are  frequently  ne 
cessary  to  encourage  the  display  of  talent ; the  confi- 
dence natural  to  youth  is  often  sufficient  of  itself  to 
embolden  men  to  great  undertakings. 


TO  DETER,  DISCOURAGE,  DISHEARTEN. 
Deter,  in  Latin  deterreo,  compounded  of  de  and 
terreo,  signifies  to  frighten  away  from  a thing ; dis- 
courage and  dishearten,  by  the  privative  dis,  signify  to 
deprive  of  courage  or  heart. 

One  is  deterred  from  commencing  any  thing,  one  is 
discouraged  or  disheartened  from  proceeding.  A va- 
riety of  motives  may  deter  any  one  from  an  under- 
taking; but  a person  is  discouraged  or  disheartened 
mostly  by  the  want  of  success  or  the  hopelessness  of 
the  case.  The  wicked  are  sometimes  deterred  from 
committing  enormities  by  the  fear  of  punishment* 
projectors  are  discouraged  from  entering  into  fresh 
speculations  by  observing  the  failure  of  others ; there 
are  few  persons  who  would  not  be  disheartened  fiom 
renewing  their  endeavours,  who  had  experienced  no- 
thing but  ill  g'.iccess.  The  prudent  and  the  fearful  ar<? 
alike  easily  to  be  deterred  ; 

But  thee  or  fear  deters,  or  sloth  detains. 

No  drop  of  all  thy  father  warms  thy  veins. 

Pope. 

Impatient  people  are  most  apt  to  be  discouraged ; anu 
proud  people  are  the  most  apt  to  discourage  the  humble ; 
‘The  proud  man  discourages  those  from  approaching 
him  who  are  of  a mean  condition,  and  who  must  want 
his  assistance.’ — Addison.  Faint-hearted  people  are 
easiest  disheartened ; 

Be  not  disheartened  then,  nor  cloud  those  looks, 
ff'hat  wont  to  be  more  cheerful  and  serene. 

Than  when  fair  morning  first  smiles  on  the  world 

Milton. 

The  fool  hardy  and  the  obdurate  are  the  least  easily 
deterred  from  their  object;  the  persevering  will  not 
suffer  themselves  to  be  discouraged  by  particular  fail- 
ures; the  resolute  and  self-confident  will  not  h^  dis- 
heartened by  trifling  difficulties. 

TO  EXHORT,  PERSUADE. 

Exhort,  in  Latin  exhortor,  is  compounded  of  ex  and 
hortor,  from  the  Greek  wprat,  perfect  passiveof  to 
excite  or  impel;  persuadehas  the  same  signification 
as  given  under  the  head  of  Conviction. 

Exhortation  has  more  of  impelling  in  it ; persuasion 
more  of  drawing : a superiour  exhorts ; his  word* 
carry  authority  with  them,  and  rouse  to  action ; 

Their  pinions  still 

In  loose  librations  stretch’d,  to  trust  the  void 
Trembling  refuse,  till  down  before  them  fly 
The  parent  guides,  and  chide,  exhort,  command 
Thomson 

A friend  or  an  equal  persuades;  he  wins  and  draws 
by  the  agreeableness  or  kindness  of  his  expressions; 
‘Gay’s  friends  persuaded  him  to  sell  his  share  in  the 
South  Sea  stock,  but  he  dreamed  of  dignity  and  spleii 
dour.’—JoHNSON,  Exhortations  are  employed  onlf 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


313 


m malteis  of  duty  or  necessity ; persuasions  are  em- 
ployed ill  matters  of  pleasure  or  convenience. 

TO  PERSUADE,  ENTICE,  PREVAIL  UPON. 

Persuade  {v.  Conviction)  and  entice  {v.  To  allure) 
are  employed  to  express  different  means  to  the  same 
end  ■ namely,  that  of  drawing  any  one  to  a thing ; one 
verjuades  a person  by  means  of  words ; one  entices 
liim  either  by  words  or  actions  ; one  may  persuade 
either  to  a good  or  bad  thing ; ‘ I beseech  you  let  me 
have  so  much  credit  with  you  as  to  persuade  you  to 
communicate  any  doubt  or  scruple  which  occur  to  you, 
before  you  suffer  them  to  make  too  deep  an  impression 
upon  you.’ — Clarendon.  One  entices  commonly  to 
that  which  is  bad  ; 

If  gaming  does  an  aged  sire  entice, 

Then  my  young  master  swiftly  learns  the  vice. 

Dryden. 

One  uses  arguments  to  persuade,  and  arts  to  entice. 

Persuade  and  entice  comprehend  either  the  means 
or  the  end  or  both : prevail  upon  comprehends  no 
more  than  the  end : we  may  persuade  without  pre- 
vailing upon,  and  we  may  prevail  upon  without  per- 
suading. Many  will  turn  a deaf  ear  to  all  oux  persua- 
sions, and  will  not  be  prevailed  upon,  although  per- 
suaded : on  the  other  hand,  we  may  be  prevailed  upon 
by  the  force  of  remonstrance,  authority,  and  the  like  ; 
and  in  this  case  we  are  prevailed  upon  without  being 
■persuaded.  We  should  never  persuade  another  to  do 
that  which  we  are  not  willing  to  do  ourselves  ; credu- 
lous or  good-natured  people  are  easily  prevailed  upon 
to  do  things  which  tend  to  their  own  injury ; ‘ Herod, 
hearing  of  Agrippa’s  arrival  in  Upper  Asia,  went 
thither  to  him  and  prevailed  with  him  to  accept  an 
invitation.’ — Prideaux. 


DELIGHTFUL,  CHARMING. 

Delightful  is  applied  either  to  material  or  spiritual 
objects ; charming  mostly  to  objects  of  sense. 

When  they  both  denote  the  pleasure  of  the  sense, 
delightful  is  not  so  strong  an  expression  as  charming  : 
a prospect  may  be  delightful  or  charming:  but  the 
latter  raises  to  a degree  that  carries  the  senses  away 
captive. 

Of  musick  we  should  rather  say  that  it  was  charming 
han  delightful,  as  it  acts  on  the  senses  in  so  powerful 
a manner;  ‘Nothing  can  be  more  magnificent  than 
the  figure  Jupiter  makes  in  the  first  Iliad,  nor  more 
charming  than  that  of  Venus  in  the  first  Ailneid.’ — Ad- 
dison. On  the  other  hand,  we  should  with  more  pro- 
priety speak  of  a delightful  employment  to  relieve  dis- 
tress, or  a delightful  spectacle  to  see  a family  living 
together  in  love  and  harmony ; ‘ Though  there  are 
several  of  those  wild  scenes  that  are  more  delightful 
than  any  artificial  shows,  yet  we  find  the  works  of 
nature  still  more  pleasant  the  more  they  resemble  those 
of  art  ’ — Addison. 


BECOMING,  COMELY,  GRACEFUL. 

Becoming,  v.  Becoming,  decent ; and  comely,  or  come 
like,  signifies  coming  or  appearing  as  one  would  have 
it ; gracef  ul  signifies  full  of  grace. 

These  epithets  are  employed  to  mark  in  general 
what  is  agreeable  to  the  eye.  Becoming  denotes  less 
than  comely,  and  this  less  than  graceful : nothing  can 
be  comely  or  graceful  which  is  unbecoming ; although 
many  things  are  becoming  which  are  neither  comely  nor 
graceful. 

Becoming  respects  the  decorations  of  the  person,  and 
the  exteriour  deportment ; comely  respects  natural  em- 
bellishments; graceful  natural  or  artificial  accomplish- 
ments: manner  is  becoming;  figure  is  comely ; air, 
figure,  or  attitude  is  graceful. 

Becoming  is  relative;  it  depends  on  taste  and  opi- 
nion ; on  accordance  with  the  prevailing  sentiments  or 
particular  circumstances  of  society  ; comely  and  grace- 
ful are  absolute  ; they  are  qualities  felt  and  acknow- 
ledged by  all. 

What  is  becoming  is  confined  to  no  rank  ; the  high- 
est and  the  lowest  have,  alike,  the  opportunity  of  doing 
or  being  tnat  which  becomes  their  station;  ‘The  care 
of  doing  nothing  unbecoming  has  accernpanied  the 
greatest  minds  to  their  last  moments  Thus  Ctesar 


gathered  his  robe  about  him  that  he  might  not  fall  in 
a manner  unbecoming  of  himself. ’--Spectator.  What 
is  comely  is  seldom  associated  with  great  refinement 
and  culture  ; ‘ The  comeliness  of  person,  and  the  de- 
cency of  behaviour,  add  infinite  weight  to  what  is  pro- 
nounced by  any  one.’ — Spectator.  What  is  grace- 
ful is  rarely  to  be  discovered  apart  from  high  rank, 
noble  birth,  or  elevation  of  character ; ‘ To  make  the 
acknowledgment  of  a fault  in  the  highest  manner 
graceful,  it  is  lucky  when  the  circumstances  of  the 
offender  place  him  above  any  ill  consequences  from 
the  resentment  of  the  person  offended.’ — Steele 


BEAUTIFUL,  FINE,  HANDSOME,  PRETTY. 

Beautiful,  or  full  of  beauty,  in  French  beautd.  comes 
from  beau,  belle,  in  Latin  bellus  fair,  and  benus  or 
bonus  good  ; fine,  in  French  fin,  German  fein,  &c.  not 
improbably  comes  from  the  Greek  epaivoi  bright,  splen 
did,  and  epaivo)  to  appear,  because  what  is  fine  is  by 
distinction  clear ; handsome,  from  the  word  hand, 
denotes  a species  of  beauty  in  the  body,  as  handy 
denotes  its  agility  and  skill ; pretty,  in  Saxon  praete 
adorned,  German  prachtig,  Swedish  pruktig  splendid, 
is  connected  with  our  words  parade  and  pride. 

Of  these  epithets,  which  denote  what  is  pleasing  to 
the  eye,  beautiful  conveys  the  strongest  meaning  ; it 
marks  the  possession  of  that  in  its  fullest  extent,  of 
which  the  other  terms  denote  the  possession  in  part 
only.  Fineness,  handsomeness,  and  prettiness  are  to 
beauty  as  parts  to  a whole. 

When  taken  in  relation  to  persons,  a woman  is 
beautiful,  who  in  feature  and  complexion  possesses  a 
grand  assemblage  of  graces;  a woman  is  fine,  who 
with  a striking  figure  unites  shape  and  symmetry;  a 
women  is  handsome  who  has  good  features,  and  pretty 
if  with  symmetry  of  feature  be  united  delicacy. 

The  beautiful  is  determined  by  fixed  rules ; it  ad- 
mits of  no  excess  or  defect ; it  comprehends  regularity, 
proportion,  and  a due  distribution  of  colour,  and  every 
particular  which  can  engage  the  attention  ; the  fine 
must  be  coupled  with  grandeur,  majesty,  and  strength 
of  figure  ; it  is  incompatible  with  that  which  is  small; 
a little  woman  can  never  be  fine ; the  handsome  is  a 
general  assemblage  of  what  is  agreeable  ; it  is  marked 
by  no  particular  characteristick,  but  the  absence  of  ail 
deformity. 

Prettiness  is  always  coupled  with  simplicity,  it  is 
incompatible  with  that  which  is  large  ; a tall  woman 
with  masculine  features  cannot  be  pretty  ; ‘ “ Indeed, 
my  dear,”  sap  she,  “ you  make  me  mad  sometimes, 
so  you  do,  with  the  silly  way  you  have  of  treating  me 
like  a.  pretty  idiot.”’ — Steele. 

Beauty  will  always  have  its  charms;  they  are,  how 
ever,  but  attractions  for  the  eye ; they  please  and 
awaken  ardent  sentiments  for  a while  ; but  the  pos- 
sessor must  have  something  else  to  give  her  claims  to 
lasting  regard.  This  is,  however,  seldom  the  case. 
Providence  has  dealt  out  his  gifts  with  a more  even 
hand.  Neither  the  beautiful,  nor  the^we  woman  have 
in  general  those  durable  attractions  which  belong  either 
to  the  handsome  or  the  pretty,  who  with  a less  inimi- 
table tint  of  complexion,  a less  unerring  proportion  in 
the  limbs,  a less  precise  symmetry  of  feature,  are  fre- 
quently possessed  of  a sweetness  of  countenance ; a 
vivacity  in  the  e3'e,  and  a grace  in  the  manner,  that 
wins  the  beholder  and  inspires  affection. 

Beauty  is  peculiarly  a female  perfection  ; in  the  male 
sex  it  is  rather  a defect ; a beautiful  man  will  not  be 
respected,  because  he  cannot  be  respectable.  The 
possession  of  beauty  deprives  him  of  his  manly  cha- 
racteristicks  ; boldness  and  energy  of  mind  ; strength 
and  robustness  of  limb.  But  though  a man  may  not 
be  beautiful  or  pretty,  he  may  be  fine  or  handsome  ; 
‘ A handsome  fellow  immediately  alarms  jealous  hus- 
bands, and  every  thing  that  looks  young  or  gay  turns 
their  thoughts  upon  their  wives.’ — Addison.  The  same 
observation  does  not  apply  to  the  brute  creation  ; ‘ It 
is  observed  among  birds  that  nature  has  lavished  all 
her  ornaments  upon  the  male,  who  very  often  appears 
in  a most  beautiful  head  dress.’ — Addison. 

When  relating  to  other  objects,  beautiful,  fine 
pretty,  have  a strong  analogy. 

With  respect  to  the  objects  of  nature,  the  beautiful 
is  displayed  in  the  works  of  creation,  and  wherever  it 
appears  it  is  marked  by  elegance,  variety,  harmocy 
I proportion;  but  above  all  by  that  sofi ness,  which  ’s 


314  ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


peculiar  lo  female  beauty ; ‘ There  is  nothing  that 
makes  its  way  more  directly  to  the  soul  than  beauty^ 
which  immediately  diffuses  a secret  satisfaction  and 
complacency  through  the  imagination.’ — Addison. 

The  fine  on  the  contrary  is  associated  with  the 
grand,  and  the  pretty  with  the  simple.  The  sky  pre- 
sents either  a beautiful  aspect,  or  a fine  aspect ; but 
not  a pretty  aspect. 

A rural  scene  is  bearitiful  when  it  unites  richness 
and  diversity  of  r-staral  objects  with  superiour  culti- 
vation ; it  is  fine  when  it  presents  the  bolder  and  more 
impressive  fe.atuiHifi  of  nature,  consisting  of  rocks  and 
mountains ; it  is  pretty,  when,  divested  of  all  that  is 
extraordinary,  it  presents  a smiling  view  of  nature  in 
the  gay  attire  of  shrubs,  and  many-coloured  flowers, 
and  verdant  meadows,  and  luxuriant  fields. 

Beautiful  sentiments  have  much  in  them  to  interest 
the  affections,  as  well  as  the  understanding ; they  make 
a vivid  impression  ; fine  sentiments  mark  an  elevated 
mind  and  a loftiness  of  conception  ; they  occupy  the 
understanding,  and  alford  scope  for  reflection ; they 
make  a strong  impression;  ‘When  in  ordinary  dis- 
course, we  say  a man  has  a fine  head,  a long  head,  or 
a good  head,  we  express  ourselves  metaphorically,  and 
speak  in  relation  to  his  understanding  ; whereas, 
when  we  say  of  a woman,  she  has  a fine,  a long,  or  a 
good  head,  we  speak  only  in  relation  to  her  commode.’ 
— Addison.  Pretty  ideas  are  but  pleasing  associa- 
tions or  combinations  that  only  amuse  for  the  time 
being,  without  producing  any  lasting  impression.  In 
the  same  maimer  expressions  are  termed  pretty;  ‘An 
innocent  creature,  who  would  start  at  the  name  of 
strumpet,  may  think  it  pretty  to  be  called  a mistress.’ 
— Spectator. 

We  may  speak  of  a beautiful  poem,  although  not 
a beautiful  tragedy  ; but  a fine  tragedy,  and  a pretty 
comedy. 

Imagery  may  be  beautiful  and  fine,  but  seldom 
pretty. 

The  celestial  bodies,  revolving  with  so  much  regu- 
larity in  their  orbits,  and  displaying  so  much  brilliancy 
of  light,  are  beautiful  objects.  The  display  of  an  army 
drawn  up  in  battle  array  ; the  neatness  of  tlie  men  ; 
the  order,  complexity,  and  variety  of  their  movements, 
and  the  precision  in  their  discipline,  afford  a fi,ne  spec- 
tacle. An  assemblage  of  children  imitating  in  their 
amusements  the  system  and  regularity  of  more  serious 
employments,  and  preserving  at  the  same  time  the 
playfulness  of  childhood,  is  n pretty  sight. 

Handsome  is  applied  to  some  objects  in  the  sense 
of  ample  or  liberal,  as  a handsome  fortune,  or  hand- 
some treatment ; ‘ A letter  dated  .Sept,  acquaints  me 
that  the  writer,  being  resolved  to  try  his  fortune,  had 
fasted  all  that  day,  and  that  he  might  be  sure  of  dream- 
ing upon  something  at  night,  procured  a handsome 
slice  of  bride  cake.’ — Spectator. 


FINE,  DELICATE,  NICE. 

It  is  remarkable  of  the  word  fine  {v.  Beautiful), 
that  it  is  equally  applicable  to  large  and  small  objects  ; 
delicate,  in  Latin  delicatus,  from  delicim  delights,  and 
ifchcro  to  allure,  is  applied  only  to  small  objects.  Fine 
in  the  natural  sense  denotes  smallness  in  general.  De 
licate  denotes  a degree  of  fineness  that  is  agreeable  to 
the  taste.  Thread  is  said  to  be  fine  as  opposed  to 
the  coarse  and  thick  ; silk  is  said  to  be  delicate,  when 
to  fineness  of  texture  it  adds  softness.  The  texture  of 
a spider’s  web  is  remarkable  for  \ts  fineness ; that  of 
the  ermine’s  fur  is  remarkable  for  its  delicacy.  In 
writing,  all  up  strokes  must  be  ^we  ; but  in  superiour 
writing  they  will  be  delicately  fine.  When  applied  to 
colours,  the  fine  is  coupled  with  the  grand  and  the 
strong;  delicate  with  what  is  minute,  soft,  and  fair: 
blue  and  red  may  be  colours;  and  white  and  pink 
delicate  colours.  The  tulip  is  reckoned  one  of  the 
finest  flowers ; the  while  moss-rose  is  a delicate  flower. 
A fine  painter  delineates  with  boldness  ; but  the  artist 
who  has  a delicate  taste,  throws  delicate  touches  into 
the  grandest  delineations. 

In  their  moral  application  these  terms  admit  of  the 
same  distinction ; the  fine  approaches  either  lo  the 
strong  or  to  the  weak ; ‘ Every  thing  that  results  from 
nature  alone  lies  out  of  the  province  of  instruction  ; 
and  no  rules  that  I know  of  will  serve  to  give  a fine 
fonn,  a fine  voice,  or  even  those  fine  feelings,  which 
are  among  the  first  properties  of  an  actor.’ — Cum- 


berland. The  delicate  is  a highdegree  of  the  fine,  ai 
a fine  thought,  which  may  be  lofty ; or  a fine  feeling 
which  is  acute  and  tender ; and  delicate  feeling,  which 
exceeds  the  former  in  fineness  ; 

Chief,  lovely  Spring!  in  thee  and  thy  soft  scenes 

The  smiling  God  is  seen;  while  water,  earth, 

And  air  attest  his  bounty,  which  exalts 

The  brute  creation  to  this  finer  thought.— Thomscn 
‘Under  this  head  of  elegance  I reckon  those  delicate 
and  regular  works  of  art,  as  elegant  buildings  or  pieces 
of  furniture.'— Burke.  The  French  use  their  word 
fin  only  in  the  latter  sense,  of  acuteness,  and  apply  it 
merely  to  the  thoughts  and  designs  of  men,  answering 
either  to  our  wo;  ’ subtle,  as  un  homme  fin,  or  neat,  as 
une  satire  fine. 

Delicate  is  said  of  that  which  is  agreeable  to  the 
sense  and  the  taste ; nice  to  what  is  agreeable  to  the  ap- 
petite; the  former  is  a term  of  refinement  ; the  latter  o. 
epicurism  and  sensual  indulgence.  The  delicate  affords 
pleasure  only  to  those  whose  thoughts  and  desires  are 
purified  from  what  is  gross ; the  nice  affords  pleasure 
to  the  young,  ignorant,  and  the  sensual : thus  delicate 
food,  delicate  colours,  delicate  shapes  and  form,  are 
always  acceptable  to  the  cultivated ; a meal,  a show,  a 
colour,  and  the  like,  will  be  nice  to  a child,  which  suits 
its  appetite,  or  meets  its  fancy. 

When  used  in  a moral  application,  nice,  which  Is 
taken  in  a good  sense,  approaches  nearer  to  the  signifi- 
cation of  delicate.  A person  may  be  said  to  have  ade 
licate  ear  in  music,  whose  ear  is  offended  with  the 
smallest  discordance;  he  may  be  said  to  have  a nice 
taste  or  judgement  in  music,  who  scientifically  discri- 
minates the  beauties  and  defects  of  different  pieces.  A 
person  is  delicate  in  his  choice,  who  is  guided  by  taste 
and  feeling;  he  is  nice  in  his  choice,  who  adheres  to  a 
strict  rule. 

A point  in  question  may  be  either  delicate  or  nice;  it 
is  delicate,  as  it  is  likely  to  touch  the  tender  feelings  of 
any  party;  it  is  nice,  as  it  involves  contrary  interests, 
and  becomes  difficult  of  determination.  There  are  de- 
licacies of  behaviour  which  are  learned  by  good  breed- 
ing, but  which  minds  of  a refined  cast  are  naturally 
alive  to,  without  any  particular  learning;  ‘The  com- 
merce in  the  conjugal  state  is  so  delicate  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  prescribe  rules  for  it.’ — Steele.  There  are 
niceties  in  the  law,  which  none  but  men  of  superiour 
intellect  can  proper  ly  enter  into  and  discriminate ; ‘ The 
highest  point  of  good  breeding,  if  any  one  can  hit  it,  is 
to  show  a very  nice  regard  to  your  own  dignity,  and, 
with  that  in  your  heart,  to  express  your  value  for  the- 
man  above  you.’— Steele. 


DAINTY,  DELICACY. 

'Fhecs  terms,  which  are  in  vogue  among  epicures, 
have  some  shades  of  difference  in  their  signification 
not  altogether  undeserving  of  notice. 

Dainty,  from  dain,  deign,  and  the  Latin  dignus 
worthy,  signifies  the  thing  that  is  of  worth  or  value;  it 
is  of  course  applied  only  to  such  things  as  have  a supe- 
riour value  in  the  estimation  of  epicures ; and  conse- 
quently conveys  a more  positive  meaning  than  deli- 
cacy: inasmuch  as  a maybe  that  which  is  ex- 

tremely delicate,  a delicacy  is  sometimes  a species  of 
dainty;  but  there  are  many  delicacies  which  are  alto- 
gether suited  to  the  most  delicate  appetite,  that  are 
neither  costly  nor  rare,  two  qualities  which  are  almost 
inseparable  from  a.  dainty : those  who  indulge  them- 
selves freely  in  dainties  and  delicacies  scarcely  know 
what  it  is  to  eat  with  an  appetite  ; but  those  who  are 
temperate  in  their  use  of  the  enjoyments  of  life  will  be 
enabled  to  derive  pleasure  from  ordinary  objects ; 

My  landlord’s  cellar  stocked  with  beer  and  ale. 
Instantly  brings  the  choicest  liquors  out, 

Whether  we  ask’d  for  home-brew’d  or  for  stout, 

For  mead  or  cider ; or  with  dainties  fed, 

Ring  for  a flask  or  two  of  white  or  red.— Swift. 
She  turns,  on  hospitable  thoughts  intent. 

What  choice  to  choose  for  delicacy  best  — Milton. 


GRACE,  CHARM. 

Grace  is  altogether  cor[x)real ; charm  is  either  cor- 
poreal or  mental ; the  grace  qualifies  me  action  of  the 
body  ; ‘ Savage’s  method  of  life  oarticularly  qualified 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


31i 


r.jm  for  con  ersation  of  which  he  knew  how  to  prac- 
tise all  the  graces.’ — Johnson.  The  cAarm  is  an  in- 
herent quality  in  the  body  itself ; 

Music  has  charms  to  sooth  the  savage  breast. 

Congreve. 

A lady  moves,  dances,  and  walks  with  grace ; the 
charms  of  her  person  are  equal  to  those  of  her  mind. 

GRACEFUL,  COMELY,  ELEGANT. 

A graceful  figure  is  rendered  so  by  the  deportment  of 
the  body.  A comely  figure  has  that  in  itself  which 
pleases  the  eye.  Gracef  ulness  results  from  nature,  inir 
proved  by  art ; ‘ The  first  who  approached  her  was  a 
youth  of  graceful  presence  and  courtly  air,  but  dressed 
in  a richer  habit  than  had  ever  been  seen  in  Arcadia.’ — 
Steele.  Comeliness  is  mostly  the  work  of  nature; 
‘Isidas  the  son  of  Phoebidas  was  at  this  time  in  the 
bloom  of  his  youth,  and  very  remarkable  for  the  come- 
liness of  his  person.’ — Addison.  It  is  possible  to  ac- 
quire gracefulness  by  the  aid  of  the  dancing-master, 
but  for  a comely  form  we  are  indebted  to  nature  aided 
by  circumstances.  Grace  is  a quality  pleasing  to  the 
eye  ; but  elegance^  from  the  Latin  eligo,electus,  select 
and  choice,  is  a quality  of  a higher  nature,  that  in- 
spires admiration  ; elegant  is  applicable,  like  graceful, 
to  the  motion  of  the  body,  or,  like  comely,  to  the  person, 
and  is  extended  in  its  meaning  also  to  language  and 
even  to  dress;  ‘The  natural  progress  of  the  works  of 
men  is  from  rudeness  to  convenience,  from  convenience 
to  elegance,  and  from  elegance  to  nicety.’— Johnson. 
A person’s  step  is  gracef  ul ; his  air  or  his  movements 
are  elegant. 

Grace  is  in  some  degree  a relative  quality;  the  ,gfrace- 
fulness  of  an  action  depends  on  its  suitability  to  the  oc- 
casion ; elegance  is  a positive  quality ; it  is,  properly 
speaking,  beauty  in  regard  to  the  exteriour  of  the  per- 
son ; an  elegance  of  air  and  manner  is  the  consequence 
not  only  of  superiour  birth  and  station,  but  also  of  su- 
perbur  natural  endowments. 

AWKWARD,  CLUMSY. 

Awkward,  in  Sa.xon  mwerd,  compounded  of  re  or  a 
adversative  and  ward,  from  the  Teutonic  rcdArcretosee 
or  look,  that  is,  looking  the  opposite  way,  or  being  in  an 
opposite  direction,  as  toward  signifies  looking  the  same 
way,  or  being  in  the  same  direction;  clumsy,  from  the 
same  source  as  clump  and  lump,  in  German  lumpisch, 
denotes  the  quality  of  heaviness  and  unseemliness. 

These  epithets  denote  what  is  contrary  to  rule  and 
order,  in  form  or  manner.  Awkward  respects  outward 
deportment ; clumsy  the  shape  and  make  of  the  object ; 
a person  has  an  awkward  gait,  or  is  clumsy  in  his  whole 
person. 

Awkwardness  is  the  consequence  of  bad  education  ; 
clumsiness  is  mostly  a natural  defect.  Young  recruits 
are  awkward  in  marching,  and  clumsy  in  their  manual 
labour. 

They  may  be  both  employed  figuratively  in  the  same 
sense,  and  sometimes  in  relation  to  the  same  objects : 
when  speaking  of  awkward  contrivances,  or  clumsy 
contrivances,  the  latter  expresses  the  idea  more  strongly 
than  the  former  ; ‘ Montaigne  had  many  awkward  imi- 
tators, who,  under  the  notion  of  writing  with  the  fire 
and  freedom  of  this  lively  old  Gascon,  have  fallen  into 
confused  rhapsodies  and  uninteresting  egotisms.’ — 
War  TON.  ‘ All  the  operations  of  the  Greeks  in  sailing 
were  clumsy  and  unskilful.’ — Robertson. 


AWKWARD  CROSS,  UNTOWARD,  CROOKED, 
FROWARD,  PERVERSE. 

Awkward,  v.  Awkward ; cross,  from  the  noun  cross. 
Implies  the  quality  of  being  like  a cross;  untoward 
signifies  the  reverse  of  toward  (v.  Awkward) ; crooked 
signifies  the  quality  of  resembling  a crook  ; froward, 
that  is,  from  ward,  signifies  running  a contrary  direc- 
tion ; perverse,  Latin /rerversas,  participle  of  perverto, 
compounded  of  per  and  verto,  signifies  turned  aside. 

Awkward,  cross,  untoward,  and  crooked  are  used  as 
epithets  in  relation  to  the  events  of  life  or  the  disposi- 
tion of  the  mind ; froward  and  perverse  respect  only 
the  disposition  of  the  mind.  Awkward  circumstances  i 
are  apt  to  embarrass ; cross  circumstances  to  pain ; 
zrooktd  and  untoward  circumstances  to  defeat.  What 


is  crooked  springs  from  aperverted  judgement;  what  is 
untoward  is  independent  of  human  control.  In  our  in- 
tercourse with  the  world  there  are  always  little  awk- 
ward incidents  arising,  which  a person’s  good  sense 
and  good  nature  will  enable  him  to  pass  over  without 
disturbing  the  harmony  of  society ; ‘ It  is  an  awkward 
thing  for  a man  to  print  in  defence  of  his  own  work 
against  a chimera ; you  know  not  who  or  what  you 
fight  against.’ — Pope.  It  is  the  lot  ol  every  one  in  hia 
passage  through  life  to  meet  with  cross  accidents  that 
are  calculated  to  ruffle  the  temper;  but  he  proves  him 
self  to  be  the  wisest  whose  serenity  is  not  so  easily  dis 
turbed ; ‘ Some  are  indeed  stopped  in  their  career  by  a 
sudden  shock  of  calamity,  or  diverted  to  a different  di- 
rection by  the  cross  impulse  of  some  violent  passion. 
—Johnson.  A crooked  policy  obstructs  the  prosperity 
of  individuals,  as  well  as  of  states ; 

There  are  who  can,  by  potent  magic  spells. 

Bend  to  their  crooked  purpose  nature’s  laws. 

Milton. 

Many  men  are  destined  to  meet  with  severe  trials  in 
the  frustration  of  their  dearest  hopes,  by  numberless 
untoward  events  which  call  for  the  exercise  of  pa- 
tience ; in  this  case  the  Christian  can  prove  to  himself 
and  others  the  infinite  value  of  his  faith  and  doctrine  j 
The  rabbins  write  when  any  Jew 
Did  make  to  God  or  man  a vow. 

Which  afterward  he  found  untoward. 

Or  stubborn  to  be  kept,  or  too  hard : 

Any  three  other  Jews  o’  th’  nation 
Might  free  him  from  the  obligation. — Hcdibras 
When  used  with  regard  to  the  disposition  of  the 
mind,  awkward  expresses  less  than  froward,  and 
froward  less  than  perverse.  Awkwardness  is  for  the 
most  part  an  habitual  frailty  of  temper ; it  includes 
certain  weaknesses  and  particularities,  pertinaciously 
adhered  to.  Sometimes  it  is  a temporary  feeling  that 
is  taken  up  on  a particular  occasion ; 

A kind  and  constant  riend 
To  all  that  regularly  offend. 

But  was  implacable  and  awkward. 

To  all  that  interlop’d  and  hawker’d. — Hudibras 
Crossness  is  a partial  irritation  resulting  from  the  state 
of  the  humours,  physical  and  mental.  Frowardness 
and  perversity  lie  in  the  will : a froward  temper  is 
capricious;  it  wills  or  wills  not  to  please  itself  without 
regard  to  others • ‘To  fret  and  repine  at  every  disap- 
pointment of  our  wishes  is  to  discover  the  temper  of 
froward  children.’ — Blair.  Perversity  lies  deeper, 
taking  root  in  the  heart,  it  assumes  the  shape  of  malig- 
nity: a perverse  temper  is  really  wicked;  it  likes  or 
dislikes  by  the  rule  of  contradiction  to  another’s  will; 
‘ Interference  of  interest,  or  perversity  of  disposition, 
may  occasionally  lead  individuals  to  oppose,  even  to 
hate,  the  upright  and  the  good.’— Blair.  Untoward- 
ness lies  in  the  principles ; it  runs  counter  to  the  wishes 
and  counsels  of  another ; ‘ Christ  bad  to  deal  with  a 
most  untoward  and  stubborn  generation.’ — Blair. 

An  awkward  temper  is  connected  with  self-suffi- 
ciency ; it  shelters  itself  under  the  sanction  of  what  is 
apparently  reasonable;  it  requires  management  and 
indulgence  in  dealing  with  it.  Crossness  and  froward- 
ness are  peculiar  to  children;  indiscriminate  indul- 
gence of  the  rising  will  engenders  those  diseases  of  the 
mind,  which  if  fostered  too  long  in  the  breast  become 
incorrigible  by  any  thing  but  a powerful  sense  of 
religion.  Perversity  is,  however,  but  too  commonly 
the  result  of  a vicious  habit,  which  imbitters  the  hap- 
piness of  all  who  have  the  misfortune  of  coining  in 
collision  with  it.  Untowardness  is  also  another  fruit 
of  these  evil  tempers.  A froward  child  becomes  an 
untoward  youth,  who  turns  a deaf  ear  to  all  the  ad- 
monitions of  an  afflicted  parent. 


CAPTIOUS,  CROSS,  PEEVISH,  PETULANT, 
FRETFUL. 

Captious,  in  Latin  captiosus,  from  capio,  signifies 
taking  or  treating  in  an  offensive  manner  ; cross,  after 
the  noun  cross,  marks  the  temper  which  resembles  a 
cross ; peevish,  probably  changed  from  beeish,  signifiei 
easily  provoked,  and  ready  to  sting  like  a bee ; fretful. 
from  the  word  fret,  signifies  full  of  fretting;  fret, 
which  is  in  Saxon /reotara,  comes  from  the  Latin  fri 
\ catus,  participle  of  frico  to  wear  away  with  ruliltingi 


316 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES, 


petulant^  in  Latin  pciw/ans,  from  peto  to  seek,  signifies 
seeking  or  catching  up. 

All  these  terms  indicate  an  unamiable  working  and 
expression  of  temper.  Captious  marks  a readiness  to 
be  offended : cross  indicates  a readiness  to  offend : 
peevish  expresses  a strong  degree  of  crossness  : fret- 
ful a complaining  impatience : petulant  a quick  or 
sudden  impatience.  Captiousness  is  the  consequence 
of  misplaced  pride  • crossness  of  ill-humour  ; peevish- 
ness and  fretfulness  of  a painful  irritability  ; petu- 
lano'.  is  either  the  result  of  a naturally  hasty  temper 
or  of  a sudden  irritability  ; adults  are  most  prone  to  be 
captious;  they  have  frequently  a self-importance 
which  is  in  perpetual  danger  of  being  offended  ; ‘ Cap- 
tiousness and  jealousy  are  easily  offended  ; and  to  him 
who  studiously  looks  for  an  affront,  every  mode  of 
behaviour  will  supply  it.’ — Johnson.  An  undisciplined 
temper,  whether  in  young  or  old,  will  manifest  itself 
on  certain  occasions  by  cross  looks  and  words  towards 
those  with  whom  they  come  in  connexion.  Spoiled 
children  are  most  apt  to  be  peevish;  they  are  seldom 
thwarted  in  any  of  their  unreasonable  desires,  without 
venting  their  ill-humour  by  an  irritating  and  offending 
action ; 

I was  so  good-humour’d,  so  cheerful  and  gay. 

My  heart  was  as  light  as  a feather  all  day. 

But  now  I so  cross  and  so  peevish  am  grown. 

So  strangely  uneasy  as  never  was  known. — Byron. 

‘ Peevish  displeasure,  and  suspicions  of  mankind,  are 
apt  to  persecute  those  who  withdraw  themselves  alto- 
gether from  the  haunts  of  men.’ — Blair.  Sickly  chil- 
dren are  most  liable  to  fretfulness ; their  unpleasant 
feelings  vent  themselves  in  a mixture  of  crying,  com- 
plainta,  and  crossness ; ‘ By  indulging  this  fretful 
temper,  you  both  aggravate  the  uneasiness  of  age,  and 
you  alienate  those  on  whose  affections  much  of  your 
comfort  depends.’ — Blair.  The  young  and  ignorant 
are  most  apt  to  be  petulant  when  contradicted ; ‘ It 
was  excellently  said  of  that  philosopher,  that  there 
was  a wall  or  parapet  of  teeth  set  in  our  mouth,  to  re- 
strain the  petulancy  of  our  words.’— B.  Jonson. 


BENT,  CURVED,  CROOKED,  AWRY. 

Bent,  from  bend,  in  Saxon  bendan,  is  a variation  of 
trind,  in  the  sea  phraseology  wend,  in  German  winden, 
&c.  from  the  Hebrew  to  wind  or  turn  ; curved  is 
In  Latin  curvus,  and  in  Greek  Kvproi ; crooked,  v. 
Awkward  ; awry  is  a variation  of  writhed. 

Bent  is  here  the  generick  term,  all  the  rest  are  but 
modes  of  the  bent. 

What  is  bent  is  opposed  to  that  which  is  straight ; 
things  may  therefore  be  bent  to  any  degree,  but  when 
curved  they  are  bent  only  to  a small  degree ; when 
crooked  they  are  bent  to  a great  degree.  A stick  is 
bent  any  way  ; it  is  curved  by  being  bent  one  specifick 
way  ; it  is  crooked  by  being  bent  different  ways. 

Things  may  be  bent  by  accident  or  design ; 

And  when  too  closely  press’d,  she  quits  the  ground. 

From  her  bent  bow  she  sends  a backward  wound. 

Dryden. 

Things  are  curved  by  design,  or  according  to  some 
rule;  ‘ Another  thing  observable  in  and  from  the  spots 
is  that  they  describe  various  paths  or  lines  over  the 
gun,  sometimes  straight,  sometimes  curved  towards 
one  pole  of  the  sun.’ — Derham.  Things  are  crooked, 
by  accident  or  in  violation  of  some  rule;  ‘It  is  the 
ennobling  office  of  the  understanding  to  correct  the 
fallacious  and  mistaken  reports  of  the  senses,  and  to 
assure  us  that  the  staff  in  the  water  is  straight,  though 
our  eye  would  tell  us  it  is  crooked.' — South.  A stick 
is  bent  by  the  force  of  the  hand  ; a line  is  curved  so  as 
to  make  a mathematical  figure;  it  is  crooked  so  as  to 
lose  all  figure. 

Awry  marks  a species  of  crookedness,  but  crooked  is 
applied  as  an  epithet,  and  awry  is  employed  to  cha- 
racterize the  action  ; hence  we  speak  of  a crooked 
thing  and  of  sitting  oi  standing  awry  ; 

Preventing  fate  directs  the  lance  awry. 

Which  glancing  only  mark’d  Achates’  thigh. 

Dryden. 


BEND,  BENT. 

Both  abstract  nouns  from  the  verb  to  bend : the  on< 
to  express  its  proper,  and  the  other  its  moral  applies* 
tion  : a stick  has  a bend ; the  mind  has  a bent ; 

His  coward  lips  did  from  their  colour  fiy. 

And  that  same  eye  whose  bend  does  awe  the  world, 
Did  lose  its  lustre. — Shakspeare. 

‘ The  soul  does  not  always  care  to  be  in  the  same  bent. 
The  faculties  relieve  one  another  by  turns,  and  repeive 
an  additional  pleasure  from  the  novelty  of  those  oD 
jects  about  which  they  are  conversant.’ — Addiscn. 

A bend  in  any  thing  that  should  be  straight  is  a de 
feet ; a bent  of  the  inclination  that  is  not  sanctioned 
by  religion  is  detrimental  to  a person’s  moral  character 
and  peace  of  mind.  For  a vicious  bend  in  a natural 
body  there  are  various  remedies;  but  nothing  will  cure 
a corrupt  bent  of  the  will  except  religion. 


TURN,  BENT. 

These  words  are  only  compared  here  in  the  figura 
tive  application,  as  respects  the  state  of  a person’s  in- 
clination ; the  turn  is  therefore,  as  before,  indefinite 
as  to  the  degree ; it  is  the  first  rising  inclination  : bent 
is  a positively  strong  turn,  a confirmed  inclination  ; a 
child  may  early  discover  a turn  for  musick  or  drawing  ; 
but  the  real  bent  of  his  genius  is  not  known  until  he  has 
made  a proficiency  in  his  education,  and  has  had  an 
opportunity  of  trying  different  things : it  may  be  very 
well  to  indulge  the  turn  of  mind ; it  is  of  great  im- 
portance to  follow  the  bent  of  the  mind  as  far  as  re 
spects  arts  and  sciences ; ‘ I need  not  tell  you  how  a 
man  of  Mr.  Rowe’s  turn  entertained  me.’ — Pope.  ‘I 
know  the  bent  of  your  present  attention  is  directed 
towards  the  eloquence  of  the  bar.’ — Melmouth  (Let 
ters  of  Pliny.) 


TO  TURN,  WIND,  WHIRL,  TWIRL,  WRITHE 
To  turn  (v.  To  turn)  is,  as  before,  the  generick 
term  ; the  rest  are  but  modes  of  turning ; 

How  has  this  poison  lost  its  wonted  ways? 

It  should  have  burnt  its  passage,  not  have  linger’d 
In  the  blind  labyrinths  and  crooked  turnings 
Of  human  composition. — Dryden. 

To  wind  is  to  turn  a thing  round,  or  to  move  in  a re 
gular  and  circular  manner ; 

The  tracks  of  Providence  like  rivers  wind, 

Here  run  before  us,  there  retreat  behind. — Higgins 
To  whirl  is  to  turn  a thing  round  in  a violent  manner  ‘ 
Man  is  but  man,  inconstant  still,  and  various 
There ’s  no  to-morrow  in  him  like  to-day ; 

Perhaps  the  atoms,  whirling  in  his  brain. 

Make  him  think  honestly  this  present  hour; 

The  next,  a swarm  of  base,  ungrateful  thoughts 
May  mount  aloft. — Dryden. 

To  twirl  is  to  turn  a thing  round  in  any  irregular  and 
unmeaning  way ; ‘ I had  used  my  eye  to  such  a quick 
succession  of  objects,  that,  in  the  most  precipitate 
twirZ,  I could  catch  a sentence  out  of  each  author.’ — 
Steele.  To  writhe  is  to  turn  round  in  convolutions 
within  itself.  A worm  seldom  moves  in  a straight 
line;  it  is,  therefore,  always  turning;  and  sometimes 
it  writhes  in  agony  ; 

Dying,  he  bellowed  out  his  dread  remorse. 

And  writh'd  with  seeming  anguish  of  the  soul. 

Shirley. 


TO  TURN,  BEND,  TWIST,  DISTORT,  WRING, 
WREST,  WRENCH. 

Turn,  in  French  tourner,  comes  from  the  Greek 
Topvfw  to  turn,  and  rdpvoj  a turner’s  wheel ; bend, 
V.  Bend;  twist,  in  Saxon  German  zeyen  to 

double,  comes  from  zwey  two;  distort,  in  Latin  distor- 
tus,  participle  of  distorqueo,  compounded  of  dis  and 
torqnco,  signifies  to  turn  violently  aside. 

To  turn  signifies  in  general  to  put  a thing  out  of  ita 
place  in  an  uneven  line  ; 

Yet  still  they  find  a future  task  remain, 

To  turn  the  soil  and  break  the  clods  again. 

Drypem. 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


3n 


To  bcndi  and  the  rest,  are  species  of  turning ; we 
turn  a thing  by  moving  it  from  one  point  to  another; 
thus  we  turn  tlie  earth  over;  to  bend  is  simply  to 
CAaiige  its  direction  ; thus  a stick  is  bent,  or  a body 
fuay  bend  its  direction  to  a particular  point; 

’Some  to  the  house, 

The  fold  and  dairy,  hungry,  bend  their  flight. 

Thomson. 

7o  ttoist  is  to  bend  many  times,  to  make  many  turns ; 
But  let  not  on  thy  hook  the  tortur’d  worm, 
Convulsive,  twist  in  agonizing  folds.— Thomson. 
To  distort  is  to  turn  or  bend  out  of  the  right  course  ; 
Jius  the  face  is  distorted  in  convulsions,  or  the  looks 
iKay  be  distorted  from  passion  or  otherwise ; 

We  saw  their  stern,  distorted  looks  from  far. 

Dryden. 

To  wring  is  to  twist  with  violence  ; thus  linen  which 
has  been  wetted  is  wrung ; ‘ Our  bodies  are  unhap- 
pily made  the  weapons  of  sin  ; therefore  we  must,  by 
an  austere  course  of  duty,  first  wring  these  weapons 
out  of  its  hands.’ — South.  To  wrest  or  wrench  is  to 
separate  from  a body  by  means  of  twisting  ; thus  a stick 
may  be  wrested  out  of  the  hand,  or  a hinge  wrenched 
otf  the  door; 

Wresting  the  text  to  the  old  giant’s  sense. 

That  heaven  once  more  must  suffer  violence. 

Denham. 

Wrench  his  sword  from  him. — Shakspeark. 

She  wrench'd  the  jav’lin  with  her  dying  hands. 

Dryden. 

The  same  distinction  holds  good  in  the  moral  or  ex- 
tended application  : a person  is  turned  from  his  design ; 
‘ Strong  passion  dwells  on  that  object  which  has  seized 
and  taken  possession  of  the  soul ; it  is  too  much  occu- 
pied and  filled  by  it  to  turn  its  view  aside.’— Blair. 
The  will  of  a person  is  bent,  or  the  thoughts  are  bent, 
towards  an  object ; ‘ Men  will  not  bend  their  wits  to 
examine  whether  things  wherewith  they  have  been 
accustomed  be  good  or  evil.’— Hooker.  The  mean- 
ing of  words  is  twisted,  or  by  a stronger  expression 
distorted,  to  serve  a purpose ; ‘ Something  must  be 
distorted,  besides  the  intent  of  the  divine  Inditer.’ — 
Peacham.  a confession  is  wrung,  or  by  a stronger 
expression  wrested,  from  a person  ; ‘ To  wring  this 
sentence,  to  wrest  thereby  out  of  men’s  hands  the 
knowledge  of  God’s  doctrines,  is  without  all  reason.’ 

Ascham. 


TO  EXACT,  EXTORT. 

Exact,  in  Latin  exactus,  participle  of  exigo,  to  drive 
out,  signifies  the  exercise  of  simple  force  ; but  extort, 
from  extortus,  participle  of  extorqueo  to  wring  out, 
marks  the  exercise  of  unusual  force.  In  application, 
therefore,  the  term  exact  signifies  to  demand  with 
force;  it  is  commonly  an  act  of  injustice:  to  extort 
signifies  to  get  with  violence,  it  is  an  act  of  tyranny. 
The  collector  of  the  revenue  exacts  when  he  gets  from 
the  people  more  than  he  is  authorized  to  take:  an 
arbitrary  prince  extorts  from  his  conquered  subjects 
whatever  he  can  grasp  at.  In  the  figurative  sense, 
deference,  obedience,  applause,  and  admiration  are 
exacted;  ‘While  to  the  established  church  is  given 
that  protection  and  siqiport  which  the  interests  of  reli- 
gion render  proper  and  due,  yet  no  rigid  conformity  is 
exacted.’— Blair.  A confession,  an  acknowledgment, 
a discovery,  and  the  like,  are  extorted;  ‘If  I err  in 
believing  that  the  souls  of  men  are  immortal,  not  while 
1 live  would  I wish  to  have  this  delightful  errour  ex- 
i»rzed  from  me.’— Steele. 


TO  CHARM,  ENCHANT,  FASCINATE,  ENRAP- 
TURE, CAPTIVATE. 

Charm  has  the  same  signification  as  explained  under 
the  head  of  Attractions  ; enchant  is  compounded  of  en 
and  chant,  signifying  to  act  upon  as  by  the  power  of 
chanting  or  mnsick  ; fascinate,  in  Latin  fascino,  Greek 
(iaoKaivu),  signified  originally  among  the  ancients  a spe- 
cies of  witchcraft,  performed  by  the  eyes  or  the  tongue; 
enrapture,  compounded  of  en  and  rapture,  signifies  to 
put  into  a rapture : and  rapture,  from  the  Latin  rapio 
to  seize  or  carry  away,  signifies  the  state  of  being  car- 


ried away  ; whence  to  enrapture  signifies  o put  into 
that  state ; captivate,  in  Latin  captivatus,  participle 
of  captivo,  from  capio  to  take,  signifies  to  take  as  it 
were,  prisoner. 

The  idea  of  an  irresistible  influence  is  common  ta 
these  terms ; charm  expresses  a less  powerful  effect 
than  enchant ; a charm  is  simply  a magical  verse  used 
by  magicians  and  sorcerers : incantation  or  enchant 
ment  is  the  use  not  only  of  verses  but  of  any  mysteriour 
ceremonies,  to  produce  a given  effect. 

To  charm  and  enchant  in  this  sense  denote  an  opera 
tion  by  means  of  words  or  motions ; to  fascinate  de 
notes  an  operation  by  means  of  the  eyes  or  tongue ; a 
person  is  charmed  and  enchanted  voluntarily ; he  i» 
fascinated  involuntarily : the  superstitious  have  always 
had  recourse  to  charms  and  enchantments,  for  the  pur 
pose  of  allaying  the  passions  of  love  or  hatred  ; the 
Greeks  believed  that  the  malignant  influence  passed  by 
fascination  from  the  eyes  or  tongues  of  envious  per 
sons,  which  infected  the  ambient  air,  and  through  that 
medium  penetrated  and  corrupted  the  bodies  of  animala 
and  other  things. 

Charms  and  enchantments  are  performed  by  persons ; 
fascinations  are  performed  by  animals:  the  former 
have  always  some  supposed  good  in  view  ; the  latter 
have  always  a mischievous  tendency  : there  are  per 
sons  who  pretend  to  charm  away  the  tooth-ache,  or 
other  pains  of  the  body;  some  serpents  are  said  to 
have  a fascinating  power  in  their  eyes,  by  which 
they  can  kill  the  animals  on  whom  they  have  fixed 
them. 

When  these  terms  are  taken  in  the  improper  sense, 
charm,  enchant,  and  fascinate  are  employed  to  de- 
scribe moral  as  well  as  natural  operations :’  enrapture 
and  captivate  describe  effects  on  the  mind  only : to 
charm,  enchant,  fascinate,  and  enrapture  designate 
the  effects  produced  by  physical  and  moral  objects ; 
captivate  designates  those  produced  by  physical  objects 
only : we  may  be  charmed,  or  enchanted,  or  enrap- 
tured, with  what  we  see,  hear,  and  learn ; we  may  be 
fascinated  with  what  we  see  or  learn  ; we  are  capti- 
vated only  with  what  we  see:  a fine  voice,  a fine 
prospect,  or  a fine  sentiment,  charms,  enchants,  or 
enraptures ; a fine  person  fascinates,  or  the  conver 
sation  of  a person  is  fascinating ; beauty,  with  all  it» 
accompaniments,  captivates.  When  applied  to  th* 
same  objects,  charm,  enchant,  and  enrapture  rise  iij 
sense : what  charms  produces  sweet  but  not  tumultu- 
ous emotions  ; in  this  sense  musick  in  general  charmt 
a musical  ear; 

So  fair  a landscape  charm'd  the  wond’ring  knight. 

• Gilbert  West 

What  enchants  rouses  the  feelings  to  a high  pitch  of 
tumultuous  delight ; in  this  manner  the  musician  ia 
enchanted  with  the  finest  compositions  of  Handel  when 
performed  by  the  best  masters ; or  a lover  of  the  coun- 
try is  enchanted  with  Swiss  scenery ; 

Trust  not  too  much  to  that  enchanting  face: 

Beauty’s  a charm,  but  soon  the  charm  will  pass. 

Dryden. 

To  enrapture  is  to  absorb  all  the  affections  of  the 
soul ; it  is  of  too  violent  a nature  to  be  either  lasting 
or  frequent : it  is  a term  applicable  only  to  persons  of 
an  enthusiastick  character,  or  to  particularly  powerful 
excitements ; 

He  play’d  so  sweetly,  and  so  sweetly  sung. 

That  on  each  note  th’  enraptur'd  audience  hung. 

Sir  Wm.  Jones. 

What  charms,  enchants,  and  enraptures  only  affords 
pleasure  for  the  time  ; whvit  fascinates  and  captivates 
rivets  the  mind  to  the  object : the  former  three  convey 
the  idea  of  a voluntary  movement  of  the  mind,  as  in 
the  proper  sense ; the  two  vatter  imply  a species  of 
forcible  action  on  the  mind,  which  deprives  a person 
of  his  free  agency  ; the  passions,  as  well  as  the  affec- 
tions, are  called  into  play  while  the  understanding  is 
passive,  which,  with  regard  to  fascinate,  may  be  to 
the  injury  of  the  subject : a loose  woman  may  have  it 
in  her  power  to  fascinate,  and  a modest  woman  to 
captivate ; ‘ One  would  think  there  was  some  kind  of 
fascination  in  the  eyes  of  a large  circle  of  people  when 
darting  altogether  upon  one  person.’— Addison. 

Her  form  the  patriot’s  robe  conceal’d, 

With  suidied  blandishments  she  bow’d, 

And  drew  the  captivated  crowd.— Moorb 


318 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMEb> 


TO  ENSLAVE,  CAPTIVATE. 

To  enslave  is  to  bring  into  a state  of  slavery ; to 
eavtivate  is  to  make  a captive. 

There  is  as  much  difference  between  these  terms  as 
between  slavery  and  captivity  : he  who  is  a slave  is 
fettered  both  body  and  mind  ; he  who  is  a captive  is 
only  constrained  as  to  his  body : hence  to  enslave  is 
always  taken  in  the  bad  sense ; captivate  mostly  in 
the  good  sense  : enslave  is  employed  literally  or  figu- 
ratively ; captivate  only  figuratively : we  may  be  en- 
slaved by  persons,  or  by  our  gross  passions ; ‘ The 
will  was  then  (before  the  fall)  subordinate  but  not 
tnslaved  to  the  understanding.’ — South.  We  are  cap- 
tivated by  the  charms  or  beauty  of  an  object ; ‘ Men 
ihould  Deware  of  being  captivated  by  a kind  of 
savage  philosophy,  women  by  a thoughtless  gallantry.’ 
-Addison. 


ECSTASY,  RAPTURE,  TRANSPORT. 

There  is  a strong  resemblance  in  the  meaning  and 
application  of  these  words.  They  all  expre.ss  an  ex- 
traordinary elevation  of  the  spirits,  or  an  excessive 
tension  of  the  mind ; ecstasy  marks  a passive  state, 
from  the  Greek  cK^acig  and  to  stand,  or  be  out 

of  oneself,  out  of  one’s  mind.  Rapture,  from  the 
Latin  rapio  to  seize  or  carry  away ; and  transport, 
from  trails  and  porto  to  carry  beyond  oneself,  rather 
designate  an  active  state,  a violent  inuHilse  with  which 
the  mind  hurries  itself  forward.  Ecstasy  and  rap- 
ture are  always  pleasurable,  or  arise  from  pleasurable 
causes : transport  respects  either  pleasurable  or  pain- 
ful feelings;  joy  occasions  ecstasies  or  raptures : joy 
and  anger  have  their  transports. 

An  ecstasy  benumbs  tiie  faculties  ; it  will  take  away 
the  power  of  speech  and  often  of  thought : it  is  coni- 
i.ionly  occasioned  by  sudden  and  unexpected  events : 
rapture,  on  the  other  hand,  often  invigorates  the 
powers,  and  calls  them  into  action ; it  frequently  arises 
from  deep  thought ; the  former  is  common  to  all  per- 
sons of  ardent  feelings,  but  more  particularly  to  chil- 
dren, ignorant  people,  or  to  such  as  have  not  their 
feelings  under  control ; 

What  followed  was  all  ecstasy  and  trance  ; 

Immortal  pleasures  round  my  swimming  eyes  did 
dance.— Uryden. 

Rapture,  on  the  contrary,  is  applicable  to  persons  of 
superiour  minds,  and  to  circumstances  of  peculiar  im- 
portance ; 

By  swift  degrees  the  love  of  nature  works, 

And  warms  the  bosom,  till  at  last  sublim’d 
To  rapture  and  enthusiastick  heat. 

We  feel  the  present  Deity. — Thomson. 
Transports  are  but  sudden  bursts  of  passion,  which 
generally  lead  to  intemperate  actions,  and  are  seldom 
indulged  even  on  joyous  occasions  except  by  the  vola- 
tile and  passionate : a reprieve  from  the  sentence  of 
death  will  produce  an  ecstasy  of  delight  in  the  par- 
doned criminal.  Religious  contemp'.ation  is  calculated 
to  produce  holy  raptures  in  a mind  strongly  imbued 
with  pious  zeal : in  transports  of  rage  men  have  com- 
mitted enormities  which  have  cost  them  bitter  tears  of 
repentance  ever  after.  The  word  transport  is  how- 
wer  used  in  the  higher  style  in  a good  sense ; 

When  all  thy  mercies,  O my  God  ! 

My  rising  soul  surveys, 

Transported  with  the  view,  I’m  lost 
In  wonder,  love,  and  praise.— Addison. 


TO  ATTRA'CT,  ALLURE,  INVITE,  ENGAGE. 

Attract,  in  Latin  attractuni,  participle  of  attraho, 
compounded  of  at  or  ad  and  traho,  signifies  to  draw 
towards;  allure,  v.  To  allure;  invite,  in  French  in- 
viter,  Latin  invito,  compounded  of  in  privative  and 
vito  to  avoid,  signifies  the  contrary  of  avoiding,  that 
is,  to  seek  or  ask ; engage,  compounded  of  en  or  in 
and  the  French  gage  a pledge,  signifies  to  bind  as  by  a 
pledge. 

That  is  attractive  which  draws  the  thoughts  towards 
itself;  that  is  alluring  which  awakens  desire;  that  is 
inviting  which  offers  persuasion;  that  is  engaging 
which  takes  possession  of  the  mind.  The  attention  is 
attracted;  the  senses  Rre  allured ; the  understandinsr 
B invited,  the  hole  mind  is  engaged.  A particular 


sound  attracts  the  ear ; the  prospect  of  gratiiicatlon 
allures ; we  are  invited  by  advantages  which  offer ; 
we  are  engaged  by  tliose  which  already  accrue. 

The  person  of  a female  ii  attractive;  female  beauty 
involuntarily  draws  all  eyes  towards  itself;  it  awakens 
admiration ; ‘At  this  titne  of  universal  migration, 
when  almost  every  one  considerable  enough  to  attract 
regard  has  retired  into  the  country,  I have  often  been 
tempted  to  inquire  what  happiness  is  to  be  gained  l.y 
this  stated  secession.’— Johnson.  The  pleasures  of 
society  are  alluring ; they  create  in  the  receiver  an 
eager  desire  for  still  farther  enjoyment ; but  when  too 
eagerly  pursued  they  vanish  in  the  pursuit,  and  leave 
the  mind  a prey  to  listless  uneasiness : the  weather  is 
inviting ; it  seems  to  persuade  the  reluctant  to  partake 
of  its  refreshments ; ‘ Seneca  has  attempted  not  only 
to  pacify  us  in  misfortune,  but  almost  to  allure  us  to  it 
by  representing  it  as  necessary  to  the  pleasures  of  the 
mind.  He  invites  his  pupil  to  calamity  as  the  Syrens 
allured  the  passengers  to  their  coasts,  by  promising 
that  he  shall  return  with  increase  of  knowledge.’ — 
Johnson.  The  manners  of  a person  are  engaging; 
they  not  only  occupy  the  attention,  but  they  lay  hold 
of  the  affections ; ‘ The  present,  whatever  it  be,  seldom 
engages  our  attention  so  much  as  what  is  to  come  ’ ■ 
Blair. 


ATTRACTIONS,  ALLUREMENTS,  CHARMS. 

Attraction  signifies  the  thing  that  attracts  (v.  To 
attract);  allurement  signifies  the  thing  that  allures 
(v.  To  allure) ; charm,  from  the  Latin  carmen  a verse, 
signifies  whatever  acts  by  an  irresistible  influence, 
like  poetry. 

♦ Besides  the  synonymous  signification  which  dis- 
tinguishes these  words,  they  are  remarkable  for  the 
common  property  of  being  used  only  in  the  plural, 
when  denoting  the  thing  that  attracts,  allures,  and 
charms.  Wiien  applied  to  female  endowments,  or  the 
influence  of  person  on  the  heart:  it  seems  that  in  at- 
tractions there  is  something  natural ; in  allurements 
something  artificial : in  charms  something  moral  and 
intellectual. 

Attractions  ietid  or  draw;  allurements  win  or  en- 
tice; c/rarms  seduce  or  captivate.  The  human  heart 
is  always  exposed  to  the  power  of  female  attractions; 
it  is  guarded  with  difficulty  against  the  allurements  of 
a coquette;  it  is  incapable  of  resisting  the  united 
charms  of  body  and  mind. 

Females  are  indebted  for  their  attractions  and 
charms  to  a happy  conformation  of  features  and  figure, 
but  they  sometimes  borrow  their  allurements  from 
their  toilet.  Attractions  consist  of  those  ordinary 
graces  which  nature  bestows  on  women  with  more  or 
less  liberality ; they  are  the  common  property  of  the 
sex ; ‘ This  cestus  was  a fine  party-coloured  girdle, 
which,  as  Homer  tells  us,  had  all  the  attractions  of 
the  sex  wrought  into  it.’— Addison.  Allurements  con- 
sist of  those  cultivated  graces  formed  by  the  aid  of  a 
faithful  looking-glass  and  the  skilful  hand  of  one 
anxious  to  please  ; ‘ How  justly  do  I fall  a sacrifice  to 
sloth  and  luxury  in  the  place  where  I first  yielded  to 
those  allurements  which  seduced  me  to  deviate  from 
temperance  and  innocence.’— Johnson.  Charms  con- 
sist of  those  singular  graces  of  nature  which  are  granied 
as  a rare  and  precious  gift : they  are  the  peculiar  pro- 
perty of  the  individual  possessor;  ‘Juno  made  a visit 
to  Venus,  the  deity  who  presides  over  love,  and  begged 
of  her  as  a particular  favour,  that  she  would  lend  her 
for  a while  those  charms  with  which  she  subdued  the 
hearts  of  gods  and  men.’ — Addison. 

Defects  unexpectedly  discovered  tend  to  the  diminu 
tion  of  attractions ; allurements  vanish  when  the  arti 
fice  is  discovered ; charms  lose  their  effect  when  time 
or  habit  have  rendered  them  too  familiar,  so  transitory 
is  the  influence  of  mere  person.  Attractions  assail 
the  heart  and  awaken  the  tender  passion ; allurements 
serve  to  complete  the  conquest,  which  will  however 
be  but  of  short  duration  if  there  be  not  more  solid 
though  le.ss  brilliant  charms  to  substitute  affection  in 
the  place  of  passion. 

When  applied  as  these  terms  may  be  to  other  objects 
besides  the  personal  endowments  of  the  female  sex,  at- 
tractions and  charms  express  whatever  is  very  amiable 
in  themselves  ; allurements  on  the  contrary  whatevei 

Vide  Abbe  Girard  and  Roubaud:  “Attmits  appas 
charmes.’’ 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


319 


IS  nateful  and  congenial  to  the  baser  propensities  of 
human  nature.  A courtesan  who  was  never  possessed 
of  charms^  and  has  lost  all  personal  attractions,  may, 
by  the  allurements  of  dress  and  manners,  aided  by  a 
thousand  meretricious  arts,  still  retain  the  wretched 
power  of  doing  incalculable  mischief. 

An  attraction  springs  from  something  remarkable 
and  striking ; it  ties  in  the  exteriour  aspect,  and 
awakens  an  interest  towards  itself:  a charm  acts  by  a 
secret,  all-powerful,  and  irresistible  impulse  on  the 
soul ; it  springs  from  an  accordance  of  the  object  with 
the  affections  of  the  heart;  it  takes  hold  of  the  imagi- 
nation, and  awakens  an  enthusiasm  peculiar  to  itself : 
an  allurement  acts  on  the  senses ; it  flatters  the  pas- 
sions ; it  enslaves  the  imagination.  A musical  society 
has  attractions  for  one  who  is  musically  inclined  ; for 
musick  has  charms  to  soothe  the  troubled  soul : fash- 
ionable society  has  too  many  allurements  for  youth, 
which  are  not  easily  withstood. 

The  musick,  the  eloquence  of  the  preacher,  or  the 
crowds  of  hearers,  are  attractions  for  the  occasional 
attendants  at  a place  of  worship : the  society  of  culti- 
vated persons,  whose  character  and  manners  have 
been  attempered  by  the  benign  influence  of  Chris- 
tianity, possess  peculiar  charms  for  those  who  have  a 
congeniality  of  disposition ; the  present  lax  and  undis- 
ciplined age  is  however  ill-fitted  for  the  formation  of 
such  society,  or  the  susceptibility  of  such  charms: 
people  are  now  more  prone  to  yield  to  the  allurements 
of  pleasure  and  licentious  gratification  in  their  social 
intercourse.  A military  life  has  powerful  attractions 
for  adventurous  minds ; glory  has  irresistible  charms 
for  the  ambitious : the  allurements  of  wealth  predomi- 
nate in  the  minds  of  the  great  bulk  of  mankind. 


TO  ALLURE,  TEMPT,  SEDUCE,  ENTICE, 
DECOY. 

Allure  is  compounded  of  the  intensive  syllable  al  or 
ad  and  lure,  in  French  leurre,  in  German  luder  a lure 
or  bait,  signifying  to  hold  a bait  in  order  to  catch  ani- 
mals, and  figuratively  to  present  something  to  please 
the  senses,  or  the  understanding;  tempt,  in  French 
tenter,  Latin  tento  to  try,  comes  from  tentus,  participle 
of  tendo  to  stretch,  signifying  by  efforts  to  impel  to  ac- 
tion ; seduce,  in  French  seduire,  Latin  seduco,  is  com- 
pounded of  se  apart  and  duco  to  lead,  signifying  to 
lead  any  one  aside  ; entice  is  {txohsMy , per  metathesin, 
changed  from  incite;  decoy  is  compounded  of  the 
Latin  de  and  coy,  in  Dutch  koy,  German,  &;c.  koi  a 
cage  or  enclosed  place  for  birds,  signifying  to  draw  into 
any  place  for  the  purpose  of  getting  them  into  one’s 
power. 

We  are  allured  by  the  appearances  of  things ; we  are 
tempted  by  the  words  of  persons  as  well  as  the  appear- 
ances of  things;  we  are  enticed  by  persuasions;  we 
are  seduced  or  decoyed  by  the  influence  and  false  arts 
of  others. 

To  allure  and  tempt  are  used  either  in  a good  or  bad 
sense ; entice  sometimes  in  an  indifferent,  but  mostly 
in  a bad  sense ; seduce  and  decoy  are  always  in  a bad 
sense.  The  weather  may  allure  us  out  of  doors : the 
love  of  pleasures  may  albire  us  into  indulgencies  that 
afterward  cause  repentance;  ‘June  26,  J^4,  the  rats 
and  mice  by  which  Hamelen  was  infested  were  al- 
lured, it  is  said,  by  a piper  to  a contiguous  river,  in 
which  they  were  all  drowned.’ — Aitdison.  We  are 
sometimes  tempted  upon  very  fair  grounds  to  under- 
take what  turns  out  unfortunately  in  the  end  : our 
passions  are  our  bitterest  enemies ; the  devil  uses  them 
IS  instruments  to  tempt  us  to  sin;  ‘In  our  time  the 
poor  are  strongly  tempted  to  assume  the  appearance  of 
wealth.’ — Johnson.  When  the  wicked  entice  us  to  do 
evil,  we  should  turn  a deaf  ear  to  their  flattering  re- 
presentations ; those  who  know  what  is  right,  and  are 
determined  to  practice  it,  will  not  suffer  themselves  to 
be  enticed  into  any  irregularities  ; ‘ There  was  a parti- 
cular grove  which  was  called  “the  labyrinth  of  co- 
quettes,”''wheie  many  were  enticed  to  the  chase,  but 
few  returned  with  purchase.’ — Addison.  Young  men 
are  frequently  seduced  by  the  company  they  keep; 
There  is  no  kind  of  idleness  by  which  we  are  so 
easily  seducea  as  that  which  dignifies  itself  b>  the  ap- 
pearance of  business.’ — Johnson.  Children  are  de- 
coyed away  by  the  evil-minded,  who  wish  to  get  them 
inio  their  possession;  ‘I  have  heard  of  barbarians, 


who,  when  tempests  drive  ships  to  their  coasts  decoy 
them  to  the  rocks  that  they  may  plunder  their  lading. 
— Johnson. 

The  country  has  its  allurements  for  the  conlem’ 
plative  mind  : the  metropolis  is  full  of  temptations. 
Those  who  have  any  evil  project  to  execute  will  omit 
no  enticement  in  order  to  seduce  the  young  and  inex- 
perienced from  their  duty.  The  practice  of  decoying 
children  or  ignorant  people  into  places  of  confinement 
was  formerly  more  frequent  than  at  present. 

Allure  does  not  imply  such  a powerful  influence  aa 
tempt : what  allures  draws  by  gentle  means ; it  lies  in 
the  nature  of  the  thing  that  affects : what  tempts  acta 
by  direct  and  continued  efforts : it  presents  motives  to 
the  mind  in  order  to  produce  decision ; it  tries  the 
power  of  resistance.  Entice  supposes  such  a decisive 
influence  on  the  mind,  as  produces  a determination  to 
act ; in  which  respect  it  differs  from  the  two  former 
terms.  Allure  and  tempt  produce  actions  on  the  mind, 
not  necessarily  followed  by  any  result ; for  we  may  be 
allured  or  tempted  to  do  a thing,  without  necessarily 
doing  the  thing  ; but  we  cannot  be  enticed  unless  we 
are  led  to  take  some  step.  Seduce  and  decoy  have  re 
ference  to  the  outward  action,  as  well  as  the  inwara 
movements  of  tlie  mind  which  give  rise  to  them : they 
indicate  a drawing  aside  of  the  person  as  well  as 
the  mind ; it  is  a misleading  by  false  representation. 
Prospects  are  alluring,  offers  are  tempting,  words  are 
enticing,  charms  are  seductive. 


TRY,  TEMPT. 

To  try  {v.  To  attempt)  is  to  call  forth  one’s  ordinary 
powers ; to  tempt  is  a particular  species  of  trial ; we 
try  either  ourselves  or  others ; we  tempt  others  : to  try 
is  for  the  most  part  an  indifferent  action,  a person  may 
be  tried  in  order  to  ascertain  his  principles  or  his 
strength ; 

League  all  your  forces  then,  ye  pow’rs  above. 

Join  all,  and  try  the  omnipotence  of  Jove. 

Pops. 

To  tempt  ia  for  the  most  part  taken  in  a bad  sense,  men 
are  tempted  to  depart  from  their  duty ; 

Still  the  old  sting  remain’d,  and  men  began 
To  tempt  the  serpent,  as  he  tempted  man. 

Denham. 

It  is  necessary  to  try  the  fidelity  of  a servant  before  you 
place  confidence  in  him  ; it  is  wicked  to  temvt  any  one 
to  do  that  which  we  should  think  wrong  to  do'oursel ves : 
our  strength  is  tried  by  frequent  experience ; we  are 
tempted  by  the  weakness  of  our  principles,  to  give  w'ay 
to  the  violence  of  our  passions. 


EXPERIENCE,  EXPERIMENT,  TRIAL,  PROOF, 
TEST. 

Experience,  experiment,  from  the  Latin  experior, 
compounded  of  e or  ex  and  perio  or  pario  to  bring 
forth,  signifies  the  thing  brought  to  light,  or  the  act  of 
bringing  to  light ; trial  signifies  the  act  of  trying,  from 
try,  in  Latin  tento,  Hebrew  “ifl’  fo  explore,  examine, 
search  ; proof  signifies  either  the  act  of  proving,  from 
the  Latin  probo  to  make  good,  or  the  thing  made 
good,  proved  to  be  good  ; test,  from  the  Latin  testis  a 
witness,  is  that  which  serves  to  attest  or  prove  the 
reality  of  a thing. 

By  all  the  actions  implied  in  these  terms,  we  endea 
vour  to  arrive  at  a certainty  respecting  some  unknown 
particular ; the  experience  is  that  which  has  been  tried; 
the  experiment  is  the  thing  to  be  tried  : the  experience 
is  certain,  as  it  is  a deduction  from  the  past  for  the 
service  of  the  present ; the  experiment  is  uncertain, 
and  serves  a future  purpose  : experience  is  an  unerring 
guide,  which  no  man  can  desert  without  falling  into 
errour ; experiments  may  fail,  or  be  superseded  by 
others  more  perfect. 

Experience  serves  to  lead  us  to  moral  truth,  the  ex- 
periment aids  us  in  ascertaining  speculative  truth;  we 
profit  by  experience  to  rectify  practice  ; ‘ A man  may, 
by  experience,  be  persuaded  that  his  will  is  free  ; that 
he  can  do  this,  or  not  do  it.’— Tillotson.  We  make- 
experiments  in  theoretical  inquiries ; ‘ Any  one  mar 
easily  make  this  experiment,  and  even  plainly  see  tha: 
there  is  no  bud  in  the  corn  which  ants  lay  up.’ — Addi 
SON,  He,  therefore  who  makes  6.1.  er.ments  in  mat 


320 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


cers  of  experience  rejects  a steady  and  definite  mode 
of  coming  at  the  truth  for  one  that  is  variable  and  un- 
certain, and  tliat  too  in  matters  of  the  first  nioment : 
^he  consequences  of  such  a mistake  are  obvious,  and 
have  been  too  fatally  realized  in  the  present  age,  in 
vvhkli  experience  has  been  set  at  nought  by  every  wild 
speculator,  who  has  recommended  experiments  to  be 
made  with  all  the  forms  of  moral  duty  and  civil 
society ; ‘ It  is  good  also  not  to  try  experiments  in 
states,  except  the  necessity  be  urgent,  or  the  utility 
evident.’ — Bacon. 

The  experiment,  trial,  and  proof  have  equally  ',he 
character  of  uncertainty  ; but  the  experiment  is  em- 
ployed only  in  matters  of  an  intellectual  nature ; the 
trial  is  employed  in  matters  of  a personal  nature,  on 
physical  as  well  as  mental  objects;  the  proof  is  em- 
ployed in  moral  subjects ; we  make  an  experiment  in 
order  to  know  whether  a thing  be  true  or  false ; -we 
make  a trial  in  order  to  know  whether  it  be  capable 
or  incapable,  convenient  or  inconvenient,  useful  or  the 
contrary ; we  put  a thing  to  the  proof  in  order  to  de- 
termine whether  it  be  good  or  bad,  real  or  unreal: 
experi  nents  tend  to  confirm  our  opinions  ; they  are  the 
handmaids  of  science;  the  philosopher  doubts  every 
position  which  cannot  be  demonstrated  by  repeated 
experiments ; ‘ That  which  showeth  them  to  be  wise, 
is  the  gathering  of  principles  out  of  their  own  parti- 
cular experiments  ; and  the  framing  of  our  particular 
experiments,  according  to  the  rule  of  their  principles, 
shall  make  us  such  as  they  are.’ — Hooker.  Trials 
are  of  absolute  necessity  in  directing  our  conduct,  our 
taste,  and  our  choice ; we  judge  of  our  strength  or 
skill  by  trials ; we  judge  of  the  effect  of  colours  by 
trials,  and  the  like  ; 

But  he  himself  betook  another  way, 

To  make  more  trial  of  his  hardiment, 

And  seek  adventures,  as  he  with  prince  Arthur  went. 

Spenser. 

The  proof  determines  the  judgement,  as  in  common 
life,  according  to  the  vulpr  proverb,  ‘ The  proof  of 
the  pudding  is  in  the  eating ;’  so  in  the  knowledge  of 
men  and  things,  the  proof  of  men’s  characters  and 
merits  is  best  made  by  observing  their  conduct; 

O goodly  usage  of  those  ancient  tymes ! 

In  which  the  sword  was  servant  unto  right: 

When  not  for  malice  and  contentious  crymes. 

But  all  for  praise  and  proof  of  manly  might. 

Spenser. 

The  experiment  is  a sort  of  trial;  ‘When  we  are 
searching  out  the  nature  or  properties  of  any  being  by 
various  methods  of  trial,  this  sort  of  observation  is 
called  experiment' — Watts.  The  proof  results  from 
the  trial ; ‘ My  paper  gives  a timorous  writer  an  op- 
portunity of  putting  his  abilities  to  the  proof.' — Addi- 
son. When  the  word  test  is  taken  in  the  sense  of  a 
trial,  as  in  the  phrases  to  stand  the  test,  or  to  make  a 
test,  it  derives  its  meaning  from  the  chymical  process 
of  refining  metals  in  a test  or  cupel,  testa  being  in 
Italian  the  name  of  this  vessel.  The  test  is  therefore 
a positive  and  powerful  trial; 

All  thy  vexations 
Were  but  my  trials  of  thy  love,  and  thou 
Hast  strangely  stood  the  test. — Shakspeare. 

When  the  test  is  taken  for  the  means  of  trying  or  prov- 
.g,  it  bears  a similar  signification  ; 

Unerring  nature,  still  divinely  bright. 

One  clear,  unchang’d  and  universal  light, 

Life,  force,  and  beauty,  must  to  all  impart 
At  once  the  source,  and  end,  and  test  of  every  art. 

Pope. 

Hence  this  word  is  used  in  the  legal  sense  for  the 
proof  which  a man  is  required  to  give  of  liis  religious 
creed. 


ATTEMPT,  TRIAL.  ENDEAVOUR,  ESSAY, 
EFFORT. 

Attempt,  in  French  attenter,  Latin  attento,  from 
at  or  ad  and  tento,  signifies  to  try  at  a thing;  trial 
comes  from  try  {v.  Experience) ; endeavour,  com- 
pounded of  en  and  the  French  devoir  to  owe,  signifies 
o try  according  to  one’s  duty  ; essay,  in  French 
essaycr,  comes  probably  from  the  German  ersuchen, 
iDmjjounded  of  er  and  suchen  to  seek,  written  in  old 


German  suachen,  and  is  doubtless  connected  witn 
sehen  to  see  or  look  after,  signifying  to  aspire  after,  to 
look  up'  to ; effort,  in  French  effort,  from  the  Latir 
effort,  present  tense  of  effero,  compounded  of  e or  ex 
and  fero,  signifies  a bringing  out  or  calling  forth  the 
strength. 

To  attempt  is  to  set  about  a thing  with  a view  of 
effecting,  it ; to  try  is  to  set  about  a thing  with  a view 
of  seeing  the  result.  An  attempt  respects  the  action 
with  its  object ; a trial  is  the  exercise  of  power.  We 
always  act  when  we  attempt;  we  use  the  senses  and 
the  understanding  when  we  try.  We  attempt  by  try- 
ing, but  we  may  try  without  attempting : when  a 
thief  attempts  to  break  into  a house  he  first  tries  the 
locks  and  fastenings  to  see  where  he  can  most  easily 
gain  admittance. 

Men  attempt  to  remove  evils ; they  try  expeiimenls 
Attempts  are  perpetually  made  by  quacks,  whether  in 
medicine,  politicks,  or  religion,  to  recommend  some 
scheme  of  their  own  to  the  notice  of  the  publick; 
which  are  often  nothing  more  than  trials  of  skill  to 
see  who  can  most  effectually  impose  on  the  credu.ity 
of  mankind.  Sjtirited  people  make  attempts  ; perse 
vering  people  make  trials ; players  attempt  to  per 
form  different  parts  ; and  try  to  gain  applause. 

An  endeavour  is  a continued  attempt.  Attempts 
may  be  fruitless ; trials  may  be  vain  ; endeavours, 
though  unavailing,  may  be  well  meant.  Many  attempts 
are  made  which  exceed  the  abilities  of  the  attempter; 
trials  are  made  in  matters  of  speculation,  the  lesults 
of  which  are  uncertain  ; endeavours  are  made  in  the 
moral  concerns  of  life.  People  attempt  to  write  books 
they  try  various  methods  ; and  endeavour  to  obtain  a 
livelihood. 

An  essay  is  used  altogether  in  a figurative  sense  foi 
an  attempt  or  endeavour ; it  is  an  intellectual  exertion. 
A modest  writer  apologizes  for  his  feeble  essay  to  con- 
tribute to  the  general  stock  of  knowledge  and  cultiva- 
tion : hence  short  treatises  which  serve  as  attempts  to 
illustrate  any  point  in  morals  are  termed  essays,  among 
which  are  the  finest  productions  in  our  language  from 
the  pen  of  Addison,  Steele,  and  their  successors.  An 
effort  is  to  an  attempt  its  a means  to  an  end  ; it  is 
the  very  act  of  calling  forth  those  powers  which  are 
employed  in  an  attempt.  In  attempting  to  make  an 
escape,  a person  is  sometimes  obliged  to  make  despe- 
rate efforts. 

Attempts  at  imitation  expose  the  imitator  to  ridicule 
when  not  executed  with  peculiar  exactness ; ‘ A natural 
and  unconstrained  behaviour  has  something  in  it  so 
agreeable  that  it  is  no  wonder  to  see  people  endeavour- 
ing after  it ; but  at  the  same  time  it  is  so  very  hard 
to  hit,  when  it  is  not  born  with  us,  that  people  often 
make  themselves  ridiculous  in  attempting  it.’ — Addi- 
son. Trials  of  strength  are  often  foolhardy  ; in  some 
cases  attended  with  mischievous  consequences  to  the 
trier  ; 

To  bring  it  to  the  trial,  will  you  dare 

Our  pipes,  our  skill,  our  voices  to  compare? 

Dryden. 

Honest  endeavours  to  please  are  to  be  distinguished 
from  idle  attempts  to  catch  applause ; ‘ Whether  or 
no  (said  Socrates  on  the  day  of  his  execution)  God 
will  approve  of  my  actions  I know  not ; but  this  I am 
sure  of,  that  I have  at  all  times  made  it  my  endeavour 
to  please  him. ’--Addison.  The  first  essays  of  youth 
ought  to  meet  with  indulgence,  in  order  to  afibrd  en- 
couragement to  rising  talents  ; ‘ This  treatise  prides 
itself  in  no  higher  a title  than  that  of  an  essay,  or 
imperfect  attempt  at  a subject.’ — Glanville.  Great 
attempts,  which  require  extraordinary  efforts  either 
of  body  or  mind,  always  meet  with  an  adequate  share 
of  publick  applause;  ‘The  man  of  sagacity  bestirs 
himself  to  distress  his  enemy  by  methods  probable  and 
reducible  to  reason ; so  the  same  reason  will  fortify 
his  enemy  to  elude  these  his  regular  efforts : but  your 
fool  projects  with  such  notable  inconsistency,  that  no 
course  of  thought  can  evade  his  machinations.’— 
Steele.  * 


ATTEMPT,  UNDERTAKING,  ENTERPRISE. 

An  attempt  is  the  thing  attempted  {v.  To  attempt) ; 
an  undertaking,  from  undertake,  or  take  in  hand,  is 
the  thing  taken  in  hand ; an  enterprise,  from  the  French 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


32; 


snterpris,  participle  of  entrcprendre  to  undertake,  has 
the  same  original  sense. 

The  idea  of  something  set  about  to  be  completed  is 
common  to  all  these  terms.  An  attempt  is  less  com- 
plicated than  an  undertaking;  and  that  less  arduous 
than  an  enterprise.  JUtempts  are  the  common  exer- 
tions of  power  for  obtaining  an  object : an  undertaking 
Involves  in  it  many  parts  and  particulars  which  require 
thought  and  Judgement ; an  enterprise  has  more  that 
is  hazardous  and  dangerous  in  it ; it  requires  resolu- 
tion Attempts  are  frequently  made  on  the  lives  and 
property  of  individuals  ; undertakings  are  formed  for 
private  purposes;  enterprises  are  commenced  for  some 
great  national  object. 

Nothing  can  be  effected  without  makiiig  the  attempt; 
attempts  are  therefore  often  idle  and  unsuccessful, 
when  tlicy  are  made  by  persons  of  little  discretion, 
who  are  eager  to  do  something  without  knowing  how 
to  direct  their  powers  ; 

Why  wilt  thou  rush  to  certain  death  and  rage, 

In  rash  aiicmpts  beyond  thy  tender  age  1 — Dryden. 
Undertakings  are  of  a more  serious  nature,  and  in- 
volve a man’s  serious  interests  ; if  begun  without  ade- 
quate means  of  bringing  them  to  a conclusion,  they 
too  frequently  bring  ruin  by  their  failure  on  those  who 
are  concerned  in  them ; ‘ When  I hear  a man  com- 
plain of  his  being  unfortunate  in  all  his  undertakings., 
I shrewdly  suspect  him  for  a very  weak  man  in  his 
affairs.’ — Addison.  Enterprises  require  personal  sa- 
crifices rather  than  those  of  interest ; he  who  does  not 
sombine  great  resolution  and  perseverance  with  con- 
siderable bodily  powers,  will  be  ill-fitted  to  take  part 
in  grand  enterprises. 

The  present  age  has  been  fruitful  in  attempts  to 
bring  premature  genius  into  notice:  literary  under- 
takings have  of  late  degenerated  too  much  into  mere 
commercial  speculations : a state  of  war  gives  birth 
to  naval  and  military  enterprises ; a state  of  peace 
is  most  favourable  to  those  of  a scientifick  nature ; 
There  would  be  few  enterprises  of  great  labour  or 
nazard  undertaken,  if  we  had  not  the  power  of  magni- 
fying the  advantages  wliich  we  persuade  ourselves  to 
expect  from  them.’ — Johnson. 


foolf:ardy,  adventurous,  rash. 

Foolhardy  signifies  having  the  hardihood  of  a fool ; 
adventurous,  ready  to  venture;  rash,  in  German  rasch, 
which  signifies  swift,  comes  from  tlie  Arabick  raaschen 
to  go  swiftly. 

The  foolhardy  expresses  more  than  the  adventurous ; 
and  the  adventurous  than  the  rash. 

The  foolhardy  man  ventures  in  defiance  of  conse- 
quences : the  adventurous  man  ventures  from  a love 
of  the  arduous  and  the  bold  ; the  rash  man  ventures 
for  want  of  thought:  -ourage  and  boldness  become 
foolhardihood  when  they  lead  a person  to  run  a fruit- 
less risk  ; an  adacnfirroits  spirit  sometimes  leads  a man 
into  unnecessary  difficulties;  out  it  is  a necessary  ac- 
companiment of  greatness.  There  is  not  so  much  de- 
sign, but  there  is  more  violence  ano  impetuosity  in 
rashness  than  in  foolhardihood : the  former  is  the 
consequence  of  an  ardent  temper  which  will  admit  of 
correction  by  the  influence  of  the  judgement ; but  the 
latter  comprehends  the  perversion  of  both  the  will  and 
the  judgement. 

An  infidel  is  foolhardy,  who  risks  his  future  salva- 
tion for  the  mere  gratification  of  Lis  pride  ; 

If  any  yet  be  so  foolhardy, 

T’  expose  themselves  to  vain  jeopardy. 

If  they  cuTiio  wounded  off'  and  lame, 

No  Imnour ’s  gut  by  such  a maim. — Bxtler. 
Alexander  was  an  adventurous  prince,  who  delighted 
in  enterprises  in  proportion  as  they  presented  difficul- 
ties ; he  was  liKstt^ise  a rash  prince,  as  was  evinced 
by  his  jumping  into  the  river  Cydnus  while  he  was 
hot,  and  by  his  leaping  over  the  wall  of  Oxydrace  and 
exposing  himself  singly  to  the  attack  of  the  enemy; 
’Twas  an  old  way  of  recreating. 

Which  learned  butchers  called  bearbaiting, 

A bold,  advent'rous  exercise. — Butler. 

Why  wilt  thou,  then,  renew  the  vain  pursuit, 

And  rashly  catch  at  the  forbidden  fruit  ? 

Prior. 

Si 


TO  ENDEAVOUR,  AIM,  STRIVE,  STRUGGLE 

To  endeavour  {v.  Attempt)  is  general  in  its  object; 
aim  (v.  Aim)  is  particular  ; we  endeavour  to  do  what 
ever  we  set  about;  we  aim  at  doing  something  which 
we  have  set  before  ourselves  as  a desirable  object.  To 
strive  {v.  Strife)  is  to  endeavour  earnestly  ; to  strug- 
gle, which  is  a frequentative  of  strive,  is  to  strive 
earnestly. 

An  endeavour  springs  from  a sense  of  duty;  we  en 
deavour  to  do  that  which  is  right,  and  avoid  that  which 
is  wrong : aiming  \s  the  fruit  of  an  aspiring  temper; 
the  object  aimed  at  is  always  something  superiour 
either  in  reality  or  imagination,  and  calls  for  particular 
exertion:  striving  is  the  consequence  of  an  ardent  de 
sire  ; the  thing  striven  for  is  always  conceived  to  be  of 
importance:  is  the  effect  of  necessity;  it  is 

proportioned  to  the  difficulty  of  attainment,  and  the 
resistance  which  is  opjtosed  to  it;  the  thing  strugglea 
for  is  indispensably  necessary. 

Those  only  who  endeavour  to  discharge  their  duty 
to  God  and  their  fellow-creatures  can  expect  real  tran 
quillity  of  mind ; ‘ ’T  is  no  uncommon  thing,  my  good 
Sancho,  for  one  half  of  the  world  to  use  the  other  half 
like  brutes,  and  then  endeavour  to  make  em  so.’ — 
Sterne.  Whoever  aims  at  the  acquirement  of  great 
wealth  or  much  power  opens  the  door  for  much  misery 
to  himself ; 

However  men  may  aim  at  elevation, 

’T  is  properly  a female  passion. — Shenstone. 

As  our  passions  are  acknowledged  to  be  our  greater, 
enemies  when  they  obtain  the  ascendancy,  we  should 
always  strive  to  keep  them  under  our  control ; 

All  understand  their  great  Creator’s  will, 

Strive  to  be  happy,  and  in  that  fulfil. 

Mankind  excepted,  lord  of  all  beside, 

But  only  slave  to  folly,  vice,  and  pride. 

Jknyns. 

There  are  some  men  who  struggle  through  life  to  on 
tain  a mere  competence ; and  yet  die  without  succeed 
ing  in  their  object ; 

So  the  boat’s  brawny  crew  the  current  stem, 

And  slow  advancing  struggle  with  the  stream. 

Dryden. 

We  ought  to  endeavour  to  correct  faults,  to  aim  at 
attaining  Christian  perfection,  to  strive  to  conquer  bad 
habits  : these  are  the  surest  means  of  saving  us  from 
the  necessity  of  struggling  to  repair  an  injured  repu- 
tation. 


ENDEAVOUR,  EFFORT,  EXERTION. 

The  idea  of  calling  our  powers  into  action  is  com 
mon  to  these  terms  : endeavour  {v.  Attempt)  expresses 
little  more  than  this  common  idea,  being  a term  of 
general  import : effort,  from  the  Latin  effort,  from 
effero  to  bring  forth,  signifying  the  bringing  out  of 
power ; and  exertion,  in  Latin  exero,  signifying  the 
putting  forth  power,  are  particular  modes  of  endea- 
vour; the  former  being  a special  strong  endeavour,  the 
latter  a continued  strong  endeavour.  The  endeavour 
is  called  forth  by  ordinary  circumstances , the  effort 
and  exertion  by  those  which  are  extraordinary.  The 
endeavour  flows  out  of  the  condition  of  our  being  and 
constitution  ; as  rational  and  responsible  agents  we 
must  make  daily  endeavours  to  fit  ourselves  for  an  here- 
after ; as  willing  and  necessitous  agents,  we  use  ou* 
endeavours  to  obtain  such  things  as  are  agreeable  cr 
needful  for  us:  when  a particular  emergency  arises  we 
make  a great  effort;  and  when  a serious  object  is  .o 
be  obtained  we  make  suitable  exertions. 

The  endeavour  is  indefinite  both  as  to  the  end  and 
the  means:  the  end  may  be  immediate  or  remote  , the 
means  may  be  either  direct  or  indirect : but  ;n  the 
effort  the  end  is  immediate  ; the  means  are  direct  and 
personal : we  may  either  make  an  endeavour  to  get 
into  a room,  or  we  may  make  an  endeavour  to  obtain 
a situation  in  life,  or  act  our  part  well  in  a particular 
situation ; ‘ To  walk  with  circumspection  and  steadi- 
ness in  the  right  path  ought  to  be  the  constant  endea- 
vour every  rational  being.’ — ^.Tohnson.  We  make 
efforts  to  speak,  or  we  make  efforts  to  get  through  a 
crowd,  or  we  make  efforts  to  overcome  our  feelings  ; 
‘ The  influence  of  custom  is  such,  that  to  conquer  ii 
will  require  the  utmost  efforts  of  fortitude  and  virtue 
—Johnson  The  endeavour  may  call  forth  one  oi 


322 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


many  powers ; the  effort  calls  forth  but  one  power ; 
the  endeavour  to  please  in  society  is  laudable,  if  it  do 
not  lead  to  vicious  compliances ; it  is  a laudable  effort 
of  .ortitude  to  suppress  our  complaints  in  the  moment 
of  suffering.  The  exertion  is  as  comprehensive  in  its 
meaning  as  the  endeavour^  and  as  positive  as  the 
effort  ; but  the  endeavour  is  most  commonly,  and  the 
^'ort  always,  applied  to  individuals  only;  whereas 
the  exertion  is  applicable  to  nations  as  well  as  indi- 
viduals. A tradesmari  uses  his  best  endeavours  to 
please  his  customers:  a combatant  makes  desperate 
efforts  to  overcome  his  antagonist:  a candidate  for 
literary  or  parliamentary  honours  uses  great  exertions 
to  surpass  his  rival ; a nation  uses  great  exertions  to 
raise  a navy  or  extend  its  commerce ; ‘ The  discom- 
Itures  which  the  republick  of  assassins  has  suffered 
have  uniformly  called  forth  new  exertions' — Burke. 


TO  EXERT,  EXERCISE. 

The  employment  of  some  power  or  qualification  that 
belongs  to  oneself  is  the  common  idea  conveyed  by 
these  terms ; but  exert  (v.  Endeavour)  may  be  used 
for  what  is  internal  or  external  of  oneself;  exercise,  in 
Latin  exerceo,  from  ex  and  arceo,  signifying  to  drive 
or  force  out,  is  employed  only  for  that  which  forms  an 
express  part  of  oneself : hence  we  speak  of  exerting 
one’s  strength,  or  exerting  one’s  voice,  or  exerting 
one’s  influence  ; of  exercising  one’s  limbs,  exercising 
one’s  understanding,  or  exercising  one’s  tongue ; ‘ How 
has  Milton  represented  the  whole  Godhead,  exerting 
itself  towards  man  in  its  full  benevolence,  under  the 
threefold  distinction  of  a Creator,  a Redeemer,  and 
Comforter.’— Addison.  ‘God  made  no  faculty,  but 
also  provided  it  with  a proper  object  upon  which  it 
might  exercise  itself.’ — South. 

Exert  conveys  simply  the  idea  of  calling  forth  into 
action  ; exercise  always  conveys  the  idea  of  repeated 
or  continued  exertion  coupled  with  that  of  the  purpose 
or  end  for  which  it  is  made:  thus  a person  who  calls 
to  another  exerts  his  voice  ; he  who  speaks  aloud  for 
any  length  of  time  exercises  his  lungs.  When  the 
will  has  exerted  an  act  of  command  upon  any  faculty 
of  the  soul,  or  a member  of  the  body,  it  has  done  all 
that  the  whole  man,  as  a moral  agent,  can  do  for  the 
actual  exercise  or  employment  of  such  a faculty  or 
member. 

TO  EXERCISE,  PRACTISE. 

Exercise  signifies  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  arti- 
cle ; practise,  from  the  Greek  irpdaaij}  to  do,  signifies 
to  perform  a part. 

These  terms  are  equally  applied  to  the  actions  and 
habits  of  men  ; but  we  exercise  in  that  where  the 
powers  are  called  forth ; we  practise  in  that  where 
frequency  and  habitude  of  action  is  requisite  : we  ex- 
ercise an  art ; we  practise  a profession  ; ‘ The  Roman 
tongue  was  the  study  of  their  youth ; it  was  their  own 
language  they  were  instructed  and  exercised  in.’ — 
Locke.  ‘A  woman  that  practis'd  physick  in  man’s 
clothes.’ — Tatler.  We  may  both  exercise  or  practise 
a virtue ; but  the  former  is  that  which  the  particular 
occurrence  calls  forth,  and  which  seems  to  demand  a 
peculiar  effort  of  the  mind ; the  latter  is  that  which  is 
done  daily  and  ordinarily:  thus  we  in  a peculiar  man- 
ner are  said  to  exercise  patience,  fortitude,  or  forbear- 
ance ; to  practise  charity,  kindness,  benevolence,  and 
the  like;  ‘Every  virtue  requires  time  and  place,  a 
proper  object,  and  a fit  corquncture  of  circumstances 
for  the  due  exercise  of  it.’— Addison.  ‘All  men  are 
not  equally  qualified  for  getting  money ; but  it  is  in  the 
power  of  every  one  alike  to  practise  this  virtue  (of 
thrift).’— Budgkll. 

A similar  distinction  characterizes  these  words  as 
nouns:  the  former  applying  solely  to  the  powers  of 
the  body  or  mind ; the  latter  solely  to  the  mechanical 
operations : the  health  of  the  body  and  the  vigour  of 
the  mind  are  alike  impaired  by  the  want  of  exercise; 
‘Reading  is  to  the  mind  what  exercise  is  to  the  body.’ 
— Addison.  In  every  art  practice  is  an  indispensable 
requisite  for  acquiring  perfection ; 

Long  practice  has  a sure  improvement  found. 

With  kindled  fires  to  burn  the  barren  ground. 

Dryden. 

The  exercise  of  the  memory  is  of  the  first  importance 


in  the  education  of  onildren ; constant  practiie  m 
writing  is  almost  the  only  means  by  which  the  art  of 
penmanship  is  acqu  red. 

CUSTOM,  FASHION,  MANNER,  PRACTICE. 

Customs,  fashions,  and  manners  are  all  employed 
for  communities  of  men : custom  {v.  Custom,  habit) 
respects  established  and  general  modet  cf  action ; 
fashion,  in  French  facon,  from  faxio  to  do  or  make, 
regards  partial  and  transitory  modes  of  makjng  or  do- 
ing things ; manner,  in  the  limited  sense  in  which  it  is 
here  taken,  signifies  the  manner  or  mode  of  men’s 
living  or  behaving  in  their  social  intercourse. 

Custom  is  authoritative;  it  stands  in  the  place  of 
law,  and  regulates  the  conduct  of  men  in  the  most  im 
portant  concerns  of  life : fashion  is  arbitrary  and  capri 
cious,  it  decides  in  matters  of  trifling  import : manners 
are  rational;  they  are  the  expressions  of  moral  feelings 
Customs  are  most  prevalent  in  a barbarous  state  of  so- 
ciety ; fashions  rule  most  where  luxury  has  made  the 
greatest  progress ; manners  are  most  distinguishable  in 
a civilized  state  of  society. 

Customs  are  in  their  nature  as  unchangeable  as 
/as/tio7is  are  variable ; manners  depend  on  cultivation 
and  collateral  circumstances : customs  die  away  or  are 
abolished;  fashions  pass  away,  and  new  ones  take 
their  place ; manners  are  altered  either  for  the  better  or 
the  worse:  endeavours  have  been  successfully  employ- 
ed in  several  parts  of  India  to  abolish  the  custom  of  in- 
fanticide, and  that  of  women  sacrificing  themselves  on 
the  funeral  piles  of  their  husbands;  ‘The  custom  of 
representing  the  grief  we  have  for  the  loss  of  the  dead 
by  our  habits,  certainly  had  its  rise  from  the  real  sorrow 
of  such  as  were  too  much  distressed  to  take  the  care 
they  ought  of  their  dress.’ — Steele.  The  votaries  of 
fashion  are  not  contented  with  giving  the  law  for  the 
cut  of  the  coat,  or  the  shape  of  the  bonnet,  but  they 
wish  to  intrude  upon  the  sphere  of  the  scholar  or 
the  artist,  by  prescribing  in  matters  of  literature  and 
taste ; 

Of  beasts,  it  is  confess’d,  the  ape 
Comes  nearest  us  in  human  shape : 

Like  man,  he  imitates  each  fashion. 

And  malice  is  his  ruling  passion. — Swift. 

The  influence  of  publick  opinion  on  the  manners  of  t 
people  has  never  been  so  strikingly  illustrated  as  in  tlt« 
instance  of  the  French  nation  during  and  since  the  Re- 
volution; 

Their  arms,  their  arts,  their  manners,  I disclose, 

And  how  they  war,  and  whence  the  people  rose. 

Dryden 

Practice,  in  Latin  practicus,  Greek  npaKTiKbs,  from 
TTpdaau)  to  do,  signifies  actual  doing  or  the  thing  done, 
that  is  by  distinction  the  regularly  doing,  or  the  thing 
regularly  done,  in  which  sense  it  is  most  analogous  to 
custom;  bnt  practice  simply  conveys  the  idea  of  actual 
performance;  ctistom  includes  also  the  accessory  idea 
of  repetition  at  stated  periods : a practice  must  be  de- 
fined as  frequent  or  unfrequent,  regular  or  irregular; 
but  a custom  does  not  require  to  be  qualified  by  any 
such  epithets : it  may  be  the  practice  of  a person  to  do 
acts  of  charity,  as  the  occasion  requires;  but  when  he 
uniformly  does  a particular  act  of  charity  at  any  given 
period  of  the  year,  it  is  properly  denominated  his  cus- 
tom ; ‘ Savage  was  so  touched  with  the  discovery  of  his 
real  mother,  that  it  was  his  frequent  practice  to  walk  in 
the  dark  evenings  for  several  hours  before  her  door, 
with  hopes  of  seeing  her  as  she  might  cross  her  apart 
ments  with  a candle  in  her  hand.’ — Johnson. 

Both  practice  and  custom  are  general  or  particular, 
but  the  former  is  absolute,  the  latter  relative;  the ;»?-ac- 
tice  may  be  adopted  by  a number  of  persons  without 
reference  to  each  other ; but  a custom  is  always  follow- 
ed either  by  imitation  or  prescription  ; the  practice  of 
gaming  has  always  been  followed  by  the  vicious  par* 
of  society ; but  it  is  to  be  hoped  for  the  honour  of  rear, 
that  it  will  never  become  a custom. 


CUSTOM,  HABIT. 

Custom  signifies  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  article, 
habit,  ir  Latin  habitudo,  from  habeo  to  have,  marks  tne 
state  of  having  or  holding. 

Custom  is  a frequent  repetition  of  the  same  act;  ‘ It 
is  the  cMsto/n  of  the  Mahometans,  if  they  see  any  printed 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


322 


»»r  written  paper  upon  the  ground,  to  take  it  up  and 
lay  it  aside  carefully,  as  not  knowing  but  it  may  con- 
tain some  piece  of  the  Alcoran.’ — Addison.  Habit 
.he  effect  of  such  repetition , ‘ If  a loose  and  careless 
life  has  brought  a man  into  habits  of  dissipation,  and 
/ed  him  to  neglect  those  religious  duties  which  he  owed 
to  his  Maker,  let  him  return  to  the  regular  worship  of 
God.’— Blair.  The  custom  of  rising  early  in  the 
mbrning  is  conducive  to  the  health,  and  may  in  a short 
time  become  such  a habit  as  to  render  it  no  less  agree- 
able than  it  is  useful. 

Custom  applies  to  men  collectively  or  individually; 
habit  applies  to  the  individual  only.  Every  nation  hais 
rM«towis  peculiar  to  itself;  ‘I  dare  not  shock  my  readers 
with  the  description  of  the  customs  and  maimers  of 
these  barbarians  (the  Hottentots).’ — Hughes.  Every 
individual  has  habits  peculiar  to  liis  age,  station,  and 
circumstances. 

Custom,  in  regard  to  individuals,  supposes  an  act  of 
the  will  ; habit  implies  an  involuntary  movement : a 
;ustom  is  followed  ; a habit  is  acquired : whoever  fol- 
lows the  custom  of  imitating  the  look,  tone,  or  gesture 
of  another,  is  liable  to  get  the  habit  of  doing  the  same 
himself ; as  habit  is  said  to  be  second  nature,  it  is  of 
importance  to  guard  against  all  customs  to  which  we 
do  not  wish  to  become  habituated : the  drunkard  is 
formed  by  the  custom  of  drinking  intemperately,  until 
he  becomes  habituated  to  the  use  of  spirituous  liquors : 
the  profane  swearer  who  accustoms  himself  in  early 
life  to  utter  the  oaths  which  he  hears,  will  find  it  diffi- 
cult in  advanced  years  to  break  himself  of  the  habit  of 
swearing ; the  love  of  imitation  is  so  powerful  iu  the 
numan  breast,  that  it  leads  the  major  part  of  mankind 
to  follow  custom  even  in  ridiculous  things ; Solomon 
refers  to  the  power  of  habit  when  he  says,  ‘ train  up  a 
ehild  in  the  way  in  which  he  should  go ; and  when  he 
ia  old  he  will  not  depart  from  it ;’  a power  which  cannot 
te  employed  too  early  in  the  aid  of  virtue  and  religion. 

* The  force  of  education  is  so  great,  that  we  may  mould 
the  minds  and  manners  of  the  young  into  what  shape 
we  please,  and  give  the  impressions  of  such  habits,  as 
shall  ever  afterward  remain.’ — Atterbury. 

Customary  and  habitual,  the  epithets  derived  from 
these  words,  admit  of  a similar  distinction;  the  cus- 
tomary action  is  that  which  is  repeated  after  the  man- 
ner of  a custom ; ‘ This  ewstomary  superiority  grew  too 
delicate  for  truth,  and  Swift,  witli  all  his  penetration, 
allowed  himself  to  be  delighted  with  low  flattery.’ — 
Johnson.  The  habitual  action  is  that  which  is  done 
by  the  force  of  habit ; ‘ We  have  all  reason  to  believe 
that,  amid  numberless  infirmities  which  attend  hu- 
manity, what  the  great  Judge  will  chiefly  regard  is 
the  habitual  prevailing  turn  of  our  heart  and  life.’— 
Blair. 


COMMON,  VULGAR,  ORDINARY,  MEAN, 
Common,  in  French  commun,  Latin  communis,  from 
con  and  munus  the  joint  office  or  property  of  many,  has 
regard  to  the  multitude  of  objects ; vulgar,  in  French 
vulgaire,  Latin  vulgaris,  from  vulgus  the  people,  has 
regard  to  the  number  and  quality  of  the  persons ; ordi- 
nary, in  French  ordinaire,  Latin  ordinarius,  from  ordo 
the  order  or  regular  practice,  has  regard  to  the  repeti- 
tion or  disposition  of  things;  mean  expresses  the  same 
as  medium  or  moderate,  from  which  it  is  derived. 

Familiar  use  renders  things  common,  vulgar,  and 
ordinary;  but  what  is  mean  is  so  of  itself;  the  com- 
mon, vulgar,  and  ordinary  are  therefore  frequently, 
though  not  always,  mean  ; and  on  the  contrary,  what 
is  mean  is  not  always  common,  vulgar,  or  ordinary ; 
consequently,  in  the  primitive  sense  of  these  words,  the 
first  three  are  not  strictly  synonymous  with  the  last ; 
monsters  are  common  in  Africa ; vulgar  reports  are 
nttle  to  be  relied  on  ; it  is  an  ordinary  practice  for  men 
to  make  light  of  their  word. 

Commun  is  unlimited  in  its  application ; it  includes 
b'Dth  vulgar  and  ordinary ; the  latter  are  said  in  refer- 
ence to  persons  only,  common  with  regard  to  persons  or 
things:  an  opinion  is  either  common  or  vulgar;  an 
employment  is  either  common  or  ordinary : it  was  long 
a vulgarly  received  notion,  that  the  sun  turned  round 
the  earth  ; it  is  the  ordinary  pursuit  of  astronomers  to 
observe  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies ; disputes 
on  religion  have  rendered  many  facts  vulgar  or  com- 
non,  wmen  were  formerly  known  only  to  the  learned ; 
on  that  account  it  is  now  become  an  ordinary  or  a 

21* 


common  practice  for  men  to  dispute  about  religion 
and  even  to  frame  a new  set  of  doctrines  for  them 
selves. 

In  the  figurative  sense,  in  which  they  convey  the  idea 
of  low  value,  they  are  synonymous  with  mean  ; wha* 
is  to  be  seen,  heard,  or  enjoyed  by  every  body  is  com 
mon,  and  naturally  of  little  value,  since  the  worth  of 
objects  frequently  depends  upon  their  scarcity  and  the 
difficulty  of  obtaining  them  : ‘ Men  may  change  their 
climate,  but  they  cannot  their  nature.  A man  that 
goes  out  a fool  cannot  rjde  or  sail  himself  into  common 
sense.’ — Addison.  What  is  peculiar  to  common  people 
is  vulgar,  and  consequently  worse  than  common  ; it  is 
supposed  to  belong  to  those  who  are  ignorant  and  de 
praved  in  taste  as  well  as  in  morals;  ‘The  poet’s 
thought  of  directing  Satan  to  the  sun,  which  in  the 
opinion  of  mankind,  is  the  most  conspicuous 
part  of  the  creation,  and  the  placing  in  it  an  angel,  is  a 
circumstance  very  finely  contrived.’ — Addison.  What 
is  done  and  seen  ordinarily  may  be  done  and  seen 
easily  ; it  requires  no  abilities  or  mental  acquirements* 
it  has  nothing  striking  in  it,  it  excites  no  interest;  ‘A 
very  ordinary  telescope  shows  us  that  a louse  is  itself 
a very  lousy  creature.’ — Addison.  What  is  mean  is 
even  below  that  which  is  ordinary;  there  is  someth^ig 
defective  in  it; 

Under  his  forming  hands  a creature  grew, 

Manlike,  but  diff’renlscx,  so  lovely  fair. 

That  what  seem’d  fair  in  all  the  world  seem’d  now 
Mean,  or  in  her  summ’d  up. — Milton. 

Common  is  opposed  to  rare  and  refined ; vulgar  to 
polite  and  cultivated ; ordinary  to  the  distinguished ; 
mean  to  the  noble : a common  mind  busies  itself  with 
common  objects;  vulgar  habits  are  easily  contracted 
from  a slight  intercourse  with  vulgar  people  ; an  ordi 
nary  person  is  seldom  associated  with  elevation  of 
character  ; and  a mean  appearance  is  a certain  mark 
of  a degraded  condition,  if  not  of  a degraded  mind 


COMMONLY,  GENERALLY,  FREQUENTLY, 
USUALLY. 

Commonly,  in  the  form  of  common  (v.  Common-) , 
generally,  ixom  general,  and  the  Latin  the  kind, 

respects  a whole  body  in  distinction  from  an  individual ; 
frequently,  from  frequent,  in  French  frequent,  Latin 
frequens,  fiom  the  old  Latin  frago,  in  Greek  <ppdY'* 
and  (Ppayuvixi  to  go  or  turn  about,  signifies  properly  a 
crowding ; usually,  from  usual  and  use,  signifies  ac 
cording  to  use  or  custom. 

What  is  commonly  done  is  an  action  common  to  all ; 
‘ It  is  commonly  observed  among  soldiers  and  seamen 
that  though  there  is  much  kindness,  there  is  little  grief.* 
— Johnson.  What  is  generally  done  is  the  action  of 
the  greatest  part:  ‘It  is  generally  not  so  much  the 
desire  of  men,  sunk  into  depravity,  to  deceive  the 
world,  as  themselves.’ — Johnson.  What  is  frequently 
done  is  either  the  action  of  many,  or  an  action  many 
times  repeated  by  the  same  person ; ‘ It  is  too  frequently 
the  pride  of  students  to  despise  those  amusements  and 
recreations  which  give  to  the  rest  of  mankind  strength 
of  limbs  and  cheerfulness  of  heart.’ — Johnson.  What 
is  usually  done  is  done  regularly  by  one  or  many  ; 
‘The  inefficacy  of  advice  is  usually  the  fault  of  the 
counsellor.’ — Johnson. 

Commonly  is  opposed  to  rarely,  generally  and  fre- 
quently to  occasionally  or  seldom  ; usually  to  casually ; 
men  commonly  judge  of  others  by  themselves ; those 
who  judge  by  the  mere  exteriour  are  generally  deceiv- 
ed ; but  notwithstanding  every  precaution,  one  is  fre- 
quently exposed  to  gross  frauds ; a man  of  business 
usually  repairs  to  his  counting-  house  every  day  at 
certain  hour. 


GENERAL,  UNIVERSAL. 

The  general  is  to  the  universal  what  the  part  is  tc 
the  whole.  What  \s  general  includes  the  greater  part 
or  number;  what  is  universal  includes  every  indivi 
dual  or  part.  The  general  rule  admits  of  many  ex 
ceptions;  the  wmaersaZ  rule  admits  of  none.  Human 
government  has  the  general  good  for  its  object : the 
government  of  Providence  is  directed  to  universal 
good.  General  is  opposed  to  particular,  and  univer- 
sal to  individual.  A scientifick  writer  will  not  content 
himself  with  remarks,  when  he  has  it  in  liif* 


324 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


power  to  enter  into  particulars ; the  universal  com- 
plaint which  we  hear  against  men  for  their  pride,  shows 
that  in  every  individual  it  exists  to  a greater  or  less  de- 
gree. It  is  a general  opinion  that  women  are  not  qua- 
lified for  scientifick  pursuits;  but  Madame  Dacier, 
Mrs.  Carter,  and  many  female  writers,  form  exceptions, 
no  less  honourable  to  their  whole  sex,  than  to  them- 
selves in  particular : it  is  a universal  principle,  that 
children  ought  to  honour  their  parents ; the  intention 
of  the  Creator  in  this  respect  is  manifested  in  such  a 
variety  of  forms  as  to  admit  of  no  question.  General 
philosophy  considers  the  properties  common  to  all 
bodies,  and  regards  the  distinct  properties  of  particular 
bodies,  only  inasmuch  as  they  confirm  abstract  ge- 
neral views.  Universal  philosophy  depends  on  uni- 
versal science  or  knowledge,  which  belongs  only  to  the 
infinite  mind  of  the  Creator.  General  grammar  em- 
braces in  it  all  principles  that  are  supposed  to  be  ap- 
plicable to  all  languages : universal  grammar  is  a thing 
scarcely  attainable  by  the  stretch  of  human  power. 
What  man  can  become  so  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
all  existing  languages,  as  to  reduce  all  their  particular 
idioms  to  any  system  ? 

USAGE,  CUSTOM,  PRESCRIPTION. 

The  usage  is  what  one  has  been  long  used  to  do; 
custom  {v.  Custom)  is  what  one  generally  does;  pre- 
scription is  what  one  is  prescribed  to  do.  The  usage 
acquires  force  and  sanction  by  dint  of  time;  ‘With 
the  national  assembly  of  France,  possession  is  nothing, 
law  and  usage  are  nothing.’ — Burke.  The  custom 
acquires  sanction  by  the  frequency  of  its  being  done  or 
the  numbers  doing  it ; 

For  since  the  time  of  Saturn’s  holy  reign, 

His  hospitable  customs  we  retain. — Drvden. 

The  prescription  acquires  force  by  the  authority  which 
p'^escribes  it,  namely,  the  universal  consent  of  man- 
kind ; ‘ If  in  any  case  the  shackles  of  prescription 
could  be  wholly  shaken  off,  on  what  occasion  should 
it  be  expected  but  in  the  selection  of  lawful  pleasure  V 
— Johnson.  Hence  it  arises  that  customs  vary  in 
every  age,  but  that  usage  and  prescription  supply  the 
place  of  written  law. 

POSSIBLE,  PRACTICABLE,  PRACTICAL. 

Possible,  frow  the  Latin  possiim  to  be  able,  signifies 
properly  to  be  able  to  be  done : 2}facticable,  from  prac- 
tice {v.  To  exercise)  signifies  to  be  able  to  be  put  in 
practice : hence  the  difference  between  possible  and 
fracticable\s  the  same  as  between  doing  once,  or  doing 
as  a rule.  There  are  many  things  possible  which  can- 
not be  called  practicable,  but  what  is  practicable  must 
in  its  nature  be  possible.  The  possible  depends  solely 
on  the  power  of  the  agent ; ‘ How  can  we,  without 
supposing  ourselves  under  the  constant  care  of  a Su- 
preme Being,  give  any  possible  account  for  that  nice 
proportion  which  we  find  in  every  great  city  between 
the  deaths  and  births  of  its  inhabitants?’ — Addison. 
The  practicable  depends  on  circumstances;  ‘He  who 
would  aim  at  practicable  things  should  turn  upon 
allaying  our  pain,  rather  than  promoting  our  sorrow.’ — 
Steele.  A child  cannot  say  how  much  it  is  possible 
for  him  to  learn  until  he  has  tried.  Schemes  have 
sometimes  every  thing  to  recommend  them  to  notice, 
but  that  which  is  of  the  first  importance,  namely,  their 
practicability. 

The  practicable  is  that  which  may  or  can  be  prac- 
tised : the  practical  is  that  which  is  to  be  practised . 
the  former  therefore  applies  to  that  which  men  devise 
to  carry  into  practice ; the  latter  to  that  which  they 
have  to  practise : projectors  ought  to  consider  what  is 
practicable ; divines  and  moralists  have  to  consider 
what  is  practical  The  practicah  e is  opposed  to  the 
impracticable;  the  practical  Xo  the  theoretic  orspecu-. 
lative ; ‘ Practical  cunning  shows  itself  in  political 
matters.’  -South. 


MAY,  CAN 

May  is  in  German  m6gen  to  wish,  Greek  yaiu}  to 
desire,  from  the  connexion  betw'^  *.n  wishing  and  com- 
plying with  a wish;  can  der</RS  possibility,  may 
liberty  and  probability:  he  wbi,*  Tas  sound  limbs  can 
walk ; but  he  may  not  walk  iu  ices  which  are  p~o- 
hibited ; , 


For  who  can  match  Achilles  1 he  who  can 

Must  yet  be  more  than  hero,  more  than  man. 

Pop*. 

Thou  canst  not  call  him  from  the  Stygian  shore, 

But  thou,  alr«e ! mayst  live  to  suffer  more.— Pope. 

AIM,  OBJECT,  END. 

Aim  is  in  all  probability  a variation  of  Aome,  hi  ill* 
Germain  haim.  It  is  the  home  which  the  marksman 
wishes  to  reach ; it  is  the  thing  aimed  at ; the  partL 
cular  point  to  which  one’s  efforts  are  directed  ; which 
is  had  alwa}'s  in  view,  and  to  the  attainment  of  which 
every  thing  is  made  to  bend ; object,  from  the  Latin 
objectus,  participle  of  ob  and  jacio  to  lie  in  the  way,  is 
more  vague  ; it  signifies  the  thing  that  lies  before  us; 
we  pursue  it  by  taking  the  necessary  means  to  obtain 
it;  it  becomes  the  fruit  of  our  labour;  end  in  the  im- 
proper sense  of  end  is  still  more  general,  signifying  the 
thing  that  ends  one’s  wishes  and  endeavours  ; it  is  the 
result  not  only  of  action,  but  of  combined  action;  it  is 
the  consummation  of  a scheme;  we  must  take  the 
proper  measures  to  arrive  at  it. 

■ It  is  the  aim  of  every  good  Christian  to  live  in 
peace ; ‘ Cunning  has  only  private,  selfish  aims,  and 
sticks  at  nothing  which  may  make  them  succeed.’ — 
Addison.  It  is  a mark  of  dulness  or  folly  to  act  with- 
out an  oAjecf;  ‘We  should  sufficiently  weigh  the  ob 
jects  of  our  hope,  whether  they  be  such  as  lye  may 
reasonably  expect  from  them  what  we  propose  in  their 
fruition.’— Addison.  Every  scheme  is  likely  to  fail,  in 
which  the  means  are  not  adequate  to  the  end ; ‘ Liberty 
and  truth  are  not  in  themselves  desirable,  but  only  as 
they  relate  to  a farther  end.' — Berkeley. 

We  have  an  aim;  we  propose  to  ourselves  an  oA 
ject ; we  look  to  the  end.  An  aim  is  attainable,  an 
object  worthy,  an  end  important. 


TO  AIM,  POINT,  LEVEL. 

Aim,  signifying  to  take  aim  {p.  Aim),  is  to  direci 
one’s  view  towards  a point ; point,  from  the  noun 
point,  signifies  to  direct  the  point  to  any  thing  ; level, 
from  the  adjective  level,  signifies  to  put  one  thing  on  » 
level  with  another. 

Aim  expresses  more  than  the  other  two  words,  inas 
much  as  it  denotes  a direction  towards  some  minuit 
point  in  an  object,  and  the  others  imply  direction  to- 
wards the  whole  objects  themselves.  We  aim  at  a 
bird ; we  point  a cannon  against  a wall ; we  level  a 
cannon  at  a wall.  Pointing  is  of  course  used  with 
most  propriety  in  reference  to  instruments  that  have 
points ; it  is  likewise  a less  decisive  action  than  either 
aiming  or  levelling.  A stick  or  a finger  may  be  pointed 
at  a person,  merely  out  of  derision ; but  a blow  is 
levelled  or  aimed  with  an  express  intent  of  committing 
an  act  of  violence ; 

Their  heads  from  aiming  blows  they  bear  afar. 

With  clashing  gauntlets  then  provoke  the  war. 

Dryden 

He  calls  on  Bacchus,  and  propounds  the  prize; 

The  groom  his  fellow-groom  atbuts  defies. 

And  bends  his  bow,  and  levels  with  his  eyes. 

Dryden. 

The  same  analogy  is  kept  up  in  their  figurative  ap- 
plication. 

The  shafts  of  ridicule  are  but  too  often  aimed  with 
little  effect  against  the  follies  of  fashion;  ‘Anothei 
kind  there  is,  which  although  w'e  desire  for  itself,  as 
health  and  virtue,  and  knowledge,  nevertheless  they 
are  not  the  last  mark  whereat  we  aim,  but  have  theii 
further  end  whereunto  they  are  referred.’ — Hooker 
Remarks  which  seem  merely  to  at  others,  with 
out  being  expressly  addressed  to  them,  have  always  a 
bad  tendency ; 

The  story  slily  points  at  you.— Cumberland. 

It  has  hitherto  been  the  fate  of  infidels  to  level  their 
battery  of  sneers,  declamation,  and  sophistry  against 
the  Christian  religion  jnly  to  strengthen  the  convic- 
tion of  its  sublime  truUis  in  the  minds  of  mankind  at 
large  ; ‘ In  contemplation  of  which  verity,  St.  Gregory 
Nazianzen,  observing  the  declension  from  it,  introduced 
in  his  times  by  the  ambition  of  some  prelates,  did  ven« 
that  famous  exclamation,  “ O that  there  were  not  at 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  32b 


all  any  presidency,  or  any  preference  in  place  and 
ty^'annioal  enjoyment  of  prerogatives!”  which  earnest 
wLsh  he  surely  did  not  mean  to  level  against  the  ordi- 
nance of  God,  but  against  that  which  lately  began  to 
be  intruded  by  men.’— Barrow. 


TO  AIM,  ASPIRE. 

Aim  (V.  Aim)  includes  efforts  as  well  as  views,  in 
obtaining  an  object;  aspire^  from  as  or  ad  to  or  after 
and  spiro  to  breathe,  comprehends  views,  wishes,  and 
hopes  to  obtain  an  object. 

We  aim  at  a certain  proposed  point,  by  endeavouring 
iO  gain  it;  ‘Whether  zeal  ar  moderation  be  the  point 
we  aim  at,  let  us  keep  fire  out  of  the  one,  and  frost  out 
of  the  other.’ — Addison.  We  as;>rVe  after  that  which 
we  think  ourselves  entitled  to,  and  flatter  ourselves 
with  gaining ; ‘The  study  of  those  who  in  the  time  of 
Shakspeare  aspired  to  plebeian  learning  was  laid  upon 
adventures,  giants,  dragons,  and  enchantments.’ — 
Johnson. 

Many  men  aim  at  riches  and  honour ; 

Lo,  here  the  world  is  bliss ; so  here  the  end 
To  which  all  men  do  aim,  rich  to  be  made. 

Such  grace  now  to  be  happy  is  before  thee  laid. 

Spenser. 

It  is  the  lot  of  but  few  to  aspire  lo  a throne; 
aspiring  to  be  gods,  if  angels  fell. 

Aspiring  to  be  angels,  men  rebel. — Pope. 

We  aim  at  what  is  attainable  by  ordinary  efforts; 
we  aspire  after  what  is  great  and  unusual.  An  emu- 
lous youth  aims  at  acquiring  the  esteem  of  his  teach- 
e's;  he  aspires  to  excel  all  his  competitors  in  literary 
attainments. 

TENDENCY,  DRIFT,  SCOPE,  AIM. 

Tendency,  from  to  tend,  denotes  the  property  of  tend- 
big  towards  a certain  point,  which  is  the  characteristick 
of  all  these  words,  but  this  is  applied  only  to  things ; 
and  drift,  from  the  verb  to  drive;  scope,  from  the 
Greek  oKi-xropai  to  look ; and  aim,  from  the  verb  to 
dm  (v.  Aim) ; all  characterize  the  tlioughts  of  a per- 
son looking  forward  into  futurity,  and  directing  his 
actions  lo  a certain  point.  Hence  we  speak  of  the 
tendency  of  certain  principles  or  practices  as  being  per- 
nicious ; the  drift  of  a person’s  discourse  ; the  scope 
which  he  gives  himself  either  in  treating  of  a subject, 
or  in  laying  down  a plan  ; or  a person’s  aim  to  excel, 
or  aim  to  supplant  another,  and  the  like.  The  tendency 
of  most  writings  for  the  last-five-and  twenty  years  has 
been  to  unhinge  the  minds  of  men ; ‘ It  is  no  wonder  if 
a great  deal  of  knowledge,  which  is  not  capable  of 
making  a man  wise,  has  a natural  tendency  to  make 
him  vain  and  arrogant.’ — Addison.  Where  a person 
wants  the  services  of  another,  whom  he  dares  not 
openly  solicit,  he  will  discover  his  wishes  by  the  drift 
of  his  discourse ; 

This  said,  the  w’hole  audience  soon  found  out  his  drift. 
The  convention  was  summoned  in  favour  of  Swift. 

Swift. 

A man  of  a comprehensive  mind  will  allow  himself  full 
scope  in  digesting  his  plans  for  every  alteration  whicli 
circumstances  may  require  when  they  come  to  be  de- 
veloped ; ‘ Merit  in  every  rank  has  the  freest  scope  (in 
Englandl.’— Blair.  Our  desires  will  naturally  give  a 
cast  to  all  our  aims ; and  so  long  as  they  are  but  in- 
nocent, they  are  necessary  to  give  a proper  stimulus  to 
exertion ; 

Each  nobler  aim,  repress’d  by  long  control. 

Now  sinks  at  last  or  feebly  mans  the  soul. 

Goldsmith. 


OBJECT,  SUBJECT. 

Object,  in  Latin  ohjectus,  participle  of  objicio  to  lie 
in  the  way,  signifies  the  thing  that  liek  in  one’s  way  ; 
subject,  in  Latin  subjectus,  participle  of  subjicio  to  lie 
inder,  signifies  the  thing  forming  the  groundwork. 

The  object  puts  itself  forward  ; the  subject  is  in  the 
iack-ground  : we  notice  the  object ; we  observe  or  re- 
flect on  the  subject : objects  are  sensiWe  ; the  subject 
is  altogether  intellectual ; the  eye,  the  ear,  and  all  the 
senses,  are  occupied  with  the  surrounding  objects: 
\iie  memory,  the  judgement,  and  the  imagination  are 


supplied  with  subjects  suitable  t«  the  nature  of  thfl 
operations. 

When  object  is  taken  for  that  which  is  intellectual 
it  retains  a similar  signification ; it  is  the  thing  tha 
presents  itself  to  the  mind ; it  is  seen  by  the  mind’s 
eye^  the  sMftject,  on  the  contrary,  is  that  which  mu.st 
be  sought  for,  and  when  found  it  engages  the  mental 
powers : hence  we  say  an  object  of  consideration,  an 
object  of  delight,  an  object  of  concern  ; a subject  of 
reflection,  a subject  of  mature  deliberation,  the  subject 
of  a poem,  the  subject  of  grief,  of  lamentation,  and 
the  like.  When  the  mind  becomes  distracted  by  too 
great  a multiplicity  of  objects,  it  can  fix  itself  on  no 
one  individual  object  with  sufficient  steadiness  to  take 
a survey  of  it ; in  like  manner,  if  a child  have  too  many 
objects  set  before  it,  for  the  exercise  of  its  powers,  it 
will  acquire  a familiarity  with  none ; 

He  whose  sublime  pursuit  is  God  and  truth. 

Burns  like  some  absent  and  impatient  youth. 

To  join  the  object  of  his  warm  desires.— Jenyns. 
Religion  and  politicks  are  interesting,  but  delicate  sub- 
jects of  discussion ; ‘ The  hymns  and  odes  (of  the  in- 
spired writers)  excel  those  delivered  down  to  us  by  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  in  the  poetry  as  much  as  in  the 
subject.'— Aomsoii. 

MATTER,  MATERIALS,  SUBJECT. 

Matter  and  materials  are  both  derived  from  the  same 
source,  namely,  the  Latin  materia,  which  comes  in  all 
probability  from  mater,  because  matter,  from  which 
every  thing  is  made,  acts  in  the  production  of  bodies 
like  a mother ; subject,  in  Latin  subjcctum,  participle 
of  subjicio  to  lie,  signifies  the  thing  lying  under  and 
forming  the  foundation. 

Matter  in  the  physical  application  is  taken  for  all 
that  composes  the  sensible  world  in  distinction  from 
that  which  is  spiritual,  or  discernible  only  by  the  think- 
ing faculty;  hence  matter  is  always  opposed  to  mind. 

In  regard  to  materials  it  is  taken  in  an  indivisible 
as  well  as  a general  sense  ; the  whole  universe  is  said 
to  be  composed  of  matter,  though  not  of  materials; 
‘ It  seems  probable  to  me,  that  God  in  the  beginning 
formed  matter  in  solid,  hard,  impenetrable,  moveable 
particles.’ — Newton.  On  the  other  hand,  materials 
consist  of  those  particular  parts  of  matter  which  serve 
for  the  artificial  production  of  objects ; ‘ The  materials 
of  that  building  very  fortunately  ranged  themselves 
into  that  delicate  order  that  it  must  be  very  great 
chance  that  parts  them.’- Tillotson.  Matter  is  said 
of  those  things  which  are  the  natural  parts  of  the  uni- 
verse ; a house,  a table,  and  a chair  consist  of  mate- 
rials, because  they  are  works  of  art;  but  a plant,  a 
tree,  an  animal  body,  consist  of  matter,  because  they 
are  the  productions  of  nature. 

The  distinction  of  these  terms  in  their  moral  appli- 
cation is  very  similar  : the  matter  w'hich  composes  a 
moral  discourse  is  what  emanates  from  the  author. 
The  materials  are  those  with  which  one  is  furnished 
by  others.  The  style  of  some  writers  is  so  indifferent 
that  they  disgrace  the  matter  by  the  manner ; 

Son  of  God,  Saviour  of  men  ! thy  name 

Shall  be  the  copious  matter  of  my  song. — Milton. 
Periodical  writers  are  furnished  with  materials  foi 
their  productions  out  of  the  daily  occurrences  in  the 
political  and  moral  world  ; ‘ Simple  ideas,  the  mate- 
rials of  all  our  knowledge,  are  suggested  to  the  mind 
only  by  sensation  and  reflection.’ — Locke.  ‘ The  prin- 
cipal materials  of  our  comfort  or  uneasiness  lie  within 
ourselves.’— Blair.  Writers  of  dictionaries  endea 
vour  to  compress  as  much  matter  as  possible  into  a 
small  space ; they  draw  their  materials  from  other 
writers. 

Matter  seems  to  bear  the  same  relation  to  subject 
as  the  whole  does  to  any  particular  part,  as  it  respects 
moral  objects;  the  subject  is  the  groimdwjik  of  the 
matter;  the  matter  is  that  which  flows  out  of  the 
subject : the  matter  is  that  which  we  get  by  tlie  force 
of  invention  ; the  subject  is  that  which  offers  itself  to 
notice ; many  persons  may  therefore  have  a subject 
who  have  no  matter,  that  is,  notliinc  in  their  own 
minds  which  they  can  offer  by  way  of  illustrating  this 
subject;  but  it  is  not  possible  to  have  matter  withom 
a subject : hence  the  word  matter  is  taken  for  the  sub- 
stance, and  for  that  which  is  substantial  ; the  subject 
is  taken  for  that  which  engages  the  attention  ; we 


S26 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


speak  of  a subjict  of  conversation  and  matter  for  de- 
liberation ; a subject  of  inquiry,  a matter  of  curiosity. 
Nations  in  a barbarous  state  afford  but  little  matter 
worthy  to  be  recorded  in  history ; 

Whence  tumbled  headlong  from  the  height  of  life, 

They  furnish  matter  for  the  tragick  muse.  r 
Thomson. 

People  who  live  a secluded  life  and  in  a contracted 
sphere  have  but  few  subjects  to  occupy  their  attention ; 
Love  hath  such  a strong,  virtual  force  that  when  it 
"astcneth  on  a pleasing  subject  it  sets  the  imagination 
tt  a strange  fit  of  working.’ — Howel. 

TO  ALLUDE,  REFER,  HINT,  SUGGEST. 

Allude^  in  Latin  alludo,  is  compounded  of  al  or  ad 
and  ludo  to  sport,  that  is,  to  say  any  thing  in  a sportive 
or  cursory  manner ; refer,  in  Latin  refero,  signifies  to 
bring  back,  that  is,  to  bring  back  a person’s  recollec- 
tion to  any  subject  by  an  indirect  mention  of  it ; hint 
may  very  probably  be  changed  from  hind  or  behind,  in 
German  hinten,  signifying  to  convey  from  behind,  or 
in  an  obscure  manner ; suggest,  in  Latin  suggestus, 
participle  of  suggero,  is  compounded  of  sub  and  gero 
to  bring  under  or  near,  and  signifies  to  bring  forward 
in  an  indirect  or  casual  manner. 

To  allude  is  not  so  direct  as  to  refer,  but  it  is  more 
clear  and  positive  than  either  hint  or  suggest. 

We  allude  to  a circumstance  by  introducing  some- 
thing collaterally  allied  to  it ; we  refer  to  an  event  by 
expressly  introducing  it  into  one’s  discourse  ; we  hint 
at  a person’s  intentions  by  darkly  insinuating  what 
may  possibly  happen ; we  suggest  an  idea  by  some 
poetical  expressions  relative  to  it. 

There  are  frequent  allusions  in  the  Bible  to  the 
customs  and  manners  of  the  East ; ‘ I need  not  inform 
my  reader  that  the  author  of  Hudibras  alludes  to  this 
strange  quality  in  that  cold  climate,  when,  speaking  of 
abstracted  notions  clothed  in  a visible  shape,  he  adds 
that  apt  simile,  “ Like  words  congeal’d  in  northern 
air.”  ’ — Addison.  It  is  necessary  to  refer  to  certain 
passages  of  a work  when  we  do  not  expressly  copy 
them  ; ‘ Those  causes  the  divine  historian  refers  us  to, 
and  not  to  any  productions  out  of  nothing.’ — Burnet. 
It  is  mostly  better  in  conversation  to  be  entirely  silent 
upon  a subject,  than  to  hint  at  what  cannot  be  entirely 
explained ; ‘ It  is  hinted  that  Augustus  had  in  mind 
to  restore  the  commonwealth.’ — Cumberland.  Many 
improvements  have  owed  their  origin  to  some  ideas 
casually  in  ihe  course  of  conversation;  ‘This 

image  of  misery,  in  the  punishment  of  Tantalus,  was 
perhaps  originally  suggested  to  some  poet  by  the  con- 
duct of  his  patron.’— Johnson. 

Allude  and  refer  are  always  said  witli  regard  to 
things  that  have  positively  happened,  and  mostly  such 
as  are  indifferent;  hint  and  suggest  have  mostly  a 
personal  relation  to  things  that  are  precarious.  'Fhe 
whole  drift  of  a discourse  is  sometimes  unintelligible 
for  want  of  knowing  what  is  alluded  to  ; although 
many  persons  and  incidents  are  referred  to  with  their 
proper  names  and  dates.  It  is  the  part  of  the  slan- 
derer to  hint  at  things  discreditable  to  another,  when 
he  does  not  dare  to  speak  openly ; and  to  suggest  doubts 
of  his  veracity  which  he  cannot  positively  charge. 


TO  HINT,  SUGGEST,  INTIMATE,  INSINUATE. 

Hint,v.  To  allude;  suggest,  v.  To  allude;  to  inti- 
mate is  to  make  one  intimate,  or  specially  acquainted 
with,  to  communicate  one’s  most  inward  thoughts ; 
insinuate,  from  the  Latin  sinus  the  bosom,  is  to  intro- 
duce geitlly  into  the  mind  of  another. 

All  these  terms  denote  indirect  expressions  of  what 
passes  in  one’s  own  mind.  We  hint  at  a thing  from 
fear  and  uncertainty ; we  suggest  a thing  from  pru- 
dence and  modesty  ; we  intimate  a thing  from  inde- 
cision ; a thing  is  insinuated  from  artifice.  A person 
who  wants  to  get  at  the  certain  knowledge  of  any  cir- 
cumstance hints  at  it  frequently  in  the  presence  of 
those  who  can  give  him  the  information  ; a man  who 
will  not  offend  others  by  an  assumption  of  superiour 
wisdom,  suggests  his  ideas  on  a subject  instead  of 
setting  them  forth  with  confidence ; when  a person’s 
mind  is  not  made  up  on  any  future  action,  he  only  in- 
timates what  may  be  done ; he  who  has  any  thing 
offensive  to  communicate  to  another,  will  choose  to 


insinuate  it,  rather  than  d'sclare  it  in  express  ten? 
Hints  are  thrown  out ; they  arc  frequently  characlb< 
ized  as  broken ; 

Willing  to  wound,  and  yet  afraid  to  strike, 

Just  hint  a fault,  and  hesitate  dislike.— Pope 
Suggestions  are  offered ; they  are  frequently  termed 
idle  or  ill-grounded ; 

We  must  suggest  to  the  people,  in  what  hatred 

He  still  hath  held  them. — Shakspeark 
Intimations  are  given,  and  are  either  slight  or  broad ; 

’T  is  Heav’n  itself  that  points  out  ?.n  hereafter, 

And  intimates  eternity  to  man. — Addison. 
Insinuations  are  thrown  out ; they  are  commonly  de- 
signated as  slanderous,  malignant,  and  the  like ; ‘ Let 
it  not  be  thought  that  what  is  here  said  insinuates  any 
thing  to  the  discredit  of  Greok  and  Latin  criticism.’— 
Warburton. 

To  hint  is  taken  either  in  a bad  or  an  indifferent 
sense  ; it  is  commonly  reaorted  to  by  tale-bearers,  mis- 
chief-makers, and  all  who  want  to  talk  of  more  than 
they  know:  it  is  raiely  necessary  to  have  recourse  to 
hints  in  lieu  of  pf-^i'ive  inquiries  and  declarations,  un- 
less the  term  ba  used  in  regard  to  matters  of  science 
or  morals,  whpn  it  designates  loose  thoughts,  casually 
ofi’ered,  in  dis’inction  from  those  which  are  systema- 
tized and  formally  presented  : upon  this  ground,  a dis- 
tinguished female  writer  of  the  present  day  modestly 
entitles  her  book,  '•Hints  towards  forming  the  Cha- 
racter of  a Young  Princess.’  To  suggest  is  oftener 
used  in  the  good  than  the  bad  sense : while  one  sug- 
gests doubts,  queries,  difficulties,  or  improvements  in 
matters  of  opinion,  it  is  truly  laudable,  particularly  for 
young  persons ; but  to  suggest  any  thing  to  the  dis- 
advantage of  another  is  even  worse  than  to  speak  ill 
of  him  openly,  for  it  bespeaks  cowardice  as  well  as  ill- 
nature.  To  intimate  is  taken  either  in  a good  or  an 
indifferent  sense;  it  commonly  passes  between  rela 
lives  or  persons  closely  connected,  in  the  communica 
tion  of  their  half-formed  intentions  or  of  doubtful  in 
telligence;  but  to  ins/naafe  is  always  taken  in  a bad 
sense ; it  is  the  resource  of  an  artful  and  malignant 
enemy  to  wound  the  reputation  of  another,  whom  he 
does  not  dare  openly  to  accuse.  A persori  is  said  to 
take  a hint,  to  follow  a suggestion,  to  receive  an  inti- 
mation, to  disregard  an  insinuation. 

TO  REFER,  RELATE,  RESPECT,  REGARD. 

Refer,  from  the  Latin  re  and  fero,  signifies  literally 
to  bring  back ; and  relate,  from  the  participle  relatus 
of  the  same  verb,  signifies  brought  back : the  former 
is,  therefore,  transitive,  and  the  latter  intransitive. 
One  refers  a person  to  a thing;  one  thing  refers,  that 
is,  refers  a person,  to  another  thing : one  thing  relates, 
that  is,  related,  to  another.  To  refer  is  an  arbitrary 
act,  it  depends  upon  the  will  of  an  individual ; we  may 
refer  a person  to  any  part  of  a volume,  or  to  any  work 
we  please : to  relate  is  a conditional  act,  it  depends  on 
the  nature  of  things;  nothing  relates  to  another  with- 
out some  point  of  accordance  between  the  two ; or- 
thography relates  to  grammar,  that  is,  by  being  a part 
of  the  grammatical  science.  Hence  it  arises  that  refer, 
when  employed  for  things,  is  commonly  said  of  cir 
cumstances  that  carry  the  memory  to  events  or  cir- 
cumstances ; relate  is  said  of  things  that  have  a na- 
tural connexion : the  religious  festivals  and  ceremoniee 
of  the  Roman  Catholicks  have  all  a reference  to  some 
events  that  happened  in  the  early  periods  of  Chris- 
tianity; ‘Our  Saviour’s  words  (in  his  sermon  on  the 
mount)  all  refer  to  the  Pharisees’  way  of  speaking.’— 
South.  The  notes  and  observations  at  the  end  of  a 
book  relate  to  what  has  been  inserted  in  the  text; 
‘ Homer  artfully  interweaves,  in  the  several  succeeding 
parts  of  his  poem,  an  account  of  every  thing  material 
which  relates  to  his  princes.’ — Addison. 

Refer  and  relate  carry  us  back  to  that  which  may 
be  very  distant ; but  respect  and  regard  turn  our  views 
to  that  which  is  near.  The  object  of  the  actions  of 
referring  and  relating  is  indirectly  acted  upon,  and 
consequently  stands  in  the  oblique  case ; we  refer  to 
an  object ; a thing  relates  to  an  object : but  the  object 
of  the  action  respect  and  regard  is  directly  acted  upon, 
therefore  it  stands  in  the  accusative  or  objective  case ; 
to  respect  or  regard  a thing,  not  to  a thing.  What  r» 
sheets  comprehends  in  it  more  than  what  relates.  To 


ENGLISH  SYN  JJNYMES.  32^ 


relate  is  to  respect ; but  to  respect  is  not  always  to  re- 
late: the  former  includes  every  species  of  affinity  or 
accordance ; the  latter  only  that  wliich  flows  out  of 
the  properties  and  circumstances  of  things : when  a 
number  of  objects  are  brought  together,  which  fitly 
associate,  Und  properly  reZate  the  one  to  the  other,  they 
form  a grand  whole,  as  in  the  case  of  any  scientifick 
work  which  is  digested  into  a system;  when  all  the 
incidental  circumstances  which  respect  either  moral 
principles  or  moral  conduct  are  properly  weighed,  they 
will  enable  one  to  form  a just  judgement. 

Respect  is  said  of  objects  in  general;  regard  mostly 
of  that  which  enters  into  the  feelings : laws  respect 
the  general  welfare  of  the  community  ; ‘Religion  is  a 
pleasure  to  the  mind,  as  respects  practice.’ — South. 
TJie  due  administration  of  the  laws  regards  the  hap- 
piness of  the  individual ; ‘ What  I have  said  regards 
onlv  the  vain  part  of  tlie  sex.’ — Addison. 


TO  REVERT,  RETURN. 

Revert  is  the  Latin,  and  return  the  English  word  ; 
the  former  is  used  however  only  in  few  cases,  and  the 
latter  in  general  cases : they  are  allied  to  each  other  in 
the  moral  application  ; a speaker  reverts  to  what  has 
already  passed  on  a preceding  day ; he  returns  after  a 
digression  to  the  thread  of  his  discourse:  we  may 
always  revert  to  something  different,  though  more  or 
less  connected  with  that  which  we  are  discussing ; we 
always  return  to  that  which  we  have  left : we  turn  to 
something  by  reverting  to  it ; we  continue  the  same 
thing  by  returning  to  it ; 

Whatever  lies  or  legendary  tales 

May  taint  my  spotless  deeds,  the  guilt,  the  shame, 

Will  back  revert  on  the  inventor’s  head. 

Shirley. 

One  day,  the  soul  supine  with  ease  and  fulness 

Revels  secure-,  and  fondly  tells  herself 

'^iie  hour  of  evil  can  return  no  more. — Rowe. 


TO  GLANCE  AT,  ALLUDE  TO. 

Glance,  probably  from  the  Teuton ick  glaentzen  to 
shine,  signifies  to  make  a thing  appear  like  a ray  of 
light  in  an  oblique  direction : allude  has  the  same 
general  meaning,  as  in  the  preceding  article  {v.  To 
allude). 

These  terms  are  nearly  allied  in  the  sense  of  indi- 
rectly referring  to  any  object,  either  in  written  or 
verbal  discourse : but  glance  expresses  a cursory  and 
latent  action;  allude,  simply  an  indirect  but  undis- 
guised action:  ill-natured  satirists  are  perpetually 
glancing  at  the  follies  and  infirmities  of  individuals ; 
‘Entering  upon  his  discourse,  Socrates  says,  he  does 
not  believe  any  of  the  most  comick  genius  can  censure 
him  for  talking  upon  such  a subject  (the  immortality 
of  the  soul)  at  such  a time  (that  of  death).  This  pas- 
sage, I think,  evidently  glances  upon  Aristophanes, 
who  writ  a comedy  on  purpose  to  ridicule  the  dis- 
courses of  that  divine  philosopher.’ — Addison.  The 
Scriptures  are  full  of  allusions  to  the  manners  and 
customs  of  the  Easterns;  ‘The  author,  in  the  whole 
course  of  bis  poem,  has  infinite  allusions  to  places  of 
Scripture.’ — Addison.  He  who  attempts  to  write  an 
epitome  of  universal  history  must  take  but  a hasty 
glance  si  the  most  important  events. 


GLIMPSE,  GLANCE. 

The  glimpse  is  the  action  of  the  object  appearing  to 
the  eye;  l\\e  glance  is  the  action  of  the  eye  seeking 
the  object;  one  catches  a glimpse  of  an  object;  one 
casts  a glance  at  an  object : the  latter  therefore  is  pro- 
perly the  means  for  obtaining  the  former,  which  is  the 
end'  we  get  a glimpse  by  means  of  a glance.  The 
glimpse  is  the  hasty,  imperfect,  and  sudden  view 
which  we  get  of  an  object : the  glance  is  the  hasty  and 
imperfect  view  which  we  take  of  an  object;  the  former 
may  de[)end  upon  a variety  of  circumstances ; the 
latter  depends  upon  the  will  of  the  agent.  We  can 
seldom  Jo  more  than  get  a glimpse  of  objects  in  a car- 
riage that  is  going  with  rapidity ; ‘ Of  the  state  with 
which  practice  has  not  acquainted  us,  we  snatch  a 
glimpse,  we  discern  a point,  and  regulate  the  rest  by 
passion  and  by  fawev.’ — Johnson.  When  we  do  not 


wish  to  be  observed  to  look,  we  take  but  a glance  of 
an  object ; 

Here  passion  first  I felt, 
Commotion  strange ! In  all  enjoyments  else 
Superiour  unmov’d;  here  only  weak 
Against  the  charm  of  beauty’s  pow’rful  glance. 

Milton. 

TO  INSINUATE,  INGRATIATE. 

Insinuate  {v.  To  hint)  and  ingratiate,  from  gratut 
grateful  or  acceptable,  are  employed  to  express  the  en 
deavour  to  gain  favour;  but  they  differ  in  the  circum 
stances  of  the  action.  A person  who  insinuates  adopts 
every  art  to  steal  into  the  good  will  of  another ; but 
he  who  ingratiates  adopts  unartificial  means  to  con 
ciliate  good  will.  A person  of  insinuating  manners 
wins  upon  another  imperceptibly,  even  so  as  to  con- 
vert dislike  into  attacliment;  a person  with  ingra- 
tiating manners  procures  good  will  by  a permanent 
intercourse.  Insinuate  and  ingratiate  differ  in  the 
motive,  as  well  as  the  mode,  of  the  action ; the  motive 
is,  in  both  cases,  self-interest ; but  the  former  is  un 
lawful,  and  the  latter  allowable  In  proportion  as  the 
object  to  be  attained  by  another’s  favour  is  base,  so  is 
it  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  insinuation ; ‘At  the 
isle  of  Rh^  he  insinuated  himself  into  the  very  good 
grace  of  the  Duke  of  Buckingham.’— Clarendon. 
While  the  object  to  be  attained  is  that  which  may  be 
avowed,  ingratiating  will  serve  the  purpose ; My 
resolution  was  now  to  ingratiate  myself  with  men 
whose  reputation  was  established.’ — Johnson.  Low 
persons  insinuate  themselves  into  the  favour  of  their 
superiours,  in  order  to  obtain  an  influence  over  them : 
it  is  commendable  in  a young  person  to  wish  to  ingra- 
tiate himself  with  those  who  are  entitled  to  his  esteem 
and  respect. 

Insinuate  may  be  used  in  the  improper  sense  for 
unconscious  agents ; ingratiate  is  always  the  act  of  a 
conscious  agent.  Water  will  insinuate  itself  into  every 
body  that  is  in  the  smallest  degree  porous ; ‘ The  same 
character  of  despotism  insinuated  itself  into  every 
court  of  Europe.’ — Burke.  There  are  few  persons 
of  so  much  apathy,  that  it  may  not  be  possible,  one 
way  or  anotlier,  to  ingratiate  one’s  self  into  their 
favour. 

INSINUATION,  REFLECTION. 

These  both  imply  personal  remarks,  or  such  remarks 
as  are  directed  towards  an  individual ; but  the  former 
is  less  direct  and  more  covert  than  the  latter.  The 
insinuation  always  deals  in  half  words  ; the  reflection 
is  commonly  open.  They  are  both  levelled  at  the  in- 
dividual with  no  good  intent:  but  the  insinuation  is 
general,  and  may  be  employed  to  convey  any  unfa- 
vourable sentiment ; the  reflection  is  particular,  and 
commonly  passes  between  intimates,  and  persons  in 
clo.se  connexion. 

The  insinuation  respects  the  honour,  the  moral  cha- 
racter, or  the  intellectual  worth,  of  the.  object ; ‘ The 
prejudiced  admirers  of  the  ancients  are  very  angry  at 
the  least  insinuation  that  they  had  any  idea  of  our  bar- 
barous tragi-comedy.’— Twining.  The  reflection  re- 
spects the  particular  conduct  or  feelings  of  an  indi- 
vidual towards  another;  ‘The  ill-natured  man  gives 
utterance  to  reflections  which  a good-natured  man 
stifles.’ — Addison.  Envious  people  throw  out  inai 
nuations  to  the  disparagement  of  others,  whose  merits 
they  dare  not  openly  question  ; when  friends  quarrel 
they  deal  largely  in  reflections  on  the  past. 

PERTINENT,  RELEVANT. 

Pertinent,  from  the  Latin  pertineo  to  pertain  or  ap- 
pertain, signifies  belonging  or  relating  to  any  subject  ir 
hand  ; relevant,  from  the  Latin  relevo  to  relieve  or  as 
sist,  signifies  coming  in  aid  or  support  of  a subject. 
Remarks  are  pertinent  when  they  bear  on  any  ques- 
tion, and,  on  the  other  hand,  they  are  impertinent 
when  they  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  question  ; 

‘ Here  I shall  seem  a little  to  digress,  but  you  will  by 
and-by  find  it  pertinent.' — Bacon.  Matter  in  a dis 
course,  and  arguments  are  relevant,  when  they  serve 
to  strengthen  a cause,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  they  are 
irrelevant  when  they  in  no  wise  answer  this  end ; 
‘Having  showed  you  that  we  differ  about  the  meaning 
of  Scripture,  and  are  like  to  do  so,  certainly  there 


328 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


ought  to  be  £ rule  or  a judge  between  us,  to  determine 
our  ditferences,  or  at  least  to  make  our  probations 
and  arguments  relevant.' — K.  Charles  {Letter  to  A. 
Henderson).  What  is  relevant  is  therefore,  properly 
speaking,  that  which  is  pertinent,  so  as  to  aid  a cause. 

TO  LABOUR,  TAKE  PAINS  OR  TROUBLE, 
USE  ENDEAVOUR. 

Labour,  in  Latin  labor,  comes,  in  all  probability, 
from  labo  to  falter  or  faint,  because  labour  causes  faint- 
ness ; to  take  pains  is  to  expose  oneself  to  the  pains ; 
and  to  take  the  trouble  is  to  impose  the  trouble  ; endea- 
vour, V.  To  endeavour. 

The  first  three  terms  suppose  the  necessity  for  a 
painful  exertion : but  to  labour  {v.  Work)  expresses 
more  than  to  take  pains,  and  this  more  than  to  take 
trouble ; to  use  endeavour  excludes  every  idea  of  pain 
or  inconvenience : great  difficulties  must  be  conquered ; 
great  perfection  or  correctness  requires  pains  : a con- 
cern to  please  will  give  trouble ; but  we  use  endea- 
vours wherever  any  object  is  to  be  obtained,  or  any 
duty  to  be  performed.  To  labour  is  either  a corporeal 
or  a mental  action  ; to  take  pains  is  principally  an 
effort  of  the  mind  or  the  attention ; to  take  trouble  is 
an  effort  either  of  the  body  or  mind ; a faithful  minis- 
ter of  the  Gospel  labours  to  instil  Christian  principles 
into  the  minds  of  his  audience,  and  to  heal  all  the 
breaches  which  the  angry  passions  make  betw'een 
them  : when  a child  is  properly  sensible  of  the  value 
of  improvement,  he  will  take  the  utmost  pains  to  pro- 
fit by  the  instruction  of  the  master : he  who  is  too  in- 
dolent to  take  the  trouble  to  make  his  wishes  known 
to  those  who  would  comply  with  them,  cannot  expect 
others  to  trouble  themselves  with  inquiring  into  their 
necessities:  a good  name  is  of  such  value  to  every 
man  that  he  ought  to  use  his  best  endeavours  to  pre- 
serve it  unblemished  ; ‘ They  (the  Jews)  were  fain  to 
take  pains  to  rid  themselves  of  their  happiness  ; and 
it  cost  them  labour  and  violence  to  become  miserable.’ 
— South.  ‘A  good  conscience  hath  always  enough  to 
reward  itself,  though  the  success  fall  not  out  according 
to  the  merit  of  the  endeavour.' — Howel. 


WORK,  LABOUR,  TOIL,  DRUDGERY,  TASK. 

Work,  in  Saxon  weorc,  Greek  epyov,  comes  doubtless 
from  the  Hebrew  to  weave ; labour,  iu  Latin 

labor,  signifies  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  article  {v. 
To  labour) ; toil  is  probably  connected  with  to  till; 
drudgery  is  connected  with  drag,  signifying  painful 
labour. 

Work  is  the  general  term,  as  including  that  which 
calls  for  the  exertion  of  our  strength  : labour  differs 
from  it  in  the  degree  of  exertion  required  ; it  is  hard 
work:  toil  expresses  a still  higher  degree  of  painful 
exertion : drudgery  implies  a mean  and  degrading 
work  ; 

The  hireling  thus 

With  labour  drudges  out  the  painful  day. — Rowe. 
Every  member  of  society  must  work  for  his  support, 
if  he  is  not  in  independent  circumstances;  the  poor 
are  obliged  to  labour  for  their  daily  subsistence ; some 
are  compelled  to  toil  incessantly  for  the  pittance  which 
they  earn  : drudgery  falls  to  the  lot  of  those  who  are 
the  lowest  in  society.  A man  wishes  to  complete  his 
work;  he  is  desirous  of  resting  from  his  labour;  he 
seeks  for  a respite  fronr  his  toil;  he  submits  to 
drudgery. 

Work  is  more  or  less  voluntary,  but  task,  in  French 
iasche,  and  Italian  tassa,  is  a work  imposed  by  others ; 
Relieves  me  from  my  task  of  servile  toil, 

Daily  in  the  common  prison  else  enjoined  me. 

Milton. 

In  its  improper  application  it  may  be  taken  in  a good 
sense  for  a work  which  one  has  imposed  on  oneself ; 
No  happier  task  these  faded  eyes  pursue. 

To  read  and  weep  is  all  they  now  can  do.— Pope. 

WORK,  OPERATION. 

Work,  which  is  de'ived  from  the  Hebrew,  as  in  the 
preceding  articie,  denotes  either  the  act  of  working, 
or  the  result  of  that  act : in  both  cases  it  is  a simple 
exertion  of  power ; as  when  speaking  of  the  works  of 


creation  or  of  art  and  mechanical  skill ; as  the  work 
of  the  artist  and  artisan ; 

O,  fairest  of  creation  ! last  and  best 

Of  all  God’s  works  ! crea*=ure  ,in  whom  excels 

Whatever  can  to  sight  oi  thought  be  form’d, 

Holy,  divine,  good,  amiable,  or  sweet. 

How  art  thou  lost ! — Milton. 

Nor  was  the  work  impair’d  by  storms  alone, 

But  felt  the  approaches  of  too  warm  a sun  —Pope 
Operation  {v.  Action)  denotes  the  act  of  operating 
and  is  a combined  exertion,  being  the  effect  of  method 
and  skill ; as  in  the.case  of  the  surgeon,  who  performs 
an  operation;  or  a natural  process,  as  the  operation.^ 
of  thought,  or  the  operation  of  vegetation  ; ‘ Specu- 
lative painting,  without  the  assistance  of  manual  ope- 
ration, can  never  attain  to  perfection,  but  slothfully 
languishes;  for  it  was  not  with  his  tongue  that  Apelles 
performed  his  noble  works.  — Dryden.  ‘ There  are  in 
men  operations  natural,  rational,  supernatural,  some 
politick,  some  finally  ecclesiastick.’— Hooker. 

Between  the  verbs  to  work  and  operate  there  is  even 
a nicer  distinction,  both  being  used  in  the  sense  of  a 
process,  physical,  moral,  or  intellectual ; but  work 
always  conveys  the  idea  of  the  exertion  of  power,  and 
operate  that  of  a gradual  course  of  action  : so  water 
works  its  way  under  ground;  things  operate  on  the 
mind  by  various  ways ; 

Some  deadly  draught,  some  enemy  to  life. 

Boils  in  my  bowels,  and  works  out  my  soul. 

Dryden 

Sometimes  a passion  seems  to  operate, 

Almost  in  contradiction  to  itself.— Shirley. 


SERVANT,  DOMESTICK,  MENIAL,  DRUDGE. 

In  the  term  servant  is  included  the  idea  of  the  ser 
vice  performed  ; ‘ A servant  dwells  remote  from  all 
knowledge  of  his  lord’s  purposes.’ — South.  In  the 
term  domestick,  from  dovius  a house,  is  included  the 
idea  of  one  belonging  to  the  house  or  family ; ‘ Monte- 
zuma was  attended  by  his  own  dornesticks.  and  served 
with  his  usual  state.’ — Robertson.  In  the  word  me- 
nial, from  manus  the  hand,  is  included  the  idea  of 
labour  ; ‘ Some  were  his  (King  Charles’)  own  menial 
servants,  and  ate  bread  at  his  table  before  they  lifted 
up  their  heel  against  him.’— South.  The  term  drudge 
includes  drudgery  ; ‘ He  who  will  b^  vastly  rich  must 
resolve  to  be  a drudge  all  his  days.’ — South.  We 
hire  a servant  at  a certain  rate,  and  fora  particular 
service  ; we  are  attached  to  our  dornesticks  according 
to  their  assiduity  and  attention  to  our  wishes;  we 
employ  as  a menial  one  who  is  unfit  for  a higher  em 
ployment ; and  a drudge  in  any  labour,  however  hard 
and  disagreeable. 


SERVITUDE,  SLAVERY,  BONDAGE. 

Servitude  expresses  less  than  slavery,  and  this  less 
than  bondage. 

Servitude,  from  servio,  conveys  simply  the  idea  of 
performing  a service,  without  specifying  the  principle 
upon  which  it  is  performed.  Among  the  Romans 
servus  signified  a slave,  because  all  who  served  were 
literally  slaves,  the  power  over  the  person  being  almost 
unlimited.  The  mild  influence  of  Christianity  has 
corrected  men’s  notions  with  regard  to  their  rights,  as 
well  as  their  duties,  and  established  servitude  on  the 
just  principle  of  a mutual  compact,  without  any  infrac- 
tion on  that  most  precious  of  all  human  giffs,  personal 
liberty  ; ‘ It  is  fit  and  necessary  that  some  persons  in 
the  world  should  be  in  love  with  a splendid  servitude.' 
— South.  Slavery,  which  marks  a condition  incom- 
patible with  the  existence  of  this  invaluable  endow- 
ment, is  a term  odious  to  the  Christian  ear ; it  had  it* 
origin  in  the  grossest  state  of  society  : the  word  being 
derived  from  the  German  slave,  or  Sclavonians,  a 
fierce  and  intrepid  people,  who  made  a long  stand 
against  the  Gormans,  and,  being  at  last  defeated,  were 
made  slaves.  Slavery,  therefore,  includes  not  only 
servitude,  but  also  the  odious  circumstance  of  tht 
entire  subjection  of  one  individual  to  another;  a con 
dition  which  deprives  him  of  every  privilege  belonging 
to  a free  agent,  and  a rational  creature ; and  which 
forcibly  bends  the  will  and  affections  of  the  one  to  the 
humour  of  the  other,  and  converts  a tliinking  being 


ENGLISH  SYN0NYME3.  . 32i 


Into  a mere  senseless  tool  in  the  hands  of  its  owner. 
Slavery  unfortunately  remains,  though  barbarism  has 
ceased.  Cliristianity  has  taught  men  their  true  end 
and  destination ; but  it  has  not  yet  been  able  to  ex- 
tinguish  that  inordinate  love  of  dominion,  which  is  an 
innate  propensity  in  the  human  breast.  There  are 
those  who  take  the  name  of  Christians,  and  yet  cling 
to  the  practice  of  making  their  fellow-creatures  an 
article  of  commerce.  Some  delude  themselves  with 
the  idea  that  they  can  ameliorate  the  condition  of  those 
aver  whom  they  have  usurped  this  unlicensed  power ; 
but  they  forget  that  he  who  begins  to  be  a slave  ceases 
to  be  a man  ; that  slavery  is  the  extinction  of  our  nobler 
part*,  and  the  abuse  even  of  that  part  in  us  which  we 
have  in  common  with  the  brutes ; ‘ So  different  are  the 
geniuses  which  are  formed  under  Turkish  slavery  and 
Grecian  liberty.’— Addison. 

Bondage,  from  to  bind,  denotes  the  state  of  being 
bound,  tlfat  is,  slavery  in  its  most  aggravated  form,  in 
which,  to  the  loss  of  personal  liberty,  is  added  cruel 
treatment;  the  term  is  seldom  applied  in  its  proper 
sense  to  any  persons  but  the  Israelites  in  Egypt.  In  a 
figurative  sense,  we  speak  of  being  a slave  to  our  pas- 
sions, and  under  the  bondage  of  sin,  in  which  cases  the 
terms  preserve  precisely  the  same  distinction  ; 

Our  cage 

We  make  a choir,  as  doth  the  prison’d  bird. 

And  sing  our  bondage  freely. — Shakspeare. 

The  same  distinction  exists  between  the  epithets 
servile  and  slavish,  which  are  employed  only  in  the 
moral  application.  He  who  is  servile  has  the  mean 
character  of  a servant,  but  he  is  still  a free  agent ; but 
he  who  is  slavish  is  bound  and  fettered  in  every  possi- 
ble form ; 

That  servile  path  thou  nobly  dost  decline. 

Of  tracing  word  by  word,  and  line  by  line. 

Those  are  the  labour’d  births  of  slavish  brains, 
Not  the  effect  of  poetry  but  pains  —Denham. 


PRODUCTION,  PERFORMANCE,  WORK. 

When  we  speak  of  any  thing  as  resulting  from  any 
Kpecified  operation,  we  term  it  a.  production;  as  the 
production  of  an  author,  signifying  what  he  has  pro- 
duced by  the  effort  of  his  mind  ; Homer’s  Iliad  is 
esteemed  as  one  of  the  finest  productions  of  the  ima- 
gination. When  we  speak  of  any  thing  as  executed 
or  performed  by  some  person  we  term  it  a perform- 
ance, as  a drawing  or  a painting  is  denominated  the 
performance  of  a particular  artist.  The  term  produc- 
tion cannot  be  employed  without  specifying  or  referring 
to  the  source  from  which  it  is  produced,  or  the  means 
by  which  it  \?,  produced, — as  Xhe  production  of  art,  the 
production  of  the  inventive  faculty,  the  production  of 
the  mind,  &c.; 

Nature,  in  her  productions  slow,  aspires 

By  just  degrees  to  reach  perfection’s  height. 

Somerville. 

A performance  cannot  be  spoken  of  without  referring 
to  the  individual  by  whom  it  has  been  performed; 
hence  we  speak  of  this  or  that  person’s  performance ; 
‘ The  performances  of  Pope  were  burnt  by  those  whom 
he  had,  perhaps,  selected  as  most  likely  to  publish 
them.’ — Johnson.  When  we  wish  to  specify  any 
thing  that  results  from  work  or  labour,  it  is  termed  a 
work : in  this  manner  we  either  speak  of  the  work  of 
one’s  hands,  or  a work  of  the  imagination,  a work  oi 
time,  a work  of  magnitude ; ‘ Yet  there  are  .some  works 
which  the  author  must  consign  unpublished  to  poste- 
rity.’— Johnson.  The  production  results  from  a com- 
plicated operation  ; the  performance  consists  of  simple 
action  ; the  work  springs  from  active  exertion  : Shak- 
speare’s  plays  are  termed  productions,  as  they  respect 
the  source  from  which  they  came,  namely,  his  genius; 
they  might  be  called  his  performances,  as  far  as 
respected  the  performance  or  completion  of  some  task 
or  specifick  undertaking;  they  would  be  called  his 
works,  as  far  as  respected  the  labour  which  he  bestow- 
ed upon  them.  The  composition  of  a book  is  properly 
1 production,  when  it  is  original  matter ; the  sketching 
of  a landscape,  or  drawing  a plan,  is  a performance ; 
Uie  compilation  of  a histoiy  is  a work. 


ESSAY,  TREATISE,  TRACT,  DISSERTATION 

All  these  words  are  employed  by  authors  to  charac 
terize  compositions  varying  in  their  form  and  contents 
Essay,  which  signifies  a trial  or  attempt  {v.  Jittempt) 
is  here  used  to  designate  in  a specifick  manner  an  au 
thor’s  attempt  to  illustrate  any  point.  It  is  most  com 
monly  applied  to  small  detached  pieces,  which  contain 
onlyJhe  general  thoughts  of  a writer  on  any  given 
subject,  and  afford  room  for  amplification  into  details, 
although  by  Locke  in  his  “ Essay  on  the  Understand- 
ing,” Beattie  in  his  “ Essay  on  Truth,”  and  other 
authors,  it  is  modestly  used  for  their  connected  and 
finished  endeavours  to  elucidate  a doctrine  : ‘ It  is  my 
frequent  practice  to  visit  places  of  resort  in  this  town, 
to  observe  what  reception  my  works  meet  with  in  the 
world  ; it  being  a privilege  asserted  by  Monsieur  Mon- 
taigne and  others,  of  vain  glorious  memory,  that  we 
writers  of  essays  may  talk  of  ourselves.’— Steele. 

A treatise  is  more  systematick  than  an  essay ; it 
treats  on  the  subject  in  a methodical  form,  and  conveys 
the  idea  of  something  laboured,  scientifick,  and  in- 
structive; ‘The  very  title  of  a moral  treatise  has 
something  in  it  austere  and  shocking  to  the  careless 
and  inconsiderate.’ — Addison.  A tract  is  only  a spe- 
cies of  small  treatise,  drawn  up  upon  particular  occa 
sions,  and  published  in  a separate  form.  They  are 
both  derived  from  the  Latin  tractus,  participle  of  traho 
to  draw,  manage,  or  handle;  ‘I  desire  my  reader  to 
consider  every  particular  paper  or  discourse  as  a dis- 
tinct tract  by  itself.’ — Addison.  Dissertation,  from 
dissero  to  argue,  is  with  propriety  applied  to  perform- 
ances of  an  argumentative  nature;  ‘A  modern  philo- 
sopher, quoted  by  Monsieur  Bayle  in  his  learned  dis 
sertation  on  the  souls  of  brutes,  says,  Deus  est  anima 
brutorum,  God  himself  is  the  soul  of  brutes.’ — Addi- 
son. 

Essays  are  either  moral,  political,  philosophical,  cr 
literary  ; they  are  the'^crude  attempts  of  the  youth  to 
digest  iiis  own  thoughts  ; or  they  are  the  more  mature 
attempts  of  the  man  to  communicate  his  thoughts  to 
others.  Of  the  former  description  are  the  prize  essays 
in  schools;  and  of  the  latter  are  the  essays  innumer- 
able which  have  been  published  on  every  subject, 
since  the  days  of  Bacon  to  the  present  day.  Treatises 
are  mostly  written  on  ethical,  political,  or  speculative 
subjects,  such  as  Fenelon’s,  Milton’s,  or  Locke’s  trea- 
tise on  education  ; De  Lolme’strcat/seon  the  constitu- 
tion of  England ; Colquhoun’s  treatise  on  tlie  police. 
Dissertations  are  employed  on  disputed  points  of 
literature,  as  Bentley’s  dissertation  upon  the  epistles 
of  Phalaiis,  DePauw’s  dissertations  on  the  Egyptians 
and  Chinese.  Tracts  are  ephemeral  productions, 
mostly  on  political  and  religious  subjects,  which  sel- 
dom survive  the  occasion  which  gave  them  birth. 
Of  this  description  are  the  pamjihlets  which  daily 
issue  from  the  press,  for  or  against  the  measures  of 
government,  or  the  public  measures  of  any  particular 
party. 

The  essay  is  the  most  popular  mode  of  writing ; it 
suits  the  writer  who  has  not  either  talent  or  inclination 
to  pursue,  his  inquirie.s  farther,  and  it  suits  the  gener- 
ality of  readers  who  are  amused  with  variety  and 
superficiality  ; the  treatise  is  adapted  for  the  student ; 
he  will  not  be  contented  with  the  superficial  essay, 
when  niore  ample  materials  are  within  his  reach;  the 
tract  is  formed  for  the  political  partisan  ; it  receives  its 
interest  from  the  occurrence  of  the  motive  ; the  disscr 
tation  interests  the  disputant. 

PRODUCTION,  PRODUCE,  PRODUCT. 

The  term  production  expresses  either  the  act  of 
producing  or  the  thing  produced ; product  and  produce 
express  only  the  thing  produced  : the  production  oi  a. 
tree  from  a seed,  is  one  of  the  wonders  of  nature;  the 
produce  of  a thing  is  said  to  be  considerable  or  other 
wise. 

In  the  sense  of  the  thing  produced,  production  is 
applied  to  every  individual  thing  that  is  by 

another;  in  this  sense  a Ucta  is  a production  ; produce 
and  product  are  applied  only  to  those  productions 
which  are  to  be  turned  to  a purpose  : the  former  in  a 
collective  sense,  and  in  reference  to  some  particular 
object;  the  latter  in  an  abstract  and  general  sense; 
the  aggregate  quantity  of  grain  drawn  from  afield  m 
termed  the  produce  of  the  field  ; but  core,  hay,  vega 
tables  and  fruits  in  general,  are  termi'd  prntlucis  oi 


330 


ENGLISH  SYNON^MES. 


the  earth : the  naturalist  examines  all  the  productions 
of  nature  ; ‘ Nature  also,  as  if  desirous  that  so  bright 
\ production  of  her  skill  should  be  set  in  the  fairest 
light,  had  bestowed  on  king  Alfred  every  bodily  ac- 
complishment.’— Hume.  The  husbandman  looks  to 
the  produce  of  his  lands ; ‘ A storm  of  hail,  I am  in- 
formed, has  destroyed  all  the  produce  of  my  estate  in 
Tuscany.’ — Melmouth  {Letters  of  Cicero).  Ttie  to- 
pographer and  traveller  inquire  about  the  products  of 
ditferent  countries ; ‘ Our  British  products  are  of  such 
kinds  and  quantities  as  can  turn  the  balance  of  trade 
o our  advantage.’ — Addison. 

There  is  the  same  distinction  between  these  terms 
tn  their  m proper,  as  in  their  proper,  acceptation : a 
production  is  whatever  results  from  an  etibrt,  physical 
or  mental,  as  a production  of  genius,  & production  of 
art,  and  the  like;  ‘What  would  become  of  the  scro- 
fulous consumptive /rrodactions,  furnished  by  our  men 
of  wit  and  learning.’ — Swift.  The  produce  is  the 
amount  or  aggregate  result  from  physical  or  mental 
labour ; thus,  whatever  the  husbandman  reaps  from 
the  cultivation  of  his  land  is  termed  the  produce  of  his 
labour ; whatever  results  from  any  publick  subscrip- 
tion or  collection  is,  in  like  manner,  the  produce; 
‘ This  tax  has  already  been  so  often  tried,  that  we 
know  the  exact  produce  of  it.’ — Addison.  The  pro- 
duct is  seldom  employed  except  in  regard  to  the  mental 
Bperation  of  figures,  as  the  product  from  multiplica- 
tion, but  it  may  be  used  precisely  in  the  sense  of  pro- 
duction ; ‘ I cannot  help  thinking  the  Arabian  tales 
the  product  of  some  woman’s  imagination.’— A tter- 

BURY. 


TO  BEAR,  YIELD. 

Bear.,  in  Saxon  baran,  old  German  her  an,  Latin 
pario,  and  Hebrew  to  create  ; tjield,  v.  To  afford. 

Bear  conveys  the  idea  of  creating  within  itself; 
yield  that  of  giving  from  itself.  Animals  bear  their 
young;  inanimate  objects  yield  their  produce.  An 
apple-tree  bears  apples  ; the  earth  yields  fruits. 

Bear  marks  properly  the  natural  power  of  bringing 
forth  something  cf  its  own  kind  ; yield  is  said  of  the 
result  or  quantum  brought  forth  : shrubs  ieor  leaves, 
flowers,  or  berries,  according  to  their  natural  pro- 
perties ; 

No  keel  shall  cut  the  waves  for  foreign  ware. 

For  every  soil  shall  ev’ry  product  bear. — Dryden. 
Flowers  yield  seeds  plentifully  or  otherwise  as  they  are 
favoured  by  circumstances  ; 

Nor  Bactria,  nor  the  richer  Indian  fields. 

Nor  all  the  gummy  stores  Arabia  yields, 

Nor  any  foreign  earth  of  greater  name. 

Can  with  sweet  Italy  contend  in  fame. — Dryden. 


TO  BEAR,  CARRY,  CONVEY,  TRANSPORT. 

Bear,  from  the  sense  of  generating  (».  To  bear, 
yield),  has  derived  that  of  retaining  ; carry,  in  French 
charier,  probably  from  the  Latin  currus,  Greek  Kaipto 
orrpt'xw  to  run,  or  /riipw,  in  Hebrew  to  meet,  sig- 
nifies to  move  a thing  from  one  place  to  another;  con- 
vey, in  Latin  conveho,  is  compounded  of  con  and  veho 
to  carry  with  one;  transport,  \nYrenc,\\  transporter, 
Latin  transporto,  compounded  of  trans  over  and 
porto  to  carry,  signifies  to  carry  to  a distance. 

To  bear  is  simply  to  take  the  weight  of  any  sub- 
stance upon  one’s  self;  to  carry  is  to  remove  that 
weight  from  the  spot  where  it  was : we  always  bear  in 
carrying,  but  we  do  not  always  carry  when  we  bear. 
Both  may  be  applied  to  things  as  well  as  persons: 
whatever  receives  the  weight  of  any  thing  bears  it ; 
whatever  is  caused  to  move  with  any  thing  carries  it. 
That  which  cannot  be  easily  borne  must  be  burden- 
some to  carry : in  extremely  hot  weather  it  is  some- 
times irksome  to  bear  the  weight  even  of  one’s  cloth- 
ing ; Virgil  praises  the  pious  ^Eneas  for  having  carried 
his  father  on  his  shoulders  in  order  to  save  him  from 
the  sacking  of  Troy.  Weak  people  or  weak  things 
are  not  fit  to  bear  heavy  burdens : lazy  people  prefer 
to  be  carried  rather  than  to  carry  any  thing 

Since  bear  is  confined  to  personal  service  it  may  be 
used  in  the  sense  of  carry,  when  the  latter  implies  the 
removal  of  any  thing  by  means  of  any  other  body. 


The  bearer  of  any  letter  or  parcel  is  he  who  carries 
it  in  his  hand ; 

In  hollow  wood  thy  floating  armies  tear.— Dryden 
The  carrier  of  parcels  is  he  who  employs  a convey- 
ance ; ‘ A whale,  besides  those  seas  and  oceans  in  the 
several  vessels  of  his  body  which  are  filled  with  innu 
nierable  shoals  of  little  animals,  carnet  about  him  a 
whole  world  of  inhabitants.’ — Addison.  Hence  the 
word  bear  is  often  very  appropriately  substituted  for 
carry,  as  Virgil  praises  iEneas  for  bearing  his  father 
on  his  shoulders. 

Convey  and  transport  are  species  of  currying. 
Carry  in  its  particular  sense  is  employed  eithqr-  for 
personal  exertions  or  actions  performed  by  the  help  of 
other  means  ; convey  transport  are  employed  for 
such  actions  as  are  performed  not  by  immediate  per- 
sonal intervention  or  exertion ; a porter  carries  goods 
on  his  knot ; goods  are  conveyed  in  a wagon  or  a cart; 
they  are  transported  in  a vessel. 

Convey  expresses  simply  the  mode  of  removing  ; 
transport  annexes  to  this  the  idea  of  the  place  and  the 
distance.  Merchants  get  the  goods  conveyed  into  their 
warehouses,  which  they  have  had  transported  from 
distant  countries.  Pedestrians  take  no  more  with 
them  than  what  they  can  conveniently  carry : could 
armies  do  the  same,  one  of  the  greatest  obstacles  to  the 
indulgence  of  human  ambition  would  be  removed  ; for 
many  an  incursion  into  a peaceful  country  is  defeated 
for  the  want  of  means  to  convey  provisions  sufficient 
for  such  numbers  ; and  when  mountains  or  deserts  are 
to  be  traversed,  another  great  difficulty  presents  itself 
in  the  transportation  of  artillery ; 

Love  cannot,  like  the  wind,  itself  convey 

To  fill  two  sails,  though  both  are  spread  one  way 

Howard. 

It  is  customary  at  funerals  for  some  to  bear  the  pal 
and  others  to  carry  wands  or  staves;  the  body  itself 
is  conveyed  in  a hearse,  unless  it  has  to  cross  the 
ocean,  in  which  case  it  is  transported  in  a vessel ; 
‘ It  is  to  navigation  that  men  are  indebted  for  the 
power  of  transporting  the  superfluous  stock  of  one 
part  of  the  earth  to  supply  the  wants  of  another.’  -- 
Robertson. 


TO  BRING,  FETCH,  CARRY. 

To  bring,  in  German,  &c.  bringen,  is  supposed  to 
be  contracted  from  beringen,  and  ringen  or  regen  to 
move ; fetch  is  not  improbably  connected  with  the 
verb  search,  signifying  to  send  for  or  go  after;  carry 
V.  To  bear,  carry. 

To  bring  is  simply  to  take  with  one’s  self  from  the 
place  where  one  is ; to  fetch  is  to  go  first  to  a place 
and  then  bring  the  thing  away;  to  fetch  therefore  is 
a species  of  bringing;  whatever  is  near  at  hand  is 
brought ; whatever  is  at  a distance  must  be  fetched. 
The  porter  at  an  inn  brings  a parcel,  the  servant 
fetches  it. 

Bring  always  respects  motion  towards  the  place  in 
which  the  agent  or  speaker  resides  ; ‘ What  appeared 
to  me  wonderful  was  that  none  of  the  ants  came  home 
without  bringing  something.’ — Addison.  Fetch  de- 
notes a motion  both  to  and  from  ; ‘ I have  said  before 
that  those  ants  which  I did  so  i)articularly  consider, 
fetched  their  corn  out  of  a garret.’ — Addison.  Carry 
denotes  always  a motion  directly  from  the  place  or  at 
a distance  from  the  place  : ‘ How  great  is  the  hardship 
of  a poor  ant,  when  she  carries  a grain  of  corn  to  the 
second  story,  climbing  up  a wall  with  her  head  down 
wards.’ — Addison.  A servant  brings  the  parcel  home 
which  his  master  has  sent  him  to  fetch  ; he  carries  a 
parcel  from  home.  A carrier  carries  parcels  to  and 
from  a place,  but  he  only  brings  parcels  to  any  place. 

Bring  is  an  action  performed  at  the  option  of  the 
agent ; fetch  and  carry  are  mostly  done  at  the  com 
mand  of  anotlier.  Hence  the  old  proverb,  ‘ He  who 
will  fetch  will  carry,'  to  mark  the  character  of  the 
gossip  and  tale-bearer,  who  reports  what  he  hears  from 
two  persons  in  order  to  please  both  parties. 

TO  AFFORD,  YIELD,  PRODUCE. 

.Afford  is  probably  changed  from  nfferred,  and  comes 
from  the  Latin  offero,  compounded  of  af  or  ad  and 
fero,  signifying  to  bring  to  a person  ; yield,  in  Saxon 
> geldan,  German  gelten  to  pay,  restore,  or  give  ths 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  . 33 


»«lue,  is  probably  connected  with  the  Hebrew  "iV 
to  breed,  or  bring  forth ; produce^  in  Latin  produco, 
compounded  of  pro  forth  and  duco  to  bring,  signifies  to 
bring  out  or  into  existence. 

With  afford  is  associated  the  idea  of  communicating 
a part  or  property  of  some  substance,  to  a person : 
meat  affords  nourishment  to  those  who  make  use  of 
it ; the  sun  affords  light  and  heat  to  all  living  crea- 
tures ; ‘ The  generous  man  in  the  ordinary  accepta- 
tion, without  respect  of  the  demands  of  his  family,  will 
soon  find  upon  the  foot  of  his  account  that  he  has 
sacrificed  to  fools,  knaves,  flatterers,  or  the  deservedly 
unhappy,  all  the  opportunities  of  affording  any  future 
assistance  where  it  ought  to  be.’— Steele. 

Yielding  is  the  natural  operation  of  any  substance 
to  give  up  or  impart  the  parts  or  properties  inherent  in 
it ; it  is  the  natural  surrender  which  an  object  makes 
of  itself ; trees  yield  fruit ; the  seed  yields  grain ; 
some  sorts  of  grain  do  not  T/ieWmuchin  particular  soils; 

Their  vines  a shadow  to  their  race  shall  yield, 

And  the  same  hand  that  sowed  shaH  reap  the  field. 

Pope. 

Produce  conveys  the  idea  of  one  thing  causing  an- 
other to  exist,  or  to  spring  out  of  it ; it  is  a species  of 
creation,  the  formation  of  a new  substance;  the  earth 
produces  a variety  of  fruits ; confined  air  will  produce 
an  explosion ; 

Their  sharpen’d  ends  in  earth  their  footing  place. 

And  the  dry  poles  ^^roduce  a living  race. — Dryden. 

In  the  moral  application  they  are  similarly  distin- 
guished : nothing  affords  so  great  a scope  for  ridicule 
as  the  follies  of  fashion ; ‘ This  is  the  consolation  of 
all  good  men  unto  whom  his  ubiquity  affordeth  con- 
tinual comfort  and  security.’ — Brown.  Nothing  yields 
so  much  satisfaction  as  religion.  ‘ The  mind  of  man 
desireth  evermore  to  know  the  truth,  according  to  the 
most  infallible  certainty  which  the  nature  of  things  can 
yield' — Hooker.  Nothing  produces  so  much  mischief 
as  the  vice  of  drunkenness  ; 

Thou  all  this  good  of  evil  shalt  produce. — Milton. 
The  history  of  man  does  not  afford  an  instance  of  any 
popular  commotion  that  has  ever  produced  such  atro- 
cities and  atrocious  characters  as  the  French  revolu- 
tion. 

Religion  is  the  only  thing  that  can  afford  true  con- 
solation and  peace  of  mind  in  the  season  of  affliction 
and  the  hour  of  death.  The  recollection  of  past  inci- 
dents, particularly  those  which  have  passed  in  our  in- 
fancy, produces  the  most  pleasurable  sensations  in  the 
mind. 


BUSINESS,  OCCUPATION,  EMPLOYMENT, 
ENGAGEMENT,  AVOCATION. 

Business  signifies  what  makes  busy  (w.  Active, 
busy);  occupation,  from  occupy,  in  French  occuper, 
Latin  occupo,  that  is,  oh  and  capio,  signifies  that  which 
serves  or  takes  possession  of  a person  or  thing  to  the 
exclusion  of  other  things ; employment,  from  employ, 
in  French  emploi,  Latin  implico,  Greek  epnXtKO},  signi- 
fies that  which  engages  or  fixes  a person  ; engagement 
also  signifies  what  engages  or  binds  a person ; avocation, 
in  Latin  avocatio,  from  a and  voco,  signifies  the  thing 
that  calls  off  from  another  thing. 

Business  occupies  all  a person’s  thoughts  as  well  as 
his  time  and  powers ; occupation  and(»  employment 
only  his  time  and  strength;  the  first  is  mostly 
regular,  it  is  the  object  of  our  choice ; the  second  is 
casual,  it  depends  on  the  will  of  another.  Engage- 
ment is  a partial  employment,  avocation  a particular 
engagement:  an  engagement  prevents  us  from  doing 
an~y  thing  else ; an  avocation  calls  off  or  prevents  us 
from  doing  what  we  wish. 

Every  tradesman  has  a business,  on  the  diligent 
prosecution  of  which  depends  his  success  in  life ; ‘The 
materials  are  no  sooner  wrought  into  paper,  but  they 
are  distributed  among  the  presses,  where  they  again  set 
innumerable  artists  at  work,  and  furnish  business  to 
another  mystery.’ — Addlson.  Every  mechanick  has 
his  daily  occupation,  by  which  he  maintains  his  family ; 
‘ How  little  must  the  ordinary  occupations  of  men 
seem  to  one  who  is  engaged  in  so  noble  a pursuit  as 
the  assimilation  of  himself  to  the  Deity.’ — Berkeley. 
Every  labourer  has  an  employment  which  is  fixed  for 
him  : ‘ Creatures  who  have  the  labours  of  the  mind, 


as  well  as  those  of  the  body,  to  furnish  them  with  era 
ployments.' — Guarli.^n. 

Business  and  occupation  always  suppose  a serious 
object.  Business  is  something  more  urgent  and  im 
portant  than  occupation : a man  of  independent  for- 
tune has  no  occasion  to  pursue  business,  but  as  a 
rational  agent  he  will  not  be  contented  to  be  without 
an  occupation. 

Employment,  engagement,  and  avocation  leave  the 
object  undefined.  An  employment  may  be  a mere 
diversion  of  the  thoughts,  and  a wasting  of  the  hours 
in  some  idle  pursuit ; a child  may  have  its  employment, 
which  may  be  its  play  in  distinction  from  its  business; 

‘ I would  recommend  to  every  one  of  my  readers  the 
keeping  a journal  of  their  lives  for  one  week,  and 
setting  down  punctually  their  whole  series  of  employ- 
ments during  that  space  of  time.’— Addison.  An  en- 
gagement may  have  no  higher  object  than  that  of 
pleasure ; the  idlest  people  have  often  the  most  en- 
gagements : the  gratification  of  curiosity,  and  the  love 
of  social  pleasure,  supply  them  with  an  abundance  of 
engagements;  ‘Mr.  Baretti  being  a single  man,  and 
entirely  clear  from  all  engagements,  takes  the  advan- 
tage of  his  independence.’ — Johnson.  Avocations 
have  seldom  a direct  trifling  object,  although  it  may 
sometimes  be  of  a subordinate  nature,  and  generally 
irrelevant;  numerous  aDocatfons  are  not  desirable; 
every  man  should  have  a regular  pursuit,  the  business 
of  his  life,  to  which  the  principal  part  of  his  time 
should  be  devoted ; avocations  therefore  of  a serious 
nature  are  apt  to  divide  the  time  and  attention  to  a 
hurtful  degree ; ‘ Sorrow  ought  not  to  be  suffered  to 
increase  by  indulgence,  but  must  give  way  after  a 
stated  time  to  social  duties  and  the  common  avocations 
of  life.’ — Johnson. 

A person  who  is  busy  has  much  to  attend  to,  and 
attends  to  it  closely  ; a person  who  is  occupied  has  a 
full  share  of  business  without  any  pressure  ; he  is  op- 
posed to  one  who  is  idle ; a person  who  is  employed 
has  the  present  moment  filled  up ; he  is  not  in  a state 
of  inaction  ; the  person  who  is  engaged  is  not  at 
liberty  to  be  otherwise  employed;  his  time  is  not  hifi 
own ; he  is  opposed  to  one  at  leisure. 

BUSINESS,  TRADE,  PROFESSION,  ART. 

These  words  are  synonymous  in  the  sense  of  a call 
ing,  for  the  purpose  of  a livelihood  ; business  {v.  Busi 
ness)  is  general ; trade,  signifying  that  which  employs 
the  time  by  way  of  trade;  profession,  or  that  which 
one  professes  to  do  by  way  of  employment ; and  art, 
signifying  that  which  is  practised  in  the  way  of  the 
arts,  are  particular ; all  trade  is  business,  but  all  busi- 
ness is  not  trade. 

Buying  and  selling  of  merchandise  is  inseparable 
from  trade;  but  the  exercise  of  one’s  knowledge  and 
experience,  for  purposes  of  gain,  constitutes  a business ; 
when  learning  or  particular  skill  is  required,  it  is  a 
profession ; and  when  there  is  a peculiar  exercise  of 
art,  it  is  an  art : every  shopkeeper  and  retail  dealer 
carries  on  a trade ; ‘ Some  persons,  indeed,  by  the 
privilege  of  their  birth  and  quality,  are  above  a com- 
mon trade  and  profession,  but  they  are  not  hereby 
e.xempted  from  all  business,  and  allowed  to  live  unpro- 
fitably  to  others.’ — Tillotson.  Brokers,  manufactu- 
rers, bankers,  and  others,  carry  on  business  ; ‘ Those 
who  are  determined  by  choice  to  any  particular  kind 
of  business  are  indeed  more  hapyjy  than  those  who 
are  determined  by  necessity.’ — Addison.  Clergymen, 
medical,  or  military  men,  follow  a profession ; ‘No 
one  of  the  sons  of  Adam  ought  to  think  himself  ex- 
empt from  labour  or  industry ; those  to  whom  birth 
or  fortune  may  seem  to  make  such  an  application  un 
necessary,  ought  to  find  out  some  calling  or  profession 
that  they  may  not  lie  as  a burthen  upon  the  species. 
— Addison.  Musicians  and  painters  follow  an  art  * 
‘ The  painter  understands  his  art.’— Swift. 


BUSINESS,  OFFICE,  DUTY. 

Business  is  what  one  prescribes  to  one’s  self ; office, 
in  French  office,  Latin  offeium,  from  officio,  or  ob  and 
facio,  signifying  to  do  for,  or  on  account  of  any  one 
is  prescribed  by  another;  ditty,  from  the  Latin  debt- 
turn  and  debeo  to  owe,  signifying  what  is  due,  is  pre- 
scribed or  enjoined  by  a fixed  rule  of  propriety;  mer 
cantile  concerns  are  lie  business  winch  a man  take* 


332 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMLS. 


upon  himself,  the  management  of  parish  concerns  is 
an  office  imposed  upon  a person  often,  much  against  his 
inclination ; the  maintenance  of  a family  is  a duty 
which  a man’s  conscience  enjoins  upon  him  to  per- 
form. 

Business  and  duty  are  publick  or  private;  office  is 
mostly  of  a publick  nature:  a minister  of  state,  by 
virtue  of  his  office,  has  always  publick  business  to  per- 
form ; 

But  now  the  feather’d  youth  their  former  bounds 
Ardent  disdain,  and,  weighing  oft  their  wings. 
Demand  the  free  possession  of  the  sky. 

This  one  glad  office  more,  and  then  dissolves 
Parental  love  at  once,  now  heedless  grown. 

Thomson. 

But  men  in  general  have  only  private  business  to 
transact;  ‘It  is  certain,  from  Suetonius,  that  the  Ro- 
mans thought  the  education  of  their  children  a business 
properly  belonging  to  the  parents  themselves.’ — Bud- 
GELL.  A minister  of  religion  has  publick  duties  to 
perform  in  liis  ministerial  capacity  ; every  other  man 
has  personal  or  relative  dwties,  which  he  is  called  upon 
to  discharge  according  to  his  station ; ‘ Discretion  is  the 
perfection  of  reason,  and  a guide  to  us  in  all  the  duties 
of  life.’ — Addison. 


AFFAIR,  BUSINESS,  CONCERN. 

Affair,  in  French  affaire,  from  d and  faire  to  be 
done,  signifies  that  which  is  to  be  done  or  is  in  hand  ; 
business,  from  busy{v.  Active),  signifies  the  thing  that 
makes  or  interests  a person,  or  with  which  he  is  busy 
or  occupied ; concern,  in  French  concerner,  Latin  con- 
cerno,  compounded  of  con  and  cerno  to  look,  signifies 
the  thing  looked  at,  thought  of,  or  taken  part  in. 

An  affair  is  what  happens;  a business  is  what  is 
done ; a concern  is  what  is  felt.  An  affair  is  general ; 
it  respects  one,  many,  or  all;  every  business  and  con- 
cern is  an  affair,  though  not  vice  versd.  Business  and 
concern  are  personal ; business  is  that  which  engages 
the  attention:  concern  is  that  which  interests  the  feel- 
ings, prospects,  and  condition,  advantageously  or  other- 
wise. An  affair  is  interesting;  a business  is  serious; 
n concern  momentous.  The  usurpation  of  power  is  an 
iffcir  which  interests  a nation  ; ‘ I remember  in  Tully’s 
epistle,  in  tne  recommendation  of  a man  to  an  affair 
which  had  no  manner  of  relation  to  money,  it  is  said, 
you  may  fust  him,  for  he  is  a frugal  man.’— Steele. 
The  adjusting  of  a difference  is  a busi/iess  most  suited 
to  the  ministers  of  religion ; ‘ We  may  indeed  say  that 
our  part  does  not  suit  us,  and  that  we  could  perform 
another  better ; but  this,  says  Epictetus,  is  not  our  busi- 
ness.'— Addison.  To  make  our  peace  with  our  Maker 
is  the  co?!cern  of  every  individual ; ‘ The  sense  of  other 
men  ought  to  prevail  over  us  in  things  of  less  consider- 
ation ; but  not  in  concerns  where  truth  and  honour  are 
engaged.’ — Steele. 

Affairs  are  administered;  business  is  transacted; 
concerns  are  managed.  The  affairs  of  the  world  are 
administered  by  a Divine  Providence.  Those  who  are 
in  the  practice  of  the  law  require  peculiar  talents  to 
fit  them  for  transacting  the  complicated  business  which 
perpetually  offers  itself.  Some  men  are  so  involved  in 
the  affairs  of  this  world,  as  to  forget  the  concerns 
of  the  next,  which  ought  to  be  nearest  and  dearest  to 
them. 


TO  AFFECT,  CONCERN. 

Affect,  in  French  affecter,  Latin  affectum,  participle 
of  afficio,  compounded  of  ad  and  facio  to  do  or  act,  sig- 
nifies to  act  upon  ; concern,  v.  Affair. 

Thimis  affect  us  which  produce  any  change  in  our 
outward  circumstances;  they  concern  us  if  only  con- 
nected with  our  circumstances  in  any  shape. 

V^hatever  affects  must  concern ; but  all  that  concerns 
does  not  affect.  The  price  of  corn  affects  the  interest 
of  the  seller ; and  therefore  it  concerns  him  to  keep  it 
^p,  without  regard  to  the  publick  good  or  injury. 

Things  affect  either  persons  or  things;  but  they  con- 
cern persons  only.  Rain  affects  the  hay  or  corn  ; and 
these  matters  concern  every  one  more  or  less. 

Affect  and  concern  have  an  analogous  meaning  like- 
wise, when  taken  for  the  influence  on  the  mind.  We 
are  affected  by  things  when  our  affections  only  are 
awakened  by  them ; we  are  concerned  when  our  under- 
•tanding  and  wishes  are  engaged. 


V7e  may  be  affected  either  with  joy  c r sorrow  ‘ We 
see  that  every  different  species  of  sensible  creatures 
has  its  different  notions  of  beauty,  and  that  each  of 
them  is  affected  with  the  beauties  of  its  own  kind. 
— Addison.  We  are  concerned  only  in  a painful  man- 
ner: 

Without  concern  he  hears,  but  hears  from  far, 

Of  tumults,  and  descents,  and  distant  war. 

Dryden 

People  of  tender  sensibility  are  easily  affected:  irrita 
ble  people  are  concerned  about  trifles.  It  is  natural 
for  every  one  to  be  affected  at  the  recital  of  misfor- 
tunes; but  there  are  people  of  so  cold  and  selfish  a 
character  as  not  to  be  concerned  about  any  thing 
which  does  not  immediately  affect  their  persons  or 
property. 

INTEREST,  CONCERN. 

The  inferest,  from  the  Latin  interesseiohe  among, 
or  have  a part  or  a share  in  a thing,  is  more  compre 
hensive  than  concern  {v.  Affair).  We  have  an  interest 
in  whatever  touches  or  comes  near  to  our  feelings  or 
our  external  circumstances  ; we  have  a concern  in 
that  which  respects  our  external  circumstances.  The 
interest  is  that  which  is  agreeable ; it  consists  of  either 
profit,  advantage,  gain,  or  amusement ; it  binds  us  to 
an  object,  and  makes  us  think  of  it:  the  concern,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  something  involuntary  or  painful 
We  have  a concern  in  that  which  we  are  obliged  to 
look  to,  which  we  are  bound  to  from  the  fear  of  losing 
or  of  suffering.  It  is  the  interest  of  every  man  to  cul- 
tivate a religious  temper;  it  is  the  concern  of  all  to  be 
on  their  guard  against  temptation  ; ‘ O give  us  a serious 
comprehension  of  that  one  great  interest  of  others  as 
well  as  ourselves.’— Hammond. 

And  could  the  marble  rocks  but  know. 

They ’d  strive  to  find  some  secret  way  unknown 
Maugre  the  senseless  nature  of  the  stone, 

Their  pity  and  concern  to  show. — Pomfret 


OFFICE,  PLACE,  CHARGE,  FUNCTION 
Office,  in  Latin  officium,  from  officio,  or  efficio,  signi  • 
ties  either  the  duty  performed  or  the  situation  in  which 
the  duty  is  performed.  Place  comprehends  no  idea  of 
duty,  for  there  may  be  sinecure  ;>faces  which  are  only 
nominal  offices,  and  designate  merely  a relationship 
W'ith  the  government;  every  office  therefore  of  a publick 
nature  is  in  reality  a place,  yet  every  place  is  not  an 
office.  The  place  of  secretary  of  state  is  likewise  an 
office,  but  that  of  ranger  of  a park  is  a place  only  and 
not  an  office.  The  office  is  held ; the  place  is  filled  : the 
office  is  given  or  intrusted  to  a person  ; the  place  is 
granted  or  conferred:  the  office  reposes  a confidence, 
and  imposes  a responsibility;  the  place  gives  credit 
and  influence : the  office  is  bestowed  on  a man  from  his 
qualification  ; the  place  is  granted  to  him  by  favour,  or 
as  a reward  for  past  services;  the  office  is  more  or  less 
honourable ; 

You  have  contriv’d  to  take 
From  Rome  all  season’d  office,  and  to  wind 
Yourself  into  a power  tyrannical.— Shakspeark. 
The ;?Zace  is  more  or  less  profitable; 

When  roaues  like  these  (a  sparrow  cries) 

To  honours  and  employment  rise, 

I court  no  favour,  ask  noplace. — Gay. 

In  an  extended  application  of  the  terms  office  and 
place,  the  latter  has  a much  lower  signification  than 
that  of  the  former,  since  the  office  is  always  connected 
with  the  State  ; but  the  place  is  a private  concern ; the 
office  is  a place  of  trust,  but  the  place  may  be  a place 
for  menial  labour;  the  offices  are  multiplied  in  time  of 
war;  the ;>Zaces  for  domestick  service  are  more  nume- 
rous in  a state  of  peace  and  prosperity.  The  office  is 
frequently  taken  not  with  any  reference  to  the  place. 
occupied,  but  simply  to  the  thing  done ; this  brings  it 
nearer  in  signification  to  the  term  charge  (u.  Care). 
An  office  imposes  a task,  or  some  performance ; 

’Tis  all  men’s  office  to  speak  patience 
To  those  that  wring  under  the  load  of  sorrow. 

Shakspeare. 

A charge  imposes  a resnonsibiliU';  we  have  alwtiy 


. 333 


ENGLi;:^H  ‘^YNONYMES. 


iometliinglodo  ii  office,  always  something  to  look  after 
InaeAar^e;  ‘Denham  was  made  governour  of  Farn- 
ham  Castle  for  the  king,  but  he  soon  resigned  that 
charge  and  retreated  to  Oxford.’— Johnson.  The  office 
is  either  publick  or  private,  the  charge  is  always  of  a 
private  and  personal  nature:  a person  performs  the 
office  of  a magistrate,  or  of  a minister ; he  undertakes 
the  charge  oi  instructing  youth,  or  of  being  a guardian, 
or  of  conveying  a person’s  property  from  one  place  to 
another.  The  office  is  that  which  is  assigned  by  an- 
other; /Mraction  is  properly  the  act  of  discharging  or 
completing  an  office  or  business,  from  fungor,  viz. 
Jinem  and  ago  to  pul  an  end  to  or  bring  to  a conclu- 
sion ; it  is  extended  in  its  acceptation  to  the  office  itself 
or  the  thing  done,  in  which  case  the  idea  of  duty  pre- 
dominates, as  the  functions  of  a minister  of  state  or 
of  a minister  of  the  gospel ; ‘ The  ministry  is  not  now 
bound  to  any  one  tribe ; now  none  is  secluded  from 
that  function  of  any  degree,  state,  or  calling.’ — Whit- 
•FT.  The  office  in  its  strict  sense  is  performed  only  by 
conscious  or  intelligent  agents,  who  act  according  to 
their  instructions;  the  function,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
sometimes  an  operation  of  unconscious  objects  accord- 
ing to  the  laws  of  nature.  The  office  of  a herald  is  to 
proclaim  publick  events  or  to  communicate  circum- 
stances from  one  publick  body  to  another:  the  function 
of  the  tongue  is  to  speak ; that  of  the  ear,  to  hear:  that 
of  the  eye,  to  see.  The  word  office  is  sometimes  em- 
ployed in  the  same  application  by  the  personification  of 
nature,  which  assigns  an  office  to  the  ear,  to  the  tongue, 
to  the  eye,  and  the  like.  When  the  frame  becomes 
overpowered  by  a sudden  shock,  the  tongue  will  fre- 
quently refuse  to  perform  its  office  ; ‘The  two  offices 
of  memory  are  collection  and  distribution.’ — Johnson. 
When  the  animal  functions  are  impeded  for  a length 
of  lime,  the  vital  power  ceases  to  exist; 

Nature  within  me  seems. 

In  all  her  functions,  weary  of  herself. — Milton. 


TROCEEDING,  PROCESS,  PROGRESS. 

The  manner  of  performing  actions  for  the  attain- 
ment of  a given  end  is  the  common  idea  comprehended 
in  these  terms.  Proceeding  is  the  most  general,  as  it 
simply  expresses  the  general  idea  of  the  manner  of 
going’on  ; the  rest  are  specifick  terms,  denoting  some 
particularity  in  the  action,  object,  or  circumstance. 
The  proceeding  is  said  commonly  of  such  things  as 
happen  in  the  ordinary  way  of  doing  business  ; ‘ What 
could  be  more  fair,  than  to  lay  open  to  an  enemy  all 
that  you  wished  to  obtain,  and  to  desire  him  to  imitate 
your  ingenuous  proceeding!' — Burkk.  Process  is 
said  of  such  things  as  are  done  by  rule:  the  former  is 
considered  in  a moral  point  of  view ; the  latter  in  a 
scientifick  or  technical  point  of  view  ; the  freemasons 
have  bound  themselves  together  by  a law  of  secrecy 
not  to  reveal  some  part  of  their  proceeding's  ; the  pro- 
cess by  which  paper  is  made  has  undergone  consider- 
able improvements  since  its  first  invention; 

Saturnian  Juno  now,  with  double  care. 

Attends  the  fatal  process  of  the  war. — Dryden. 

Hhe  proceeding  and  progress  both  refer  to  the  moral 
actions  of  men  ; but  theproceeding  simply  denotes  the 
act  of  going  on,  or  doing  something;  the  progress  de- 
notes an  approximation  to  the  end:  the  proceeding 
may  be  only  a partial  action,  comprehending  both  the 
beginning  and  the  end  ; but  the  progress  is  applied  to 
that  which  requires  time,  and  a regular  succession  of 
action,  to  bring  it  to  a completion  ; that  is  n proceeding 
in  w'hich  every  man  is  tried  in  a court  of  law;  that  is 
^progress  which  one  makes  in  learning,  by  the  addi- 
tion to  one’s  knowledge:  hence  we  do  not  talk  of  the 
proceeding  of  life,  but  of  the  progress  of  life;  ‘De- 
votion bestows  that  enlargement  of  heart  in  the  service 
of  God,  which  is  the  greatest  principle  both  of  perse- 
verance nnA  progress  in  virtue.’ — Blair. 


PROCEEDING,  TRANSACTION. 

Proceeding  signifies  literally  the  thing  that  proceeds ; 
and  transaction  tne  thing  transacted : the  former  is, 
therefore,  of  something  that  is  going  forward;  the 
latter  of  something  that  is  already  done:  we  are  wit- 
nesses to  the  whole  proceeding ; we  inquire  into  the 
whole  transaction.  The  proceeding  is  said  of  every 
event  or  circumstance  which  g^es  forward  through 


the  agency  of  men  : the  oi  ly  comprehends 

those  matters  which  have  been  deliberately  transacted 
or  brought  to  a conclusion  : in  this  sense  we  use  the 
word  proceeding  in  application  to  an  atfray  in  the 
street;  and  the  word  transaction  to  some  commercial 
negotiation  that  has  been  carried  on  between  certain 
persons.  The  proceeding  marks  the  manner  of  pro 
ceeding ; as  when  we  speak  of  the  proceedings  in  a 
court  of  law ; ‘ The  proceedings  of  a council  of  old 
men  in  an  American  tribe,  we  are  told,  were  no  less 
formal  and  sagacious  than  those  in  a senate  in  more 
polished  republicks.’ — Robertson.  The  transaction 
marks  the  business  transacted ; as  the  transactions  on 
the  Exchange;  ‘It  was  Bothwell’s  interest  to  cover,  if 
possible,  the  whole  transaction  under  the  veil  of  dark- 
ness and  silence.’ — Robertson.  A proceeding  may 
be  characterized  as  disgraceful ; a transaction  as  ini 
quitous. 

TRADE,  COMMERCE,  TRAFFICK,  DEALING 
Trade,  in  Italian  tratto,  Latin  tracto  to  treat,  signi- 
fies the  transaction  of  business ; commerce,  v.  Inter 
course;  traffick,  in  French  traffique,  Italian  traffico, 
compounded  of  tra  or  trans  and  facio,  signifies  to 
make  over  from  one  to  another;  dealing,  from  the 
verb  to  deal,  in  German  theilen  to  divide,  signifies  to 
put  in  parts  according  to  a certain  ratio,  or  at  a given 
price. 

The  leading  idea  in  trade  is  that  of  carrying  on  busi- 
ness for  purposes  of  gain ; the  rest  are  but  modes  of 
trade:  commerce  is  a mode  of  trade  by  exchange: 
traffick  is  a sort  of  personal  trade,  a sending  from 
hand  to  hand  ; dealing  is  a bargaining  or  calculating 
kind  of  trade.  Trade  is  either  on  a large  or  small 
scale;  commerce  is  always  on  a large  scale:  we  may 
trade  retail  or  wholesale ; we  always  carry  on  com 
merce  by  wholesale  : trade  is  either  within  or  without 
the  country;  commerce  is  always  between  different 
countries:  there  maybe  a trade  between  twm  towns ; 
but  there  is  a commerce  between  England  and  America, 
between  France  and  Germany:  hence  it  arises  that 
the  general  term  trade  is  of  inferiour  import  when 
compared  with  commerce.  The  commerce  of  a 'coun- 
try, in  the  abstract  and  general  sense,  conveys  more  to 
our  mind,  and  is  a more  noble  expression,  than  tht 
trade  of  the  country,  as  the  merchant  ranks  highei 
than  the  tradesman,  and  a commercial  house,  than  a 
trading  concern ; 

Instructed  ships  shall  sail  to  quick  commerce, 

By  which  remotest  regions  are  ally’d  ; 

Which  makes  one  city  of  the  universe. 

Where  some  may  gain,  and  all  may  be  supply’d 

Dryden. 

Nevertheless  the  word  trade  may  be  used  in  the  same 
general  and  enlarged  sense ; '•Trade,  without  enlarging 
the  British  territories,  has  given  us  a kind  of  additional 
empire.’ — Addison.  Trade  may  be  altogether  domes- 
tick,  and  between  neighbours ; the  traffick  is  that  which 
goes  forward  between  persons  at  a distance:  in  this 
manner  there  may  be  a great  traffick  between  two 
towns  or  cities,  as  between  London  and  the  capitals  of 
the  different  counties ; 

The  line  of  Ninus  this  poor  comfort  brings. 

We  sell  their  dust,  and  traffick  for  their  kings. 

Dryden. 

Trade  may  consist  simply  in  buying  and  selling  ac- 
cording to  a stated  valuation  ; dealings  are  carried  on 
in  matters  that  admit  of  a variation : hence  we  speak 
of  dealers  in  wool,  in  corn,  seeds,  and  the  like,  who 
buy  up  portions  of  these  goods,  more  or  less,  according 
to  the  state  of  the  market. 

These  terms  will  also  admit  of  an  extended  applica 
tion  : hence  we  speak  of  the  risk  of  trade,  the  narrow- 
ness of  a trading  spirit : the  commerce  of  the  world,  a 
legal  or  illicit  commerce ; to  make  a traffick  of  honours, 
of  principles,  of  places,  and  the  like;  plain  dealing ot 
underhand  dealing. 


INTERCOURSE,  COMMUNICATION,  CON- 
NEXION, COMMERCE. 

Intercourse,  in  Latin  it? fercitrsMs,  signifies  literally  a 
running  between ; communication,  the  act  of  commu- 
nicating or  having  some  things  in  common  ; connexion 
is  the  state  of  being  connected  or  linked  together  j 


334 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


commerce,  from  com  and  merx  a merchandise,  signifies 
literally  an  exchange  of  merchandise  and  generally  an 
interchange. 

The  intercourse  and  commerce  subsist  only  between 
persons;  the  communication  and  connexion  between 
persons  and  things.  The  intercourse  with  persons 
may  be  carried  on  in  various  forms  ; either  by  an  inter- 
change of  civilities,  which  is  a friendly  intercourse ; 
an  exchange  of  commodities,  which  is  a commercial 
intercourse;  or  an  exchange  of  words,  which  is  a 
verbal  and  partial  intercourse ; ‘The  world  is  main- 
tained by  intercourse' — South.  The  communication, 
in  this  sense,  is  a species  of  intercourse ; namely,  that 
which  consists  in  the  communication  of  one’s  thoughts 
to  another ; ‘ How  happy  is  an  intellectual  being,  who, 
by  prayer  and  meditation,  opens  this  communication 
between  God  and  his  own  soul.’— Addison.  The 
connexion  consists  of  a permanent  intercourse,  since 
one  who  has  a regular  intercourse  for  purposes  of 
trade  with  another  is  said  to  have  a connexion  with 
him,  or  to  stand  in  connexion  with  him.  There  may, 
therefore,  be  a partial  intercourse  or  communication 
where  there  is  no  connexion,  nothing  to  bind  or  link 
the  parties  to  each  other ; but  there  cannot  be  a con- 
nexion which  is  not  kept  up  by  continual  intercourse : i 
‘A  very  material  part  of  our  happiness  or  misery  arises 
from  the  connexions  we  have  with  those  around  us.’— 
Blair. 

The  commerce  is  a species  of  genera!  but  close  inter- 
course; it  may  consist  either  of  frequent  meeting  and 
regular  co-operation,  or  in  cohabitation;  in  this  sense 
we  speak  of  the  commerce  of  men  one  with  another, 
or  the  commerce  of  man  and  wife,  of  parents  and 
children,  and  the  like ; ‘ I should  venture  to  call  polite- 
ness benevolence  in  trifles,  or  the  preference  of  others 
to  ourselves,  in  little,  daily,  and  hourly  occurrences  in 
the  commerce  of  life.’ — Chatham. 

As  it  respects  things,  communication  is  said  of  places 
in  the  proper  sense ; connexion  is  used  for  things  in  the 
proper  or  improper  sense : there  is  said  to  be  a commu- 
nication between  two  rooms  when  there  is  a passage 
open  from  one  to  the  other ; one  house  has  a connexion 
with  another  when  there  is  a common  passage  or 
thoroughfare  to  them  : a communication  is  kept  up 
betvwen  two  countries  by  means  of  regular  or  irre- 
gular conveyances;  a connexion  subsists  between  two 
towns  when  the  inhabitants  trade  with  each  other,  in- 
termarry, and  the  like. 


INTERCHANGE,  EXCHANGE,  RECIPROCITY. 

Interchange  is  a frequent  and  mutual  exchange 
(v.  Change);  exchange  consists  of  one  act  only;  an 
interckunge  consists  of  many  acts : an  interchange  is 
used  only  in  the  moral  sense ; exchange  is  used  mostly 
in  the  proper  sense ; an  interchange  of  civilities  keeps 
alive  good  will ; ‘Kindness  is  preserved  by  a constant 
interchange  of  pleasures.’ — Johnson.  An  exchange 
of  commodities  is  a convenient  mode  of  trade;  ‘The 
whole  course  of  nature  is  a great  exchange.' — South. 

Interchange  is  an  act ; reciprocity  i?,  an  abstract  pro- 
perty: by  an  interchange  of  sentiment,  frieiidshijis  are 
engendered  ; the  reciprocity  of  good  services  is  what 
renders  them  doubly  acceptable  to  those  who  do  them, 
and  to  those  who  receive  them  ; ‘ The  services  of  the 
poor,  and  the  protection  of  the  rich,  become  recipro- 
cally necessary.’— Blair. 

MUTUAL,  RECIPROCAL. 

Mutual,  in  Latin  mutuus,  from  muto  to  change,  sig- 
nifies exchanged  so  as  to  be  equal  or  the  same  on  both 
sides  ; reciprocal,  in  Latin  reciprocus,  from  recipio  to 
take  back,  signifies  giving  backward  and  forward  by 
way  of  return.  supposes  a sameness  in  con- 

dition at  the  same  time ; reciprocal  supposes  an  alter- 
nation or  succession  of  returns.  * Exchange  is  free 
and  voluntary;  we  give  in  exchange,  and  this  action 
is  mutual;  return  is  made  either  according  to  law  or 
equity;  it  is  obligatory,  and  when  equally  obligatory 
on  each  in  return  it  is  reciprocal.  Voluntary  disinter- 
ested services  rendered  to  each  other  are  mutual:  im- 
posed or  merited  services,  returned  from  one  to  the 
other,  are  reciprocal : friends  render  one  another 
mutual  services ; the  services  between  servants  and 

* V ide  Rcubaud  : “ Mutual,  reciproque.” 


masters  are  reciprocal.  The  husband  and  wife  pledge 
their  faith  to  each  other  mutually;  they  are  rcciprtf- 
cally  bound  to  keep  their  vow  of  fidelity.  The  senti- 
ment is  mutual,  the  tie  is  reciprocal.  Mutual  applies 
mostly  to  matters  of  will  and  opinion,  a mutual  affec- 
tion, a mutual  inclination  to  oblige,  a mutual  interest 
for  each  other’s  comfort,  a mutual  concern  to  avoid 
that  which  will  displease  the  other;  these  are  the  senti- 
ments which  render  the  marriage  state  happy ; ‘ The 
soul  and  spirit  that  animates  and  keeps  up  society  is 
mutual  trust.’ — South.  Reciprocal  ties,  reciprocal 
bonds,  reciprocal  rights,  reciprocal  duties;  these  are 
what  every  one  ought  to  bear  in  mind  as  a member  of 
society,  that  he  may  expect  of  no  man  more  than  what 
in  equity  he  is  disposed  to  return  ; ‘ Life  cannot  subsist 
in  society  but  by  reciprocal  concessions.’— Johnson. 
Mutual  applies  to  nothing  but  what  is  personal ; reci- 
procal is  applied  to  things  remote  from  the  idea  of 
personality,  as  reciprocal  verbs,  reciprocal  terms,  reci- 
procal relations,  and  the  like. 

TO  CHANGE,  EXCHANGE,  BARTER, 
SUBSTITUTE. 

Change,  v.  To  change,  alter;  exchange  is  com- 
pounded of  e or  ex  and  change,  signifying  to  change 
in  the  place  of  another ; barter  is  supposed  to  come 
from  the  French  barater,  a sea  term  for  indemnifica- 
tion, and  also  for  circumvention ; hence  it  has  derived 
the  meaning  of  a mercenary  exchange ; substitute, 
in  French  substitut,  Latin  substitutus,  from  sub  and 
statuo,  signifies  to  place  one  thing  in  the  room  of 
another. 

The  idea  of  putting  one  thing  in  the  place  of  another 
is  common  to  all  these  terms,  which  vary  in  the  manner 
and  the  object.  Change  is  the  generick,  the  rest  are 
specifick  terms : whatever  is  exchanged,  bartered,  or 
substituted,  is  changed  ; but  not  vice  versa.  Change  is 
applied  in  general  to  things  of  the  same  kind,  or  of 
different  kinds ; exchange  to  articles  of  property  or 
possession;  barter  to  all  articles  of  merchandise;  sub- 
stitute to  all  matters  of  service  and  office. 

Things  rather  than  persons  are  the  proper  objects 
for  changing  and  exchanging,  although  whatever  one 
has  a control  over  maybe  changed  or  exchanged;  a 
king  may  change  his  ministers ; governments  exchange 
prisoners  of  war.  Things  only  are  the  proper  objects 
lot  barter ; but,  to  the  shame  of  humanity,  there  are 
to  be  found  people  who  will  barter  their  countrymen, 
and  even  their  relatives,  for  a paltry  trinket. 

Substituting  may  either  have  persons  or  things  for 
an  object ; one  man  may  be  substituted  for  another,  or 
one  word  substituted  for  another. 

The  act  of  changing  or  substituting  requires  but 
one  person  for  an  agent ; that  of  exchanging  and  bar- 
tering requires  two:  a person  cAaw^cs  his  things  or 
substitutes  one  for  another ; but  one  person  exchanges 
or  barters  with  another. 

Change  is  used  likewise  intransitively,  the  others 
always  transitively ; things  change  of  themselves,  but 
persons  always  exchange,  barter,  or  substitute  things. 
Changing  is  not  advisable,  it  is  selilnm  advantageous ; 
there  is  a greater  chance  of  changing  for  the  worse, 
than  for  the  better ; it  is  set  on  foot  by  caprice  oftenei 
than  by  prudence  and  necessity; 

Those  who  beyond  sea  go  will  sadly  find 

They  change  theii  climate  only,  not  their  mind. 

Crekch. 

Exchanging  is  convenient;  it  is  founded  not  so  much 
on  the  intrinsic  value  of  things,  as  their  relative  utility 
to  the  parties  concerned ; its  end  is  mutual  accommo- 
dation ; ‘ Our  English  merchant  converts  the  tin  of  his 
own  country  into  gold,  and  exchanges  its  wool  for 
rubies.’ — Addison.  Bartering  is  profitable  ; it  pro- 
ceeds upon  a principle  of  mercantile  calculation;  the 
productiveness,  and  not  the  worth  of  the  thing  is  con 
sidered  ; its  main  object  is  gain  ; 

If  the  great  end  of  being  can  be  lost. 

And  thus  perverted  to  the  worst  of  crimes ; 

Let  us  shake  off  deprav’d  humanity. 

Exchange  conditions  with  the  savage  brute. 

And  for  his  blameless  instinct  barter  reason. 

Havaro 

Substituting  is  a matter  of  necessity  ; it  springs  from 
the  necessity  of  supplying  a deficiency  by  some  equi 
valent  ■.  i*  serves  for  the  accommodation  of  the  party 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES 


336 


whose  place  is  filled  up ; ‘ Let  never  insulted  beauty 
admit  a second  lime  into  her  presence  the  wretch  wlio 
has  once  attempted  to  ridicule  religion,  and  to  substi- 
tute other  aids  to  human  frailty.’ — Hawkesworth. 

In  the  fig^iraiive  application  these  terms  bear  the 
same  analogy  to  each  other.  A person  changes  his 
opinions ; but  a proneness  to  such  changes  evinces  a 
want  of  firmness  in  the  character.  The  good  king  at 
his  death  exchanges  a temporal  for  an  eternal  crown. 
The  mercenary  trader  barters  his  conscience  for  paltry 
pelf.  Men  of  dogmatical  tempers  substitute  assertion 
for  proof,  and  abuse  for  argument. 

ro  EXCHANGE,  BARTER,  TRUCK,  COMMUTE. 

To  £xchange  {v.  To  change)  is  the  general  term 
signifying  to  take  one  for  another,  or  put  one  thing  in 
the  place  of  another ; the  rest  are  but  modes  of  ex- 
changing; to  barter  {v.  To  change)  is  to  exchange 
one  article  of  trade  for  another ; to  trucks  from  the 
Greek  rpoxdw  to  wheel,  signifying  to  bandy  about,  is 
a familiar  term  to  express  a familiar  action  for  ex- 
changing one  article  of  private  property  for  another; 
commute^  from  the  Latin  syllable  com  or  contra  and 
muto  to  change,  signifies  an  exchanging  one  mode  of 
punishment  for  another.  We  may  exchange  one  book 
for  another,  or  one  moral  object  for  another ; 

Pleasure  can  be  exchanged  only  for  pleasure. 

Hawkesworth. 

Traders  barter  trinkets  for  gold  dust ; so  also  in  the 
figurative  sense  men  barter  their  consciences  for  gold ; 
‘ Some  men  are  willing  to  barter  their  blood  for  lucre.’ 
—Burke.  Coachmen  or  stablemen  truck  a whip  for 
a handkerchief ; 

Shows  all  her  secrets  of  house-keeping. 

For  candles  how  she  trucks  her  dripping. — Swift. 
The  government  commute  the  punishment  of  death 
for  that  of  banishment;  ‘ Henry  levied  upon  his  vas- 
sals in  Normandy  a sum  of  money  in  lieu  of  their 
service,  and  this  commutation,  by  reason  of  the  great 
distance,  was  still  more  advantageous  to  his  English 
vassals.’ — Hume. 


ro  BUY,  PURCHASE,  BARGAIN,  CHEAPEN. 

Buy,  in  Saxon  byegean,  is  in  all  probability  connect- 
ad  with  bargain ; purchase,  in  French  pourchasser, 
ike  the  word  pursue,  poursuivre,  comes  from  the  Latin 
signifying  to  obtain  by  a particular  effort ; 
bargain,  in  Welch  bargen,  is  most  probably  connected 
with  the  German  borgen  to  borrow,  and  biirge  a surety ; 
cheapen  is  in  Saxon  ceapan,  German  kaufen,  Dutch 
koopen  to  buy,  &c. 

Buy  and  purchase  have  a strong  resemblance  to  each 
other,  both  in  sense  and  application ; but  the  latter  is  a 
term  of  more  refinement  than  the  former:  buy  may 
always  be  substituted  for  purchase  without  impro- 
priety ; but  purchase  would  be  sometimes  ridiculous 
in  the  familiar  application  of  buy;  the  necessaries  of 
life  are  bought;  luxuries  axe  purchased. 

Thecharacteristick  idea  of  buying  is  that  of  expend- 
ing money  according  to  a certain  rule,  and  for  a parti- 
cular purpose ; that  of  purchasing  is  the  procuring  the 
thing;  the  propensity  of  buying  whatever  comes  in 
one’s  way  is  very  injurious  to  the  circumstances  of 
some  people ; ‘ It  gives  me  very  great  scandal  to  ob- 
serve, wherever  I go,  how  much  skill,  in  buying  all 
manner  of  things,  there  is  necessary  to  defend  yourself 
from  be  ing  cheated.’ — Steele.  What  it  is  not  con- 
venient to  procure  for  ourselves,  we  may  commission 
another  to  purchase  for  us ; so  in  the  figurative  ac- 
ceptation we  may  purchase  our  pleasures  at  a dear 
rate ; 

Pirates  may  make  cheap  pennyworths  of  their  pillage 

And  purchase  friends. — Shakspeare. 

Buying  implies  simply  the  exchange  of  one’s  money 
for  a commodity  ; bargaining  and  cheapening  have 
likewise  respect  to  the  price : to  bargain  is  to  make  a 
specifick  agreement  as  to  the  price ; 

So  York  must  sit,  and  fret,  and  bite  his  tongue. 

While  his  own  lands  are  bargain'd  for,  and  sold. 

Shakspeare. 

To  cheapen  is  not  only  to  lower  the  price  asked,  but 
to  deal  ill  such  things  as  are  cheap : trade  is  supported 


by  buyers  ; bargainers  and  cheapeners  are  not  accept- 
able customers:  mean  people  are  prone  to  bargaining  ; 
poor  people  are  obliged  to  cheapen;  ‘You  may  iTee 
many  a smart  rhetorician  turning  his  hat  in  his  hands, 
moulding  it  into  several  different  cocks,  examining 
sometimes  the  lining,  and  sometimes  the  button,  during 
the  whole  course  of  his  harangue.  A deaf  man  would 
think  he  was  cheapening  a beaver,  when  perhaps  he  is 
talking  of  the  fate  of  the  British  nation.’ — Addison 

ARTICLE,  CONDITION,  TERM. 

Article,  in  French  article,  Latin  articulus  a joint  w 
a part  of  a member  ; condition,  in  French  condition, 
Latin  conditio,  from  condo  to  build  or  form,  signifies 
properly  the  thing  framed;  term,  in  French  terme, 
Latin  terminus  a boundary,  signifies  the  point  to  which 
one  is  fixed. 

These  words  agree  in  their  application  to  matters  of 
compact,  or  understanding  between  man  and  man 
Article  and  condition  are  used  in  both  numbers;  terms 
only  in  the  plural  in  this  sense:  the  former  may  be 
used  for  any  point  individually;  the  latter  for  all  the 
points  collectively : article  is  employed  for  all  matters 
which  are  drawn  out  in  specifick  articles  or  points  ; as 
the  articles  of  an  indenture,  of  a capitulation,  or  an 
agreement.  Condition  respects  any  point  that  is  ad 
milled  as  a ground  of  obligation  or  engagement : it  is 
used  for  the  general  transactions  of  men,  in  which 
they  reciprocally  bipd  themselves  to  return  certain 
equivalents.  The  word  terms  is  employed  in  regard 
to  mercantile  transactions ; as  the  terms  of  any  bar- 
gain, the  terms  of  any  agreement,  the  terms  on  which 
any  thing  is  bought  or  sold. 

Articles  are  mostly  voluntary;  they  are  admitted 
by  mutual  agreement : conditions  are  frequently  com- 
pulsory, sometimes  hard ; they  are  submitted  to  from 
policy  or  necessity : terms  are  dictated  by  interest  or 
equity;  they  are  fair,  or  unfair,  according  to  the 
temper  of  the  parties;  they  are  submitted  or  agreed 
to.  Articles  are  drawn  up  between  parties  who  have 
to  co-operate ; ‘ In  the  mean  time,  they  have  ordered  the 
preliminary  treaty  to  be  published,  with  observations 
on  each  article,  in  order  to  quiet  the  minds  of  the 
people.’ — Steele.  Men  undertake  particular  offices 
on  condition  of  receiving  a stipulated  remuneration 
The  Trojan  by  his  word  is  bound  to  take 
The  same  conditions  which  himself  did  make. 

Dryden 

Men  enter  into  dealings  with  each  other  on  definite  and 
precise  terms ; 

Those  mountains  fill’d  with  firs,  that  lower  land 
If  you  consent,  the  Trojans  shall  command  ; 

Call’d  into  part  of  what  is  ours,  and  there. 

On  terms  agreed,  the  common  country  share. 

Dryden. 

Clergymen  subscribe  to  the  articles  of  the  establislied 
church  before  they  are  admitted  to  perform  its  sacred 
functions ; in  so  doing  they  are  presumed  to  be  free 
agents ; but  they  are  not  free  to  swerve  from  these 
articles  while  they  remain  in  the  church,  and  receive 
its  emoluments:  in  all  auctions  there  are  certain  con- 
ditions  with  which  all  must  comply  who  wish  to  re- 
ceive the  benefits  of  the  sale:  in  the  time  of  war  it  is 
the  business  of  the  victor  to  prescribe  terms  to  the 
vanquished  ; with  the  latter  it  is  a matter  of  prudence 
whether  they  shall  be  accepted  or  rejected. 

TRADER,  MERCHANT,  TRADESMAN. 
Trader  signifies  in  general  any  one  who  deals  in 
goods,  whether  in  a large  or  a small  way,  and  is  used 
therefore  in  the  most  extended  sense ; 

Now  the  victory ’s  won. 

We  return  to  our  lasses  like  fortunate  traders. 
Triumphant  with  spoils.— Dryden. 

Merchant  signifies  one  dealing  in  foreign  merchandise 
and,  for  the  most  part,  in  a large  way ; 

France  hath  flaw’d  the  league,  and  hath  attach’d 
Our  merchants'  goods  at  Bourdeaux  -Shakspeare 
Hence  these  two  terms  may  be  used  in  contradistinction 
to  each  other;  ‘Many  traders  will  necessitate  wiev 
chants  to  trade  for  le.ss  profit,  and  consequently  be 
more  frugal.’ — Child  (On  Trade).  A tradesman  is  p 


336 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


retail  dealer  who  comtnonly  exposes  his  goods  in  a 
publick  shop;  ‘From  a plain  tradesman  in  a shop, 
he  is  now  grown  a very  rich  country  gentleman.’ — 
Arbuthnot. 


ARTIST  ARTISAN,  ARTIFICER,  MECHANICK. 

Artist  is  a practiser  of  the  fine  arts ; artisan  is  a 
practiser  of  the  vulgar  arts ; artificer,  from  ars  and 
facie,  is  one  who  does  or  makes  according  to  art; 
neckanick  is  an  artisan  in  the  mechanick  arts. 

The  airtist  ranks  higher  than  the  artisan : the  former 
requires  intellectual  refinement  in  the  exercise  of  his 
art;  the  latter  requires  nothing  but  to  know  the 
general  rules  of  his  art.  The  musician,  painter,  and 
sculptor  are  artists  ; ‘ If  ever  this  country  saw  an  age 
of  artists,  it  is  the  present ; her  painters,  sculptors, 
and  engravers  are  now  the  only  schools  properly  so 
called.’—  Cumberland.  The  carpenter,  the  sign- 
painter,  and  the  blacksmith  are  artisans ; ‘ The  mer- 
chant, tradesman,  and  artisan  will  have  their  profit 
upon  all  the  multiplied  wants,  comforts,  and  indul- 
gences of  civilized  life.’ — Cumberland.  The  arti- 
ficer is  an  intermediate  term  between  the  artist  and 
the  artisan : manufacturers  are  artificers  ; and  South, 
in  his  sermons,  calls  the  Author  of  the  universe  the 
great  Artificer;  ‘ Man  must  be  in  a certain  degree  the 
artificer  oi  his  own  happiness;  the  tools  and  materials 
may  be  put  into  his  hands  by  the  bounty  of  Provi- 
dence, but  the  workmanship  musfbehis  own.’ — Cum- 
berland. The  mechanick  is  that  species  of  artisan 
who  works  at  arts  purely  mechanical,  in  distinction 
from  those  which  contribute  to  the  completion  and  em- 
bellishment of  any  objects ; on  this  ground  a shoe- 
maker is  a mechanick,  but  a common  painter  is  a 
simple  artisan;  ‘The  concurring  assent  of  the  world 
in  preferring  gentlemen  to  mechanicks  seems  founde 
in  that  preference  which  the  rational  part  of  our  na- 
ture is  entitled  to  above  the  animal.’ — Bartlett. 


WRITER,  PENMAN,  SCRIBE. 

fVriter  is  an  indefinite  term  ; every  one  who  writes 
,3  called  a writer ; but  none  are  penmen  but  sucb  as 
s.re  expert  at  their  pen.  Many  who  profess  to  teach 
writing  are  themselves  but  sorry  writers : the  best 
penmen  are  not  always  the  best  teachers  of  writing. 
The  scribe  is  one  who  writes  for  the  purpose  of  copy- 
ing : he  is  therefore  an  official  writer. 

WRITER,  AUTHOR. 

If  riler  refers  us  to  the  act  of  writing ; author  to  the 
act  of  inventing.  There  are  therefore  many  writers, 
who  are  not  authors ; but  there  is  no  author  of  books 
who  may  not  be  termed  a writer : compilers  and  con- 
tributors to  periodical  works  are  writers,  but  not  au- 
thors. Poets  and  historians  are  more  properly  termed 
authors  than  writers. 

FARMER,  HUSBANDMAN,  AGRICULTURIST. 

Farmer,  from  the  Saxon  feorm  food,  signifies  one 
managing  a farm,  or  cultivating  the  ground  for  a sub- 
sistence ; 

To  check  this  plague,  the  skilful /ar??)er  chaff 
And  blazing  straw  before  his  orchard  burns. 

Thomson. 

Husbandm.an  is  one  following  husbandry,  that  is,  the 
tillage  of  land  by  manual  labour ; the  farmer,  there- 
fore conducts  the  concern,  and  the  husbandman  labours 
under  his  direction ; 

Old  husbandmen  I at  Sabinnm  know. 

Who,  for  another  year,  dig,  plough,  and  sow. 

Denham. 

Agriculturist,  from  the  Latin  ager  a field,  and  colo  to 
till,  signifies  any  one  engaged  in  the  art  of  cultivation. 
The  farmer  is  always  a practitioner ; the  agriculturist 
maybe  a mere  theorist : the  farmer  follows  husbandry 
solely  as  a means  of  living;  the  agriculturist  follows 
it  as  a science:  the  former  tills  the  land  upon  given 
admitted  principles;  the  latter  frames  new  principles,  or 
alters  those  that  are  established.  Between  the  farmer 
and  the  agriculturist  there  is  the  same  difference  as 
between  practice  and  theory;  the  former  maybe  as- 


sisted by  tbe  latter,  so  long  as  they  can  go  hand  Is 
hand;  but  in  the  case  of  a collision,  the/armer  will  beof 
more  service  to  himself  and  his  country  than  the  agri- 
culturist : farming  brings  immediate  profit  frv)m  per- 
sonal service  ; agriculture  may  only  promise  future, 
and  consequently  contingent,  advantages ; ‘An  im- 
proved and  improving  agriculture,  which  implies  a 
great  augmentation  of  labour,  has  not  yet  found  itself 
at  a stand.’ — Burke. 


RURAL,  RUSTICK. 

Although  both  these  terms,  from  the  Latin  rus  eoun ' 
try,  signify  belonging  to  the  country ; yet  the  former  is 
used  in  a good,  and  the  latter  in  a bad  or  an  indiljerent 
sense.  Rural  applies  to  all  country  objects,  except 
man ; it  is,  therefore,  always  connected  with  the 
charms  of  nature:  rustick  applies  only  to  persons,  or 
what  is  personal,  in  the  country,  and  is,  therefore, 
always  associated  with  the  want  of  culture.  Rural 
scenery  is  always  interesting ; but  the  rustick  manners 
of  the  peasants  have  frequently  too  much  that  is  un- 
cultivated and  rude  in  them  to  be  agreeable ; a rural 
habitation  may  be  fitted  for  persons  in  a higher  sta- 
tion ; 

E’en  now,  methinks,  as  pondering  here  1 stand, 

I see  the  rural  virtues  leave  the  land. 

Goldsmith 

A rustick  cottage  is  adapted  only  for  the  poorer  inha 
bitauts  of  the  country ; ‘ The  freedom  and  laxity  of  t 
rustick  life  produces  remarkable  particularities  of  con- 
duct.’— Johnson. 


COUNTRYMAN,  PEASANT,  SWAIN,  HIND, 
RUSTICK,  CLOWN. 

Countrijman,  that  is,  a man  of  the  country,  or  ont 
belonging  to  the  country,  is  the  general  term  appli 
cable  to  all  inhabiting  the  country,  in  distinctiom  fronr 
a townsman;  peasant,  in  French  paysan,  from  pays, 
is  employed  in  the  same  sense  for  any  countryman 
among  the  inhabitants  of  the  Continent,  and  is  in  con- 
sequence used  in  poetry  or  tbe  grave  style ; swain  in 
the  Saxon  signified  a labourer,  but  it  has  acquired 
from  its  use  in  poetry,  the  higher  signification  of  a 
shepherd  ; hind  may  in  all  probability  signify  one  wlic 
is  in  the  back  ground,  an  inferiour  ; rustick,  from  rus 
the  country,  signifies  one  born  and  bred  in  the  coun 
try ; clown,  contracted  from  colonus  a husbandman, 
signifies  of  course  a menial  in  the  country 

All  these  terms  are  employed  as  epitlrets  to  persons, 
and  principally  to  such  as  live  in  the  country:  the 
term  countryman  is  taken  in  an  indifferent  sense,  and 
may  comprehend  persons  of  different  descriptions;  it 
designates  nothing  more  than  habitual  residence  in  the 
country  ; ‘ Though  considering  my  former  condition,  I 
may  now  be  called  a countryman;  yet  you  cannot  call 
me  a rustick  (as  you  would  imply  in  your  letter)  as 
long  as  I live  in  so  civil  and  noble  a family.’— Howell. 
The  other  terms  are  employed  for  the  lower  orders  of 
countrymen,  but  with  collateral  ideas  favourable  or 
unfavourable  annexed  to  them.  The  peasant  is  a 
country  manwho  follows  rural  occupations  for  a liveli 
hood.  He  is  commonly  considered  as  a labourer,  and 
contracted  in  his  education  ; ‘ If  by  the  poor  measures 
and  proportions  of  a man  we  may  take  an  estimate  of 
this  great  action  (our  Saviour’s  coming  in  the  flesh), 
we  shall  quickly  find  how  irksome  it  is  to  flesh  and 
blood  “ to  have  been  happy,’’  to  descend  some  steps 
lower,  to  exchange  the  estate  of  a prince  for  that  of  a 
peasant.’— South.  Swain,  hind,  both  convey  the  idea 
of  innocence  in  an  humble  station,  and  are  therefot# 
always  employed  in  poetry  in  a good  sense; 

As  thus  the  snows  arise,  and  foul  and  fierce 
All  winter  drives  along  the  darken’d  air. 

In  his  own  loose  revolving  fields  the  swain 
Disastered  stands. — Thomson. 

The  lab’ring  hind  his  oxen  shall  disjoin. 

Drydkn. 

Rustick  and  clown  both  convey  the  idea  of  that  un 
couth  rudeness  and  ignorance  which  is  in  reality  found 
among  the  lowest  orders  of  countrymen; 

In  arguing  too  the  parson  own’u  his  skill. 

For  ev’n  tho’  vanquish’d  he  could  argue  still’ 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


337 


While  words  of  learned  length  and  thundering 
sound 

Amaz'd  the  gazing  rusticks  rang’d  around. 

Goldsmith. 

Th’  astonisli’d  mother  finds  a vacant  nest, 

By  the  hard  liand  of  unrelenting  clowns 
Robb’d.— Thomson. 

CULTIVATION,  TILLAGE,  HUSBANDRY. 

Cultivation  has  a much  more  comprehensive  mean- 
Jig  than  either  tillage  or  husbandry ; 

O softly  swelling  hills 
On  which  the  power  of  cultivation  lies. 

And  joys  to  see  the  wonders  of  his  toil. 

Thomson. 

Tillage  is  a mode  of  cultivation  that  extends  no  far- 
ther than  the  preparation  of  the  ground  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  seed  ; cultivation  includes  the  whole  pro- 
cess by  which  tlie  produce  of  the  earth  is  brought  to 
maturity.  We  may  till  without  cultivating,  but  we 
cannot  cultivate,  as  far  as  respects  the  soil,  without 
tillage  ; ‘ The  south  east  parts  of  Britain  had  already 
before  the  age  of  Caesar  made  the  first  and  most  requi- 
site step  towards  a civil  settlement : and  the  Britons 
by  tillage  and  agriculture  had  there  increased  to  a 
great  multitude.’— Humk.  Husbandry  is  more  exten- 
sive in  its  meaning  than  tillage,  but  not  so  extensive 
ns  cultivation;  ‘We  find  an  image  of  the  two  states, 
tlie  contemplative  and  the  active,  figured  out  in  the 
persons  of  Abel  and  Cain,  by  tlie  two  primitive  trades, 
that  of  the  shepherd  and  that  of  tlie  husbandman.' — 
Bacon. 

Tillage  respects  the  act  only  of  tilling  the  ground  ; 
husbandry  is  employed  for  the  office  of  cultivating  for 
domestick  purposes.  H cultivator  is  a general  term, 
defined  only  by  the  object  that  is  cultivated,  as  the  cul- 
tivator of  the  grape,  or  the  olive;  a tiller  is  a labourer 
in  the  soil  who  performs  that  office  for  another;  a 
husbandman  is  an  humble  species  of  cultivator,  who 
himself  performs  the  whole  office  of  cultivating  the 
ground  for  domestick  purposes. 


SEAMAN,  WATERMAN,  SAILOR,  MARINER, 
BOATMAN,  FERRYMAN. 

All  these  words  denote  persons  occupied  in  naviga- 
tion ; the  seaman,  as  the  word  implies,  follows  his  busi- 
ness on  the  sea ; the  waterman  is  one  who  gets  his  live- 
lihood on  fresh  water ; ‘ Many  a lawyer  who  makes  but 
an  indiff’erent  figure  at  the  bar  might  have  made  a very 
elegant  waterman.'— ‘^ovni.  The  sailor  and  the  ma- 
riner are  both  specifick  terms  to  designate  the  seaman ; 
every  sailor  and  mariner  is  a seaman;  although  every 
seaman  is  not  a sailor  or  mariner ; tlie  former  is  one 
who  is  employed  about  the  laborious  part  of  the 
vessel ; the  latter  is  one  who  traverses  the  ocean  to 
and  fro,  who  is  attached  to  the  water  and  passes  his 
life  upon  it. 

Men  of  all  ranks  are  denominated  seamen,  whether 
officers  or  men,  whether  in  a merchantman  or  in  a 
king’s  ship; 

Thus  the  toss’d  seaman,  after  boist’rous  storms. 
Lands  on  his  country’s  breast. — Lee. 
bailor  is  only  used  for  the  common  men,  or,  in  the  sea 
phrase,  for  those  before  the  mast,  particularly  in  vessels 
of  war;  hence  our  sailors  and  soldiers  are  spoken  of 
as  the  defenders  of  our  country ; 

Through  storms  and  tempests  so  the  sailor  drives. 

Shirley. 

A mariner  is  an  independent  kind  of  seaman  who 
rnanages  his  own  vessel  and  goes  on  an  expedition  on 
his  own  account ; fishermen  and  those  who  trade  alonj 
the  coast  are  in  a particular  manner  distinguished  by 
the  name  of  mariners  ; 

Welcome  to  me,  aa  to  a sinking  mariner 
J’he  lucky  plank  that  bears  him  to  the  shore. 

Lee. 

fVaterman,  boatman,  and  ferryman  are  employed 
tor  persons  who  are  engaged  with ‘boats;  but  the  term 
waterman  is  specifically  applied  to  such  whose  busi- 
ness it  is  to  let  out  their  boats  and  themselves  for  a 
?iven  time;  the  boatman  mavu.se  a boat  onlyocca- 

22 


sionally  for  the  transfer  of  goods;  a ferryman-oses  a 
boat  only  for  the  conveyance  of  persons  or  goods 
across  a particular  river  or  piece  of  water. 

MARITIME,  MARINE,  NAVAL,  NAUTICAL 

Maritime  and  marine,  from  the  Latin  mare  a sea, 
signifies  belonging  to  the  sea;  naval,  from  navis  a 
ship,  signifies  belonging  to  a slii|» ; and  nautical,  from 
nauta  a sailor,  signifies  belonging  to  a sailor,  or  to 
navigation. 

Countries  and  places  are  denominated  maritime  from 
their  proximity  to  the  sea,  or  their  great  intercourse  by 
sea  ; hence  England  is  called  the  most  maritime  nation 
in  Europe  ; ‘ Octavianus  reduced  Lepidus  to  a neces 
sity  to  beg  his  life,  and  be  content  to  lead  the  remain- 
der of  it  in  a mean  condition  at  Circeii,  a small  mari 
time  town  among  the  Latins.’ — Prideaux.  Marine  is 
a technical  term,  employed  by  persons  in  office,  to  de- 
note that  which  is  officially  transacted  with  regard  to 
the  sea  in  distinction  from  what  passes  on  land : hence 
we  speak  of  the  marines  as  a species  of  soldiers  acting 
by  sea,  of  the  marine  society,  or  marine  stores;  ‘A 
man  of  a very  grave  aspect  required  notice  to  be  given 
of  his  intention  to  set  out  on  a certain  day  on  a sub- 
marine voyage.’ — Johnson. 

JVaval  is  another  term  of  art  as  opposed  to  military 
and  used  in  regard  to  the  arrangements  of  governmen: 
or  commerce ; hence  we  speak  of  naval  affairs,  naval 
officers,  naval  tacticks,  and  the  like  ; ‘ Sextus  Pompey 
having  together  such  a naval  force  as  made  up  3^ 
vessels,  seized  Sicily.’ — Prideaux.  Mautical  is  a 
scientifick  term,  connected  with  the  science  of  naviga- 
tionjor  the  management  of  vessels ; hence  we  talk  of 
nautical  instruction,  of  nautical  calculations ; ‘ He 
elegantly  showed  by  whom  he  tvas  drawn,  which  de 
painted  the  nautical  compass  with  aut  magnes,  aut 
magna' — Camden.  The  maritime  laws  of  England 
are  essential  for  the  preservation  of  the  naval  power 
which  it  has  so  justly  acquired.  The  marine  of  Eng 
land  is  one  of  its  glories.  The  naval  administration 
is  one  of  the  most  important  branches  of  our  govern- 
ment in  the  time  of  war.  JSTautkal  tables,  and  nau. 
tical  almanacks  have  been  expressly  formed  for  the 
benefit  of  all  who  apply  themselves  to  nautical  sub 
jects. 


MARTIAL,  WARLIKE,  MILITARY,  SOLDIER 
LIKE. 

Martial,  from  Mars,  the  god  of  war,  is  the  Latin 
term  for  belonging  to  war:  warlike  signifies  literally 
like  war,  having  the  image  of  ivar.  In  sense  these 
terms  approach  so  near  to  each  other,  that  they  may 
be  easily  admitted  to  supply  each  other’s  place;  but 
custom,the  lawgiver  of  language,  has  assigned  an  office 
to  each  that  makes  it  not  altogether  indifferent  how 
they  are  used.  Martial  is  both  a technical  and  .a 
more  comprehensive  term  than  warlike  ; on  the  other 
hand,  warlike  designates  the  temper  of  the  individua' 
more  than  martial : we  speak  of  martial  array,  mar 
tial  preparations,  martial  law,  a court  martial; 

An  active  prince,  and  prone  to  martial  deeds. 

Dryden. 

We  speak  of  a warlike  nation,  meaning  a nation  who 
is  fond  of  war  ; a warlike  spirit  or  temper,  also  a war. 
like  appearance,  inasmuch  as  the  temper  is  visible  in 
the  air  and  carriage  of  a man  ; 

Last  from  the  Volscians  fair  Camilla  came. 

And  led  her  warlike  troops,  a warriour  dame. 

Dryden. 

Military,  from  miles  a soldier,  signifies  belonging  to 
a soldier,  and  soldier-like  like  a soldier.  Military  \r\ 
comparison  with  martial  is  a term  of  particular  import ; 
martial  having  always  a reference  to  war  in  general, 
and  military  to  the  proceedings  consequent  upon  that: 
hence  we  speak  of  military  \n  distinction  from  naval, 
as  military  expeditions,  military  movements,  and  the 
like ; ‘ The  Tlascalans  were,  like  all  unpolished  nations, 
strangers  to  military  order  and  discipline.’— Robert- 
son. In  characterizing  the  men,  we  should  say  that 
they  had  a martial  appearance  ; but  in  speaking  of  a 
particular  place,  we  should  say  it  had  a military  ap- 
pearance, if  there  were  many  soldiers  in  it. 

Military,  compared  with  soldier-like,  is  used  fin  the 


S3S 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


<#ody,  and  the  latter  for  the  individual.  Tlie  whole 
army  is  termed  the  mHitary : the  conduct  of  an  indi- 
vidual is  or  otherwise  ; ‘ Tlie  fears  of  the 

Spaniards  ted  them  to  presumptuous  and  unsoldier-like 
discussions  concerning  the  propriety  of  their  general’s 
measures.’ — Robertson. 


TO  PAINT,  DEPICT,  DELINEATE,  SKETCH. 

Paint  and  depict  both  come  from  tlie  Latin  pingo, 
to  represent  forms  and  figures : as  a verb  to  paint  is 
either  literally  to  represent  figures  on  paper,  or  to  re- 
present circumstances  and  events  by  means  of  words ; 
to  depict  is  used  only  in  this  latter  sense,  but  the  former 
word  e.xpresses  a greater  exercise  of  the  imagination 
than  the  latter  : it  is  the  art  of  the  poet  to  paint  nature 
in  lively  colours  : it  is  the  art  of  the  historian  or  nar- 
rator to  depict  a real  scene  of  misery  in  strong  colours. 
As  nouns,  painting  rather  describes  the  action  or  ope- 
ration, and  picture  the  result. 

When  we  speak  of  a good  painting,  we  think  par- 
ticularly of  its  execution  as  to  drapery,  disposition  of 
colours,  and  the  like ; 

Tlie  painting  is  almost  the  natural  man, 

He  is  but  outside. — Shakspkark. 

When  we  speak  of  a fine  picture,  we  refer  immediately 
to  the  object  represented,  and  the  impression  which  it 
is  capable  of  producing  on  the  beholder ; ‘ A picture 
is  a poem  without  words.’ — Addison.  Paintings  are 
confined  either  to  oil  paintings  or  paintings  in  colours; 
but  every  drawing,  whether  in  pencil,  in  crayons,  or  in 
India  ink,  may  produce  a picture;  and  we  have  like- 
wise pictures  in  embroidery,  pictures  in  tapestry,  and 
pictures  in  Mosaic. 

Delineate,  in  Latin  delineatus  participle  of  delinio, 
signifies  literally  to  draw  the  lines  which  include  the 
contents ; sketch  is  in  the  German  skizze,  Italian 
schizzo. 

Both  these  terms  are  properly  employed  in  the  art  of 
drawing,  and  figuratively  applied  to  moral  subjects  to 
express  a species  of  descriptions : a delineation  ex- 
presses something  more  than  a sketch;  the  former  con- 
veying not  merely  the  general  outlines  or  more  pronii- 
uent  features,  but  also  as  much  of  the  details  as  would 
serve  to  form  a whole ; the  latter,  however,  seldom 
contains  more  than  some  broad  touches,  by  which  an 
imperfect  idea  of  the  subject  is  conveyed. 

A delineation  therefore  may  be  characterized  as 
accurate,  and  s.  sketch  as  hasty  or  imperfect : an  atten- 
tive observer  who  has  passed  some  years  in  a country 
may  be  enabled  to  give  an  accurate  delineation  of  the 
laws,  customs,  manners,  and  character  of  its  inha- 
bitants: ‘ When  the  Spaniards  first  arrived  in  America 
expresses  we'-e  sent  to  the  emperor  of  Mexico  in  paint 
ing,  and  the  news  of  his  country  delineated  by  the 
strokes  of  a pencil.’ — Addison.  A traveller  who 
merely  passes  through  a country  can  give  only  a hasty 
sketch  from  what  passes  before  his  eyes  ; ‘ Sketch  out 
a rough  draught  of  my  country,  that  I may  be  able  to 
judge  whether  a return  to  it  be  really  eligible.’— Atter- 
BURY. 


SKETCH,  OUTLINES. 

A sketch  may  form  a whole ; outlines  are  but  a part : 
the  sketch  may  comprehend  the  outlines  and  some  of 
the  particulars;  outlines,  as  the  term  bespeaks,  com- 
prehend only  that  which  is  on  the  exteriour  surface : 
the  sketch  in  drawing,  may  serve  as  a landscape,  as  it 
presents  some  of  the  features  of  a country ; but  the 
outlines  serve  only  as  bounding  lines,  within  which 
the  sketch  may  be  formed.  So  in  the  moral  applica- 
tion we  speak  of  the  sketches  of  countries,  characters, 
manners,  and  the  like,  which  serve  as  a description  ; 
but  of  the  outlines  of  a plan,  of  a work,  a project,  and 
the  like,  which  serve  as  a basis  on  which  the  subordi- 
nate parts  are  to  be  formed : barbarous  nations  present 
us  with  rude  sketches  of  nature;  an  abridgment  is 
little  more  than  the  outlines  of  a larger  work  ; 

In  few,  to  close  the  whole, 

The  moral  muse  has  shadow’d  out  a sketch 
Of  most  our  weakness  needs  believe  or  do. 

Young. 

This  is  the  ouMiut  of  the  fable  (King  Lear).’— 

'OHNSON 


ASTRONOMY,  ASTROLOGY 

Jistronomy  is  compounded  of  the  Greek  ds  n9  and 
vdpoi,  signifying  the  laws  of  the  stars,  or  a knowledge 
of  their  laws  ; astrology,  from  dyijp  and  Adyos,  signi 
fies  a reasoning  on  the  stars. 

The  * astronomer  studies  the  course  and  movement 
of  the  stars  ; the  astrologer  reasons  on  their  influence. 

The  former  observes  the  state  of  the  heavens,  mark* 
the  order  of  time,  the  eclipses  and  the  revolutions 
which  arise  out  of  the  established  laws  of  motion  in 
the  immense  universe : the  latter  jiredicts  events, 
draws  horoscopes,  and  announces  all  the  vicissitudes 
of  rain  and  snow,  heat  and  cold,  &c.  The  astrono- 
mer calculates  and  seldom  errs,  as  his  calculations  are 
built  on  fixed  rules  and  actual  observations ; the  astro- 
loger deals  in  conjectures,  and  his  imagination  often 
deceives  him.  The  astronomer  explains  what  he 
knows,  and  merits  the  esteem  of  the  learned;  the  as- 
trologer hazards  what  he  thinks,  and  seeks  to  please. 

A thirst  for  knowledge  leads  to  the  study  of  astro 
nomy : an  inquietude  about  the  future  has  given  rise 
to  astrology.  Many  important  results  for  the  arts  of 
navigation,  agriculture,  and  of  civil  society  in  general, 
have  been  drawn  from  astronomical  researches:  many 
serious  and  mischievous  eflfects  have  been  produced  on 
the  minds  of  the  ignorant,  from  their  faith  in  tlie  dreams 
of  the  astrologer. 

FACTOR,  AGENT. 

Thongh  both  these  terms,  according  to  their  origin, 
imply  a maker  or  doer,  yet,  at  present,  they  have  a 
distinct  signification  ; the  word  factor  is  used  in  a 
limited,  and  the  word  agent  in  a general  sense : the 
factor  only  buys  and  sells  on  the  account  of  others ; 
‘ Their  devotion  (that  is  of  the  puritanical  rebels) 
served  all  along  but  as  an  instrument  to  their  avarice, 
as  a factor  or  under  agent  to  their  extortion.’ — South. 
The  agent  transacts  every  sort  of  business  in  general ; 
‘ No  expectations,  indeed,  were  then  formed  from  re- 
newing a direct  application  to  the  French  regicides 
through  the  agent  general  for  the  humiliation  of  sove- 
reigns.’— Burke.  Merchants  and  manufacturers  em- 
ploy factors  abroad  to  dispose  of  goods  transmitted ; 
lawyers  are  frequently  employed  as  agents  in  the  re- 
ceipt and  payment  of  money,  the  transfer  of  estatea, 
and  various  other  pecuniary  concerns. 

FREIGHT,  CARGO,  LADING,  LOAD,  BURDEN. 

Freight,  through  the  northern  languages  in  all  pro- 
bability comes  from  the  Latin  fero  to  bring,  signifying 
the  thing  brought ; cargo,  in  French  cargaison,  pro- 
bably a variation  from  carriage,  is  employed  for  all 
the  contents  of  a vessel,  with  the  exception  of  the 
persons  that  it  carries ; lading  and  load  (in  German 
laden  to  load.),  comes  most  probably  from  the  word 
last  a burden,  signifying  the  burden  or  weight  im- 
posed upon  any  carriage  ; burden,  which  through  the 
medium  of  the  northern  languages,  comes  from  the 
Greek  0<5pro?,  and  epipm  to  carry,  conveys  the  idea  of 
weight  which  is  borne  by  the  vessel. 

A captain  speaks  of  the/re?^/tZ  of  his  ship  as  tha* 
which  is  the  object  of  his  voyage,  by  which  all  who  arc 
interested  in  it  are  to  make  their  profit ; the  value  and 
nature  of  the  freight  are  the  first  objects  of  consider 
ation ; he  speaks  of  the  lading  as  the  thing  which  is  to 
fill  theship;  the  quantity,  and  weight  of  tha  lading. 
are  to  be  taken  into  the  consideration : he  speaks  of 
the  cargo  as  that  which  goes  with  the  ship,  and  belongs 
as  it  were  to  the  ship  ; the  amount  of  the  cargo  is  that 
which  is  first  thought  of : he  speaks  of  the  burden  as 
that  which  his  vessel  will  bear ; it  is  the  property  of 
the  ship  which  is  to  be  estimated. 

The  ship-broker  regulates  the  freight ; the  captain 
and  the  crew  dispose  the  lading ; the  agent  sees  to  the 
disposal  of  the  cargo : the  ship-builder  determines  the 
burden : the  carrier  looks  to  the  load  which  he  has  to 
carry.  The  freight  must  consist  of  such  merchandise 
as  will  pay  for  the  transport  and  risk : the  lading  must 
consist  of  such  things  as  can  be  most  conveniently 
stowed:  the  value  of  a cargo  depends  not  only  on  thf 
nature  of  the  commodity,  but  the  market  to  which 
it  is  carried;  the  burden  of  a vessel  is  estimated  by 
the  number  of  tons  w’hich  it  can  carry.  Freight  and 

* Abbe  Girard  ‘ Astronomi’J,  Astrologue  ' 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  33y 


burden  ma^'  H)metimcs  be  nscd  in  a figurative  appli- 
cation ; 

Haste,  m3'  <e»r  father  (’t  is  no  iime  to  wait), 

And  load  my  (^alders  with  a willing  freight. 

Drydkn. 

The  surging  air  receives 
Its  plumy  burden. — Thomson. 


MERCANTILE,  COMMERCIAL. 

Mercantile,  from  merchandise,  respects  the  actual 
Iransaction  of  business,  or  a transfer  of  merchandise 
by  sale  or  purchase  ; commercial  comprehends  the 
theory  and  practice  of  commerce : hence  we  speak  in 
a peculiar  manner  of  a mercantile  house,  a mercantile 
town,  a mercantile  situation,  and  the  like;  ‘Such  is 
the  happiness,  the  hope  of  which  seduced  me  from  the 
duties  and  pleasures  of  a mercantile  life.’ — Johnson. 
But  of  a commercial  education,  a commercial  people, 
commercial  speculations,  and  the  like;  ‘ The  commer- 
cial world  is  very  frequently  put  into  confusion  by  the 
bankruptcy  of  merchants.’— Johnson. 


VENAL,  MERCENARY,  HIRELING. 

Fenal,  from  the  Latin  venalis,  signifies  saleable  or 
ready  to  be  sold,  which,  applied  as  it  commonly  is  to 
persons,  is  a much  stronger  term  than  mercenary.  A 
venal  man  gives  up  all  principle  for  interest ; a mer- 
cenary man  seeks  his  interest  without  regard  to  princi- 
ple : venal  writers  are  such  as  write  in  favour  of  the 
cause  that  can  promote  them  to  riches  or  honours  ; a 
servant  is  commonly  a mercenary  who  gives  his  ser- 
vices according  as  he  is  paid  : those  who  are  loudest  in 
their  professions  of  political  purity  are  the  best  sub- 
jects for  a minister  to  make  venal  : 

The  minister,  well  pleas’d  at  small  e.\pense 
To  silence  so  much  rude  impertinence. 

With  squeeze  and  whisper  yields  to  his  demands. 
And  on  the  venal  list  enroll’d  he  stands.— Jenvns. 
mercenary  spirit  is  engendered  in  the  minds  of  those 
^10  devote  themselves  exclusively  to  trade ; ‘ For 
heir  assistance  they  repair  to  the  northern  steel,  and 
bring  in  an  unnatural,  mercenary  crew.’ — South.  | 

Hireling  from  hire,  and  mercenary  from  merx  wages, 
are  applied  to  any  one  who  follows  a sordid  emijloy- 
ment;  but  hireling  may  sometimes  be  taken  in  its  pro- 
per and  less  reproachful  sense,  for  one  who  is  hired  as  a 
servant  to  perform  an  allotted  work ; but  in  general  they 
are  both  reproachful  epithets:  the  former  having  par- 
ticular reference  to  the  meanness  of  the  employment, 
and  the  latter  to  the  sordid  character  of  the  person. 
Hireling  prints  are  those  which  are  in  the  pay  of  a 
party;  ‘It  was  not  his  carrying  the  bag  which  made 
Judas  a thief  and  a hireling.' — South,  ^mercenary 
principle  will  sometimes  actuate  men  in  the  highest 
station ; ‘ These  soldiers  were  nut  citizens,  but  mer- 
cenary, sordid  deserters.’- Burke. 


COxMMODITY,  GOODS,  MERCHANDISE, 
WARE. 

These  terms  agree  in  expressing  articles  of  trade 
under  various  circumstances. 

Commodity,  in  Latin  commoditas,  signifies  in  its 
abstract  sense  convenience,  and  in  an  extended  appli- 
cation the  thing  that  is  convenient  or  fit  for  use,  which 
being  also  saleable,  the  word  has  been  employed  for 
the  thing  that  is  sold  ; goods,  which  denotes  the  thing 
that  is  good,  has  derived  its  use  from  the  same  analogy 
in  its  sense  us  in  the  former  case;  merchandise,  in 
French  marchandise,  Latin  mercatura  or  merj^  He- 
brew *130  to  sell,  signifies  a saleable  matter:  ware,  in 
Saxon  ware,  German,  &c.  waare,  signifies  properly  any 
thing  manufactured,  and,  by  an  extension  of  the  sense, 
an  article  for  sale. 

Commodity  is  employed  only  for  articles  of  the  first 
necessity;  it  is  the  source  of  comfort  and  object  of  in- 
dustry. Goods  is  applied  to  every  thing  belonging  to 
tradesmen,  for  which  there  is  a stipulated  value:  they 
are  sold  retail,  and  are  the  proper  objects  of  trade. 
Jl/'JrcAawdrse  applies  to  what  belongs  to  merchants;  it 
is  the  object  of  commerce.  Wares  are  ihanufactured, 
arid  may  be  either  goods  or  merchandise.  A country 


has  its  commodities  ; a shopkeeper  his  goods,  a mer 
chant  his  merchandise  ; a manulacturer  his  wares. 

The  most  important  commodities  in  a country  are 
what  are  denominated  staple  commodities,  which  con- 
stitute its  main  riches:  yet,  although  England  has 
fewer  of  such  commodities  than  almost  any  other  na- 
tion, it  has  been  enabled,  by  the  industry  and  energy  of 
its  inhabitants,  the  peculiar  excellence  of  its  govern- 
ment, and  its  happy  insular  situation,  not  only  to  obtain 
the  commodities  of  other  countries,  but  to  increase 
their  number,  for  the  convenience  of  the  whole  world 
and  its  own  aggrandizement : ‘ Men  must  have  made 
some  considerable  progress  towards  civilization  before 
they  acquired  the  idea  of  property  so  as  to  be  acquaint- 
ed with  the  most  simple  of  all  contracts,  that  of  ex- 
changing by  barter  one  rude  commodity  for  another.’ — 
Robertson.  It  is  the  interest  of  every  tradesman  to 
provide  himself  with  such  goods  as  he  can  recommend 
to  his  customers ; the  proper  choice  of  which  depends 
on  judgement  and  experience;  ‘It gives  me  very  great 
scandal  to  observe,  wherever  I go,  how  much  skill  in 
buying  all  manner  of  goods  there  is  necessary  to  defend 
yourself  from  being  cheated.’ — Steele.  The  convey- 
ance of  merchandise  into  England  is  always  attended 
with  considerable  risk,  as  they  must  be  transported  by 
water : on  the  continent  it  is  very  slow  and  expensive, 
as  they  are  generally  transported  by  land;  ‘If  we  con- 
sider this  expensive  voyage,  which  is  undertaken  in 
search  of  knowledge,  and  how  few  there  are  who  take 
in  any  considerable  merchandise ; how  hard  is  it,  that 
the  very  small  number  who  are  distinguished  with 
abilities  to  know  how  to  vend  their  zaares,  should  suffer 
being  plundered  by  privateers  under  the  very  cannon 
that  should  protect  them!’ — Addison.  All  kinds  of 
wares  are  not  the  most  saleable  commodities,  but 
eartheii  ware  claims  a preference  over  every  other 


GOODS,  FURNITURE,  CHATTELS,  MOVE 
ABLES,  EFFECTS. 

All  these  terms  are  applied  to  such  things  as  belong 
to  an  individual ; the  first  term  is  the  most  general 
both  in  sense  and  application  ; all  the  rest  are  species. 

Farnitwrc comprehends  all  household  goods;  where 
fore  in  regard  to  an  individual,  supposing  the  house  to 
contain  all  he  has,  the  general  is  put  for  the  specifick 
term,  as  when  one  speaks  of  a person’s  moving  his 
goods  for  his  furniture : but  in  the  strict  sense  goods 
comprehends  more  than  furniture,  including  not  only 
that  which  is  adapted  for  the  domestick  purposes  of 
a family,  but  also  every  thing  which  is  of  value  to  a 
person:  the  chairs  and  tables  are  a part  of  furniture  ; 
papers,  books,  and  money  are  included  among  his 
goods;  it  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  goods,  even  in  its 
most  limited  sense,  is  of  wider  import  ihm  f urniture  ; 
‘Now  I give  up  my  shop  anddisposeof  all  my  poetical 
goods  at  once ; I must  therefore  desire  that  the  publick 
would  please  to  take  them  in  the  gross,  and  that  every 
body  would  turn  over  what  he  does  not  like.’ — Prior. 
‘ Considering  that*  your  houses,  your  place  and  furni- 
ture, are  not  suitable  to  your  quality,  I conceive  that 
your  expense  ought  to  be  reduced  to  two-thirds  of  your 
estate.’ — Wentworth. 

Chattels,  which  is  probably  changed  from  cattle,  is 
a term  not  in  ordinary  use,  but  still  sufficiently  employed 
to  deserve  notice.  It  comprehends  that  species  of 
goods  which  is  in  a special  manner  separated  from 
one’s  person  and  house  ; a man’s  cattle,  his  implements 
of  husbandry,  the  alienable  rights  which  he  has  in  land 
or  buildings,  are  all  comprehended  under  chattels; 
hence  the  propriety  of  the  expression  to  seize  a man’s 
goods  and  chattels,  as  denoting  the  disposable  property 
which  he  has  about  his  person  or  at  a distance.  Some- 
times this  word  is  used  in  the  singular  number,  and 
also  in  the  figurative; 

Honour’s  a lease  for  lives  to  come. 

And  cannot  be  extended  from 

The  legal  tenant;  ’tis  a ehattel 

Not  to  be  forfeited  in  battle.— Hudibras 

Moveables  comprehends  all  the  other  terms  in  the 
limited  application  to  property,  as  far  as  it  admits  of 
being  removed  from  one  place  to  the  other ; it  is  op 
posed  either  to  fixtures,  when  speaking  of  furniture,- 
or  to  land  as  contrasted  to  goods  and  rkattels ; ‘ Thera 
can  be  no  doubt  but  that  moveables  of  every  kioi 


340 


SJNGLISH  SYNOiWMES. 


become  sooner  appioprialed  tlian  tlie  permanent,  sub- 
«tantial  soil.’ — Blackstone. 

Effects  is  a term  of  nearly  as  extensive  a significa- 
tion as  goods,  but  not  so  extensive  in  application: 
whatever  a man  has  that  is  of  any  supposed  value,  or 
convertible  into  money,  is  entitled  his  goods ; whatever 
a man  has  that  can  effect,  produce,  or  bring  forth 
money  by  sale,  is  entitled  his  effects : goods  therefore 
is  applied  only  to  that  which  a man  has  at  his  own  uis- 
posal ; eff'ects  more  properly  to  that  which  is  left  at  the 
disposal  of  others.  A man  makes  a sale  of  his  goods 
on  his  removal  from  any  place ; his  creditors  or  execu- 
tors take  care  of  his  effects  either  on  his  bankruptcy  or 
decease:  goods,  in  this  case,  is  seldom  employed  but  in 
the  limited  sense  of  what  is  removeable ; but  ejects  in- 
cludes every  thing  personal,  freehold,  and  copyhold ; 
‘ The  laws  of  bankruptcy  compel  the  bankrupt  to  give 
up  all  his  effects  to  the  use  of  the  creditors  without  any 
concealment.’ — Blackstone. 


GOODS,  POSSESSIONS,  PROPERTY. 

All  these  terms  are  applicable  to  such  things  as  are 
the  means  of  enjoyment ; but  the  former  term  respects 
the  direct  quality  of  producing  enjoyment,  the  latter 
two  have  regard  to  the  subject  of  the  enjoyment:  we 
consider  goods  as  they  are  real  or  imaginary,  adapted 
or  not  adapted  for  the  producing  of  real  happiness; 
those  who  abound  in  the  goods  of  this  world  are  not 
always  the  happiest;  ‘The  worldling  attaches  himself 
wholly  to  what  he  reckons  the  only  solid  goods,  the 
i>ossessionoi  riches  and  influence.’ — Blair.  Posses- 
sions must  be  regarded  as  they  are  lasting  or  temporary ; 
he  who  is  anxious  for  earthly  possessions  forgets  that 
they  are  but  transitory  and  dependent  upon  a thousand 
contingencies;  ‘While  worldly  men  enlarge  their  pos- 
sessions, and  extend  their  connexions,  they  imagine 
they  are  strengthening  themselves.’ — Blair.  Property 
is  to  be  considered  as  it  is  legal  or  illegal,  just  or  un- 
just ; those  who  are  anxious  for  great  property  are  not 
always  scrupulous  about  the  means  by  which  it  is  to  be 
obtained. 

For  numerous  blessings  yearly  shower’d, 

And  property  with  plenty  crown’d. 

Accept  cur  pious  praise. — Dryden. 

The  purity  of  a man’s  Christian  character  is  in  dan- 
ger from  an  over  weaning  attachment  to  earthly 
no  wise  man  will  boast  the  multitude  of  his  posses- 
sions, when  he  reflects  that  if  they  do  not  leave  him, 
the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  he  must  leave  them ; 
the  validity  of  one’s  claim  to  property  which  comes  by 
inheritance  is  better  founded  than  any  other. 


RICHES,  WEALTH,  OPULENCE, 
AFFLUENCE. 

Riches,  in  German  reichthum,  from  rciche  a kingdom, 
comes  from  the  Latin  rego  to  rule ; because  riches  and 
power  are  intimately  connected;  wealth,  from  well, 
signifies  well  being;  opulence,  from  the  Latin  opes 
riches,  denotes  the  state  of  having  riches;  affluence, 
from  the  Latin  ad  and  fluo,  denotes  either  the  act  of 
riches  flowing  in  to  a person,  or  the  state  of  having 
riches  to  flow  in. 

Riches  is  a general  term  denoting  any  considerable 
share  of  property,  but  without  immediate  reference  to 
a possessor;  wealth  denotes  the  prosperous  condition 
of  the  possessor ; opulence  characterizes  the  present 
possession  of  great  riches',  affluence  denotes  the  in- 
creasing wealth  of  the  individual.  Riches  is  a con- 
dition opposed  to  poverty ; the  whole  world  is  divided 
into  rich  and  poor;  '■Riches  are  apt  to  betray  a man 
into  arrogance.’ — Addison.  Wealth  is  that  positive 
and  substantial  share  in  the  goods  of  fortune  which 
distinguish  an  individual  from  his  neighbours,  by 
putting  him  in  possession  of  all  that  is  commonly  de- 
sired and  sought  after  by  man ; 

His  best  companions  innocence  and  health, 

And  his  best  riches  ignorance  of  wealth. 

Goldsmith. 

He  who  has  much  money  has  great  wealth; 

• Along  the  lawq  where  scatter’d  hamlets  rose, 
Unwieldly  wealth  and  cumb’rous  pomp  repose. 

Goldsmith. 


Opulence  is  likewise  a positively  great  share  of  ricru$ 
but  refers  rather  to  the  external  possessions,  than  tc 
the  whole  condition  of  the  man.  He  who  has  much 
land,  much  cattle,  many  houses,  and  the  like,  is  pro- 
perly denominated  opulent ; ‘ Our  Saviour  did  not 
choose  for  himself  an  easy  and  opulent  condition.’— 
Blair.  ..Affluence  is  a term  peculiarly  applicable  to  the 
fluctuating  condition  of  things  which  flow  in.in  quan 
tities,  or  flow  away  in  equally  great  quantities;  ‘ Pros- 
perity is  often  an  equivocal  word  denoting  merel3' 
affluence  of  possession.’ — Blair.  Hence  we  do  not  say 
that  a man  is  opulent,  but  that  he  is  affluent  in  his  cir- 
cumstances. 

Wealth  and  opulence  are  applied  to  individuals,  or 
communities:  affluence  is  applicable  only  to  an  indi 
viduah  The  wealth  of  a nation  must  be  procured  by 
the  industry  of  the  inhabitants ; the  opulence  of  a town 
may  arise  from  some  local  circumstance  in  its  favour, 
as  its  favourable  situation  for  trade  and  the  like;  he 
who  lives  in  affluence  is  apt  to  forget  the  uncertain 
tenure  by  which  he  holds  his  riches;  we  speak  of 
riches  as  to  their  effects  upon  men’s  minds  and  man- 
ners ; it  is  not  every  one  who  knows  how  to  use  them 
We  speak  of  wealth  as  it  raises  a n^n  in  the  scale  of 
society;  the  zueaZt/iy  merchant  is  an  important  membei 
of  the  community : we  speakof  o;/?iZe7ice  as  it  indicates 
the  flourishing  state  of  the  individual : an  opulent  man 
shows  unquestionable  marks  of  his  opulence  around 
him : we  speak  of  affluence  to  characterize  the  abun- 
dance of  the  individual , we  show  our  affluence  by  the 
style  of  our  living. 

MONEY,  CASH. 

Money  comes  from  the  Latin  moneta,  which  signl 
fied  stamped  coin,  from  moneo  to  advise,  to  infoi-m  of 
its  value,  by  means  of  an  inscription  or  stamp;  cash, 
from  the  French  caisse  a chest,  signifies  that  which  ia 
put  in  a chest. 

* Money  is  applied  to  every  thing  which  serves  as  a 
circulating  medium : cask  is,  in  a strict  sense,  put  for 
coin  only:  bank  notes  are  ■money;  guineas  and  shil- 
lings are  cash:  all  cash  is  therefore  money,  but  all 
money  is  not  cask.  The  only  money  the  Chinese  have 
are  square  bits  of  metal,  with  a hole  through  the  centre, 
by  which  they  are  strung  upon  a string:  travellers  on 
the  Continent  must  always  be  provided  with  letters  of 
credit,  which  may  be  turned  into  cash  as  convenience 
requires. 


TO  HEAP,  PILE,  ACCUMULATE,  AMASS 

To  heap  signifies  to  form  into  a heap,  which  through 
the  medium  of  the  northern  languages  is  derivable 
from  the  Latin  copia  plenty.  To  pile  is  to  form  into  a 
pile,  which,  being  a variation  of  pole,  signifies  a high 
raised  hea]^  To  accumulate,  from  the  Latin  cumulus 
a heap,  signifies  to  put  heap  upon  heap.  To  amass  is 
literally  to  form  into  a mass. 

To  heap  is  an  Indefinite  action : it  may  be  performed 
with  or  without  order:  to  pile  is  a definite  action  done 
with  design  and  order;  thus  we  heap  stones,  or  pile 
wood : to  heap  may  be  to  make  into  large  or  small  heaps  ; 
Within  the  circles  arms  and  tripods  lie. 

Ingots  of  gold  and  silver  heap'd  on  high.  , 

Dryden 

To  pile  is  always  to  make  something  considerable; 
This  would  I celebrate  with  annual  games. 

With  gifts  on  altars  pil'd,  and  holy  flames. 

Dryden. 

Children  may  heap  sticks  together ; men  pile  loads  ot 
wood  together.  To  heap  and  pile  are  used  mostly  in 
the  physical,  accumulate  and  amass  in  the  physical  or 
moral  acceptation  ; the  former  is  a species  of  heaping, 
the  latter  oi' piling:  we  accumulate  whatever  is  brought 
together  in  a loose  manner;  we  amass  that  which  can 
coalesce:  thus  a man  accumulates  guineas;  \\q amasses 
wealth. 

To  accumulate  and  to  amass  are  not  always  the  acts 
of  conscious  agents : things  may  accumulate  or  amass  ; 
water  or  snow  accumulates  by  the  continual  accession 
of  fresh  quantities ; the  ice  amasses  in  rivers  until  it 
is  frozen  over:  so  in  the  moral  acceptation,  evils, 
abuses,  and  the  like,  accumulate;  corruption  amassis 

* Vide  Trusler:  “Money,  cash.” 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


34i 


When  overwhelmed  with  an  accumulation  oi  sorrows, 
the  believer  is  never  left  comfortless ; ‘ These  odes  are 
marked  by  glittering  accumulations  of  ungraceful  or- 
naments.’— Johnson.  The  industrious  inquirer  may 
collect  a mass  of  intelligence ; ‘ Sir  Francis  Bacon,  by 
an  extraordinary  force  of  nature,  compass  of  thought, 
and  indefatigable  study,  had  amassed  to  himself  such 
stores  of  knowledge  as  we  cannot  look  upon  without 
amazement.’ — Hughes. 


STOCK,  STORE. 

Stock,  from  stick,  stoke,  stow,  and  stuff,  signifies  any 
quantity  laid  up;  store,  in  Welch  sto?-,  comes  from  the 
Hebrew  to  hide. 

The  ideas  of  wealth  and  stability  being  naturally 
allied,  it  is  not  surprising  that  stock,  which  expresses 
the  latter  idea,  should  also  be  put  for  the  former,  par- 
ticularly as  the  abundance  here  referred  to  serves  as  a 
foundation  in  the  same  manner  as  stock  in  the  literal 
sense  does  to  a tree 

Store  likewise  implies  a quantity ; but  agreeable  to 
uie  derivation  of  the  word,  it  implies  an  accumulated 
quantity.  Any  quantity  of  materials  which  is  in  hand 
may  serve  as  a stock  for  a given  purpose;  thus  a few 
shillings  with  some  persons  may  be  their  stock  in  trade : 
any  quantity  of  materials  brought  together  for  a given 
purpose  may  serve  as  a store ; thus  the  industrious  ant 
collects  ^ store  of  grain  for  the  winter;  we  judge  of  a 
man’s  substantial  property  by  the  stock  of  goods  which 
he  has  on  hand;  we  judge  of  a man’s  disposable  pro- 
perty by  the  store  which  he  has.  The  stock  is  that 
which  must  increase  of  itself;  it  is  the  source  and 
foundation  of  industry:  the  store  is  that  which  we 
must  add  to  occasionally;  it  is  that  from  which  we 
draw  in  time  of  need.  By  a stock  we  gain  riches;  by 
a.  store  we  guard  against  want:  a stock  requires  skill 
and  judgement  to  make  the  proper  application  ; a store 
requires  foresight  and  management  to  make  it  against 
the  proper  season.  It  is  necessary  for  one  who  has  a 
large  trade  to  have  a large  stock;  and  for  him  who  has 
no  prospect  of  supply  to  have  a large  store. 

The  same  distinction  subsists  between  these  words 
in  their  moral  application ; he  who  wishes  to  speak  a 
foreign  language  must  have  a stock  of  familiar  words; 
stores  of  learning  are  frequently  lost  to  the  world  for 
want  of  means  and  opportunity  to  bring  them  forth  to 
publick  view  ; ‘ It  will  not  suffice  to  rally  all  one’s  little 
utmost  into  one’s  discourse,  which  can  constitute  a 
divine.  Any  man  would  then  quickly  be  drained ; and 
his  short  stock  would  serve  but  for  one  meeting  in 
ordinary  converse;  therefore  there  i.;ust  be  store, 
plenty,  and  a treasure,  lest  he  turn  broker  in  divinity.’ 
—South. 

As  verbs,  to  stock  and  to  store  both  signify  to  pro- 
vide ; but  the  former  is  a provision  for  the  present  use, 
and  the  latter  for  some  future  purpose  : a tradesman 
stocks  himself  with  such  articles  as  are  most  saleable  ; 
a fortress  or  a ship  is  stored  : a person  stocks  himself 
with  patience,  or  stores  his  memory  with  knowledge. 

TO  TREASURE,  HOARD. 

The  idea  of  laying  up  carefully  is  common  to  these 
verbs;  but  to  treasure  is  to  lay  up  for  the  sake  of 
preserving ; to  hoard,  to  lay  up  for  the  sake  of  accu- 
mulating; we  treasure  up  the  gifts  of  a friend;  the 
miser  hoards  up  his  money;  we  attach  a real  value  to 
that  which  we  treasure;  a fictitious  value  to  that 
which  is  hoarded.  To  treasure  is  used  either  in  the 
proper  or  improper  sense  ; to  hoard  only  in  the  proper 
sense : we  treasure  a book  on  which  we  set  particular 
value,  or  we  treasure  the  words  or  actions  of  another 
in  our  recollection;  ‘Fancy  can  combine  the  ideas 
which  memory  has  treasured.' — Hawkesworth. 
The  miser  hoards  in  his  coffers  whatever  he  can 
scrape  together ; 

Hoards  ev’n  beyond  the  miser’s  wish  abound. 
Goldsmith. 

PLENTIFUL,  PLENTEOUS,  ABUNDANT, 
COPIOUS,  AMPLE. 

Plentiful  and  plenteous  signify  the  presence  of 
plenty,  plenitude,  or  fulness;  abundance,  in  'Latin 
abundantia,  from  abundo  to  overflow,  compounded  of 
the  intensive  %b  and  unda  a wave,  signifies  flowing 


over  in  great  quantities  like  the  waves;  copious,  in 
Latin  copioSus,  from  copia,  or  con,  and  opes  a stock 
signifies  having  a store ; ample,  in  Latin  amptus,  from 
the  Greek  dmn-Arws,  signifies  over-full. 

Plentifvl  and  plenteous  differ  only  in  use ; the 
former  being  most  employed  in  the  familiar,  the  latter 
in  the  grave  style. 

Plenty  fills;  abundance  does  more,  it  leaves  a super 
fluity;  as  that,  however,  which  fills  suffices  as  much 
as  that  which  flows  over,  the  term  abundance  is  often 
employed  promiscuously  with  that  of  plenty:  we  car 
indifferently  say  a plentiful  harvest,  or  an  abundant 
harvest.  Plenty  is,  however,  more  frequent  in  the 
literal  sense  for  that  which  fills  the  body;  abundance, 
for  that  which  fills  the  mind,  or  the  desire  of  the  mi'id 
A plenty  of  provisions  is  even  more  common  than  an 
abundance;  a plenty  of  food;  a plenty  of  corn,  wine, 
and  oil; 

The  resty  knaves  are  overrun  with  ease. 

As  plenty  ever  is  the  nurse  of  faction. — Rowe. 
But  an  abundance  of  words;  an  abundance  of  riches; 
an  abundance  of  wit  and  humour.  In  certain  years  fruit 
is  plentiful,  and  at  other  times  grain  is  plentiful:  iu 
all  cases  we  have  abundant  cause  for  gratitude  to  the 
Giver  of  all  good  things  ; 

And  God  said,  let  the  waters  generate 
Reptile  with  spawn  abundant,  living  soul. 

Milton. 

Copious  and  amjde  are  modes  either  of  plenty  or 
abundance  ; the  former  is  employed  in  regard  to  what 
is  collected  or  brought  into  one  point : the  ample  is 
employed  only  in  regard  to  what  may  be  narrowed  or 
expanded.  A copious  stream  of  blood,  or  a copious 
flow  of  words,  equally  designate  the  quantity  which  is 
collected  together ; 

Smooth  to  the  shelving  brink  a copious  flood 
Rolls  fair  and  placid. — Tho.mson. 

As  an  ample  provision,  an  ample  store,  an  ample  share 
marks  that  which  may  at  pleasure  be  increased  or 
diminished ; 

Peaceful  beneath  primeval  trees,  that  cast 
Their  ample  shade  o’er  Niger’s  yellow  stream, 
Leans  the  huge  elephant,  wisest  of  brutes. 

Thomson. 


FULNESS,  PLENITUDE. 

Although  plenitude  is  no  more  than  a derivative 
from  the  Latin  for  f ulness,  yet  the  latter  is  used  either 
in  the  proper  sense  to  express  the  state  of  objects  that 
are  full,  or  in  the  improper  sense  to  express  great 
quantity,  which  is  the  accompaniment  of  fulness;  the 
former  only  in  the  higher  style  and  in  the  improper 
sense : hence  we  say  in  the  fulness  of  one’s  heart,  in 
the  fulness  of  one’s  joy,  or  the  fulness  of  the  God- 
head bodily ; but  the  plenitude  of  glory,  the  plenitude 
of  power; 

All  mankind 

Must  have  been  lost,  adjudg’d  to  death  and  hell, 

By  doom  severe,  had  not  the  Son  of  God, 

In  whom  the  fulness  dwells  of  love  divine. 

His  dearest  meditation  thus  renew’d. — Milton. 

‘ The  most  beneficent  Being  is  he  who  hath  an  abso- 
lute fulness  of  perfection  in  himself,  who  gave  exist- 
ence to  the  universe,  and  so  cannot  be  supposed  to 
want  that  which  he  communicated  without  diminish- 
ing from  the  plenitude  of  his  own  power  and  happi 
ness.’ — Grove. 


FERTILE,  FRUITFUL,  PROLIFICK. 

Fertile,  in  Latin  fertilis,  from  fero  to  bear,  signl 
fies  capable  of  bearing  or  bringing  to  \\g\\X.\  fruitful 
signifies  full  of  fruit,  or  containing  within  itself  much 
fruit;  proZ?jftc^' is  compounded  oi  proles  and /aefo  to 
make  a progeny. 

Fertile  expresses  in  its  proper  sense  the  faculty  of 
sending  forth  from  itself  that  which  is  not  of  its  own 
nature,  and  is  peculiarly  applicable  to  the  ground  which 
causes  every  thing  within  itself  to  grow  up  ; 

Why  should  I mention  those,  whose  oozy  soil 
-Is  render’d  fertile  by  the  o’erflowing  Nile 

Jknyns. 

Fruitful  expresses  a state  containing  or  possessing 


342 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


abundantly  that  which  is  of  the  same  nature ; it  is, 
therefore,  peculiarly  applicable  to  trees,  plants,  vegeta- 
bles, and  whatever  is  said  to  bear  fruit ; 

When  first  the  soil  receives  the  fruitful  seed, 

Make  no  delay,  but  cover  it  with  speed.— Drvden. 
Prolifich  expresses  the  faculty  of  generating ; it  con- 
veys therefore  the  idea  of  what  is  creative,  and  is  pecu- 
liarly applicable  to  animals ; ‘ All  dogs  are  of  one  spe- 
cies they  mingling  together  in  generation,  and  the 
breed  of  such  mixtures  being  prolijick.'— Ray.  We 
may  say  that  the  ground  is  either  fertile  or  fruitful.^ 
but  not  prolijick  : we  may  speak  of  a female  of  any 
species  being  fruitful  and  prolijick,  but  not  fertile ; 
we  may  speak  of  nature  as  being  fruitful,  but  neither 
fertile  nor  prolijick.  A country  is  fertile  as  it  respects 
the  quality  of  the  soil ; it  is  fruitful  as  it  respects  the 
abundance  of  its  produce  : it  is  possible,  therefore,  for 
a courtry  to  be  fruitful  by  the  industry  of  its  inha- 
bitants, although  not  fertile  by  nature. 

An  animal  is  said  to  be  fruitful  as  it  respects  the 
number  of  young  which  it  has  ; it  is  said  to  be  proli- 
jick as  it  respects  its  generative  power.  Some  women 
are  move  fruitf  ul  than  others ; but  there  are  many  ani- 
mals more  prolijick  than  human  creatures.  The  lands 
in  Egypt  are  rendered  fertile  by  means  of  mud  which 
they  receive  from  the  overflowing  of  the  Nile:  they 
consequently  produce  harvests  more  fruitful  than  in 
almost  any  other  country.  Among  the  Orientals  bar- 
renness was  reckoned  a disgrace,  and  every  woman 
was  ambitious  to  be  fruitful:  there  are  some  insects, 
particularly  among  the  noxious  tribes,  which  are  so 
prolijicic,  that  they  are  not  many  hours  in  being  before 
they  begin  to  breed. 

In  the  figurative  application  they  admit  of  a similar 
distinction.  A man  is  fertile  in  expedients  who  rea- 
dily contrives  upon  the  spur  of  the  occasion ; he  is 
fruitful  in  resources  who  has  them  ready  at  his  hand ; 
his  brain  is  prolifick  if  it  generates  an  abundance  of 
new  conceptions.  A mind  \s  fertile  which  has  powers 
that  admit  of  cultivation  and  expansion;  ‘To  every 
work  Warourton  brouglit  a memory  full  fraught,  toge- 
ther with  a fancy  fertile  of  combinations.’— Johnson. 
An  imagination  is  fruitful  that  is  rich  in  stores  of 
imagery ; a genius  is  prolifick  that  is  rich  in  invention. 
Females  are  fertile  in  expedients  and  devices;  ambi- 
tion and  aval  ice  are  the  most  fruitful  sources  of  dis- 
cord and  misery  in  publick  and  nrivate  life  ; ‘ The  phi- 
losophy received  from  the  Greeks  has  been  fruitful  in 
controversies,  but  barren  of  works.’ — Bacon.  Novel- 
writers  are  the  most  prolifick  class  of  authors  ; 

Parent  of  light ! all-seeing  sun, 

Prolijick  beam,  w'hose  rays  dispense 
The  various  gifts  of  Providence. — Gay. 


LARGELY,  COPIOUSLY,  FULLY. 

Largely  {v.  Great)  is  liere  taken  in  the  moral  sense, 
and,  if  the  derivation  given  of  it  be  true,  in  the  most 
proper  sense ; copiously  comes  from  the  Latin  copia 
plenty,  signifying  in  a plentiful  degree;  fully  signifies 
in  a full  degree ; to  the  full  extent,  as  far  as  it  can 
reach. 

Quantity  is  the  idea  expressed  in  common  by  all 
these  terms ; but  largely  has  always  a reference  to  the 
freedom  of  the  will  in  the  agent ; copiously  qualifies 
actions  that  are  done  by  inanimate  objects ; fully  qua- 
lifies the  actions  of  a rational  agent,  but  it  denotes  a 
degree  or  extent  which  cannot  be  surpassed. 

A person  deals  largely  in  things,  or  he  drinks  large 
draughts  ; rivers  are  copiously  supplied  in  rainy  sea- 
sons ; a nersoa  is /uZZjr  satisfied,  or prepared.  A 
bountiful  Providence  has  distributed  his  gifts  largely 
among  his  creatures;  ‘There  is  one  very  faulty  me- 
thod of  drawing  up  the  laws,  that  is,  when  the  case  is 
largely  set  forth  in  the  preamble.’ — Bapon.  Blood 
flows  copiously  from  a deep  wound  when  it  is  first 
made ; 

The  youths  with  wine  the  copious  goblets  crown’d, 
And  pleas’d  dispense  the  flowing  bowls  around. 

Pope. 

When  a man  is  not  fully  convinced  of  his  own  insuf- 
ficiency, he  is  not  prepared  to  listen  to  the  counsel  of 
•jtliers;  ‘ Every  word  (in  the  Bible)  is  so  weighty  that 
ought  to  be  carefully  considered  by  all  that  desire 
(ully  to  understand  the  sense.’ — Beveridge. 


PROFUSION,  PROFUSENESS. 

Profusion,  from  the  Latin  prof  undo  to  pour  fortSi 
is  taken  in  relation  to  unconscious  objects,  which  pom 
forth  in  great  plenty ; profuseness  is  taken  from  the 
same,  in  relation  to  conscious  agents,  who  likewise 
pour  forth  in  great  plenty.  The  term  profusion, 
therefore,  is  put  for  plenty  itself,  and  the  term  profuse 
ness  as  a characteristick  of  persons  in  the  sense  of  ex 
travagance. 

At  the  hospitable  board  of  the  rich  there  will  natu 
rally  be  a profusion  of  every  thing  which  can  gratify 
the  appetite ; 

Ye  glitt’ring  towns  with  wealth  and  splendour 
crown’d. 

Ye  fields  where  summer  spreads  profusion  round, 

For  me  your  tributary  stores  combine. — Goldsmith 
When  men  see  an  unusual  degree  of  profusion,  they 
are  apt  to  indulge  themselves  in  profuseness  ; ‘ I was 
convinced  that  the  liberality  of  my  young  companion? 
was  only  profuseness.' — Johnson. 


EXTRAVAGANT,  PRODIGAL,  LAVISH, 
PROFUSE 

Extravagant,  from  extra  and  vagans,  signifies  in 
general  wandering  from  the  line  ; and  prodigal,  from 
the  Latin  prodigus  and  prodigo  to  launch  forth,  sig 
nifies  in  general  to  send  forth,  or  give  out  in  great 
quantities  ; lavish  comes  probably  from  the  Latin  lavo 
to  wash,  signifying  to  wash  away  in  waste  ; profuse, 
from  the  Latin  profusus,  participle  of  prof  undo  to  pour 
forth,  signifies  pouring  out  freely. 

The  idea  of  using  immoderately  is  implied  in  all 
these  terms,  but  extravagant  is  the  most  general  in 
its  meaning  and  application.  The  extravagant  man 
spends  his  money  without  reason  ; the  prodigal  man 
spends  it  in  e.xcesses ; the  former  errs  against  plain 
sense,  the  latter  violates  the  moral  hiw  : the  extrava- 
gant man  will  ruin  himself  by  his  follies  ; the  prodigal 
by  his  vices.  One  may  be  extravagant  with  a small 
sum  where  it  exceeds  one's  means;  one  cannot  be 
prodigal  but  with  large  sums. 

Extravagance  is  practised  by  both  sexes;  prodi- 
gality is  peculiarly  the  vice  of  the  male  sex.  Extra- 
varance  is  opposed  to  meanness  ; prodigality  to  ava 
rite.  Those  who  know  the  true  value  of  money,  as 
contributing  to  their  own  enjoyments,  or  those  of 
others,  will  guard  against  extravagance.  Those  who 
lay  a restraint  on  their  passions,  can  never  fall  into 
prodigality. 

Extravagant  and  prodigal  serve  to  designate  habit- 
ual as  well  as  particular  actions ; lavish  and  profuse 
are  employed  only  in  particular : hence  we  say  to  be 
lavish  of  one’s  money,  one’s  presents,  and  the  like  ; to 
he  profuse  in  one’s  entertainments,  both  of  which  may 
be  modes  of  extravagance.  An  extravagant  man, 
however,  in  the  restricted  sense,  mostly  spends  upon 
himself  to  indulge  his  whims  and  idle  fancies  ; but  a 
man  may  be  lavish  and  profuse  upon  others  from  a 
misguided  generosity. 

In  a moral  use  of  these  terms,  a man  is  extravagant 
in  his  praises  who  exceeds  either  in  measure  or  appli 
cation ; ‘ No  one  is  to  admit  into  his  petitions  to  his 
Maker,  things  superfluous  and  extravagant.' — South. 
He  is  prodigal  of  his  strength  who  consumes  it  by  an 
excessive  use ; 

Here  patriots  live,  who  for  their  country’s  good. 

In  fighting  fields  were  prodigal  of  blood. 

Dryden. 

He  is  lavish  of  his  compliments  who  deals  them  out 
so  largely  and  promiscuously  as  to  render  them  of  no 
service ; 

See  where  the  winding  vale  its  lavish  stores 
Irriguous  spreads.— Thomson. 

He  is  profuse  in  his  acknowledgments  who  repeats 
them  oftener,  or  delivers  them  in  more  words,  than  are 
necessary ; ‘ Cicero  was  most  liberally //ro/wse  in  com 
mending  the  ancients  and  his  contemporaries.’ — Addi 
SON  {after  Plutarch). 

Extravagant  and  profvise  are  said  only  of  indi- 
viduals; prodigal  and  lavish  may  be  said  of  many  in 
a general  sense.  A nation  may  be  prodigal  of  its  re- 
sources ; a government  may  be  lavish  of  the  publick 
money,  as  an  individual  is  extravagant  with  his  ov>’Q 
and  profuse  in  what  he  gives  another. 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


342 


ENOUGH.  SUFFICIENT. 
r.nouglu  in  German  gcnug^  comes  from  gcnugcn, 
R)  satisfy;  sufficient^  in  Uaiin  s//J//c?c«s,  participle  ot 
tuff  do,  compouiuled  of  sub  and  fucio,  signilies  made 
Dr  suited  to  tlie  purpose. 

He  lias  enough  wliose  desires  are  satisfied  ; lie  lias 
Buffcient  wliose  wants  are  stipiilied.  We  may  lliere- 
fore  frequently  have  sufficiency  when  we  have  not 
enough.  A greedy  man  is  commonly  in  this  case,  lie 
lias  never  although  he  has  more  than  -dsuff- 

cicney.  Enough  is  said  only  of  physical  objects  of 
desire;  sufficient  is  ein\)\oyed  in  a moral  applicatiori, 
for  that  which  serves  tlie  purpose.  Children  and  ani- 
mals never  have  enough  food,  nor  the  miser  enough 
money; 

My  loss  of  honour ’s  great  enough, 

Thou  need’s!  not  brand  it  witli  a scoff. 

Butler. 

It  is  requisite  to  allow  sufficient  time  for  every  thing 
that  is  to  be  done,  if  we  wisli  it  to  be  done  well ; ‘ The 
time  present  seldom  allbrds  sufficient  employment  for 
the  mind  of  man.’ — Addison. 


EXCESS,  SUPERFLUITY,  REDUNDANCY. 

Excess  is  that  which  exceeds  any  measure;  super- 
fiuity  from  super  and  Jluo  to  .flow  over ; and  redun- 
dancy, from  redundo  to  stream  back  or  over,  signifies 
an  excess  of  a good  measure.  We  may  have  an  ex- 
cess of  heat  or  cold,  wet  or  dry,  when  we  have  more 
than  the  ordinary  quantity ; but  we  have  a superfluity 
of  provisions  when  we  have  more  than  we  want. 
Excess  is  applicable  to  any  object ; but  superfluity  and 
redundancy  are  species  of  excess.  Superfluity  is  ap- 
plicable in  a particular  manner  to  that  which  is  an  ob- 
ject of  our  desire;  ami  redundancy  lo  matters  of  ex- 
pression or  feeling.  We  may  liave  an  excess  of  pros- 
perity or  adversity,  ‘ It  is  wisely  ordered  in  our  present 
state  that  joy  and  fear,  hope  and  grief,  should  act  alter- 
nately as  checks  and  balances  upon  each  other,  in 
order  to  prevent  an  excess  in  any  of  them.’ — Blair. 
We  may  have  a superfluity  oi  good  things;  ‘When 
by  force  or  jiolicy,  by  wisdom,  or  by  fortune,  (iroperty 
and  superiority  were  introduced  and  established,  then 
they  whose  iiossessiotis  swelled  above  their  wants 
naturally  laid  out  their  superfluities  on  jiluasttre.’ — 
Johnson.  There  may  be  a redundancy  oi'  sjieech  or 
u’ords;  ‘ The  defect  or  redundance  of  a syllable  might 
be  easily  covered  In  the  recitation.’ — Tvrrwhit. 

EXCESSIVE,  IMMODERATE,  INTEMPERATE. 

The  excessive  is  beyond  measure;  the  immoderate, 
from  modus  a mode  or  measure,  is  without  measure; 
the  intemperate,  from  tempus  a time  or  term,  is  that 
which  is  not  kept  within  bounds. 

Excessive  designates  excess  in  general ; immoderate 
and  intemperate  designate  excess  in  moral  agents. 
The  excessive  lies  simply  in  the  thing  wliich  e.xceeds 
any  given  point:  tlie  immoderate  lies  in  the  passions 
which  range  to  a boundless  extent:  the  intemperate 
lies  in  the  will  which  is  under  no  control.  Hence  we 
speak  of  an  excessive  thirst  physically  considered:  an 
immoderate  atnbitionor  lust  of  power:  an  intemperate 
indulgence,  an  intemperate  warmth.  Excessive  ad- 
mits of  degrees;  what  is  excessive  may  exceed  iti  a 
greater  or  less  degree:  immoderate  tind  intemperate 
mark  a positively  great  degree  of  c.tcess;  the  former 
still  higher  than  the  latter:  immoderate  is  in  fact  the 
highest  conceivable  degree  of  excess. 

Tiie  excessive  use  of  atiy  thing  will  always  be  at- 
tended with  some  evil  consequence ; ‘ Who  knows  not 
the  languor  that  attends  every  excessive  indulgence  in 
ple.asureT — BuAtR.  The  immoderate  use  of  wine  will 
rapidly  tend  to  the  ruin  of  him  who  is  guilty  of  the 
excess  ; ‘ One  of  the  first  objects  of  wish  to  every  one 
is  to  maintain  a proper  place  and  rank  in  society:  this 
among  the  vain  and  ambitious  is  always  the  favourite 
aim.  With  them  it  arises  to  immoderate  expecta- 
tions founded  on  their  supposed  talents  and  imagined 
merits.’ — Blair.  The  intemperate  use  of  wine  will 
proceed  by  a more  gradual  but  not  less  sure  process  to 
his  ruin;  ‘Let  no  wantomiess  of  youthful  spirits,  no 
compliance  with  the  intemperate  mirth  of  others,  ever 
betray  you  into  profane  sallies.’— Blair. 


Excessive  designates  what  is  partial , imtuc  lerate 
is  used  oftener  for  what  is  partial  than  what  is  iiabi- 
tual ; intemperate  oftener  for  what  is  habitual  than 
what  is  partial.  A person  is  excessively  displeased  oi 
irarticular  occasions:  he  maybe  nn  imme  derate  oaiQi 
at  all  times,  or  oixiy  immoderate  in  that  which  he  likes: 
he  is  intemperate  in  his  language  when  Ids  anger  is 
intemperate;  or  he  leads  an  intemperate  life.  The 
excesses  of  youth  do  but  too  often  settle  into  confirmed 
habits  of  intemperance. 


EXUBERANT,  LUXURIANT. 

Exuberant,  from  the  Latin  exuberans  or  ex  and 
nbero,  signifies  very  fruitful  or  superabundant : luxu 
riant,  in  Latin  luxurians,  from  laxus,  signifies  ex 
panding  with  unrestrained  freedom.  These  terms  are 
both  applied  to  vegetation  in  a flourishing  state ; but 
exuberance  expresses  the  excess,  and  luxuriance  the 
perfection  : in  a fertile  soil  where  plants  are  left  unre 
strainedly  to  themselves  there  will  be  an  exuberance: 
Another  Flora  there  of  bolder  hues 
And  richer  sweets,  beyond  our  garden’s  pride 
Plays  o’er  the  fields,  and  showers  with  sudden  hand 
Exuberant  spring.— Thomson. 

Plants  are  to  be  seen  in  their  luxuriance  only  in  seasons 
that  are  favourable  to  them ; 

On  whose  luxurious  herbage,  half  conceal’d. 

Like  a fall’n  cedar,  far  diffus’d  his  train. 

Cas’d  in  green  scales,  the  crocodile  extends. 

Thomson. 

In  the  moral  application,  exuberance  of  intellect  is 
often  attended  with  a restless  ambition  that  is  incom- 
patible both  with  the  happiness  and  advancement  of 
its  possessor;  ‘His  similes  have  been  tiiought  too 
exuberant  and  full  of  circumstances.’ — Popr.  Luxu 
riance  of  imagination  is  one  of  the  greatest  gifts  which 
a poet  can  boast  of;  ‘A  fluent  and  luxuriant  s''eecb 
becomes  youth  well,  but  not  age.’ — Bacon. 


EMPTY,  VACANT,  VOID,  DEVOID. 

Empty,  in  Saxon  empti,  is  not  improbably  derived 
from  the  Latin  inopis  poor  or  wanting ; vacant,  in 
Latin  vacans  or  vaco,  comes  from  the  Hebrew  pp3 
to  draw  out  or  exhaust ; void  and  devoid,  in  Latin  vi 
dims  and  Greek  i6ios,  signifies  solitary  or  bereft. 

Empty  is  the  term  in  most  general  use ; vacant, 
void,  and  devoid  arc  employed  in  particular  cases: 
empty  and  vacqfnt  have  either  a proper  or  an  improper 
application;  void  or  devoid  only  a moral  acceptation. 

Empty,  in  the  natural  sense,  marks  an  absence  of 
that  which  is  substantial,  or  adapted  for  filling ; vacant 
designates  or  marks  the  a4jsence  of  that  which  should 
occujiy  or  make  use  of  a thing.  That  which  is  hollow 
may  be  empty ; that  which  respects  any  space  may  be 
vacant.  A house  is  empty  which  has  no  inhabitants; 
a seat  is  vacant  which  is  without  an  occupant : a room 
is  empty  which  is  without  furniture ; a space  on  paper 
is  vacant  which  is  free  from  writing. 

In  the  figurative  application  empty  and  vacant  have 
a similar  analogy:  a dream  is  said  to  ho  empty,  or  a 
title  empty,  &c.; 

To  honour  Thetis’  son  he  bends  his  care, 

And  plunge  the  Greeks  in  all  the  woes  of  war 
Then  bids  an  empty  phantom  rise  to  sight, 

And  thus  commands  the  vision  of  the  night. 

Pope. 

A stare  is  said  to  be  vacant,  or  an  hour  vacant;  ‘An 
inquisitive  man  is  a creature  naturally  very  vacant  of 
thought  in  itself,  and  therefore  forced  to  apply  itself  to 
foreign  assistance.’— Steele.  Void  or  devoid  are  used 
in  the  same  sense  as  vacant,  as  qualifying  epithets, 
but  not  prefixed  as  adjectives,  and  always  followed  by 
some  object:  thus  we  speak  of  a creature  as  void  of 
reason ; and  of  an  individual  as  devoid  of  common 
sense ; 

My  next  desire  is,  void  of  care  and  strife, 

To  lead  a soft,  secure,  inglorious  life.— Dryden. 

We  Tyrians  are  not  so  devoid  of  semse. 

Nor  so  remote  from  Plimbus’  influence.— Drvdkn 


4 


344 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


v^ACANCY,  VACUlTi^,  INANITY. 

Vacancry  and  vacuity  both  denote  the  space  unoc- 
cupied, or  the  abstract  quality  of  being  unoccupied. 
Inanity^  from  the  Latin  inauis,  denotes  the  abstract 
quality  of  emptiness,  or  of  not  containing  anything: 
hence  the  former  terms  vacancy  and  vacuity  are  used 
in  an  indifferent  or  bad  sense;  inanity  always  in  a 
bad  sense;  there  may  be  a vacancy  in  the  seat,  or  a 
vacancy  in  »he  mind,  or  a vacancy  in  life,  which  we 
may  or  may  not  fill  up  as  we  please; 

How  is 't 

That  thus  you  bend  your  eye  on  vacancy 
And  with  fii’  incorporal  air  do  hold  discourse  ? 

Shakspeare. 

FacttiL'es  are  supposed  to  be  interspersed  among  the 
particles  of  matter,  or,  figuratively,  they  may  be  sup- 
posed to  exist  in  the  soul  and  in  other  objects;  ‘There 
are  vacuities  in  the  happiest  life,  which  it  is  not  in  the 
power  of  the  world  to  fill.’ — Blair.  Inanity  ot  cha- 
racter denotes  the  want  of  the  essentials  that  consti- 
tute a character;  ‘When  I look  up  and  behold  the 
heavens,  it  makes  me  scoin  the  world  and  the  plea- 
sures thereof,  considering  the  vanity  of  these  and  the 
inanity  of  the  other.’ — Howell. 


HOLLOW,  EMPTY. 

Hollow.,  from  AoZe, signifies  being  like  a hole;  empty, 
V.  Empty. 

Hollow  respects  the  body  itself;  the  absence  of  its 
own  material  produces  hollowness:  empty  respects 
'foreign  bodies;  their  absence  in  another  body  consti- 
tutes emptiness.  Hollowness  is  therefore  a ])rei)ara- 
tive  to  emptiness,  and  maye.xist  independently  of  it; 
butemptincss  presupposes  the  existence  of  hollowness : 
what  is  empty  must  be  hollow;  but  what  is  hollow 
need  not  be  empty.  Hollowness  is  often  the  natural 
properly  of  a body;  emptiness  is  a contingent  pro- 
perty ; that  which  is  hollow  is  destined  by  nature  to 
contain;  but  that  which  is  empty  is  deprived  of  its 
contents  by  a casualty ; a nut  is  hollow  for  the  purpose 
of  receiving  the  fruit;  it  is  empty  i(  it  contain  no  fruit. 

They  are  both  employed  in  a moral  acceptation,  and 
in  a bad  sense;  the  hollow,  in  this  case,  is  applied  to 
what  ought  to  be  solid  or  sound ; and  empty  to  what 
ought  to  be  filled:  a person  is  hollow  whose  goodness 
lies  only  at  the  surface,  whose  fair  words  are  without 
meaning ; a truce  is  hollow  which  is  only  an  external 
cessation  from  hostilities ; 

He  seem’d 

For  dignity  compos’d,  and  high  exploit ; 

But  all  was  false  and  hollow.— 

A person  is  empty  who  is  without  the  requisite  portion 
of  understanding  and  knowledge;  an  excuse  i^  empty 
which  is  unsupported  by  fact  and  reason  ; a pleasure 
*.s  empty  which  cannot  afford  satisfaction; 

The  creature  man 

Condemn’d  to  sacrifice  his  cl?lldish  years 

To  babbling  ignorance  and  empty  fears.— Prior. 


TO  SPEND,  EXHAUST,  DRAIN. 

Spend,  contracted  from  expend,  in  Latin  expendo  to 
pay  Jiway,  signifies  to  give  from  oneself ; exhaust,  from 
the  Latin  exhaurio  to  draw  out,  signifies  to  draw  out 
all  that  there  is;  drain,  a variation  of  draw,  signifies 
to  draw  dry. 

The  idea  of  taking  from  the  substance  of  any  thing 
is  common  to  these  terms;  but  to  spend  is  to  deprive 
in  a less  degree  than  to  exhaust,  and  that  in  a less 
degree  than  to  drain : every  one  who  exerts  himself, 
in  that  degree  spends  his  strength ; if  the  exertions 
xre  violent  he  exhausts  hi.mself ; a country  which  is 
drained  of  men  is  supposed  to  have  no  more  left.  To 
spend  may  be  applied  to  that  which  is  either  external 
or  inherent  in  a body ; 

Your  tears  fo-  such  a death  in  vain  you  spend, 
Which  straight  in  immortality  shall  end. 

Denham. 

Exhaust  applies  to  that  which  is  inherent  or  essential ; 
drain  to  that  which  is  external  of  the  body  in  which  it 
is  contained ; ‘ Teaching  is  not  a flow  of  words  nor 
the  drainiiirr  of  an  hour-glass.’ — South  We  mav 


speak  of  spending  our  wealth,  our  resources,  our  time, 
and  the  like.  The  strength,  the  vigour,  or  the  voice  is 
exhausted;  ‘Many  of  our  provisions  for  ease  or  hap- 
piness are  exhausted  by  the  present  day.’ — Johnson 
Draining  is  applied  in  its  proper  application  to  a vessel 
which  is  drained  oi  its  liquid;  or,  in  extended  appli- 
cation, to  a treasury  which  is  drained  of  money. 
Hence  arises  this  farther  distinction,  that  to  spend  and 
to  exhaust  may  tend,  more  or  less,  to  the  injury  of  a 
body;  but  to  drain  may  be  to  its  advantage.  Inas 
much  as  what  is  spent  or  exhausted  may  be  more  o. 
less  essential  to  the  soundness  of  a body,  it  cannot  be 
parted  with  without  diminishwig  its  value,  or  even 
destroying  its  existence ; as  when  a fortune  is  spent  it 
is  gone,  or  when  a person’s  strength  is  exhausted  he 
is  no  longer  able  to  move : on  the  other  hand,  to  drain, 
though  a more  complete  evacuation,  is  not  always 
injurious,  but  sometimes  even  useful  to  a body;  as  when 
the  land  is  drained  of  a superaoundance  of  water 


TO  SPEND  OR  EXPEND,  WASTE,  DISSIPATE 
SQUANDER. 

Spend  and  expend  are  variations  from  the  Latin  ex- 
pendo ; but  spend  may  be  used  in  the  sense  of  turning 
to  some  purpose,  or  making  use  of;  to  expend  carries 
with  it  likewise  the  idea  of  exhausting;  and  waste 
moreover,  comprehends  the  idea  of  exhaustijig  to  no 
good  purpose:  we  spend  money  when  we  purchase  any 
thing  with  it ; we  expend  it  when  we  lay  it  out  in  large 
quantities,  so  as  essentially  to  diminish  its  quantity; 
individuals  spend  wlpit  they  have;  government  ex- 
pends vast  sums  in  conducting  the  affairs  of  a nation ; 
all  persons  icaste  their  property  who  have  not  sufficient 
discretion  to  use  it  well:  we  spend  our  lime,  or  oui 
lives,  in  any  employment ; 

Then  having  spent  the  last  remains  of  light. 

They  give  their  bodies  due  repose  at  night. 

Dryden. 

We  expend  our  strength  and  faculties  upon  some 
arduous  undertaking;  ‘The  king  of  England  wasted 
the  French  king’s  country,  and  thereby  caused  him  to 
expend  such  sums  of  money  as  exceeded  the  debt.’ — 
Haywarh.  Men  are  apt  to  waste  their  time  and  talenta 
in  trifles ; 

What  numbers,  guiltless  of  their  own  disease. 

Are  snatch’d  by  sudden  death,  or  waste  by  slow  de 
grees! — Jenyns. 

Dissipate,  in  Latin  dissipatus,  from  dissipo,  that  is, 
dis  and  sipo,  in  Greek  al<pot  to  scatter,  signifies  tc 
scatter  different  ways,  that  is,  to  waste  by  throwing 
away  in  all  directions:  squander,  which  is  a variation 
of  wander,  signifies  to  make  to  run  wide  apart.  Both 
these  terms,  therefore,  denote  modes  of  wasting;  but 
the  former  seems  peculiarly  applicable  to  that  which  is 
wasted  in  detail  upon  different  objects,  and  by  a dis- 
traction of  the  mind ; the  latter  respects  rather  the  act 
of  wasting  in  the  gross,  in  large  quantities,  by  planless 
profusion ; young  men  are  apt  to  dissipate  their  pro- 
perty in  pleasures ; 

He  pitied  man,  and  much  he  pitied  those 

Whom  falsely  .smiling  fate  has  curs’d  with  means 

To  dissipate  their  days  in  quest  of  joy. 

Armstrong. 

The  open,  generous,  and  thoughtless  are  apt  to 
squander  their  property;  ‘To  how  many  temptations 
are  all,  but  especially  the  young  and  gay,  exposed  to 
squander  their  whole  time  amid  the  circles  of  levity  ’ 
—Blair. 


TO  SPREAD,  SCATTER,  DISPERSE. 

Spread  (v.  To  spread)  applies  equally  to  divisible  or 
indivisible  bodies  ; we  spread  our  money  on  the  table, 
or  we  may  spread  a cloth  on  the  table : but  scatter 
which,  like  shatter,  is  a frequentative  of  shake,  is  ap 
plicable  indivisible  bodies  only;  we  scatter  corn  on  the 
ground.  To  spread  may  be  an  act  of  design  or  other 
wise,  but  mostly  the  former ; as  when  we  spread  bnok.s 
or  papers  before  us:  scatter  is  mostly  an  act  without 
design  ; a child  scatters  the  papers  on  the  flrior.  When 
taken,  however  as  an  act  of  design,  it  is  done  without 
order ; but  spreaa  is  an  act  done  in  order;  thus  hay  is 
■‘in^-eail  out  to  dry,  but  corn  Is  scattered  over  the  land 


, ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  34d 


All  in  a row 

Advancing  broad,  or  wheeling  round  the  field, 

They  spread  their  breatlir  ng  harvest  to  the  sun. 

Thomson. 

Each  leader  now  his  scatter'd  force  conjoins. 

Pope. 

Things  may  spread  in  one  direction,  or  at  least  with- 
out separation  ; but  they  disperse  (v.  To  dispel)  in 
many  directions,  so  as  to  destroy  the  continuity  of 
bodies:  a leaf  spreads  as  it  opens  in  all  its  parts,  and 
a.;tree  also  spreads  as  its  branches  increase;  but  a mul- 
titude disperses,  an  army  disperses.  Between  scatter 
and  disperse  there  is  no  other  difierence  than  that  one 
is  immelhixlical  and  involuntary,  the  other  systematick 
and  intentional : flowers  are  scattered  along  a path, 
which  accidentally  fall  from  the  hand;  a mob  \s,  dis- 
persed by  an  act  of  authority:  sheep  are  scattered 
along  the  hills;  religious  tracts  are  dispersed  among 
the  poor : the  disci))les  were  scattered  as  sheep  without 
a shepherd,  after  the  delivery  of  our  Saviour  into  the 
hands  of  the  Jews,  they  dispersed  themselves,  after 
his  ascension,  over  every  part  of  the  world; 

Straight  to  the  tents  the  troops  dispersing  bend. 

Pope. 


TO  SPREAD,  EXPAND,  DIFFUSE. 

Spread^  in  Saxon  spredan,  Low  German  spredan, 
High  German  spreiten,  is  an  intensive  of  breit  broad, 
signifying  to  stretch  wide;  expand',  in  Latin  expands, 
compounded  of  ex  and  pando  to  ojien,  and  the  Greek 
<paivu)  to  show  or  make  appear,  signifies  to  open  out 
wide  ; diffuse,  v.  Diffuse. 

To  spread  is  the  general,  the  other  two  are  particular 
terms.  To  spread  may  be  said  of  any  thing  which 
occupies  more  space  than  it  has  done,  whether  by  a 
direct  separation  of  its  parts,  or  by  an  accession  to  the 
substance ; but  to  expand  is  to  spread  by  means  of 
separating  or  unfolding  the  parts : a uiist  spreads  over 
the  earth;  a flower  expands  its  leaves:  a tree  spreads 
by  the  growth  of  its  branches;  the  opening  bud  ex- 
pands when  it  feels  the  genial  warmth  of  the  sun. 

Spread  and  expand  are  used  likewise  in  a moral 
application ; diffuse  is  seldom  used  in  any  other  appli- 
cation: spread  is  here,  as  before,  equally  indefinite  as 
to  the  mode  of  the  action;  every  thing  spreads,  and  it 
spreads  in  any  way ; 

See  where  the  winding  vale  its  lavish’d  stores 
Irriguous  spreads. — Thomson. 

Expansion  is  that  gradual  process  by  which  an  object 
opens  or  unfolds  itself  after  the  manner  of  a flower; 

As  from  the  face  of  heaven  the  shatter’d  clouds 
Tumultuous  rove,  th’  interminable  sky 
Sublimer  swells,  and  o’er  the  world  expands 
A purer  azure,— Thomson. 

Diffusion  is  that  process  of  spreading  which  consists 
literally  in  pouring  out  in  different  ways ; 

Th’  uncurling  floods  diffus'd 
In  glassy  breadth,  seem,  through  deiu.sive  lapse, 
Forgetful  of  their  course. — Thomson. 

Evils  spread,  and  reports  spread;  the  mind  ex- 
pands, and  prospects  expand ; knowledge  itself, 

or  cheerfulness  is  diffused  throughout  a company. 


TO  DILATE,  EXPAND. 

Dilate,  in  Latin  dilato,  from  di  apart  and  latus, 
wide,  that  is,  to  make  very  wide;  expand,  v.  To 
spread.,  in  the  preceding  article. 

The  idea  of  drawing  any  thing  out  so  as  to  occupy 
a greater  space  is  common  to  these  terms  in  opposition 
to  contracting.  Dilate  is  an  intransitive  verb ; expand 
is  transitive  or  intransitive;  the  former  marks  the 
action  of  any  body  within  itself ; the  latter  an  external 
action  on  any  body.  A bladder  dilates  on  the  admis- 
aion  of  air,  or  the  het.x\.  dilates  with  joy;  knowledge 
expands  the  mind,  or  a person’s  views  expand  with 
circumstances.  In  the  circulation  of  the  blood  through 
the  body,  the  vessd.s  are  ex[)osed  to  a perpetual  dila- 
tation nwA  contraction:  the  gradual  expansion  oi  the 
mind  by  the  regular  modes  of  communicating  know- 
ledge to  youth  is  unquestionably  to  be  desired;  but 
.ne  sudden  expansion  of  a man’s  thoughts  from  a 


comparative  state  of  ignorance  by  atiy  powerful  action 
is  very  dangerous; 

The  conscious  heart  of  charity  would  warm, 

And  her  wide  wish  benevolence  dilate. 

Thomson 

‘ The  poet  (Thom.son)  leads  us  through  the  appearances 
of  things  as  they  are  successively  varied  by  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  the  year,  and  imparts  to  us  so  much  of  his 
own  enthusiasiu  that  our  thoughts  expand  with  his 
imagery.’ — Johnson. 


TO  SPREAD,  CIRCULATE,  PROPAGATE, 
DISSEMINATE. 

To  spread  (v.  To  spread,  expand)  is  said  of  any 
object  material  or  spiritual ; the  rest  are  mostly  em- 
ployed in  the  moral  application.  To  spread  is  tc  ex- 
tend to  an  indefinite  width  ; 

Love  would  between  the  rich  and  needy  stand. 

And  spread  heaven’s  bounty  with  a,n  equal  hand. 

Waller. 

To  tirculate  is  to  spreod  within  a circle;  thus  news 
I spreads  through  a country;  but  a story  circulates  in  a 
village,  or  from  house  to  house,  or  a report  is  circulated 
in  a neighbourhood 

Our  God,  when  heaven  and  earth  he  did  create. 
Form’d  man,  who  should  of  both  participate ; 

If  our  lives’  motions  theirs  must  imitate. 

Our  knowledge,  like  our  blood,  must  circulate. 

Denham. 

Spread  and  circulate  are  the  acts  of  persons  or  things ; 
propagate  and  disseminate  are  the  acts  of  persons  only. 
A thing  spreads  and  circulates,  or  it  is  spread  and 
circulated  by  some  one : it  is  always  propagated  and 
disseminated  by  some  one.  Propagate,  froiH  the  Latin 
propago  a breed,  and  dissemimte,  from  semen  a seed, 
are  here  figuratively  employed  as  modes  of  spreading, 
according  to  lire  matural  operations  of  increasing  the 
quantity  of  any  thing  which  is  implied  in  the  first  two 
terms.  What  is  propagated  is  supposed  to  generate 
new  subjects ; as  when  doctrines,  either  good  or  bad, 
are  propagated  among  the  people  so  as  to  make  them 
converts ; 

He  shall  extend  \\\s  propagated  sway 

Beyond  the  solar  year,  without  the  starry  way. 

Dryden 

What  is  disseminated  is  supposed  to  be  sown  in  differ 
ent  parts;  thus  principles  are  disseminated  among 
youth  ; ‘Nature  seems  to  have  taken  care  to  dissemi- 
nate her  blessings  among  the  different  regions  of  the 
world.’ — Addison. 


TO  DISPEL,  DISPERSE,  DISSIPATE. 

Dispel,  from  the  Latin  pello  to  drive,  signifying  to 
drive  away,  is  a more  forcible  action  than  to  disperse. 
which  signifies  merely  to  cause  to  come  asunder : w^e 
destroy  the  existence  of  a thing  by  dispelling  it ; we 
merely  destroy  the  junction  or  cohesion  of  a body  by 
dispersing  it : the  sun  dispels  the  clouds  and  dark- 
ness ; 

As  when  a western  whirlwind,  charg’d  with  storms, 

Dispels  the  gathering  clouds  that  Nolus  forms. 

Pope. 

The  wind.d/.9perses  the  clouds,  or  a surgeon  disperses 
a tumour;  but  the  clouds  and  the  tumour  may  both 
gather  again : 

The  foe  dispers'd,  their  bravest  warriours  kill’d. 

Fierce  as  a whirlwind  now  I swept  the  field. 

Pope. 

Dispelling  and  dispersing  are  frequently  natural 
and  regular  operations;  dissipating  is  oftentimes  a 
violent  and  disorderly  proceeding.  Dissipate,  in  Latin 
dissipatum,  participle  of  dissipo,  compounded  of  ifs 
and  the  obsolete  sipo,  in  Greek  ai^nn,  was  originally 
applied  to  fluids,  whence  the  word  siphon  takes  its 
rise.  The  word  dissipate  therefore  denotes  the  act  of 
scattering  after  the  manner  of  fluids  which  arc  thus 
lost ; whence  that  which  is  dissipated  loses  its  exist- 
ence as  an  aggregate  boily  ; ‘ The  heat  at  length  crows 
so  great,  that  it  again  dissipates  and  bears  off  those 
corpuscles  which  it  brought.’ — Woodward.  In  the 
same  manner  wealth  is  said  to  be  dissipated  when 


346 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES, 


It  IS  lost  to  the  owner  by  being  spent.  These  terms 
admit  of  a similar  distinction  in  the  moral  accepta- 
tion ; 

If  the  night 

Have  gather’d  aught  of  evil,  or  conceal’d 

Disperseit^  as  now  light  the  dark. — Milton. 

When  the  thoughts  are  dissipated  the  mind  is  as  it 
were  lost ; ‘ I have  begun  two  or  three  letters  to  you 
by  snatches,  and  been  prevented  from  finishing  them 
oy  a thousand  avocations  and  dissipations.'— Swift. 

Dispel  is  used  figuratively  ; disperse  only  in  the 
natural  sense ; gloom,  ignorance,  and  the  like,  are  dis- 
pelled ; books,  people,  papers,  and  the  like,  are  dis- 
persed. 


TO  POUR,  SPILL,  SHED. 

Pour  is  probably  connected  with  pore,  and  the 
Latin  preposition  per  through,  signifying  to  make  to 
pass  as  it  were  through  a channel ; spill  and  splash, 
and  the  German  spHlen  are  probably  onomatopelas ; 
shed  comes  from  the  German  scheiden  to  separate,  sig- 
nifying to  cast  from. 

We  pour  with  design;  we  spill  by  accident;  we 
pour  water  over  a plant  or  a bed  ; we  spill  it  on  the 
ground.  To  pour  is  an  act  of  convenience ; to  spill 
and  shed  are  acts  more  or  less  hurtful ; the  former  is 
to  cause  to  run  in  small  quantities  ; the  latter  in  large 
quantities  • w’e  pour  wine  out  of  a bottle  into  a glass  ; 
but  the  blood  of  a person  is  said  to  be  spilled  or  shed 
when  his  life  is  violently  taken  away  : what  is  poured 
is  commonly  no  part  of  the  body  from  whence  it  is 
poured;  but  what  is  shed  is  no  other  than  a compo- 
nent part;  hence  trees  are  said  io  shed  their  leaves, 
animals  their  hair,  or  human  beings  to  shed  tears; 
‘ Poesy  is  of  so  subtle  a spirit,  that  in  the  pouring  out 
of  one  language  into  another,  it  will  evaporate.’ — 
Denham. 

O reputation ! dearer  far  than  life, 

Thou  precious  balsam,  lovely  sweet  of  smell. 

Whose  cordial  drops  once  spill' d by  some  rash  hand. 

Not  all  the  owner’s  care,  nor  the  repenting  toil 

Lf  the  rude  spiller,  can  collect.— Sewel. 

‘ Herod  acted  the  part  of  a great  mourner  for  the  de- 
ceased Aristobuhi.s,  shedding  abundance  of  tears.’ — 
Pride  au.x. 

POVERTY,  INDIGENCE,  WANT,  NEED, 
PENURY. 

Poverty  marks  the  condition  of  being  poor;  indi- 
gence, in  Latin  indigentia,  comes  from  indigeo  and 
the  Greek  diopai  to  waut,  signifying  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  word  want,  the  abstract  condition  of  want- 
ing; need,  v.  J^Tccessity ; penury,  in  Latin  penuria, 
comes  in  all  probability  from  the  Greek  nfivyg  poor. 

Poverty  is  a general  state  of  fortune  opposed  to  that 
of  riches;  in  which  one  is  abridged  of  the  conveni- 
ences of  life  : indigence  is  a particular  state  of  poverty, 
which  rises  above  it  in  such  a degree,  as  to  exclude 
the  necessaries  as  well  as  the  conveniences  of  life ; 
want  and  need  are  both  partial  states,  that  refer  only 
to  individual  things  which  are  wanting  to  any  one. 
Poverty  and  indigence  comprehend  all  a man’s  exter- 
nal circumstances;  but  jcani,  when  taken  by  itself, 
denotes  the  want  of  food  or  clothing,  and  is  opposed  to 
abundance;  need,  when  taken  by  itself,  implies  the 
want  of  money,  or  any  other  useful  article ; but  they 
are  both  more  commonly  taken  in  connexion  with  the 
object  which  is  wanted,  and  in  this  sense  they  are  to 
the  two  former  as  species  to  the  genus.  Poverty  and 
indigence  are  permanent  states ; want  and  need  are 
temporary : poverty  and  indigence  are  the  order  of 
Providence,  they  do  not  depend  upon  the  individual, 
and  are,  therefore,  not  reckoned  as  his  fault;  want 
?<hd  need  arise  more  commonly  from  circumstances  of 
one’s  own  creation,  and  tend  frequently  to  one’s  dis- 
credit. What  man  has  not  caused,  man  cannot  so 
easily  obviate  ; poverty  and  indigence  cannot,  there- 
fore, be  removed  at  one’s  will : but  want  and  need  are 
frequently  removed  by  the  aid  of  others.  Poverty  is 
that  which  one  should  learn  to  bear,  so  as  to  lessen  its 
pains;  ‘That  the  poverty  of  the  Highlanders  is  gra- 
dually diminished  cannot  be  mentioned  among  the  un- 
nleasing  consequerccB  of  subjection.’ — Johnson  -nn- 


digence  is  a calamity  which  the  compassion  of  others 
may  in  some  measure  alleviate,  if  they  cannot  entirely 
remove  it ; ‘If  we  can  but  raise  him  above  indigence 
a moderate  share  of  good  fortune  and  merit  will  be 
sufficient  to  open  his  way  to  whatever  else  we  can  wish 
him  to  obtain.’— Melmoth  {Litters  of  Cicero).  Want. 
when  it  results  from  intemperance  or  extravagance,  if 
not  altogether  entitled  to  any  relief ; 

Want  is  a bitter  and  a hateful  good. 

Because  its  virtues  are  not  understood  ; 

Yet  many  things,  impossible  to  thought. 

Have  been  by  need  to  full  perfection  brought. 

Dkyden. 

But  need',  when  it  arises  from  casualties  that  arc  in- 
dependent of  our  demerits,  will  always  find  friends. 

It  is  a wise  distribution  of  Providence  which  has 
made  the  rich  and  poor  to  be  mutually  dependent  upon 
each  other,  and  both  to  be  essential  to  the  happiness 
of  the  whole.  Among  all  descriptions  of  indigent 
persons,  none  are  more  entitled  to  charitable  attention 
than  those  who  in  addition  to  their  wants  suffer  under 
any  bodily  infirmity.  The  old  proverb  says,  “ Thai 
waste  makes  want,"  which  is  daily  realized  among 
men  without  making  them  wiser  by  experience.  “A 
friend  in  need,"  according  to  another  vulgar  proverb, 
“ is  a friend  indeed,”  which,  like  all  proverbial  say- 
ings, contains  a striking  truth ; for  nothing  can  be  more 
acceptable  than  the  assistance  which  we  receive  from 
a friend  when  we  stand  in  need  of  it ; ‘God  grant  we 
never  may  have  need  of  you.’ — Shakspeare.  All 
these  terms  may  be  used,  either  in  a general  or  in  a 
particular  sense,  to  denote  a privation  of  things  in 
general  or  a partial  privation.  Penury  is  used  io  de- 
note a privation  of  things  in  general,  but  particularly 
of  things  most  essential  for  existence ; '’’I'he  penury 
of  the  ecclesiastical  state.’ — Hooker. 

Sometimes  am  I a king. 

Then  treason  makes  me  with  myself  a beggar; 

And  so  I am  ; then  crushing  penury 

Persuades  me,  I was  better  when  a king. 

Shakspeare. 

NECESSITY,  NEED. 

JVecessity  {v.JSTecessary)  respects  the  thing  wanted  ; 
need,  in  German  noth,  probably  from  the  Greek  dvdyKr) 
necessity,  the  person  wanting.  There  v/ould  be  no 
necessity  for  punishments,  if  there  were  not  evil  doers ; 
he  is  peculiarly  fortunate  who  finds  a friend  in  time  of 
need.  JSTecessity  is  more  pressing  than  need ; the 
former  places  us  in  a positive  state  of  compulsion  to 
act ; it  is  said  to  have  no  law,  it  prescribes  the  law  for 
itself ; the  latter  yields  to  circumstances,  and  leaves  us 
in  a state  of  deprivation.  We  are  frequently  undei 
the  necessity  of  going  without  that  of  which  we  stand 
most  in  need;  ‘Where  necessity  ends,  curiosity  be- 
gins.’— Johnson.  ‘One  of  the  many  advantages  of 
friendship  is,  that  one  can  say  to  one’s  friend  the  things 
that  stand  in  need  of  pardon.’ — Pope. 

From  these  two  nouns  arise  two  epithets  for  each, 
which  are  worthy  of  observation,  namely,  necessary 
and  needful,  necessitous  and  needy.  JVecessary  and 
needful  are  both  applicable  to  the  thing  wanted ; ne- 
cessitous and  needy  to  the  person  wanting  necessary 
is  applied  to  every  object  indiscriminately  needful 
only  to  such  objects  as  supply  temporary  or  partial 
wants.  Exercise  is  necessary  to  preserve  tlie  health 
of  the  body  ; restraint  is  necessary  to  preserve  that  of 
the  mind  ; assistance  is  needful  for  one  who  has  not 
sufficient  resources  in  himself : it  is  necessary  to  go  by 
water  to  the  continent : money  is  needful  for  one  who 
is  travelling. 

The  dissemination  of  knowledge  is  necessary  to 
dispel  the  ignorance  which  would  otherwise  prevail  in 
the  world ; 

It  seems  to  me  most  strange  that  men  should  fear 

Seeing  that  death,  a necessary  end. 

Will  come  when  it  will  come.— Shakspeare 
It  is  needful  for  a young  person  to  attend  to  the  ii> 
structions  of  his  teacher,  if  he  will  improve; 

Time,  long  expected,  eas’d  us  of  our  load. 

And  brought  the  needful  presence  of  a god. 

Dryden. 

J^Tecessitous  expresses  more  than  needy ; the  formei 
comprehends  a general  state  of  necessity  or  deficiency 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


34’? 


fn  tie  vfniig  that  is  wanted  or  needful ; needy  ex- 
presses only  a particular  condition.  The  poor  are  in  a 
necessitous  condition  who  are  in  want  of  the  first  ne- 
cessaries, or  who  have  not  wherewithal  to  supply  the 
most  pressing  necessities ; ‘ Steele’s  imprudence  of 
generosity,  or  vanity  of  profusion,  kept  him  always 
incurably  necessitous.'— ioimsoii.  Adventurers  are 
said  to  be  needy,  when  their  vices  make  them  in  need 
of  that  which  they  might  otherwise  obtain  ; ‘ Charity 
iS  the  work  of  heaven,  which  is  always  laying  itself 
cut  on  the  needy  and  the  impotent.’— South.  It  is 
charity  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  necessitous,  but 
those  of  the  needy  are  sometimes  not  worthy  of  one’s 
laty. 

POOR,  PAUPER. 

Poor  and  pauper  are  both  derived  from  the  Latin 
pauper,  which  comes  from  the  Greek  iravpos  small. 
Poor  is  the  term  of  general  use  ; pauper  is  a term  of 
particular  use : a pauper  is  dipoor  man  who  lives  upon 
alms  or  the  relief  of  the  parish:  the  former  is,  there- 
fore, Indefinite  in  its  meaning ; the  latter  conveys  a 
reproachful  idea.  The  word  poor  is  used  as  a sub- 
stantive only  in  the  plural  number  ; pauper  is  a sub- 
stantive both  in  the  singular  and  plural : the  poor  of 
a parish  are,  in  general,  a heavy  burden  on  the  inha- 
bitants ; there  are  some  persons  who  are  not  ashamed 
to  live  and  die  as  paupers. 

NECESSITIES,  NECESSARIES. 

JV'ecessity,  in  Latin  necessitas,  and  necessary,  in 
Latin  necessarius,  from  necesse,  or  ne  and  cesso,  sig- 
nify not  to  be  yielded  or  given  up.  J^ecessity  is  the 
mode  or  state  of  circumstances,  or  the  thing  which  cir- 
cumstances render  necessary;  the  necessary  is  that 
which  is  absolutely  and  unconditionally  necessary. 

Art  has  ever  been  busy  in  inventing  things  to  supply 
the  various  necessities  of  our  nature,  and  yet  there  are 
always  numbers  who  want  even  the  first  necessaries 
of  life.  Habit  and  desire  create  necessities;  nature 
only  requires  necessaries : a voluptuary  has  necessi- 
ties which  are  unknown  to  a temperate  man ; the  poor 
have  in  general  little  more  than  7ieccssaries ; ‘Those 
whose  condition  has  always  restrained  them  to  the  con- 
templation of  their  own  necessities  will  scarcely  under- 
stand why  nights  and  days  should  be  spent  in  study.* 
— Johnson.  ‘ To  make  a man  happy,  virtue  must  be 
accompanied  with  at  least  a moderate  provision  of  all 
the  necessaries  of  life,  and  not  disturbed  by  bodily 
pains.’ — Buogell. 


TO  WANT,  NEED,  LACK. 

To  be  without  is  the  common  idea  expressed  by 
these  terms;  but  to  want  is  to  be  without  that  which 
contributes  to  our  comfort,  or  is  an  object  of  our  de- 
sire ; to  need  is  to  be  without  that  which  is  essential 
for  our  existence  or  our  purposes.  To  lack,  which  is 
probably  a variation  from  leak,  and  a term  not  in  fre- 
quent use,  expresses  little  more  than  the  general  idea 
of  being  without,  unaccompanied  by  any  collateral 
idea.  From  the  close  connexion  which  subsists  be- 
tween desiring  and  want,  it  is  usual  to  consider  what 
we  want  as  artificial,  and  what  we  need  as  natural 
and  indispensable.  What  one  man  wants  is  a super- 
fluity to  another  ; but  that  which  is  needed  by  one  is 
in  like  circumstances  needed  by  all : tender  people 
want  a fire  when  others  would  be  glad  not  to  have  it ; 
all  persons  need  warm  clothing  and  a warm  house  in 
the  winter. 

To  want  and  need  may  extend  indefinitely  to  many 
or  all  objects  ; to  lack,  or  be  deficient,  is  properly  said 
of  a single  object;  we  may  want  or  need  every  thing  ; 
we  lack  one  thing,  we  lack  this  or  that ; a rich  man 
may  lack  understanding,  virtue,  or  religion.  He  who 
wants  nothing  is  a happy  man  ; ‘ To  be  rich  is  to  have 
more  than  is  desired,  and  more  than  is  wanted.' — 
Johnson.  He  who  needs  nothing,  may  be  happy  if  he 
wants  no  more  than  he  has  ; 

The  old  from  such  affairs  are  only  freed, 

Which  vig’rous  youth  and  strength  of  body  need. 

Denham. 

Contentment  is  often  the  only  thing  a man  lacks  to 
make  him  happy ; 


See  the  mind  of  bea.stly  man ! 

That  liath  so  soon  tbrgot  the  excellence 
Of  his  creation,  when  he  life  began. 

That  now  he  chooseth  with  vile  difference 
To  be  a beast  and  lackc  intelligence  —Spenser 

TO  INCREASE,  GROW. 

Increase,  from  the  Latin  in  and  cresco,  signifies  tc 
grow  upon  or  grow  to  a thing,  to  become  one  with  it ; 
grow,  in  Saxon  growan,  very  probably  comes  from,  oi 
is  connected  with,  the  Latin  crevi,  perfect  of  cresco  to 
increase  or  grow. 

The  idea  of  becoming  larger  is  common  to  both 
these  terms ; but  the  former  expresses  the  idea  in  an 
unqualified  manner:  and  the  latter  annexes  to  this 
general  idea  also  that  of  the  mode  or  process  by  which 
this  is  effected.  To  increase  is  either  a gradual  or  an 
instantaneous  act ; to  grow  is  a gradual  process ; a 
stream  increases  by  the  addition  of  other  waters,  it 
may  come  suddenly  or  in  course  of  time,  by  means  of 
gentle  showers  or  the  rushing  in  of  other  streams ; 
but  if  we  say  that  the  river  or  stream  grows,  it  is  sup- 
posed to  by  some  regular  and  continual  process 
of  receiving  fresh  water,  as  from  the  running  in  of 
different  rivulets  or  smaller  streams.  To  increase  is 
either  a natural  or  an  artificial  process ; to  grow  is 
always  natural : money  increases  but  does  not  grow, 
because  it  increases  by  artificial  means:  corn  may 
either  increase  or  grow  : in  the  former  case  we  speak 
of  it  in  the  sense  of  becoming  larger  or  increasing  in 
bulk  ; in  the  latter  case  we  consider  the  mode  of  its 
increasing,  namely,  by  the  natural  process  of  vegeta- 
tion. On  this  ground  we  say  that  a child  grows  when 
we  wish  to  denote  the  natural  process  by  which  his 
body  arrives  at  its  proper  size  ; but  we  may  speak  of 
his  increasing  in  stature,  in  size,  and  the  like  ; 

Then,  as  her  strength  with  years  increas'd,  began 

To  pierce  aloft  in  air  the  soaring  swan. — Dryden. 
For  this  reason  likewise  increase  is  used  in  a transi 
tive  as  well  as  intransitive  sense ; but  grow  always  in 
an  intransitive  sense  ; we  can  increase  a thing,  though 
not  properly  grow  a thing,  because  we  can  make  it 
larger  by  whatever  means  we  please ; but  when  it 
grows  it  makes  itself  larger.  ‘ Bones,  after  full  growth, 
continue  at  a stay ; as  for  nails,  they  grow  continually.’ 
— Bacon. 

In  their  improper  acceptation  these  words  preserve 
the  same  distinction;  ‘trade  increases'  bespeaks  the 
simple  fact  of  its  becoming  larger  ; but  ‘ trade  grows' 
implies  that  gradual  increase  which  flows  from  the 
natural  concurrence  of  circumstances.  The  affections 
which  are  awakened  in  infancy  grow  with  one’s 
growth ; here  is  a natural  and  moral  process  com- 
bined ; 

Children,  like  tender  oziers,  take  the  bow, 

And,  as  they  first  are  fashion’d,  always  grow 

Dryden. 

The  fear  of  death  sometimes  increases  as  one  grows 
old  ; the  courage  of  a truly  brave  man  increases  with 
the  sight  of  danger:  here  is  a moral  process  which  is 
both  gradual  and  immediate,  but  in  both  cases  pro- 
duced by  some  foreign  cause. 

I have  enlarged  on  these  two  words  the  more  be- 
cause they  appear  to  have  been  involved  in  some  con 
siderable  perplexity  by  the  French  writers  Girard  and 
Robaud,  who  have  entered  very  diffusely  into  the  dis- 
tinction between  the  words  croitre  and  avgmenter, 
corresponding  to  increas  and  grow ; but  I trust  that 
from  the  above  explanation,  the  distinction  is  clearly 
to  be  observed. 


INCREASE,  ADDITION,  ACCESSION, 
AUGMENTATION. 

Increase  is  here  as  in  the  former  article  the  generick 
term  (v.  To  increase) ; there  will  always  be  increase 
where  there  is  augmentation,  addition,  and  accession, 
though  not  vice  versd. 

Jlddition  is  to  increase  as  the  means  to  the  end ; the 
addition  is  the  artificial  mode  of  making  two  things 
into  one ; the  increase  is  the  result;  when  the  value 
of  one  figure  is  added  to  another,  the  sum  is  increased; 
hence  a man’s  treasures  experience  an  increase  by  the 
addition  of  other  parts  to  the  main  stock-  Addition  ia 


348 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


an  intentional  mode  of  increasing ; accession  is  an 
accidental  mode:  one  thing  is  added  to  another,  and 
thereby  increased;  but  an  accession  takes  place  of 
itself ; it  is  the  coming  or  joining  of  one  thing  to  an- 
other so  as  to  increase  the  whole.  A merchant  in- 
creases his  property  by  adding  his  gains  in  trade  every 
year  to  the  mass  ; but  he  receives  an  accession  of  pro- 
perty either  by  inheritance  or  any  other  contingency. 
In  tlie  same  manner  a monarch  increases  his  dominions 
by  adding  one  territory  to  another,  or  by  various  acces- 
sions of  territory  which  fall  to  his  lot. 

When  we  speak  of  an  increase,  we  think  of  the 
Whole  and  its  relative  magnitude  at  different  times ; 

At  will  I crop  the  year’s  increase, 

My  latter  life  is  rest  and  peace.— Dryden. 
V/hen  we  speak  of  an  addition,  we  think  only  of  the 
part  and  the  agency  by  which  this  part  is  joined  ; ‘The 
ill  state  of  health  into  which  Tullia  is  fallen  is  a very 
severe  addition  to  the  many  and  great  disquietudes 
that  afflict  my  mind.’ — Mklmoth  {Letters  of  Cicero). 
When  we  speak  of  an  accession,  we  think  only  of  the 
circumstance  by  which  one  thing  becomes  thus  joined 
to  another ; ‘ There  is  nothing  in  my  opinion  more 
pleasing  in  religion  than  to  consider  that  the  soul  is  to 
shine  for  ever  with  new  accessions  of  glory.’ — Addi- 
son. Increase  of  happiness  does  not  dp^iiend  upon  in- 
crease of  wealth ; the  miser  makes  daily  additions  to 
the  latter  without  making  any  to  the  former : sudden 
accessions  of  wealth  are  seldom  attended  with  any 
good  consequences,  as  they  turn  the  thoughts  too  vio- 
lently out  of  their  sober  channel,  and  bend  them  too 
strongly  on  present  possessions  and  good  fortune. 

Augmentation  is  another  term  for  increase,  which 
differs  less  in  sense  than  in  application : the  latter  is 
generally  applied  to  all  objects  that  admit  such  a 
change  : but  the  former  is  applied  only  to  objects  of 
higher  import  or  cases  of  a less  familiar  nature.  We 
may  say  that  a person  experiences  an  increase  or  an 
augmentation  in  his  family  ; or  that  he  has  had  an  in- 
crease or  an  augmentation  of  his  salary,  or  that  there 
is  an  increase  or  augmentation  of  the  number : in  all 
which  cases  the  former  term  is  most  adapted  to  the 
colloquial,  and  the  latter  to  the  grave  style. 


TO  ENLARGE,  INCREASE,  EXTEND. 

Enlarge  signifies  literally  to  make  large  or  wide,  and 
te  applied  to  dimension  and  extent ; increase,  from  the 
Latin  incresco  to  grow  to  a thing,  is  applicable  to 
quantity,  signifying  to  become  greater  in  size  by  the 
junction  of  other  matter  ; extend,  in  Latin  extendo,  or 
ex  and  tendo,  signifies  to  stretch  out,  that  is,  to  make 
greater  m space.  We  speak  of  enlarging  a house,  a 
room,  premises,  or  boundaries ; of  increasing  the  pro- 
perty, the  army,  the  capital,  expense,  &c.;  of  extend- 
^g  the  boundaries  of  an  empire.  We  say  the  hole  or 
cavity  enlarges,  the  head  or  bulk  enlarges,  the  num- 
ber increases,  the  swelling,  inflammation,  and  the  like, 
increase:  so  likewise  in  the  figurative  sense,  the  views, 
the  prospects,  the  powers,  the  ideas,  and  the  mind,  are 
enlarged ; 

Great  objects  make 

Great  minds,  enlarging  as  their  views  enlarge, 
Those  still  more  godlike,  as  these  more  divine. 

Young. 

Pain,  pleasure,  hope,  fear,  anger,  or  kindness,  is  in- 
creased ; Good  sense  alone  is  a sedate  and  quiescent 
quality,  which  manages  its  possessions  well,  but  does 
not  increase  them.’ — Johnson.  Views,  prospects,  con- 
nexions, and  the  like,  are  extended; 

The  wise  extending  their  inquiries  wide. 

See  how  both  states  are  by  connexion  tied  ; 

Fools  view  but  part,  and  not  the  whole  survey. 

So  crowd  existence  all  into  a day.— Jenyns. 

TO  REACH,  STRETCH,  EXTEND. 

Reach,  through  the  medium  of  the  northern  languages, 
as  also  the  Latin  rego  in  the  word  porrigo,  and  the 
Greek  dpeyu),  comes  from  the  Hebrew  to  draw 
out.  and  length ; stretch  is  but  an  intensive  of 

reach ; extevld,  v.  To  extend. 

The  idea  of  drawing  out  in  a line  is  common  to 
these  terms,  but  they  differ  in  the  mode  and  circum- 


stances of  the  action.  To  reach  and  to  stretch  are  etii 
ployed  only  for  drawing  out  in  a straight  line,  th?.t  is., 
lengthwise  ; extend  may  be  employed  to  express  the 
drawing  out  in  all  direclion.s.  In  this  sense  a wall  is 
said  to  reach  a certain  number  of  yards ; a neck  of 
land  is  said  to  stretch  into  the  sea ; a wood  extends 
many  miles  over  a country.  As  the  act  of  persons,  in 
the  proper  sense,  they  ditter  still  more  widely;  reach 
and  stretch  signify  drawing  to  a given  point,  and  for 
a given  end  • extend  has  no  such  collateral  meaning. 
We  reach  in  order  to  take  hold  of  something;  we 
stretch  in  order  to  surmount  some  object:  a person 
reaches  with  his  arm  in  order  to  get  down  a book  ; he 
stretches  his  neck  in  order  to  see  over  another  person : 
in  both  cases  we  might  be  said  simply  to  extend  the 
arm  or  the  neck,  where  the  collateral  circumstance  is 
not  to  be  expressed. 

In  the  improper  application,  they  have  a similar  dis- 
tinction : to  reach  is  applied  to  the  movements  which 
one  makes  to  a certain  end,  and  is  equivalent  to  ar- 
riving at,  or  attaining.  A traveller  strives  to  reach  his 
journey’s  end  as  ouickly  as  possible  ; an  ambitious 
man  aims  at  reaching  the  summit  of  human  power  or 
honour;  ‘The  whole  power  of  cunning  is  privative; 
to  say  nothing,  and  to  do  nothing,  is  the  utmost  of  its 
reacA.’— Johnson.  To  stretch  is  applied  to  the  direc- 
tion which  one  gives  to  another  object,  so  as  to  bring  it 
to  a certain  point;  a ruler  stretches  his  power  or  an 
thority  to  its  utmost  limits ; 

Plains  immense 

Lie  stretch'd  below  interminable  meads. 

Thomson 

To  extend  retains  its  original  unqualified  meaning  ; as 
when  we  speak  of  extending  the  meaning  or  applica- 
tion of  a word,  of  extending  one’s  bounty  or  charity, 
extending  one’s  sphere  of  action,  and  the  like ; 

Our  life  is  short,  but  to  extend  that  span 
To  vast  eternity  is  virtue’s  work — Shakspeark 


SIZE,  MAGNITUDE,  GREATNESS,  BULK. 

Size,  from  the  Latin  cisus  and  cado  to  cut,  signifies 
that  which  is  cut  or  framed  according  to  a certain  pro 
portion;  magnitude,  from  the  Latin  magnitudo,  an- 
swers literally  to  the  English  word  greatness ; bullc, 
V.  Bulky. 

Size  is  a general  term  including  all  manner  of  di- 
mension or  measurement ; magnitude  is  employed  in 
science  or  in  an  abstract  sense  to  denote  some  specifick 
measurement;  greatness  is  an  unscientifick  term  ap- 
plied in  the  same  sense  to  objects  in  general ; size  is 
indefinite,  it  never  characterizes  any  thing  either  as 
large  or  small ; but  magnitude  and  greatness  always 
suppose  something  great;  a.nA  bulk  denotes  a consi- 
derable degree  of  greatness : things  which  are  diminu- 
tive in  size  will  often  have  an  extraordinary  degree  of 
beauty,  or  some  other  adventitious  perfection  to  com 
pensate  the  deficiency ; 

Soon  grows  the  pigmy  to  gigantick  arze.— Drydkn. 
Astronomers  have  classed  the  stars  according  to  their 
different  magnitudes  ; 

Tnen  form’d  the  moon. 

Globose,  and  every  magnitude  of  stars. — Milton. 
Greatness  is  considered  by  Burke  as  one  source  of  the 
sublime;  ‘Awe  is  the  first  sentiment  that  rises  in  the 
mind  at  the  first  view  of  God’s  greatness.' — Blair. 
Bulk  is  that  s[)ecies  of  greatness  which  destroys  the 
symmetry,  and  consequently  the  beauty,  of  objects ; 

His  hugy  bulk  on  seven  high  volumes  roll’d. 

Dryden 

BULKY,  MASSIVE  OK  MASSY. 

RwZAy  denotes  having  bulk,  which  is  connected  with 
our  words,  belly,  body,  bilge,  bulge,  &c.,  and  the  Ger 
man  balg;  massive,  in  French  massif,  from  mass, 
signifies  having  a mass  or  being  like  a mass,  which, 
through  the  German  masse,  Latin  massa,  Greek  yd^a 
dough,  comes  from  ydccu)  to  knead,  signifying  made 
into  a solid  substance. 

Whatever  is  bulky  has  a prominence  of  figure, 
what  is  massive  has  compactness  of  matter.  The 
AmZA?/,  therefore,  though  larger  in  size,  is  not  so  weighty 
as  the  massive;  ‘In  Milton’s  time  it  was  suspected 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


342 


that  tho  wliole  creation  languished,  that  neither  trees 
nor  iinimals  had  the  height  or  bulk  of  their  prede- 
cessors.'— Johnson. 

His  pond’rous  shield, 

Ethereal  temper,  massy,  large,  and  round, 
Behind  him  cast.— Milton. 

Hollow  bodies  commonly  have  a bulk;  none  but 
solid  bodies  can  be  massive. 

A vessel  is  bulky  in  its  form ; lead,  silver,  and  gold, 
massive. 


LARGE,  WIDE,  BROAD. 

Large  {v.  Great)  is  applied  in  a general  way  to  ex- 
press every  dimension  ; it  implies  not  only  abundance 
in  solid  matter,  but  also  freedom  in  the  space,  or  extent 
of  a plane  superficies;  wide,  in  German  weit,  is  most 
probably  connected  with  the  French  wide,  and  the 
Latin  viduus  empty,  signifying  properly  an  empty  or 
open  space  unincumbered  by  any  obstructions ; broad. 
In  German  breit,  probably  comes  from  the  noun  bret, 
board ; because  it  is  the  peculiar  property  of  a board, 
that  is  to  say,  it  is  the  width  of  what  is  particularly 
tong.  Many  things  are  large,  but  not  wide;  as  a large 
town,  a large  circle,  a large  ball,  a large  nut : other 
things  are  both  large  and  wide;  as  a large  field,  or  a 
wide  field : a large  house,  or  a wide  hpuse : but  the 
field  is  said  to  be  large  from  the  quantity  of  ground  it 
contains  ; it  is  said  to  be  wide  both  from  its  figure,  or 
the  extent  of  its  space  in  the  cross  directions ; in  like 
manner,  a house  is  large  from  its  extent  in  all  direc- 
tions ; it  is  said  to  be  wide  from  the  extent  which  it  runs 
In  front : some  things  are  said  to  be  wide  which  are 
not  denominated  large;  that  is,  either  such  things  as 
have  less  bulk  and  quantity  than  extent  of  plane  sur- 
face ; as  ell  wide  cloth,  a wide  opening,  a wide  entrance, 
and  the  like ; or  such  as  have  an  extent  of  space  only 
one  way  ; as  a wide  road,  a wide  path,  a wide  passage, 
and  the  like; 

Wide  was  the  wound. 

But  suddenly  with  flesh  fill’d  up  and  heal’d. 

Milton. 

What  is  broad  is  in  sense,  and  mostly  in  application, 
wide,  but  not  vice  versa:  a ribbon  is  broad;  a ledge  is 
broad;  a ditch  is  broad;  a plank  is  broad;  the  brim 
of  a hat  is  broad;  or  the  border  of  any  thing  is  broad: 
on  the  other  hand,  a mouth  is  wide,  but  not  broad; 
apertures  in  general  are  wide,  but  not  broad.  The 
large  is  opposed  to  the  snail  ; the  wide  to  the  close; 
the  broad  to  the  narrow.  In  the  moral  application,  we 
speak  of  largeness  in  regard  to  liberality ; 

Shall  grief  contract  the  largeness  of  that  heart, 

In  which  nor  fear  nor  anger  has  a part  ? 

Waller. 

Wide  and  broad  only  in  the  figurative  sense  of  space 
or  size:  as  a wide  diflerence;  or  a broad  line  of  dis- 
tinction ; ‘The  wider  a man’s  comforts  extend,  the 
broader  is  the  mark  which  he  spreads  to  the  arrows  of 
misfortune.’ — Blair. 


GREAT,  LARGE,  BIG. 

Great,  derived  through  the  medium  of  the  northern 
languages  from  the  Latin  crassus  thick,  and  cresco  to 
grow,  is  applied  to  all  kinds  of  dimensions  in  which 
things  can  grow  or  increase ; large,  in  Latin  largus 
wide,  is  probably  derived  from  the  Greek  Xa  and  pteiv 
tc  flow  plentifully  ; for  largior  signifies  to  give  freely, 
and  large  has  in  English  a similar  sense;  it  is  properly 
applied  to  space,  extent,  and  quantity:  big,  from  the 
German  bauch  belly,  and  the  English  bulk,  denotes 
great  as  to  expan  don  or  capacity.  A house,  a room,  a 
neap,  a pile,  an  army,  fee.,  is  great  or  large;  ‘At  one’s 
first  entrance  into  the  Pantheon  at  Rome,  how  the  ima- 
gination is  filled  with  something  great  and  amazing; 
and  at  the  same  time  how  little  in  proportion  one  is 
affected  with  the  inside  of  a Gothick  cathedral,  al- 
though it  be  five  times  larger  than  the  other.’ — Addi- 
SCN.  An  animal  or  a mountain  is  great  or  bg ; a 
road,  a city,  a street,  and  the  like,  is  termed  raiher 
great  than  large;  ‘An  animal  no  bigger  than  a mite 
cannot  appear  perfect  to  the  eye,  because  the  sight 
takes  it  in  at  once.’ — Addison.  ‘ We  are  not  a little 
pleased  to  find  every  green  leaf  swarm  with  millioDS 


of  animals,  that  at  their  largest  growth  are  not  visible 
to  the  naked  eye.’ — Addison.  Great  is  used  generally 
in  the  improper  sense;  large  and  big  ate  used  only 
occasionally:  a noise,  a distance,  a multitude,  a num- 
ber, a power,  and  the  like,  is  termed  great,  but  not 
large;  we  may,  however,  speak  of  a large  portion,  a 
large  share,  a large  quantity:  or  of  a mind  big  with 
conception,  or  of  an  event  big  with  the  fate  of  nations; 
‘Among  all  the  figures  of  architecture,  there  are  none 
that  have  a greater  air  than  the  concave  and  the  con 
vex.’ — Addison. 

Sure  he  that  made  us  with  such  large  discou  at, 
Looking  before  and  after,  gave  us  not, 

That  capability  and  godlike  reason. 

To  rust  in  us  unus’d. — Shakspeare. 

Amazing  clouds  on  clouds  continual  heap’d. 

Or  whirl’d  tempestuous  by  the  gusty  wind. 

Or  silent  borne  along  heavy  and  slow, 

With  the  big  stores  of  streaming  oceans  charg’d. 

Thomson. 


ENORMOUS,  HUGE,  IMMENSE,  VAST. 

Enormous,  from  e and  norma  a rule,  signifies  out  of 
rule  or  order ; huge  is  in  all  probability  connected  with 
high,  which  is  hoogh  in  Dutch;  immense,  in  Latin 
immensus,  compounded  of  in  privative  and  mensus 
measured,  signifies  not  to  be  measured ; vast,  in 
French  vaste,  Latin  vastus,  from  vaco  to  be  vacant, 
open,  or  wide,  signifies  extended  in  space. 

Enormous  and  huge  are  peculiarly  applicable  to 
magnitude ; immense  and  vast  to  extent,  quantity, 
and  number.  Enormous  expresses  more  than  huge, 
as  immense  expresses  more  than  vast : what  is  erwr- 
mous  exceeds  in  a very  great  degree  all  ordinary 
bounds  ; what  is  huge  is  great  only  in  the  superlative 
degree.  The  enormous  is  always  out  of  proportion; 
the  huge  is  relatively  extraordinary  in  its  dimensions 
Some  animals  may  be  made  enormously  fat  by  a par 
ticular  mode  of  feeding:  to  one  who  has  seen  nothing 
but  level  ground  common  hills  will  appear  to  be  hugt 
mountains ; 

The  Thracian  Acamus  his  falchion  found. 

And  hew’d  the  enormous  giant  to  the  ground. 

Pope. 

Great  AreJthous,  known  from  shore  to  shore, 

By  the  huge  knotted  iron  mace  he  bore. 

No  lance  he  shook,  nor  bent  the  twanging  bow, 
But  broke  with  this  the  battle  of  the  foe. 

Pope. 

The  immense  is  that  which  e.xceeds  all  calculation, 
the  vast  comprehends  only  a very  great  or  unusual 
excess.  The  distance  between  the  earth  and  sun  may 
be  said  to  be  immense : the  distance  between  the  poles 
IS  vast; 

Well  was  the  crime,  and  well  the  vengeance  s-parr’d, 
E’en  power  immense  had  found  such  battle  hard. 

Pope. 

Just  on  the  brink  they  neigh  and  paw  the  ground, 
And  the  turf  trembles,  and  the  skies  resound  ; 

Eager  they  view’d  the  prospect  dark  and  deep. 

Vast  was  the  leap,  and  headlong  hung  the  steep. 

Pope. 

Of  all  these  terms  huge  is  the  only  one  confined  to 
the  proper  application,  and  in  the  proper  sense  of  size: 
the  rest  are  en)ployed  with  regard  to  moral  objects. 
We  speak  only  of  a huge  animal,  a huge  monster,  a 
huge  mass,  a huge  size,  a huge  bulk,  and  the  like  ; but 
we  speak  of  an  enormous  waste,  an  immense  differ- 
ence, and  a vast  number. 

The  epithets  enormous,  immense,  and  vast  are  ap- 
plicable to  the  same  objects,  but  with  the  same  distinc- 
tion in  their  sense.  A sum  is  enormous  which  exceeds 
in  magnitude  not  only  every  thing  known,  but  every 
thing  thought  of  or  expected;  a sum  is  mOTew.se  that 
scarcely  admits  of  calculation:  a sum  is  vast  which 
rises  very  high  in  calculation.  The  national  debt  of 
England  has  risen  to  an  enormous  amount : the  revo- 
lutionary war  has  been  attended  with  an  immense  loss 
of  blood  and  treasure  to  the  different  nations  of  Eu- 
rope : there  are  individuals  who,  while  they  ate  ex' 
pending  7)ast  sums  on  their  own  gratifications,  refuse 
to  contribute  any  thing  to  the  relief  of  the  necessitous 


350 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES 


EN()RMOUS,  PRODIGIOUS,  MONSTROUS. 
Enormous,  v.  Enormous ; prodigious  comes  from 
prodigy,  in  Latin  prodigium,  which  in  all  probability 
comes  from  prodign  to  lavish  forth,  signifying  literally 
oreaking  out  in  excess  or  extravagance;  monstrous, 
from  monster,  in  Latin  monstrum,  and  monstro  to 
show  or  make  visible,  signifies  remarkable,  or  exciting 
notice 

The  enormous  contradicts  our  rules  of  estimating 
and  calculating : the  prodigious  raises  oUr  minds  be- 
yond their  ordinary  standard  of  thinking:  the  mon- 
strous contradicts  nature  and  the  course  of  things. 
What  is  enormous  excites  our  surprise  or  amazement ; 
Jove’s  bird  on  sounding  pinions  beat  the  skies, 

A bleeding  serpent  of  enormous  size, 

His  talons  truss’d,  alive  and  curling  round. 

He  stung  the  bird  whose  throat  receiv’d  the  wound. 

Pope 

What  is  prodigious  excites  our  astonishment ; ‘ I 
dreamed  that  I was  in  a wood  of  so  prodigious  an 
extent,  and  cut  into  such  a variety  of  walks  and  alleys, 
that  all  mankind  were  lost  and  bewildered  in  it.’ — Ad- 
dison. What  is  monstrous  does  violence  to  our  senses 
and  understanding ; 

Nothing  so  monstrous  can  be  said  or  feign’d 
But  with  belief  and  joy  is  entertain’d.— Drydkn. 
There  is  something  enormous  in  the  present  scale  upon 
which  property,  whether  publick  or  private,  is  amassed 
and  expended : the  works  of  the  ancients  in  general, 
but  the  Egyptian  pyramids  in  particular,  are  objects  of 
admiration,  on  account  of  the  prodigious  labour  which 
was  bestowed  on  them : ignorance  and  superstition  have 
always  been  active  in  producing  monstrous  images  for 
the  worship  of  its  blind  votaries. 

IJTTLE,  SMALL,  DIMINUTIVE. 

Little,  in  Low  German  litje,  Dutch  lettel,  is,  in  all 
probability,  connected  with  light,  in  Saxon  leoht,  old 
German  lihto,  Swedish  Idtt,  &c. ; small  is,  with  some 
variations,  to  be  found  in  most  of  the  northern  dialects, 
in  which  it  signifies,  as  in  English,  a contracted  space 
or  quantity  ; diminutive,  in  Lat'n  diminutivus,  signi- 
fies made  small. 

Little  is  properly  opposed  to  the  great  {v.  Great), 
small  to  the  large,  and  diminutive  is  a species  of  the 
small,  which  is  made  so  contrary  to  the  course  of 
things : a child  is  said  to  be  little  as  respects  its  age  as 
well  as  its  size ; it  is  said  to  be  small  as  respects  its 
size  only  ; it  is  said  to  be  diminutive  when  it  is  ex- 
ceedingly smaZZ  considering  its  age:  ZZZzZe  children 
cannot  be  left  with  safety  to  themselves ; small  chil- 
dren are  pleasanter  to  be  nursed  than  large  ones : if  we 
look  down  from  any  very  great  height  the  largest  men 
will  look  diminutive ; ‘ The  talent  of  turning  men  into 
ridicule,  and  exposing  to  laughter  those  one  converses 
with,  is  the  qualification  of  little,  ungenerous  tempers.’ 
—Addison.  ‘ He  whose  knowledge  is  at  best  but 
limited,  and  whose  intellect  proceeds  by  a small,  dimi- 
nutive light,  cannot  but  receive  an  additional  light  by 
the  conceptions  of  another  man.’— South. 


SPACE,  ROOM. 

Space,  in  Latin  spaiium,  Greek  ^d5iov,  yEol.  crd^iov 
a race  ground ; room,  in  Saxon  rum,  &c.  Hebrew  ramah 
a wide  place. 

These  are  both  abstract  terms,  expressive  of  that 
portion  of  the  universe  which  is  supposed  not  to  be 
occupied  by  any  solid  body  : space  is  a ger.erai  term, 
which  includes  within  itself  that  which  infinitely  sur- 
passes our  comprehension  ; room  is  a limited  term, 
which  comprehends  those  portions  of  space  which  are 
artificially  formed : space  is  either  extended  or  bounded ; 
room  is  always  a bounded  space  ; the  space  between 
two  objects  is  either  natural,  incidental,  or  designedly 
formed ; 

The  man  of  wealth  and  pride 
I'akes  up  a space  that  many  poor  supplied. 

Goldsmith. 

The  room  is  that  which  is  th«  ruit  of  design,  to  suit 
the  convenience  of  persons ; 

For  the  whole  world,  without  a native  home. 

In  nothing  but  a prison  of  a larger  room. — Cow  ley. 


There  is  a sufficient  space  between  the  heavenly  bodies 
to  admit  of  their  meving  without  confusion  ; the  value 
of  a house  essentially  depends  upon  the  quantity  of 
room  which  it  affords:  in  a row  of  trees  there  must 
always  be  vacant  spaces  between  each  tree ; in  a coach 
there  will  be  only  room  for  a given  number  of  persons. 

Space  is  only  taken  in  the  natural  sense;  room  is 
also  employed  in  the  moral  application : in  every  per- 
son there  is  ample  room  for  amendment  or  improve- 
ment. 


AMPLE,  SPACIOUS,  CAPACIOUS. 

Ample,  in  French  ample,  Latin  amplus,  probably 
comes  from  the  Greek  dvaiAeois  full ; spacious,  in 
French  spacieux,  Latin  spaciosus,  comes  from  spa- 
tium  a space,  implying  the  quality  of  having  space; 
capacious,  in  Latin  capax,  from  capio  to  hold,  signifies 
the  quality  of  being  able  to  hold. 

Tliese  epithets  convey  the  analogous  ideas  of  extent 
in  quantity,  and  extent  in  space.  Ample  is  figuratively 
employed  for  whatever  is  extended  in  quantity  ; spa- 
cious is  literally  used  for  whatever  is  extended  in  space; 
capacious  is  literally  and  figuratively  employed  to  ex- 
press extension  in  both  quantity  and  space.  Stores  are 
ample,  room  is  ample,  an  allowance  is  ample : a room, 
a house,  a garden  is  spacious : a vessel  or  hollow  of  any 
kind  is  capacious  ; the  soul,  the  mind,  and  the  heart 
are  capacious. 

Ample  is  opposed  to  scanty,  spacious  to  narrow 
capacious  to  small.  What  is  ample  suffices  and  satis- 
fies ; it  imposes  no  constraint ; ‘ The  pure  conscious- 
ness of  worthy  actions,  abstracted  from  the  views  of 
popular  applause,  is  to  a generous  mind  an  ample  re 
ward.’ — Hughes.  What  is  spacious  is  free  and  open, 
it  does  not  confine; 

These  mighty  monarchies,  that  had  o’erspread 

The  spacious  earth,  and  stretch’d  theii  conq’ring  arms 

From  pole  to  pole  by  ensnaring  charms 

Were  quite  consumed. — May. 

What  is  capacious  readily  receives  and  contains ; it  is 
spacious,  liberal,  and  generous ; 

Down  sunk,  a hollow  bottom  broad  and  deep 
Capacious  bed  of  waters. — Milton. 

Although  sciences,  arts,  philosophy,  and  languages 
afford  to  the  mass  of  mankind  ample  scope  for  the 
exercise  of  their  mental  powers  without  recurring  to 
mysterious  or  fanciful  researches,  yet  this  world  is 
hardly  spacious  enough  for  ’he  range  of  the  intellectual 
faculties : the  capacious  minds  of  some  are  no  less  capa 
ble  of  containing  than  they  are  disposed  for  receiving 
whatever  spiritual  food  is  offered  them. 

DEPTH,  PROFUNDITY. 

Depth,  from  deep,  dip,  or  dive,  the  Greek  JuVrw,  and 
the  Hebrew  to  dive,  signifies  the  point  under 
water  which  is  dived  for ; profundity,  from  profound, 
in  Latin  profundus,  compounded  of  pro  or  procul  far, 
and  fundus  the  bottom,  signifies  remoteness  from  the 
surface  of  any  thing. 

These  terms  do  not  differ  merely  in  their  derivation , 
but  depth  is  indefinite  in  its  signification  ; and  pro- 
fundity is  a positive  and  considerable  degree  of  depth. 
Moreover,  the  word  depth  is  applied  to  objects  in  gene- 
ral ; ‘ By  these  two  passions  of  hope  and  fear,  we 
reach  forward  into  futurity,  and  bring  up  to  our  pre- 
sent thoughts  objects  that  lie  in  the  remotest  depths  of 
time.’ — Addison.  Profundity  is  confined  in  its  appli- 
cation to  moral  objects : thus  we  speak  of  the  depth 
of  the  sea,  or  the  depth  of  a person’s  learning  ; but  his 
profundity  of  thought ; ‘ The  peruser  of  Swift  will 
want  very  little  previous  knowledge:  it  will  be  suffi 
cient  that  he  is  acquainted  with  common  words  and 
common  things  ; he  is  neither  required  to  mount  eleva 
tions  nor  to  explore  prof  undities.' — Johnson. 

OBLONG,  OVAL. 

Oblong,  in  Latin  oblongus,  from  the  intensive  sylla- 
ble ob,  signifies  very  long,  longer  than  broad:  oval 
from  the  Latin  ovum,  signifies  egg-shaped. 

The  oval  is  a species  of  the  oblong : what  is  oval 
is  oblong;  but  what  is  oblong  is  not  always  aval.  Ob- 
long is  peculiar'v  applied  to  figures  formed  by  righf 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


36, 


tines,  tliat  is,  all  rectangular  parallelograms,  except 
squares,  are  oblong  : but  tlie  oval  is  ap[)lied  to  curvi- 
linear oblong  figures,  as  ellipses,  which  are  distin- 
guished fiom  the  circle:  tables  are  oftener  oblong 
than  oval ; garden  beds  are  as  frequently  oval  as  they 
are  oblong. 

ROUNDNESS,  ROTUNDITY. 

Roundness  and  rotundity  both  come  from  the  Latin 
rotundus  and  rota  a wheel,  which  is  the  most  perfectly 
round  body  that  is  formed : the  former  term  is  how- 
ever applied  to  all  objects  in  general  ; the  latter  only 
to  solid  bodies  wliich  are  round  in  all  directions  : one 
speaks  of  the  roundness  of  a circle,  the  roundness  of 
the  moon,  the  roundness  of  a tree;  but  the  rotundity 
of  a man’s  body  which  projects  in  a round  form  in  all 
directions,  and  the  rotundity  of  a full  cheek,  or  the 
rotundity  of  a turnip  ; 

Bracelets  of  pearls  gave  roundness  to  her  arms. 

Prior. 

Angular  bodies  lose  their  points  and  asperities  by  fre- 
quent friction,  and  approach  by  degrees  to  uniform 
rotundity.' — Johnson. 

OUTWARD,  EXTERNAL,  EXTERIOUR. 
Outward,  or  inclined  to  the  out,  after  the  manner 
of  the  out,  indefinitely  describes  the  situation  ; exter- 
nal, from  the  Latin  eztemus  and  extra,  is  more  defi- 
nite in  its  sense,  since  it  is  employed  only  in  regard  to 
such  objects  as  are  conceived  to  be  independent  of 
man  as  a thinking  being  : hence,  we  may  speak  of  the 
outward  part  of  a building,  of  a board,  of  a table,  a 
box,  and  the  like ; but  of  external  objects  acting  on 
the  mind,  or  of  an  external  agency ; ‘ The  contro- 
versy about  the  reality  of  external  evils  is  now  at  an 
end.’ — Johnson.  Exteriour  is  still  more  definite  than 
either,  as  it  expresses  a higher  degree  of  the  outward 
or  external;  the  former  being  in  the  comparative,  and 
the  two  latter  in  the  positive  degree ; when  we  speak 
of  any  thing  which  has  two  coats,  it  is  usual  to  desig- 
nate llie  outermost  by  the  name  of  the  exteriour ; when 
we  speak  simply  of  the  surface,  without  reference  to 
any  thing  behind,  it  is  denominated  external:  as  the 
exteriour  coat  of  a walnut,  or  the  external  surface  of 
things.  In  the  moral  application  the  external  or  out- 
ward is  that  which  comes  simply  to  the  view ; but  the 
exteriour  is  that  which  is  prominent,  and  which  conse- 
quently may  conceal  something; 

But  when  a monarch  sins,  it  should  be  secret. 

To  keep  exteriour  show  of  sanctity. 

Maintain  respect,  and  cover  bad  example. — Dryden. 
A man  may  Sometimes  neglect  the  outside,  who  is 
altogether  mindful  of  the  in ; 

And  though  my  outward  state  misfortune  hath 

Depress’d  thus  low,  it  cannot  reach  my  faith. 

Denham. 

A man  with  a pleasing  exteriour  will  sometimes  gain 
more  friends  than  those  who  have  more  solid  merit. 


INSIDE,  INTERIOUR. 

The  term  inside  may  be  applied  to  bodies  of  any 
magnitude,  small  or  large ; interiour  is  peculiarly  ap- 
propriate to  bodies  of  great  magnitude.  We  may 
speak  of  the  inside  of  a nut-shell,  but  not  of  its  inte- 
riour: on  the  other  hand,  we  speak  of  the  interiour  of 
St.  Paul’s,  or  the  interiour  of  a palace;  ‘As  for  the 
inside  of  their  nest,  none  but  themselves  were  con- 
cerned in  it,  according  to  the  inviolable  laws  esta- 
blished among  those  animals  (the  ants).’ — Addison. 

The  gates  are  drawn  back,  and  the  interiour  of  the 
fane  is  discovered.’ — Cumberland.  This  difference 
of  application  is  not  altogether  arbitrary:  for  inside 
literally  signifies  the  side  that  is  inward ; but  interiour 
signifies  the  space  which  is  more  inward  than  the  rest, 
which  is  enclosed  in  an  enclosure:  consequently  cannot 
be  applied  to  any  thing  but  a large  space  that  is 
enclosed. 

THICK,  DENSE. 

Between  thick  and  densi  there  is  little  other  differ- 
«ee,  than  that  the  latte  is  employed  to  express  that 


species  of  thickness  which  is  philosophically  considered 
as  the  property  of  the  atmosphere  in  a certain  con- 
dition ; hence  we  speak  of  thick  in  regard  to  hard  oi 
soft  bodies,  as  a thick  board  or  thick  cotton;  solid  or 
liquid,  as  a thick  cheese  or  thick  milk : but  the  term 
dense  only  in  regard  to  the  air  in  its  various  forms,  as 
a dense  air,  a dense  vapour  a dense  cloud;  ‘I  have 
discovered,  by  a long  series  of  observations,  that  in- 
vention and  elocution  suffer  great  impediments  from 
dense  and  impure  vapours.’ — Johnson. 

THIN,  SLENDER,  SLIGHT,  SLIM 

Thin,  in  Saxon  thinne,  German  diinn,  Latin  tener 
from  tendo,  in  Greek  raVw  to  extend  or  draw  out,  an<J 
the  Hebrew  niDJ;  slender,  slight,  and  slim  are  all 
variations  from  the  German  schlank,  which  are  con  *' 
nected  with  the  words  slime  and  sling,  as  also  with  the 
German  schlingen  to  wind  or  wreathe,  and  schlange  a 
serpent,  designating  the  pro[)erty  of  length  and  small- 
ness, which  is  adapted  for  bending  or  twisting. 

TAmis  the  generick  term,  the  rest  are  specifick:  thin 
may  be  said  of  that  which  is  small  and  short,  as  well 
as  small  and  long ; slender  is  always  said  of  that  which 
is  small  and  long  at  the  same  time:  a board  is  thin 
which  wants  solidity  or  substance;  a poplar  is  slen 
der  because  its  tallness  is  disproportionate  to  its  mag 
nitude  or  the  dimensions  of  its  circumference.  Thin 
ness  is  sometimes  a natural  property;  slight  and  slim 
are  applied  to  that  which  is  artificial : the  leaves  of 
trees  are  of  a thin  texture;  a board  may  be  made 
slight  by  continually  planing;  a paper  box  is  very 
slim.  Thinness  is  a good  property  sometimes;  thin 
paper  is  frequently  preferred  to  that  which  is  thick: 
slightness  and  slimness,  which  is  a greater  degree  of 
slightness,  are  always  defects;  that  which  is  made 
slight  is  unfit  to  bear  the  stress  that  will  be  put  upon 
it ; that  which  is  slim  is  altogether  unfit  for  the  pur- 
pose proposed ; a carriage  that  is  made  slight  is 
quickly  broken,  and  always  out  of  repair;  paper  is 
altogether  too  slim  to  serve  the  purpose  of  wood. 

These  terms  admit  of  a similar  distinction  in  the 
moral  application;  ‘I  have  found  dulness  to  quicken 
into  sentiment  in  a thin  ether.’— Johnson.  ‘Very 
slender  differences  will  sometimes  part  those  whom 
beneficence  has  united.’— Johnson.  ‘Friendship  is 
often  destroyed  by  a thousand  secret  and  slight  com 
petitions.’— Johnson. 

TO  ABATE,  LESSEN,  DIMINISH,  DECREASE. 

Mate,  from  the  French  a6a«re,  signified  originally 
to  beat  down,  in  the  active  sense,  and  to  come  down, 
in  the  neuter  sense;  diminish,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes 
written,  minish,  from  the  Latin  diminuo,  and  minuo  to 
lessen,  and  minus  less,  expresses,  like  the  verb  lessen, 
the  sense  of  either  making  less  or  becoming  less;  de- 
crease is  compounded  of  the  privative  de  and  crease,  in 
Latin  cresco  to  grow,  signifying  to  grow  less. 

The  first  three  are  used  transitively  or  intransitively ; 
the  latter  only  intransitively. 

Mate  respects  the  vigour  of  action : a person’s  fevei 
is  abated  or  abates ; the  violence  of  the  storm  abates ; 
pain  and  ar^ger  abate ; ‘ My  wonder  abated,  when  upon 
looking  around  me,  I saw  most  of  them  attentive  to 
three  Syrens  clothed  like  goddesses,  and  distinguished 
by  the  names  of  Sloth,  Ignorance,  and  Pleasure.’ — 
Addison.  Lessen  and  diminish  are  both  applied  to 
size,  quantity,  and  number;  but  the  former  mostly  in 
the  proper  and  familiar  sense,  the  latter  in  the  figurative 
and  higher  acceptation ; the  size  of  a room  or  garden 
is  lessened;  the  credit  and  respectability  of  a person  is 
diminished. 

Nothing  is  so  calculated  to  abate  the  ardour  of  youth 
as  grief  and  disappointment;  ‘Tully  was  the  first  who 
observed  that  friendship  improves  happiness  and 
abates  misery — Addison.  An  evil  may  be  lessened 
when  it  cannot  be  removed  by  the  application  of 
remedies ; 

He  sought  fresh  fountains  in  a foreign  soil; 

The  pleasure  lessened  the  attending  toil. — Addison. 
Nothing  diminishes  the  lustre  of  great  deeds  more 
than  cruelty;  ‘ If  Parthenissa  can  now  possess  her  own 
mind,  and  think  as  little  of  her  beauty,  as  she  ougfit  to 
have  done  when  she  had  it,  there  will  be  no  grea 
diminution  of  her  charms.’  —Hughes. 


352 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


The  passion  of  in  angry  man  ought  to  be  allowed  to 
abate  before  any  appeal  is  made  to  his  understanding; 
we  may  lessen  the  number  of  our  evils  by  not  dwelling 
upon  them.  Objects  apparently  diminish  according  to 
the  distance  from  which  they  are  observed. 

To  decrease  is  to  diminish  for  a continuance:  a 
retreating  army  will  decrease  rapidly  when  ezposed  to 
all  the  privations  and  hardships  attendant  on  forced 
marches,  it  is  compelled  to  fight  for  its  safety;  some 
things  decrease  so  gradually  that  it  is  some  time  before 
they  are  observed  to  he  diminished  ; 

These  leaks  shall  then  decrease;  the  sails  once  more 

Direct  our  course  to  some  relieving  shore. 

Falconer. 

In  the  abstract  sense  the  word  lessening  is  mostly 
supplied  by  diminution:  it  will  be  no  abatement  of 
sorrow  to  a generous  mind  to  know  that  the  diminution 
of  evil  to  itself  has  been  produced  by  the  abridgment 
of  good  to  another. 

TO  OVERFLOW,  INUNDATE,  DELUGE. 

What  overflows  simp\y  flows  over ; what  inundates, 
from  in  and  unda  a wave,  flows  into;  what  deluges, 
from  diluo,  washes  away. 

The  oveiflow  bespeaks  abundance ; whatever  ex- 
ceeds the  measure  of  contents  must  flow  over,  because 
it  is  more  than  can  be  held:  to  inundate  bespeaks  not 
only  abundance,  but  vehemence;  when  it  inundates 
it  flows  in  faster  than  is  desired,  it  fills  to  an  incon- 
venient height:  to  deluge  bespeaks  impetuosity;  a 
deluge  irresistibly  carries  away  all  before  it.  This  ex- 
planation of  these  terms  in  their  proper  sense  will 
illustrate  their  improper  application : the  heart  is  said 
to  overflow  with  joy,  with  grief,  with  bitterness,  and 
the  like,  in  order  to  denote  the  superabundance  of  the 
thing ; ‘ I am  too  full  of  you  not  to  overflow  upon  those 
I converse  with.’ — Pope.  A country  is  said  to  be  in- 
undated by  swarms  of  inhabitants,  when  speaking  of 
numbers  who  intrude  themselves  to  the  annoyance  of 
the  natives;  ‘There  was  such  an  inundation  of 
speakers,  young  speakers  in  every  sense  of  the  word, 
that  neither  my  Lord  Germaine,  nor  myself,  could  find 
room  for  a single  word.’ — Gibbon.  The  town  is  said 
to  he  deluged  with  publications  of  different  kinds,  when 
they  appear  in  such  profusion  and  in  such  quick  suc- 
cession as  to  supersede  others  of  more  value ; 

At  length  corruiition,  like  a general  flood. 

Shall  deluge  all. — Pope. 

TO  FLOW,  STREAM,  GUSH. 

Flow,  in  Latin  fluo,  and  Greek  or  (fKvw,  to  be 
in  a ferment,  is  in  all  probability  connected  with  pew, 
which  signifies  literally  to  flow;  stream,  in  German 
stromen,  from  riernen  a thong,  signifies  to  run  in  a 
line;  gush  comes  from  the  German  giessen,  &c.  to 
pour  out  with  force. 

Flow  is  here  the  generick  term : tlie  two  others  are 
specifick  terms  expressing  different  modes:  water  may 
flow  either  in  a large  body  or  in  a long  but  narrow 
bourse;  the  stream  in  a long,  narrow  course  only:  thus, 
waters  Jiwto  in  seas,  rivers,  rivulets,  or  in  a small  pond  ; 
they  stream  only  out  of  “spouts  or  small  channels:  they 
gently  or  otherwise;  they  sfream  gently ; but  they 
gush  with  violence : thus,  the  blood  flows  from  a wound 
when  it  comes  from  it  in  any  manner ; it  streams  from 
a wound  when  it  runs  as  it  were  in  a channel ; it 
gushes  from  a wound  when  it  runs  with  impetuosity, 
and  in  as  large  quantities  as  the  cavity  admits; 

Down  his  wan  cheek  a briny  torrent  — Pope. 

Fires  stream  in  lightning  from  his  sanguine  eyes. 

Pope. 

Sunk  in  his  sad  companions’  arms  he  lay. 

And  in  short  pantings  sobb’d  his  soul  away 

(Like  some  vile  worm  extended  on  the  ground). 

While  his  life’s  torrent  gush'd  from  out  the  wound 

Pope. 


FLUID,  LIQUID. 

Fluid,  from  fluo  to  flow,  signifies  that  which  from 
its  nature  flows;  liquid,  from  liquesco  to  melt,  signifies 
that  which  is  melted.  These  words  may  be  employed 
»s  epithets  to  the  same  objects ; but  they  have  a distinct 


office  which  they  derive  from  their  original  meaning: 
when  we  wish  to  represent  a thing  as  capable  of  pass- 
ing along  in  a stream  or  current,  we  should  denominate 
it  & fluid ; 

Or  serve  they  as  a flow’ry  verge  to  bind 
The  fluid  skirts  of  that  same  wat  ry  cloud. 

Lest  it  again  dissolve,  and  show’r  the  earth. 

Milton 

When  we  wish  to  represent  the  body  as  passing  from 
a congealed  to  a dissolved  state,  we  should  name  it  a 
liquid  ; 

As  vvhen  the  fig’s  press’d  juice,  infus’d  in  cream, 
To  curds  coagulates  the  liquid  stream. — Pope. 
Water  and  air  are  both  represented  as  fluids  from  theli 
general  property  of  flowing  through  certain  spaces ; 
but  ice  when  thdwed  becomes  a liquid  and  melts;  lead 
when  melted  is  also  a liquid:  the  humours  of  the 
animal  body,  and  the  juices  of  trees,  are  fluids  ; what 
we  drink  is  a liquid,  as  opposed  to  what  we  eat  which 
is  solid. 

LIQUID,  LIQUOR,  JUICE,  HUMOUR. 
Liquid  (v.  Fluid)  is  the  generick  term  : liquor,  which 
is  but  a variation  from  the  same  Latin  verb,  liquesco, 
whence  liquid  is  derived,  is  a liqind  which  is  made  to 
be  drunk  : juice,  in  French  jus,  is  a liquid  that  issues 
from  bodies ; and  humour,  in  Latin  humor,  from  humeo, 
and  the  Greek  vw  to  rain,  is  a species  of  liqxiid  which 
flows  in  bodies  and  forms  a constituent  part  of  them. 
All  natural  bodies  consist  of  liquids  or  solids,  or  a 
combination  of  both ; 

How  the  bee 

Sits  on  the  bloom,  extracting  liquid  sweet. 

Milton 

Liquor  serves  to  quench  the  thirst  as  food  satisfies  the 
hunger ; 

They  who  Minerva  from  Jove’s  head  derive. 

Might  make  old  Homer’s  scull  the  muse’s  hive, 

And  from  his  brain  that  Helicon  distill. 

Whose  racy  liquor  did  his  offspring  fill. — Denham. 
The  juices  of  bodies  are  frequently  their  richest  parts 
Give  me  to  drain  the  cocoa’s  milky  bowl. 

And  from  the  palm  to  draw  its  freshening  wine, 

More  bounteous  far  than  all  the  frantick  juice 
Which  Bacchus  pours. — Thomson. 

The  AwmoMrs  are  commonly  the  most  important  paits 
of  any  animal  body;  ‘The  perspicuity  of  the  humours 
of  the  eye  transmit  the  rays  of  light.’— Steele. 
Liquid  and  belong  peculiarly  to  vegetable  sub- 

stances •, '‘humour  to  animal  bodies ; and  juice  to  either ; 
water  is  the  simplest  of  all  liquids;  wine  is  the  most 
inviting  of  a\\  liquors;  the  orange  produces  the  most 
agreeable  juice ; the  humours  of  both  men  and  brutes 
are  most  liable  to  corruption,  whence  the  term  is  very 
frequently  applied  to  fluids  of  the  body  when  in  a cor- 
rupt stale:  ‘He  denied  himself  nothing  that  he  had  a 
mind  to  eat  or  drink,  which  gave  nim  a body  full  of 
humours,  and  made  his  fits  of  the  gout  frequent  and 
violent.’— Temple. 


STREAM,  CURRENT,  TIDE. 

A fluid  body  in  a progressive  motion  is  the  object 
described  in  common  by  these  terms  ; stream  is  the 
most  general,  the  other  two  are  but  modes  of  the 
stream;  stream,  in  Saxon  stream,  in  German 
is  an  onomatopela  which  describes  the  prolongation  of 
any  body  in  a narrow  line  along  the  surface  : a cur- 
rent from  curro  to  run,  is  a running  stream ; and  a tide 
from  tide,  in  German  zeit  time,  is  a periodical  stream 
or  current.  All  rivers  are  streams  which  are  more  or 
less  gei^le  according  to  the  nature  of  the  ground 
through  which  they  pass ; the  force  of  the  current  is 
very  much  increased  by  the  confinement  of  any  water 
between  rocks,  or  by  means  of  artificial  impediments. 
The  tide  is  high  or  low,  strong  or  weak,  at  difierent 
hours  of  the  day ; when  the  tide  is  high  the  current  is 
strongest. 

From  knowing  the  proper  application  of  the  terms 
their  figurative  use  becomes  obvious;  a of  air, 

or  a stream  of  light  is  a prolonged  body  of  air  or  light; 
a current  of  air  is  a continued  stream  that  has  rapid 
motion  ; streets  and  passages  which  are  open  at  each 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


3&3 


iXtreMity  are  tlie  channels  of  such  currents.  In  the 
moral  sense  the  tide  is  tlie  ruling  fashion  or  propensity 
of  the  day ; it  is  in  vain  to  stein  the  tide  of  folly ; it 
is  wiser  to  get  out  of  its  reach ; 

When  now  the  rapid  stream  of  eloquence 

Bears  all  before  it,  passion,  reason,  sense. 

Can  its  dread  thunder,  or  its  lightning’s  force, 

Derive  their  essence  from  a mortal  source. 

Jenyns. 

With  secret  course,  which  no  loud  storms  annoy, 

Glides  the  smooth  current  of  domestick  joy. 

Goldsmith. 

There  is  a tide  in  the  atfairs  of  men. 

Which  taken  at  the  flood  leads  on  to  fortune. 

SlIAKSPEARE. 

SPRING,  FOUNTAIN,  SOURCE. 

The  spring  denotes  that  which  ; the  word, 

therefore,  carries  us  back  to  the  point  from  which  the 
water  issues.  Fountain,  in  Latin /ons,  from  fundo  to 
pour  out,  signifies  the  spring  which  is  visible  on  tlie 
the  earth:  and  soitrce  (u.  Origin)  is  said  of  that  which 
is  not  only  visible,  but  runs  along  the  earth.  Springs 
are  to  be  found  by  digging  a sufficient  depth  in  all  parts 
of  the  earth:  in  mountainous  countries,  and  also  in  the 
East,  we  read  of  fountains  which  form  themselves,  and 
supply  the  surrounding  parts  with  refreshing  streams: 
the  sources  of  rivers  are  always  to  be  traced  to  some 
mountain. 

These  terms  are  all  used  in  a figurative  sense : in  the 
Bible  the  gospel  is  de[)ictured  as  a spring  of  living 
waters;  the  eye  as  a fountain  of  tears;  ‘The  heart  of 
the  citizen  is  a perennial  spring  of  energy  to  the  state.’ 
— Burke. 

Eternal  king!  the  author  of  all  being. 

Fountain  of  light,  thyself  invisible.— Milton 
In  the  general  acceptation  the  source  is  taken  for  the 
channel  through  which  any  event  comes  to  pass,  the 
primary  cause  of  its  happening:  a war  is  the  source 
of  many  evils  to  a country;  an  imprudent  step  in  the 
outset  of  life  is  oftentimes  the  source  of  ruin  to  a 
young  person ; 

These  are  thy  blessings,  industry!  rough  power! 

Yet  the  kind  source  of  every  gentle  art. — Thomson. 

TO  SPRINKLE,  BEDEW. 

To  sprinkleis  a frequentative  of  spring,  and  denotes 
either  an  act  of  nature  or  design : to  bedew  is  to  cover 
with  dew,  which  is  an  operation  of  nature.  By  sprink- 
h'wff,  a liquid  falls  in  sensible  drops  upon  the  earth  ; 
by  bedewing,  it  covers  by  imperceptible  drops:  rain 
besprinkles  the  earth;  dew  bedews  it.  So  likewise, 
figuratively,  things  are  sprinkled  with  flour ; the 
<heeks  are  bedewed  with  tears. 


TO  SPROUT,  BUD. 

Sprout,  in  Saxon  sprytan.  Low  German  sprouyten,  is 
doubtless  connected  with  the  German  spriizen  to  spurt, 
spreiten  to  spread,  and  the  like ; to  bud  is  to  put  forth 
buds ; the  noun  bud  is  a variation  from  button,  which 
it  resembles  in  form.  To  sprout  is  to  come  forth  from 
the  stem ; to  bud,  to  put  forth  in  buds. 

TO  SPURT,  SPOUT. 

To  spurt  and  spout  are,  like  the  German  spritzen, 
variations  of  spreiten  to  spread  (u.  To  spread),  and 
springen  to  spring  {v.  To  arise) ; they  both  express 
the  idea  of  sending  forth  liquid  in  small  quantities  from 
a cavity ; the  former,  however,  does  not  always  include 
the  idea  of  the  cavity,  but  simply  that  of  springing  up; 
the  latter  is  however  confined  to  the  circumstance  of 
issuing  forth  from  some  place  ; dirt  may  be  spurted  in 
ffie  face  by  means  of  kicking  it  up  ; or  blood  may  be 
spurted  out  of  a vein  when  it  is  opened,  water  out  of 
,he  mouth,  and  the  like;  but  a liquid  spouts  out  from 
a pipe.  To  spurt  is  a sudden  action  arising  from  a 
momentary  impetus  given  to  a liquid  either  intention- 
ally or  incidentally ; the  beer  will  spurt  from  a barrel 
when  the  vent  peg  is  removed:  to  spout  is  a continued 
action  produced  by  a perpetual  impetus  which  the 
liquid  receives  equally  from  design  or  accident;  the 


water  spouts  out  from  a pipe  which  is  denominated  a 
spout,  or  it  will  spurt  out  from  any  cavity  in  the  earth, 
or  in  a rock  which  may  resemble  a spout; 

Far  from  the  parent  stream  it  boils  again 
Fresh  into  day,  and  all  the  glittering  hill 
Is  bright  wiili  spouting  rills. — Thomson. 

A person  may  likewise  spout  water  in  a stream  from 
his  mouth.  Hence  the  figurative  application  of  these 
terms ; any  sudden  conceit  which  compels  a person  to 
an  eccentrick  action  is  a spurt,  particularly  if  it  spring* 
from  ill-humour  or  caprice;  a female  will  sometimes 
take  a spurt  and  treat  her  intimate  friends  very  coldly, 
either  from  a fancied  offence  or  a fancied  superiority ; 
to  spout,  on  the  other  hand,  is  to  send  forth  a stream  of 
words  in  imitation  of  the  stream  of  liquid,  and  is 
applied  to  those  who  affect  to  turn  spealters,  in  whom 
there  is  commonly  more  sound  than  sense. 

TO  PLUNGE,  DIVE. 

Plunge  is  but  a variation  of  pluck,  pull,  and  the 
Latin  pello  to  drive  or  force  forward ; dive  is  but  a 
variation  of  dip,  which  is,  under  various  forms,  to  be 
found  in  the  northern  languages. 

One  plunges  sometimes  in  order  to  dive ; but  one 
may  plunge  without  diving,  and  one  may  dive  without 
plunging:  topto^e  is  to  dart  head  foremost  into  the 
water:  to  dive  is  to  go  to  the  bottom  of  the  water,  or 
towards  it:  it  is  a good  practice  for  bathers  to  plunge 
into  the  water  when  they  first  go  in,  although  it  is  not 
advisable  for  them  to  dive;  ducks  frequently  dive 
into  the  water  without  ever  plunging.  Thus  far  they 
differ  in  their  natural  sense ; but  in  the  figurative  appli- 
cation they  differ  more  widely:  to  plunge,  in  this  case 
is  an  act  of  rashness;  to  dive  is  an  act  of  design:  a 
young  man  hurried  away  by  his  passions  wWX  plunge 
into  every  extravagance  when  he  comes  into  possession 
of  his  estate;  ‘The  French  plunged  Ihem.selves  into 
these  calamities  they  suffer,  to  prevent  themselves 
from  settling  into  a British  constitution.’ — Burke 
People  of  a prying  temper  seek  to  dive  into  the  secret 
of  others; 

How  he  did  seem  to  dive  into  their  hearts 
With  humble  and  familiar  courtesy. 

Shakspeahe 


WAVE,  BILLOW,  SURGE,  BREAKER. 
Wave,  from  the  Saxon  waegan,  and  German  wiegen 
to  weigh  or  rock,  is  applied  to  water  in  an  undulating 
state ; it  is,  therefore,  the  generick  term,  and  the  rest 
are  specifick  terms ; 

The  leave  behind  impels  the  wave  before.— Pope. 
Those  waves  wliich  swell  more  than  ordinarily  are 
termed  billows,  which  is  derived  from  bulge  or  bilge, 
and  German  balg,  the  paunch  or  belly  ; 

I saw  him  beat  the  billows  under  liim. 

And  ride  upon  their  backs.— Shakspkare. 

Those  waves  which  rise  higher  than  usual  are  termed 
surges,  from  the  Latin  sargo  to  rise  ; 

He  flies  aloft,  and  with  impetuous  roar 
Pursues  the  foaming  surges  to  the  shore. 

Dryden. 

Those  waves  which  dash  against  the  shore,  or  against 
vessels  with  luoic  than  ordinary  force,  are  termed 
breakers ; 

Now  on  the  mountain  wave  on  high  they  ride. 

Then  downward  plunge  beneath  th’  involving  tide. 

Till  one  who  seems  in  agony  to  strive 

The  whirling  breakers  heave  on  shore  alive. 

Falconer. 


BREEZE,  GALE,  BLAST,  GUST,  STORM, 
TEMPEST,  HURRICANE. 

All  these  words  express  the  action  of  the  wind,  in 
different  degrees  and  under  different  circumstances. 

Breeze,  in  Italian  brezza,  is  in  all  probability  an 
onomatopela  for  that  kind  of  wind  peculiar  to  southern 
climates;  gale  is  probably  connected  with  call  and 
yell,  denoting  a sonorous  wind ; blast,  in  German 
geblaset,  participle  of  blasen,  signifies  properly  the  act 
of  blowing,  but  by  distinction  it  is  employed  for  any 
strong  effort  of  blowing ; gust  is  immediately  of  Ice 


354 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


-diidisli  origin,  and  expresses  the  phenomena  whicli  are 
characleristick  of  the  northern  climates  ; but  in  all  pro- 
bability it  is  a variation  of  g-ush,  signifying  a violent 
stream  of  wind  ; storm,  in  German  stiirm,  from  stiiren 
to  put  in  commotion,  like  gust,  describes  the  phenome- 
non of  northern  climates ; tempest,  in  Latin  tempestus, 
or  tempus  a time  or  season,  describes  that  season  or  sort 
of  weather  which  is  most  remarkable,  but  at  the  same 
time  most  frequent,  in  southern  climates;  hurricane 
has  been  introduced  by  the  Spaniards  into  European 
languages  from  the  Caribee  islands;  where  it  describes 
that  species  of  tempestuous  wind,  most  frequent  in  the 
tropical  climates. 

A breeze  is  gentle ; a gale  is  brisk,  but  steady ; we 
have  breezes  in  a calm  summer’s  day : the  mariner  has 
favourable  which  keep  the  sails  on  the  stretch; 

Gradual  sinks  the  breeze 
Into  a perfect  calm. — Thomson. 

What  happy  gale 

Blows  you  to  Padua  here  from  old  Verona  1 

Shakspeark. 

A blast  is  impetuous ; the  exhalations  of  a trumpet, 
the  breath  of  bellows,  the  sweep  of  a violent  wind,  are 
blasts.  A gust  is  sudden  and  vehement ; gusts  of 
wind  are  sometimes  so  violent  as  to  sweep  every  thing 
before  them  while  they  last; 

As  when  fierce  northern  blasts  from  th’  Alps  de- 
scend, 

From  his  firm  roots  with  strupling  to  rend 
An  aged  sturdy  oak,  the  rustling  sound 
Grovvs  loud. — Denham. 

Storm,  tempest,  and  hurricane  include  other  parti- 
culars besides  wind. 

A storm  throws  the  whole  atmosphere  into  commo- 
tion ; it  is  a war  of  the  elements,  in  which  wind,  rain, 
hail,  and  the  like,  conspire  to  disturb  the  heavens; 
tempest  is  a species  of  storm,  which  has  also  thunder 
and  lightning  to  add  to  the  confusion.  Hurricane  is 
a species  of  storm,  which  exceeds  all  the  rest  in  vio- 
lence and  duration ; 

Through  storms  and  tempests  so  the  sailor  drives, 
While  every  element  in  combat  strives ; 

Loud  roars  the  thunder,  fierce  the  lightning  flies, 
Winds  wildly  rage,  and  billows  tear  the  skies. 

Shirley. 

So  where  our  wide  Numidian  wastes  extend. 

Sudden  th’  impetuous  hurricanes  descend. 

Wheels  through  the  air  in  circling  eddies  play. 

Tear  up  the  sands,  and  sweep  whole  plains  away. 

Addison. 

Oust,  storm,  and  tempest,  which  are  applied  figu- 
ratively, preserve  their  distinction  in  this  sense.  The 
passions  are  exposed  to  gusts  and  storms,  to  sudden 
bursts,  or  violent  and  continued  agitations ; the  soul 
is  exposed  to  tempests  when  agitated  with  violent  and 
contending  emotions ; 

Stay  these  sudden  gusts  of  passion. 

That  hurry  you  away. — Rowe. 

I burn,  I burn ! The  storm  that ’s  in  my  mind 
Kindles  my  heart,  like  fires  provok’d  by  wind. 

Lansdown. 

All  deaths,  all  tortures,  in  one  pang  combin’d, 

Are  gentle,  to  the  tempest  of  my  mind. — Thomson. 

TO  HEAVE,  SWELL. 

Heave  is  used  either  transitively  or  intransitively, 
as  a reflective  or  a neuter  verb ; swell  is  used  only  as 
a neuter  verb.  Heave  implies  raising,  and  swell  im- 
plies distension  : they  differ  therefore  very  widely  in 
sense,  but  they  sometimes  agree  in  application.  The 
bosom  is  said  both  to  heave  and  to  swell ; because  it 
happens  that  the  bosom  swells  by  heaving ; the  waves 
are  likewise  said  to  heave  themselves  or  to  swell,  in 
which  there  is  a similar  correspondence  between  the 
ictions;  otherwise  most  things  which  heave  do  not 
\well,  and  those  which  swell  do  not  heave  ; 

He  heaves  for  breath,  he  staggers  to  and  fro, 

And  cloudsof  issuing  smoke  his  nostrils  loudly  blow. 

Drydkn. 

Meantime  the  mountain  billows  to  the  clouds. 

In  dreadful  tumult,  swclVd  surge  above  surge. 

Thomson. 


TO  LIFT,  HEAVE,  HOIST. 

Lift  is  in  all  probability  contracted  from  levatm 
participle  of  leva  to  lift,  which  comes  from  levis  ligh* 
because  what  is  light  is  easily  borne  up  ; heave,  ir 
Saxon  heavian,  German  heben,  &c.  comes  from  the 
absolute  particle  ha,  signifying  high,  because  to  heavt 
is  to  set  upon  high ; hoist,  in  French  hausser.  Lew 
German  hissen,  is  a variation  from  the  same  source  as 
heave. 

The  idea  of  making  high  is  common  to  all  these 
words,  but  they  differ  in  the  objects  and  the  circum- 
stances of  the  action ; we  lift  with  or  without  an 
effort : we  heave  and  hoist  always  with  an  effort ; vn 
lift  a child  up  to  let  liim  see  any  thing  more  distinctly  ; 
workmen  heave  the  stones  or  beams  which  are  used  in 
a building ; sailors  hoist  the  long  boat  into  the  water. 
To  lift  and  hoist  are  transitive  verbs ; they  require  an 
agent  and  an  object:  heave  is  intransitive,  it  may  have 
an  inanimate  object  for  an  agent : a person  lifts  his 
hand  to  his  head  ; when  whales  are  killed,  they  are 
hoisted  into  vessels : the  bosom  heaves  when  it  is  op- 
pressed with  sorrow,  the  waves  of  the  sea  heave  when 
they  are  agitated  by  the  wind ; 

What  god  so  daring  in  your  aid  to  move, 

(Jr  lift  his  hand  against  the  force  of  Jove  1— Pope 
Murm’ring  they  move,  as  when  old  Ocean  roars. 
And  heaves  huge  surges  to  the  trembling  shores. 

Pope 

The  reef  enwrap’d,  th’  inserted  knittles  tied. 

To  hoist  the  shorten’d  sail  again  they  tried. 

Falconer. 


TO  LIFT,  RAISE,  ERECT,  ELEVATE,  EXALT. 

Lift,  V.  To  lift ; raise,  signifies  to  cause  to  rise ; 
erect,  in  Latin  erectus,  participle  of  erigo,  or  e and 
rego,  probably  from  the  Greek  Speyo),  signifies  literally 
to  extend  or  set  forth  in  the  height ; elevate  is  a varia- 
tion from  the  same  source  as  h/t;  exalt  comes  from 
the  Latin  altus  high,  and  the  Hebrew  olah  to  ascend^ 
and  signifies  to  cause  to  be  high  (u.  High). 

The  idea  of  making  one  thing  higher  than  another 
is  common  to  these  verbs,  which  differ  in  the  circum- 
stances of  the  action.  To  lift  is  to  take  off  from  the 
ground,  or  from  any  spot  where  it  is  supposed  to  be 
fixed ; to  raise  and  erect  are  to  place  in  a higher  posi- 
tion, while  in  contact  with  the  ground:  we  lift  up  8 
stool ; we  raise  a chair,  by  giving  it  longer  legs ; we 
erect  a monument  by  heaping  one  stone  on  another ; 

Now  rosy  morn  ascends  the  court  of  Jove, 

Lifts  up  her  light,  and  opens  day  above.— Pope. 

Such  a huge  bulk  as  not  twelve  bards  could  raise. 

Twelve  starveling  bards  of  these  degenerate  days. 

POPB 

From  their  assistance  happier  walls  expect, 

Which,  wand’ring  long,  at  last  thou  shalt  erect. 

Dryden 

Whatever  is  to  be  carried  is  lifted ; whatever  is  to 
be  situated  higher  is  to  be  raised ; whatever  is  to  be 
constructed  above  other  objects  is  erected.  A ladder 
is  lifted  upon  the  shoulders  to  be  conveyed  from  one 
place  to  another ; a standard  ladder  is  raised  against 
a building ; a scaffolding  is  erected. 

These  terms  are  likewise  employed  in  a moral  ac 
ceptation ; exalt  and  elevate  are  used  in  no  other  sense. 
Lift  expresses  figuratively  the  artificial  action  of  set- 
ting aloft;  as  in  the  case  of  lifting  a person  into 
notice : to  raise  preserves  the  idea  of  making  higher 
by  the  accession  of  wealth,  honour,  or  power;  as  in 
the  case  of  persons  who  are  raised  from  beggary  to  a 
state  of  affluence:  to  arect  retains  its  idea  of  artificially 
constructing,  so  as  to  produce  a solid  as  well  as  lofty 
mass ; as  in  the  case  of  erecting  a tribunal,  erecting  a 
system  of  spiritual  dominion.  A person  cannot  lift 
himself,  but  he  may  raise  himself;  individuals  lift  ot 
raise  up  each  other ; but  communities,  or  those  only 
who  are  invested  with  power,  have  the  opportunity  of 
erecting. 

To  lift  is  seldom  used  in  a good  sense ; to  raise  is 
used  in  a good  or  an  indifferent  sense:  to  elevate  and 
exalt  are  always  used  in  the  best  sense.  A person  is 
seldom  lifted  >ip  for  any  good  purpose,  or  from  any 
merit  in  himself ; it  is  commonly  to  suit  the  ends  of 
party  that  people  are  lifted  into  notice,  or  lifted  into 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


35S 


office;  on  the  same  ground,  if  a person  is  lifted  up  in 
his  own  imagination,  it  is  only  liis  pride  which  gives 
him  the  elevation;  ‘Our  successes  have  been  great, 
and  our  hearts  have  been  much  lifted  up  by  them,  so 
that  we  have  reason  to  humble  ourselves.’ — Attkr- 
BORY.  A person  may  be  raised  for  his  merits,  or  raise 
himself  by  his  industry,  in  both  which  cases  he  is  en- 
titled to  esteem ; or  he  may  with  propriety  be  raised  in 
the  estimation  of  himself  or  others ; 

Rais'd  in  his  mind  the  Trojan  hero  stood. 

And  long’d  to  break  from  out  his  ambient  cloud. 

Dryden. 

One  is  elevated  by  circumstances,  but  still  more  so 
by  one’s  character  and  moral  qualities ; one  is  rarely 
exalted  but  by  means  of  superiour  endowments;  ‘ Pru- 
dence operates  on  life  in  the  same  manner  as  rules  on 
composition;  it  produces  vigilance  rather  than  eleva- 
tion.'—iounsoti. 

A creature  of  a more  exalted  kind 

Was  wanting  yet,  and  then  was  man  design’d. 

Dryden. 

To  elevate  may  be  the  act  of  individuals  for  them- 
selves ; to  exalt  must  be  the  act  of  others.  There  are 
some  to  whom  elevation  of  rank  is  due,  and  others 
who  require  no  adventitious  circumstances  to  elevate 
them ; the  world  have  always  agreed  to  exalt  great 
power,  great  wisdom,  and  great  genius. 


HIGH,  TALL,  LOFTY. 

High.,  in  German  hoch,  &c.  comes  in  all  probability 
from  the  Hebrew  J JX,  the  king  of  the  Amalekites,  so 
called  on  account  of  liis  size,  and  is  connected  with 
the  Latin  gig  as ; tall,  in  Welch  tal,  is  derived  by 
Davis  from  the  Hebrew  to  elevate;  lofty  is 

doubtless  derived  from  lift,  and  that  from  tlie  Latin 
levatus  raised. 

High  is  the  term  in  most  general  use,  which  seems 
likewise  in  the  most  unqualified  manner  to  express  the 
idea  of  extension  upwards,  which  is  common  to  them 
all.  Whatever  is  tall  and  lofty  is  high,  but  every 
thing  is  not  tall  or  lofty  which  is  high.  Tall  and  lofty 
both  designate  a more  than  ordinary  degree  of  height; 
but  tall  is  peculiarly  applicable  to  what  shoots  up  or 
stands  up  in  a perpendicular  direction:  while  lofty  is 
said  of  that  which  is  extended  in  breadth  as  well  as  in 
height;  that  which  is  lifted  up  or  raised  by  an  accre- 
tion of  matter  or  an  expansion  in  the  air.  By  this 
rule  we  say  that  a house  is  high,  a chimney  tall,  a 
room  lofty. 

Trees  are  in  general  said  to  be  high  which  exceed 
‘.he  ordinary  standard  of  height ; they  are  opposed  to 
the  low ; 

High  at  their  head  he  saw  the  chief  appear. 

And  bold  Merion  to  excite  their  rear. — Pops. 

A poplar  is  said  to  be  tall,  not  only  from  its  exceeding 
other  trees  in  height,  but  from  its  perpendicular  and 
spiral  maimer  of  growing  is  opposed  to  that  which  is 
bulky; 

Prostrate  on  earth  their  beauteous  bodies  lay. 

Like  mountain  firs,  as  tall  and  straight  as  they. 

Pope. 

A man  and  a horse  are  likewise  said  to  be  tall;  but  a 
hedge,  a desk,  and  other  common  objects,  are  high.  A 
hill  is  but  a mountain  is  lofty;  churches  are  in 
general  high,  but  the  steeples  or  the  domes  of  cathe- 
drals are  lofty,  and  their  spires  are  tall ; 

E’en  now,  O king!  ’t  is  giv’n  thee  to  destroy 

The  lofty  tow’rs  of  wide-extended  Troy. — Pope. 

With  the  high  is  associated  no  idea  of  what  is 
striking ; but  the  tall  is  coupled  with  the  aspiring  or 
that  which  strives  to  out-top:  the  lofty  is  always 
coupled  with  the  grand,  and  that  which  commands 
admiration. 

High  and  lofty  have  a moral  acceptation,  but  tall  is 
taken  in  the  natural  sense  only : high  and  lofty  are 
applied  to  persons  or  what  is  personal,  with  the  same 
difference  in  degree  as  before : a lofty  title  or  lofty 
pretension  conveys  more  than  a high  title  or  a high 
pretension.  Men  of  high  rank  should  have  high  ideas 
of  virtue  and  personal  dignity,  and  keep  themselves 
clear  from  every  thing  low  and  mean  ; 


When  you  are  tried  in  scandal’s  court,  ' 

Stand  high  in  honour,  wealth,  or  wit. 

All  others  who  inferiour  sit 
Conceive  themselves  in  conscience  bound 
To  join  and  drag  you  to  the  ground. — Swirr 
A lofty  ambition  often  soars  too  high  to  serve  the  pu^ 
pose  of  its  possessor,  whose  fall  is  the  greater  when 
he  finds  himself  compelled  to  descend ; 

Without  thee,  nothing  lofty  can  I sing , 

Come,  then,  and  with  thyself  thy  genius  bring. 

Dryden. 

TO  HEIGHTEN,  RAISE,  AGGRAVATE. 

To  heighten  is  to  make  higher  {v.  Haughty).  To 
raise  is  to  cause  to  rise  {v.  To  arise).  To  aggravate 
(v.  To  aggravate)  is  to  make  heavy.  Heighten  refers 
more  to  the  result  of  the  action  of  making  higher ; 
raise  to  the  mode : we  heighten  a house  by  raising 
the  roof ; as  raising  conveys  the  idea  of  setting  up 
aloft,  which  is  not  included  in  the  word  heighten; 
‘ Purity  and  virtue  heighten  all  the  powers  of  fruition.’ 
— Blair.  On  the  same  ground  a headdress  may  be 
said  to  be  heightened,  which  is  made  higher  than  it 
was  before  ; and  a chair  or  a table  is  raised  that  is  set 
upon  something  else : but  in  speaking  of  a wall,  we 
may  say,  that  it  is  either  heightened  or  raised,  because 
uie  operation  and  result  must  in  both  cases  be  the 
same ; ‘ I would  have  our  conceptions  raised  by  the 
dignity  of  thought  and  sublimity  of  expression,  rather 
than  by  a train  of  robes  or  a plume  of  feathers.’ — 
Addison.  In  the  improper  sense  of  these  terms  they 
preserve  a similar  distinction:  we  heighten  the  value 
of  a thing ; we  raise  its  price : we  heighten  the  gran- 
deur of  an  object ; we  raise  a family. 

Heighten  and  aggravate  have  connexion  with  each 
other  only  in  application  to  offences:  the  enormity  of 
an  offence  is  heightened,  the  guilt  of  the  offender  is 
aggravated  by  particular  circumstances.  The  horrours 
of  a murder  are  heightened  by  being  committed  in  the 
dead  of  the  night;  the  guilt  of  the  perpetrator  is  ag 
gravated  by  the  addition  of  ingratitude  to  murder, 
‘ The  counsels  of  pusillanimity  are  very  rarely  put  off. 
while  they  are  always  sure  to  aggravate  the  evils 
from  which  tliey  would  fly.’— Burke. 

TO  ANIMATE,  INSPIRE,  ENLIVEN,  CHEEK, 
EXHILARATE. 

To  animate  is  to  give  life  {v.  To  encourage] ; inspire, 
in  French  inspirer,  Latin  inspire,  compounded  of  in 
and  spiro,  signifies  to  breathe  life  or  spirit  into  any 
one ; enliven,  from  en  or  in  and  liven,  has  the  same 
sense ; cheer,  in  French  chere,  Flemish  cicre  the  coun- 
tenance, Greek  %apd  joy,  signifies  the  giving  joy  or 
spirit;  exhilarate,  in  Latin  exhilaratus,  participle  of 
exhilaro,  from  hilaris,  Greek  tXapdf  joyful,  Hebrew 
to  exult  or  leap  for  joy,  signifies  to  make  glad. 

' Animate  and  inspire  imply  the  communication  of 
the  vital  or  mental  spark  ; enliven,  cheer,  and  exhila- 
rate signify  actions  on  the  mind  or  body.  To  be  ani- 
mated, in  its  physical  sense,  is  simply  to  receive  the 
first  spark  of  animal  life  in  however  small  a degree; 
for  there  are  animated  beings  in  the  world  possessing 
the  vital  power  in  an  infinite  variety  of  degrees  and 
forms ; 

Through  subterranean  cells 

Where  searching  sunbeams  scarce  can  find  a way. 

Earth  animated  heaves. — Thomson. 

To  be  animated  in  the  moral  sense  is  to  receive  the 
smallest  portion  of  the  sentient  or  thinking  faculty; 
which  is  equally  varied  in  thinking  beings : animation 
therefore  never  conveys  the  idea  of  receiving  any 
strong  degree  of  either  physical  or  moral  feeling; 

‘ The  more  to  animate  the  people,  he  stood  on  high, 
from  whence  he  might  best  be  heard,  and  cried  unto 
them  with  a loud  voice.’ — Knolles.  To  inspire,  on 
the  contrary,  expresses  the  communication  of  a strong 
moral  sentiment  or  passion : hence  to  animate  with 
courage  is  a less  forcible  expression  than  to  inspire 
with  courage : we  likewise  speak  of  inspiring  with 
emulation  or  a thirst  for  knowledge  ; not  of  animating 
with  emulation  or  a thirst  for  knowledge; 

Each  gentle  breast  with  kindly  warmth  she  moveS; 

Inspires  new  flames,  revives  extinguished  loves. 

Dryden  on  May 


23* 


356 


i::^GLISH  SYNONYMES. 


To  enliven  respects  the  mind,  cheer  relates  to  the 
heart ; exhilarate  regards  tlie  spirits,  hoth  animal  and 
mental , they  all  denote  an  action  on  the  frame  by  the 
communication  of  pleasurable  emotions:  the  mind  is 
enlivened  by  contemplating  the  scenes  of  nature ; the 
imagination  is  enlivened  by  the  reading  of  poetry; 

To  grace  each  subject  with  enlivening  wit. 

Addison. 

The  benevolent  heart  is  cheered  by  witnessing  the 
happiness  of  others ; ‘ The  creation  is  a perpetual 
feast  to  a good  man ; every  thing  he  sees  cheers  and 
delights  him.’ — Addison.  The  spirits  are  exhilarated 
by  the  convivialities  of  social  life ; 

Nor  rural  sights  alone,  but  rural  sounds 
Exhilarate  the  spirit. — Cowder. 

Conversation  enlivens  society;  the  conversation  of  a 
kind  and  considerate  friend  cheers  the  drooping  spirits 
in  the  moments  of  trouble;  ut/3.\pected  good,  ner/s  is 
apt  to  exhilarate  the  spirits. 


ANIMATION,  LIFE,  VIVACITY,  OPITvIT- 

Animation  and  life  do  not  differ  either  in  sense  or 
application,  but  the  latter  is  more  in  familiar  use. 
They  express  either  the  particular  or  general  state  of 
the  mind ; vivacity  and  spirit  exprets  only  the  habit- 
ual nature  and  state  of  the  feelings. 

A person  of  no  animation  is  divested  of  the  dis- 
tinguishing characteristick  of  his  nature,  which  is 
mind : a person  of  no  vivacity  is  a dull  companion : 
a person  of  no  spirit  is  unfit  to  associate  with  others. 

A person  with  animation  takes  an  interest  in  every 
thing  ; a vivacious  man  catches  at  every  thing  that  is 
pleasant  and  interesting : a spirited  man  enters  into 
plans,  makes  great  e.\ertions,  and  disregards  difficul- 
ties. 

A speaker  may  address  his  audience  with  more  or 
less  animation  according  to  the  disposition  in  which 
he  finds  it;  ‘The  British  have  a lively,  animated  as- 
pect.’— Steele.  A painter  may  be  said  by  his  skill  to 
throw  life  into  his  picture; 

The  very  dead  creation  from  thy  touch 
Assumes  a mimick  life. — Thomson. 

A man  of  a vivacious  temper  diffuses  his  vivacity  into 
all  his  words  and  actions;  ‘His  vivacity  is  seen  in 
doing  all  the  offices  of  life,  with  readiness  of  spirit, 
and  propriety  in  the  manner  of  doing  them.’ — Steele. 
A man  of  spirit  suits  his  measures  to  the  exigency  of 
his  circumstances; 

Farewell  the  big  war, 

The  ^piVrt-stirring  drum,  th’  ear-piercing  fife. 

SlIAKSPKARE. 


LIFELESS,  DEAD,  INANIMATE. 

Lifeless  and  dead  suppose  the  absence  of  life  where 
it  has  once  been  ; inanimate  supposes  its  absence 
where  it  has  never  been ; a person  is  said  to  be  life- 
less or  dead  from  whom  life  has  departed;  the  mate- 
rial world  consists  of  objects  which  are  by  nature 
inanimate;  ‘ We  may  in  some  sort  be  said  to  have  a 
society  even  with  the  inanimate  world.’— Burke. 
Lifeless  is  negative ; it  signifies  simply  without  life, 
or  the  vital  spark : dead  is  positive ; it  denotes  an 
actual  and  perfect  change  in  the  object.  We  may 
speak  of  a lifeless  corpse,  when  speaking  of  a body 
which  sinks  from  a state  of  animation  into  that  of 
inanimation ; 

Nor  can  his  lifeless  nostril  please, 

With  the  once  ravishing  smell. — Cowley. 

We  speak  of  dead  bodies  to  designate  such  as  have 
undergone  an  entire  change  ; ‘A  brute  and  a man  are 
another  thing,  when  they  are  alive  and  when  they  are 
dead.’— Hales.  A person,  therefore,  in  whom  ani- 
mation is  suspended,  is,  for  the  time  being,  lifeless, 
in  appearance  at  least,  although  we  should  not  say 
iead. 

In  the  moral  acceptation,  lifeless  and  inanimate 
respect  the  spirits;  dead  respects  the  moral  feeling. 
A person  is  said  to  be  lifeless  who  has  lost  the  spirits 
which  he  once  had  ; he  is  said  to  be  inanimate  when 
he  is  naturally  wanting  in  spirits:  a person  who  Is 
lifeless  is  unfitted  for  enjoyment ; he  who  vs  dead  to 


moral  sentiment  i 
perties  of  his  na{ 
applied  in  the  sen; 
How  dead  thr 


otally  bereft  of  the  essential  pro 
fe.  The  epithet  dead  is  sometimes 
of  having  the  stillness  of  death  ; 
^etable  kingdom  lies  1— Thomson 


TO  CHEEl  ENCOURAGE,  COMFORT. 
Cheer  has  the  same  signification  as  given  under  the 
head  of  To  cmircate;  encaurege,  compounded  of  en 
and  coMj-ao-c, signifies  to  inspire  with  courage ; comfort, 
compounded  of  com  or  cum,  and  fortis  strong,  signi 
fies  to  invigorate  or  strengthen. 

To  cheer  regards  the  spirits ; to  encourage  the  reso- 
lution: the  sad  require  to  be  cheered;  the  timid  tD  be 
encouraged.  Mirthful  company  is  suited  to  cheer  those 
who  labour  under  any  depression ; ‘ Every  eye  bestows 
the  cheering  look  of  approbation  upon  the  humble 
man.’ — Cumberland.  The  prospect  of  success  en- 
courages those  who  have  any  object  to  obtain ; ‘ Com 
plaisance  produces  good  nature  and  mutual  benevo- 
lence, encourages  the  timorous,  sooths  the  turbulent, 
humanizes  the  fierce,  and  distinguishes  a society  oi 
civilized  persons  from  savages.’ — Addison. 

To  cheer  and  comfort  have  both  regard  to  the  spi- 
rits, but  the  latter  differs  in  degree  and  manner:  to 
cheer  expresses  more  than  to  comfort;  the  former  sig 
nifying  to  produce  a lively  sentiment,  the  latter  to 
lessen  or  remove  a painful  one:  we  are  cheered  in  the 
moments  of  despondency,  whether  from  real  or  ima- 
ginary causes ; we  are  comforted  in  the  hour  of  dis- 
tress ; 

Sleep  seldom  visits  sorrow, 

When  it  does,  it  is  a comforter. — Shakspeare 
Cheering  is  mostly  effected  by  the  discourse  of 
others  ; comforting  is  effected  by  the  actions,  as  well 
as  the  words,  of  others.  Nothing  tends  more  to  cheer 
the  drooping  soul  than  endearing  expressions  of  ten- 
derness from  those  we  love ; the  most  effectual  means 
of  comforting  the  poor  and  afflicted,  is  by  relieving 
their  wants ; ‘ There  are  writers  of  great  distinction 
who  have  made  it  an  argument  for  providence,  that 
the  whole  earth  is  covered  with  green,  rather  than  with 
any  other  colour,  as  being  such  a right  mixture  of 
light  and  shade,  that  comforts  and  strengthens  the  eye, 
instead  of  weakening  or  grieving  it.’ — Addison.  The 
voice  of  the  benevolent  man  is  cheering  to  the  aching 
heart;  his  looks  encourage  the  sufi'erer  to  disclose  his 
griefs ; his  hand  is  open  to  administer  relief  and  com 
fort. 


TO  CONSOLE,  SOLACE,  COMFORT 

Console  and  solace  are  derived  from  the  same  source, 
in  French  corisoler,  Latin  consolor  and  solatium,  pos- 
sibly from  solum  the  ground,  which  nourishes  all 
things;  to  comfort  signifies  to  afford  comfort  {v.  To 
cheer) . 

Console  and  solace  denote  the  relieving  of  pain ; 
comfort  marks  both  the  communication  of  positive 
pleasure  and  the  relief  of  pain.  We  console  others 
with  words ; we  console  or  solace  ourselves  with  re- 
flections ; we  comfort  by  words  or  deeds.  Console  is 
used  on  more  important  occasions  than  solace.  We 
console  our  friends  when  they  meet  with  afflictions  ; 
we  solace  ourselves  when  we  meet  with  disasters  ; we 
comfort  those  who  stand  in  need  of  comfort. 

TJie  greatest  consolation  which  we  can  enjoy  on  the 
death  of  our  friends  is  derived  from  the  hope  that  they 
have  exchanged  a state  of  imperfection  and  sorrow 
for  one  that  is  full  of  pure  and  unmixed  felicity;  ‘In 
afflictions  men  generally  draw  their  consolation  out  ot 
books  of  morality,  which  indeed  are  of  great  use  to 
fortify  and  strengthen  the  mind  against  the  impressions 
of  sorrow.’— Addison.  It  is  no  small  so/ace  to  us  in 
the  midst  of  all  our  troubles,  to  consider  that  they  are 
not  so  bad  as  that  they  might  not  have  been  worse ; 

‘ He  that  undergoes  the  fatigue  of  labour  must  solace 
his  weariness  with  the  contemplation  of  its  reward.’ 
— Johnson.  The  comforts  which  a person  enjoys 
may  be  considerably  enhanced  by  the  comparison 
with  what  he  has  formerly  suffered ; ‘ If  our  afflic- 
tions are  light,  we  shall  be  comforted  by  the  compari 
son  we  make  bet  ween  ourselves  and  our  fellow-suf 
ferers.’— Addison. 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES 


351 


COMFORT,  PLEASURE. 

Comfort  (v.  To  cheer),  that  genuine  English  word, 
describes  what  England  only  affords:  we  may  find 
pleasure  in  every  country  ; but  comfort  is  to  be  found 
in  our  own  country  only : the  grand  feature  in  comfort 
is  substantiality  ; in  that  of  pleasure  is  warmth.  Plea- 
sure is  quickly  succeeded  by  pain  ; it  is  the  lot  of  hu- 
manity that  to  every  pleasure  there  should  be  an  alloy : 
comfort  is  that  portion  of  pleasure  which  seems  to  lie 
exempt  from  this  disadvantage ; it  is  the  most  durable 
sort  of  pleasure. 

Comfort  must  be  sought  for  at  home ; pleasure  is 
pursued  abroad : comfort  depends  upon  a thousand 
nameless  trifles  which  daily  arise  ; it  is  the  relief  of  a 
pain,  the  heightening  of  a gratification,  the  supply  of 
a want,  or  the  removal  of  an  inconvenience  ; 

Thy  growing  virtues  justified  my  cares. 

And  promis’d  comfort  to  my  silver  hairs. — Pope. 
Pleasure  is  the  companion  of  luxury  and  abundance  ; 
it  dwells  in  the  palaces  of  the  rich  and  the  abodes  of 
the  voluptuary  : but  comfort  is  within  the  reach  of  the 
poorest,  and  the  portion  of  those  who  know  how  to 
husband  their  means,  and  to  adapt  their  enjoyments 
to  their  habits  and  circumstances  in  life.  Comfort  is 
less  than  pleasure  in  the  detail ; it  is  more  than  plea- 
sure in  the  aggregate. 

SYMPATHY,  COMPASSION,  COMMISERATION, 
CONDOLENCE. 

Sympathy,  from  the  Greek  aiifA.  - or  avv  with,  and 
udSos  feeling,  has  the  literal  meaning  of  fellow-feeling, 
that  is,  a kindred  or  like  feeling,  or  feeling  in  company 
with  another.  Compassion,  from  com  and  patior  o 
suffer  ; commiseration,  from  the  Latin  com  and  miseria 
misery ; condolence,  from  the  Latin  con  and  doleo  to 
grieve,  signify  a like  suffering,  or  a suffering  in  com- 
pany. Hence  it  is  obvious,  that  according  to  the  deri- 
vation of  the  words  sympathy  may  be  said  either  of 
pleasure  or  pain,  the  rest  only  of  that  which  is  painful. 
Sympathy  preserves  its  original  meaning  in  its  applica- 
tion, for  we  laugh  or  cry  by  sympathy ; this  may,  how- 
ever, be  only  a merely  physical  affection;  ‘You  are 
not  young,  no  more  am  I ; go  to,  then,  there’s  sympa- 
thy; you  are  merry,  so  ami;  ha!  ha!  then  there’s 
more  sympathy ; you  love  sack,  and  so  do  I ; would 
you  !’ — Shakspeare.  Hence  it  is  that  the  word  sym- 
pathy may  be  taken  for  a secret  alliance  or  kindred 
feeling  between  two  minds  or  between  the  mind  and 
other  objects ; 

Or  sympathy  or  some  connatural  force. 

Powerful  at  greatest  distance  to  unite. 

With  secret  amity,  things  of  like  kind. 

By  secretest  conveyance. — Milton. 

That  mind  and  body  often  sympathize 
Is  plain ; such  is  this  union  nature  ties. — Jenyns. 
But  sympathy  when  taken  in  a sense  the  most  closely 
allied  to  compassion,  does  not  go  beyond  the  feeling 
another’s  pleasures  or  pains  ; we  may  sympathize  with 
others  without  essentially  serving  them  ; ‘ Their  coun- 
trymen were  particularly  attentive  to  all  their  story, 
and  sympathized  with  their  heroes  in  all  their  adven- 
tures.’— Addison.  Compassion,  on  the  other  hand, 
not  only  a moral,  but  an  activ,e  feeling;  if  we  feel 
compassion,  we  naturally  turn  our  thoughts  towards 
relieving  the  object ; 

’Mong  those  whom  honest  lives  can  recommend, 

Our  justice  more  compassion  should  extend. 

Denham. 

Compassion  is  awakened  by  any  sort  of  suffering,  but 
particularly  those  which  are  attributable  to  misfortune; 
‘ The  good-natured  man  is  apt  to  be  moved  with  com- 
passion for  those  misfortunes  and  infirmities,  which 
another  would  turn  into  ridicule.’ — Addison.  Com- 
miseration is  a stronger  feeling  awakened  by  deep  dis- 
tress, above  all  by  the  troubles  which  people  bring  on 
themselves  ; a criminal  going  to  suffer  the  penalty  of 
the  law  demands  commiseration ; 

She  indeed  weeping  ; and  her  lovely  plight 
Immoveable,  till  peace  obtain’d  from  fault 
Acknowledg’d  and  deplor’d,  in  Adam  wrought 
Commiseration. — Milton. 

And  the  calamities  of  human  life  equallv  caF.  for  com- 
miseration • 


Then  must  we  those  who  groan  beneath  the  weight 
Of  age,  disease,  or  want,  commiserate  1 — Denham. 
Compassion  may  be  awakened  in  the  minds  of  persons 
of  very  unequal  condition  ; commiseration  supposes  a 
certain  distance,  at  least  in  the  external  condition  of 
the  parties ; he  who  commiserates  being  set  above  the 
chance  of  falling  into  the  calamities  of  him  who  is 
commiserated  : whence  it  is  represented  as  the  feeling 
which  our  wretchedness  excites  in  the  Supreme  Being. 
Condolence  supposes  an  entire  equality;  it  exclu.dcs 
every  thing  but  what  flows  out  of  the  courtesy  and 
good-will  of  one  friend  to  another,  and  is  called  forth 
by  events  which  the  parties  on  either  side  are  equally 
exposed  to  ; we  condole  with  a person  on  the  death  of 
a relative  ; ‘ Why  should  I think  that  all  that  devout 
multitude,  which  so  lately  cried  Hosanna  in  the  streets, 
did  not  also  bear  their  part  in  these  publick  condolings 
(on  the  crucifixion  of  our  Saviour).’ — Hall. 

Rather  than  all  must  suffer,  some  must  die. 

Yet  nature  must  condole  their  misery.— Denham 


GRACIOUS,  MERCIFUL,  KIND. 

Gracious,  when  compared  to  merciful,  is  used  only 
in  the  spiritual  sense ; the  latter  is  applicable  to  the 
conduct  of  man  as  well  as  of  the  Deity. 

Grace  is  exerted  in  doing  good  to  an  object  that  has 
merited  the  contrary  ; mercy  is  exerted  in  withholding 
the  evil  which  has  been  merited.  Goo  is  gracious  to 
his  creatures  in  affording  them  not  only  an  opportunity 
to  address  him,  but  every  encouragement  to  lay  ojien 
their  wants  to  him  ; their  unworthiness  and  sinfulness 
are  not  made  impediments  of  access  to  him.  God  is 
merciful  to  the  vilest  of  sinners,  and  lends  an  ear  to 
the  smallest  breath  of  repentance  ; in  the  moment  of 
executing  vengeance  he  stops  his  arm  at  the  voice  of 
supplication : he  expects  the  same  mercy  to  be  extended 
by  man  towards  his  offending  brother. 

Grace,  in  the  lofty  sense  in  which  it  is  here  admitted, 
cannot  with  propriety  be  made  the  attribute  of  any 
human  being,  however  elevated  his  rank : nothing 
short  of  infinite  wisdom  as  well  as  goodness  can  be 
supposed  capable  of  doing  good  to  offenders  withou‘ 
producing  ultimate  evil ; 

He  heard  my  vows,  and  graciously  decreed 

My  grounds  to  be  restor’d,  my  former  flocks  to  feed. 

Dryden. 

Were  a king  to  attempt  any  display  of  grace  by  be 
stowing  favours  on  criminals,  his  conduct  would  be 
highly  injurious  to  the  interests  of  society  ; but  when 
we  speak  of  the  Almighty  as  dispensing  his  goods  to 
sinners,  and  even  courting  them  by  every  act  of  endear 
ment  to  lay  aside  their  sins,  we  clearly  perceive  that 
this  difference  arises  from  the  infinite  disparity  between 
him  and  us  ; which  makes  that  “ his  ways  are  not  our 
ways,  nor  are  his  thoughts  our  thoughts.”  I am  in- 
clined therefore  to  think  that  in  our  language  we  have 
made  a peculiarly  just  distinction  between  grace  and 
mercy,  by  confining  the  former  to  the  acts  of  the 
Almighty,  and  applying  the  latter  indiscriminately  to 
both  ; for  it  is  obvious  that  mercy  as  far  as  it  respects 
the  suspension  of  punishment,  lies  altogether  within 
the  reach  of  human  discretion ; 

He  that ’s  merciful 

Unto  the  bad  is  cruel  to  the  good. — Randolph. 

Gracious,  when  compared  with  kind,  differs  prin 
cipally  as  to  the  station  of  the  persons  to  whom  it  is 
applied.  Gracious  is  altogether  confined  to  superiours ; 
kind  is  indiscriminately  employed  for  superiours  and 
equals : a king  gives  a gracious  reception  to  the  nobles 
who  are  presented  to  him ; one  friend  gives  a hind 
reception  to  another  by  whom  he  is  visited.  Gracious 
is  a term  in  peculiar  use  at  court,  and  among  princes  ; 
it  necessarily  supposes  a voluntary  descent  from  a 
lofty  station,  to  put  oneself,  for  the  time  being,  upon  a 
level  with  those  to  whom  one  speaks  : it  comprehends, 
therefore,  condescension  in  manner,  affability  in  ad- 
dress ; ‘ So  gracious  hath  God  been  to  us,  that  he  hath 
made  those  things  to  be  our  duty  which  naturally  tend 
to  our  felicity.’ — I'illotson.  Kindness  is  a domes-  * 
tick  virtue  ; it  is  found  mostly  among  those  who  have 
not  so  much  ceremonial  to  dispense  with  ; it  is  the  dis 
play  of  our  good-will  not  only  in  the  manner,  but  in  the 
action  itself ; it  is  not  confined  to  the  tone  of  the  voice 
the  gesture  of  the  body,  or  the  mode  of  expression 


358 


EINGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


but  exttnds  to  actual  services  i i tlie  closest  relations 
of  society  ; a master  is  kmd  to  l.\s  servants  in  the  time 
of  their  sickness  ; friends  who  are  kind  to  one  another 
nave  perpetual  opportunities  of  displaying  their  kind- 
ness in  various  little  offices ; 

Love ! that  would  all  men  just  and  temp’rate  make, 
Kind  to  themselves  and  others  for  his  sake. 

Waller. 


PITY,  COMPASSION. 

The  pain  which  one  feels  at  the  distresses  of  another 
8 the  idea  that  is  common  to  the  signification  of  both 
hese  terms,  but  they  differ  in  the  object  that  causes 
the  distress.  Pity,  which  is  probably  changed  from 
viety,  is  excited  principally  by  the  weakness  or  de- 
graded condition  of  the  subject:  compassion  (v.  Sym- 
pathy) by  his  uncontrollable  and  inevitable  misfor- 
tunes. We  pity  a man  of  a weak  understanding  who 
exposes  his  weakness : we  compassionate  the  man  who 
is  reduced  to  a state  of  beggary  and  want.  Pity  is 
kindly  extended  by  those  in  higher  condition  to  such 
as  are  humble  in  their  outward  circumstances;  the 
poor  are  at  all  times  deserving  of  pity  when  their 
poverty  is  not  the  positive  fruit  of  vice ; 

Others  extended  naked  on  the  floor. 

Exil’d  from  human  pity  here  they  lie, 

And  know  no  end  of  mis’ry  till  they  die. 

POMFRET. 

Compassion  is  a sentiment  which  extends  to  persons 
in  all  conditions;  the  good  Samaritan  had  compassion 
on  the  traveller  who  fell  among  thieves ; 

Jlis  fate  compassion  in  the  victor  bred ; 

Stern  as  he  was,  he  yet  rever’d  the  dead. — Pope. 
Pity,  though  a tender  sentiment,  is  so  closely  allied  to 
contempt,  that  an  ingenuous  mind  is  always  loath  to 
be  the  subject  of  it,  since  it  can  never  be  awakened 
but  by  some  circumstances  of  inferiority  ; it  huri>  the 
honest  pride  of  a man  to  reflect  that  he  can  excite  no 
interest  but  by  provoking  a comparison  to  his  own  dis- 
advantage : on  the  other  hand,  such  is  the  general  in- 
firmity of  our  natures,  and  such  our  exposure  to  the 
casualties  of  human  life,  that  compassion  is  a pure  and 
delightful  sentiment,  that  is  reciprocally  bestowed  and 
ftcknowlC'dged  by  all  with  equal  satisfaction. 


PITY,  MERCY. 

The  feelings  we  indulge,  and  the  conduct  we  adopt, 
towards  others  who  suffer  for  their  demerits,  is  the  com- 
mon idea  which  renders  these  terms  synonymous ; but 
pity  lays  hold  of  those  circumstances  which  do  not 
affect  the  moral  character,  or  which  diminish  the  cul- 
pability of  the  individual:  mercy  lays  hold  of  those 
external  circumstances  which  may  diminish  punish- 
ment. Pity  is  often  a sentiment  unaccompanied  w ith 
action ; mercy  is  often  a mode  of  action  unaccom- 
panied with  sentiment:  we  have  or  take  upon  a 
person,  but  we  show  mercy  to  a person.  Pity  is  be- 
stowed by  men  in  their  domestic  and  private  capacity ; 
mercy  is  shown  in  the  exercise  of  power:  a master 
hasyrty  upon  his  offending  servant  by  passing  over  his 
offences,  and  affording  him  the  opportunity  of  amend- 
ment, or  an  individual  may  feel  a sentiment  towards 
another  whom  he  thinks  in  a degraded  situation. 

Ipity  from  my  soul  unhappy  men, 

Cornpell’d  by  want  to  prostitute  their  pen. 

Roscommon. 

Tire  magistrate  shows  mercy  to  a criminal  by  abridg- 
ing his  punishment;  ‘Examples  of  justice  must  be 
made  for  terrour  to  some ; examples  of  mercy  for  com- 
fort to  others;  the  one  procures  fear,  and  the  other 
love.’ — Bacon.  Pity  lies  in  the  breast  of  an  individual, 
land  may  be  bestowed  at  his  discretion : mercy  is  restrict- 
ed by  the  rules  of  civil  society  ; it  must  not  interfere 
with  the  administration  of  justice.  Young  offenders 
call  for  great yaty,  as  their  offences  are  often  the  fruit  of 
inexperience  and  bad  example,  rather  than  of  depra- 
vity: mercy  is  an  imperative  duty  in  those  who  have 
thepower  of  inflicting  punishment,  particularly  in  cases 
where  life  and  death  are  concerned. 

Pity  and  mercy  are  likewise  applied  to  the  brute 
ereation  with  a similar  distinctior’i:  pity  shows  itself  in 
idieving  real  misery,  and  in  lightening  burdens ; 


mercy  is  displayed  in  the  measure  of  pain  winch  on^ 
inflicts.  One  takes  pity  on  a pot  r ass  to  whom  one 
gives  fodder  to  relieve  hunger ; ‘ An  ant  dropped  into  the 
water  ; a wood-pigeon  tookyity  on  her,  and  threw  her 
a little  bough.’ — L’Estrange.  One  shows  a brute 
mercy  by  abstaining  to  lay  heavy  stripes  upon  ita 
back ; 

Cowards  are  cruel,  but  the  brave 
Love  mercy,  and  delight  to  save. — Gay. 

These  terms  are  moreover  applicable  to  the  Deity, 
in  regard  to  his  creatures,  particularly  man.  God 
takes  jnty  on  us  as  entire  dependants  upon  him : he 
extends  his  mercy  towards  us  as  offenders  against  him  ■ 
he  shows  his  pity  by  relieving  our  wants  ; he  showi 
his  mercy  by  forgiving  our  sins. 

PITIABLE,  PITEOUS,  PITIFUL. 

These  three  epithets  drawn  from  the  same  word 
have  shades  of  difference  in  sense  and  application ; 
pitiable  signifies  deserving  of  pity ; piteous,  moving 
pity ; pitiful,  full  of  that  which  awakens /(jty ; a con- 
dition is  pitiable  which  is  so  distressing  as  to  call  forth 
pity ; a cry  is  piteous  which  indicates  such  distress  as 
can  excite  pity ; a conduct  is  pitiful  which  marks  a 
character  entitled  iopity. 

The  first  of  these  terms  is  taken  in  the  best  sense  of 
the  term  pity ; the  last  two  in  its  unfavourable  sense : 
what  is  pitiable  in  a person  is  independent  of  any 
thing  in  himself;  circumstances  have  rendered  hint 
pitiable;  ‘Is  it  then  impossible  that  a man  may  be 
found  who  without  criminal  ill  intention,  or  pitiable 
absurdity,  shall  prefer  a mixed  government  to  either 
of  the  extremes  V — Burke.  What  is  piteous  and 
pitiful  in  a man  arises  from  the  helplessness  and  im- 
becility or  worthlessness  of  his  character ; the  former 
respects  that  which  is  weak  ; the  latter  that  which  is 
worthless  in  him ; when  a poor  creature  makes  piteous 
moans,  it  indicates  his  incapacity  to  help  himself  as 
he  ought  to  do  out  of  his  troubles,  or  at  least  his  ins' 
patience  under  suffering; 

I have  in  view,  calling  to  mind  wfith  heed 
Part  of  our  sentence,  that  thy  seed  shall  bruise 
The  serpent’s  head ; piteous  amends,  unless 
Be  meant,  whom  I conjecture,  our  grand  foe. 

Milton. 

When  a man  of  rank  has  recourse  to  pitiful  shifts  to 
gain  his  ends,  he  betrays  the  innate  meanness  of  his 
soul;  ‘Bacon  wrote  a pitiful  letter  to  King  James  I 
not  long  before  his  death.’ — Howell. 

CLEMENCY,  LENITY,  MERCY. 

Clemency  is  in  Latin  lementia,  signifying  mildness  , 
lenity,  in  Latin  lenitas,  .-omes  from  lenis  soft,  or  lavis 
smooth,  and  the  Greek  ktioi  mild  ; mercy,  in  Latin 
misericordia,  compounded  ol  miscria  and  cordis,  i.  e. 
affliction  of  the  heart,  signifies  the  pain  produced  by 
observing  the  pain  ot  others. 

Clemency  and  lenity  are  employed  only  towards 
offenders  ; mercy  tow'ards  all  who  are  in  trouble,  whe 
ther  from  their  own  fault,  or  any  other  cause. 

Clemency  lies  in  the  disposition  ; lenity  and  mercy  in 
the  act ; the  former  as  respects  superiours  in  general, 
the  latter  in  regard  to  those  who  are  invested  with  civil 
power:  a monarch  displays  his  clemency  by  showing 
mercy  ; a master  shows  lenity  by  not  inflicting  punish- 
' ment  where  it  is  deserved. 

Clemency  is  arbitrary  on  the  part  of  the  dispenser, 
flowing  from  his  will  independent  of  the  object  on 
whom  it  is  bestowed  ; 

We  wretched  Trojans,  toss’d  on  ev’ry  shore, 

From  sea  to  sea,  thy  clemency  implore ; 

Forbid  the  fires  our  shipping  to  deface. 

Receive  th’  unhappy  fugitives  to  grace. — Dryeen. 
Lenity  and  mercy  are  discretionary,  they  always  have 
regard  to  the  object  and  the  nature  of  the  offence,  or 
misfortunes;  lenity  therefore  often  serves  the  purposes 
of  discipline,  and  mercy  those  of  justice  by  forgive- 
ness, instead  of  punishment;  but  clemency  defeats  its 
end  by  forbearing  to  punish  where  it  is  needful ; ‘ The 
King  (Charles  II.'i  with  lenity  of  which  the  world  has 
had  perhaps  no  other  example,  declined  to  be  tin 
judge  or  avenger  of  his  own  or  his  father’  wrongs 
Johnson. 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  35S 


The  goJs  (if  gods  to  goodness  are  inclin’d, 

If  acts  of  mercy  touch  their  heav’nly  mind), 

And  more  than  all  the  gods,  your  gen’rous  heart, 
Conscious  of  worth,  requite  its  own  desert. 

Dryden. 

A mild  master  who  shows  clemency  to  a faithless 
servant  by  not  bringing  him  to  justice,  often  throws  a 
worthless  wretch  upon  tne  public  to  commit  more 
atrocious  depredations.  A well-timed  lenity  some- 
times recalls  an  olfender  to  himself,  and  brings  Jiim 
back  to  good  order.  Upon  this  principle,  the  English 
constitution  has  wisely  left  in  the  hands  of  the  monarch 
the  discretionary  power  of  showing  w/ercy  in  all  cases 
.that  do  not  demand  the  utmost  rigour  of  the  law. 


SOFT,  MILD,  GENTLE,  MEEK. 

in  Saxon  soft,  German  sanft,  comes  most 
probably  from  the  Saxon  sib,  Gothick  sef,  Hebrew 
njiy  rest;  mild,m  Saxon  7«i7de,  German  milde.  Sec. 
Latin  mollis,  Greek  ye\iv6s,  comes  from  yeiXiaacfo  to 
sooth  with  soft  words,  and  yeXi  honey  ; gentle,  v. 
Gentle;  meek,  like  the  Latin  mitis,  may  in  all  proba- 
bility come  from  the  Greek  ytioo)  to  make  less,  signify- 
ing to  make  one’s  self  small,  to  be  humble. 

Soft  and  mild  are  employed  both  in  the  proper  and 
the  improper  application  ; meek  only  in  the  moral  ap- 
plication : soft  is  opposed  to  the  hard  ; mild  to  the  sharp 
or  strong.  All  bodies  are  said  to  be  soft  which  yield 
easily  to  the  touch  or  pressure,  as  a soft  bed,  the  soft 
earth,  soft  fruit ; 

Soft  stillness,  and  the  night. 

Become  the  touches  of  sweet  harmony. 

Shakspeare. 

Some  bodies  are  said  to  be  mild  which  act  weakly,  but 
pleasantly,  on  the  taste,  as  mild  fruit,  or  a mild  cheese ; 
or  on  the  feelings,  as  mild  weather ; 

Sylvia  s like  autumn  ripe,  yet  mild  as  May, 

More  bright  than  noon,  yet  fresh  as  early  day. 

Pope. 

Some  things  are  said  to  he  gentle,  which  in  their  nature 
might  be  boisterous  as  the  winds  ; 

As  when  the  woods  by  gentle  winds  are  stirr’d. 

Dryden. 

In  the  improper  application,  soft,  mild,  and  gentle 
may  be  applied  to  that  which  acts  weakly  upon  others, 
or  is  easily  acted  upon  by  others;  meek  is  said  of  that 
only  which  is  acted  upon  easily  by  others:  in  this 
sense  they  are  all  employed  as  epithets,  to  designate 
either  tne  person,  or  that  which  is  personal. 

In  the  sense  of  acting  weakly,  but  pleasantly,  on 
others,  soft,  mild,  and  gentle  are  applied  to  the  same 
objects,  but  with  a slight  distinciion  in  the  sense:  the 
voice  of  a person  is  either  soft  or  mild;  it  is  naturally 
soft,  it  is  purposely  made  mild ; a soft  voice  strikes 
agreeably  upon  the  ear  ; a mild  voice,  when  assumed 
by  those  who  have  authority,  dispels  all  fears  in  the 
minds  of  inferiours.  A person  moves  either  softly  or 
gently,  but  in  the  first  case  he  moves  with  but  little 
noise,  in  the  second  he  moves  with  a slow  pace.  It  is 
necessary  to  go  softly  in  the  chamber  of  the  sick,  that 
they  may  pm  be  disturbed  ; it  is  necessary  for  a sick 
person  to  move  gently,  when  he  first  attempts  to  go 
abroad  after  his  confinement,  or  at  least  his  impatience 
under  suffering; 

Pray  you  tread  softly,  that  the  blind  mole  may  not 
Hear  a foot  fall.— Shakspeare. 

Close  at  mine  ear  one  call’d  me  forth  to  w’alk, 

With  gentle  voice. — Milton. 

To  tread  softly  is  an  art  which  is  acquired  rrom  the 
dancing-master;  to  go  gently  is  a voluntary  act:  we 
may  go  a gentle  or  a quick  pace  at  pleasure.  Words 
are  either  soft,  mild,  or  gentle : a soft  word  falls 
lightly  upon  the  person  to  whom  it  is  addressed ; it 
does  not  excite  any  angry  sentiment ; the  proverb 
says,  “ A soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath.”  A re- 
proof is  mild  when  it  falls  easily  from  the  lips  of  one 
who  has  power  to  oppress  and  wound  the  feelings ; a 
censure,  an  admonition,  or  a hint,  is  gentle,  which 
bears  indirectly  on  the  offender,  and  does' not  expose 
the  whole  of  his  infirmity  to  view : a kind  father 
always  tries  the  efficacy  of  mild  reproofs ; a prudent 


friend  will  always  try  to  correct  our  errours-^by  gentle 
remonstrances. 

In  like  manner  we  say  that  punishments  are  mild 
which  infficl  but  a small  portion  of  pain;  they  are  op- 
posed to  those  which  are  severe : those  means  of  cor- 
rection are  gentle,  w Inch  are  opposed  to  those  that  are 
violent.  It  requires  discretion  to  know  how  to  inflict 
punishment  with  the  due  proportion  of  mildness  and 
severity;  it  will  be  fruitless  to  adopt  means  of 

correction,  when  there  is  not  a power  of  resorting  to 
those  which  are  violent  in  case  of  necessity.  Persons, 
or  tlieir  manners,  are  termed  soft,  mild,  nixA  gentle,  but 
still  with  similar  distinctions  : a soft  address,  a so/Z  air, 
and  the  like,  are  becoming  or  not,  accorditig  to  the  sex 
in  that  which  is  denominated  the  softer  eex,  these  qua 
lities  of  softness  are  characteristick  excellencies ; bul 
even  in  this  sex  they  may  degenerate,  by  their  excess, 
into  insipidity  : and  in  the  male  sex  they  are  compa- 
tible only  in  a small  degree  with  manly  firmness  of 
carriage.*  Mild  manners  are  peculiarly  becoming  in 
superiours,  whereby  they  win  the  love  and  esteem  of 
those  who  are  in  inferiour  stations; 

Nothing  reserv'd  or  sullen  was  to  see. 

But  sweet  regards,  and  pleasing  sanctity; 

Mild  w’as  his  accent,  and  his  action  free. 

Dryden 

Gentle  manners  are  becoming  in  all  persons  who  take 
a part  in  social  life:  gentleness  is,  in  fact,  that  due 
medium  of  softness  which  is  alike  suitable  to  both 
sexes,  and  which  it  is  the  object  of  polite  education  to 
produce;  ‘He  had  such  a ffewtZe  method  of  reproving 
their  faults,  that  they  were  not  so  much  afraid  as 
ashamed  to  repeat  them.’ — Atterbury. 

In  the  sense  of  being  acted  on  easily,  the  disposition 
is  said  to  be  not  only  soft,  mild,  and  gentle,  but  also 
meek:  softness  of  disposition  and  character  is  an  in 
firmity  both  in  the  male  and  female,  but  particularly 
in  the  former;  it  is  altogether  incompatible  with  that 
steadiness  and  uniformity  of  conduct  which  is  requisite 
for  every  man  who  has  an  independent  part  to  act  in 
life; 

However  soft  within  themselves  they  are. 

To  you  they  will  be  valiant  by  despair. 

Dryden. 

A man  of  a soft  disposition  often  yields  to  the  en- 
treaties of  others,  and  does  that  which  his  judgement 
condemns;  mildness  of  disposition  unfits  a man  alto- 
gether for  command,  and  is  to  be  clearly  distinguished 
from  that  mildness  of  conduct  which  is  founded  on 
principle ; 

If  that  mild  and  gentle  god  thou  be, 

■Who  dost  mankind  below  with  pity  see. 

Dryden. 

Gentleness,  as  a part  of  the  character,  is  not  so  much 
to  be  recommended  as  gentleness  from  habit ; human 
life  contains  so  much  in  itself  that  is  rough,  that  the 
gentle  disposition  is  unable  to  make  that  resistance 
which  is  requisite  for  the  purposes  of  self  defence- 

Still  she  retains 

Her  maiden  gentleness,  and  oft  at  eve 

Visits  the  herds. — Milton. 

Meekness  is  a Christian  virtue  forcibly  recommended 
to  our  practice  by  the  example  and  precepts  of  our 
blessed  Saviour ; it  consists  not  only  in  an  unresisting, 
but  a forgiving  temper,  a temper  that  is  unruffled  by  ' 
injuries  and  provocations:  it  is, however,  an  infirmity, 
if  it  springs  from  a want  of  spirit,  or  an  unconscious- 
ness of  what  is  due  to  ourselves : meekness,  therefore, 
as  a natural  temper,  sinks  into  meanness  and  servility; 
but  when,  as  an  acquired  temper,  built  upon  principSe. 
and  moulded  into  a habit  of  the  mind,  it  is  the  grand 
distinctive  characteristick  of  the  religion  we  profess. 

Gentle  and  meek  are  likewise  applied  to  animals; 
the  former  to  designate  that  easy  flow  of  spirits  which 
fits  them  for  being  guided  in  their  movements,  and  the 
latter  to  mark  that  passive  temper,  that  submits  to 
every  kind  of  treatment,  however  handi,  without  an 
indication  even  of  displeasure.  A horse  is  gentle,  as 
opposed  to  one  that  is  spirited;  the  former  is  devoid  of 
that  impetus  in  himself  to  move,  which  renders  the 
other  ungovernable:  the  lamb  is  a pattern  of  meekness, 
and  yields  to  the  knife  of  the  butcher  without  a struggle 
or  a ivroan ; 


360 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


I low  meek,  how  patient,  tlie  viild  creature  lies, 
What  softness  in  its  melancholy  face, 

What  dumb-complaining  innocence  appears! 

Thomson. 

GENTLE,  TAME. 

Gentleness  lies  rather  in  the  natural  disposition; 
tameness  is  the  effect  either  of  art  or  circumstances. 
Any  unbroken  horse  may  be  gentle,  but  not  tame : a 
horse  that  is  broken  in  will  be  tame,  but  not  always 
gentle. 

Gentle  {v.  Genteel)  signifies  literally  well-born,  and 
is  opposed  either  to  the  tierce  or  the  rude  ; ‘ Gentleness 
and  gentility  are' the  same  thing,  and,  if  they  are  not 
the  same  words,  they  come  from  one  and  the  same 
original,  from  whence  likewise  is  deduced  the  word 
gentleman.' — Pkqge.  7'ame,  in  German  zahm,  from 
laum  a bridle,  signifies  literally  curbed  or  kept  under, 
and  is  opjiosed  either  to  the  wild  or  the  spirited. 

Animals  are  in  general  said  to  be  gentle  wliich  show 
a disposition  to  associate  with  man,  and  conform  to  his 
will:  they  are  said  to  be  tame,  if  either  by  compulsion 
or  habit  they  are  brought  to  mix  with  human  society. 
Of  the  first  description  there  are  individuals  in  almost 
every  species  which  are  more  or  less  entitled  to  the 
name  of  gentle;  of  the  latter  description  are  many 
species,  as  the  dog,  the  sheep,  the  hen,  and  the  like  ; 
This  said,  the  hoary  king  no  longer  staid, 

Ilut  on  his  car  the  slaughter’d  victims  laid ; 

Then  seiz’d  the  reins.  Ins  gentle  steeds  to  guide. 
And  drove  to  Troy,  Antenor  at  his  side.— Pope. 
For  Orpheus’  lute  could  soften  steel  and  stone, 
Make  tigers  tame,  and  huge  leviathans. 

Shakspkare. 

In  the  moral  application  gentle  is  always  employed 
in  the  good,  and  tame  in  the  bad  sense  : a gentle  spirit 
needs  no  control;  it  amalgamates  freely  with  the  will 
of  another;  a tame  spirit  is  without  any  will  of  its 
own  ; it  is  alive  to  nothing  but  submission  ; it  is  per- 
fectly consistent  with  our  natural  liberty  to  have  gen- 
tleness, but  tameness  is  the  accompaniment  of  slavery. 
The  same  distinction  marks  the  use  of  these  words 
when  applied  to  the  outward  conduct  or  the  language; 
gentle  bespeaks  something  positively  good ; tame  be- 
speaks the  want  of  an  essential  good:  the  former  is 
allied  to  the  kind,  the  latter  to  the  abject  and  mean 
qualities  w’hich  naturally  flow  from  the  comj)ression 
or  destruction  of  energy  and  will  in  the  agent.  A 
gentle  expression  is  devoid  of  all  acrimony,  and  serves 
to  turn  away  wrath : a tame  expression  is  devetid  of 
all  force  or  energy,  and  ill  calculated  to  inspire  the 
mind  with  any  feeling  whatever.  In  giving  counsel  to 
an  irritable  and  conceited  temper,  it  is  necessary  to  be 
gentle:  tame  exp«essions  are  nowhere  such  striking 
deformities  as  in  a poem  or  an  oration ; ‘ Gentleness 
stands  opposed,  not  to  the  most  determined  regard  to 
virtue  and  truth,  but  to  harslmess  and  seveiity,  to 
pride  and  arrogance.’ — Clair.  ‘ Though  all  wanton 
provocations,  and  contemptuous  insolence,  are  to  be 
iiligently  avoided,  there  is  no  less  danger  in  timid  com- 
pliance and  tame  resignation.’ — Johnson. 

DOCILE,  TRACTABLE,  DUCTILE. 

Docile,  in  Latin  docilis,  from  doceo  to  teach,  is  the 
Latin  term  for  ready  to  be  taught;  tractable,  from  the 
Latin  traho  to  draw,  signifies  ready  to  be  drawm ; and 
ductile,  from  duco  to  lead,  ready  to  be  led. 

The  idea  of  submitting  to  the  directions  of  another 
is  comprehended  in  the  signification  of  all  these  terms; 
docility  marks  the  disposition  to  conform  our  actions 
in  all  particulars  to  the  will  of  another,  and  lies  alto- 
gether in  the  will ; tractabilitij  and  ductility  are  modes 
of  docility,  the  former  in  regard  to  the  conduct,  the 
latter  in  regard  to  the  principles  and  sentiments;  d,o- 
xility  is  in  general  applied  to  the  ordinary  actions  of  the 
^fe,  where  simply  the  will  is  concerned ; ‘ The  Persians 
are  not  wholly  void  of  martial  spirit ; and  if  they  are 
not  naturally  brave,  they  are  at  least  extremely  docile, 
and  might  with  proper  discipline  be  made  excellent 
soldiers.’ — Sir  Wm.  Jones,  'rractability  is  applicable 
to  points  of  conduct  in  which  the  judgement  is  con- 
cerned; ductility  to  matters  in  which  the  character  is 
formed:  a child  ought  to  be  doef/e  with  its  parents  at 
all  times.  A person  ought  to  be  tractable  when  acting 
vinder  the  direction  of  his  superiour ; ‘ The  peojile  with- 


out being  servile,  must  be  tractable.'- -Bwike..  a 
young  person  ought  to  be  ductile  to  imbibe  good  prin- 
ciples: the  want  of  docility  may  spring  from  a defect 
in  the  disposition : the  want  of  tractableness  may 
spring  either  from  a defect  in  the  temper,  or  from  self- 
conceit;  the  want  of  ductility  lies  altogether  in  a 
natural  stubbornness  of  character:  docr7%,  being  alto- 
gether independent  of  the  judgement,  is  applicable  to 
the  brutes  as  wvll  as  to  men  ; 

Their  reindeer  fc;m  their  riches ; these  their  tents, 

Their  robes,  their  beds,  and  all  their  homely  wealth, 

Supply  their  wholesome  fare,  and  cheerful  cups; 

Obsequious  at  their  call,  the  docile  tribe 

Yield  to  the  sledge  their  necks. — Thomson. 
Tractableness  and  ductility  are  applicable  mostly  to 
thinking  and  rational  objects  only,  though  sometimes 
extended  to  inanimate  or  moral  objects:  the  ox  is  a 
docile  animal;  the  humble  are  tractable;  youth  is 
ductile ; ‘ The  will  was  then  (before  the  fall)  ductile 
and  pliant  to  all  the  motions  of  right  reason.’ — South 

FLEXIBLE,  PLIABLE,  PLIANT,  SUPPLE. 

Flexible,  in  Latin  Jlexibilis,  from  Jlecto  to  bend,  sig 
nifies  able  to  be  bent ; pliable  signifies  able  to  be  plied 
or  folded  : pliant,  plying,  bending,  or  folding ; supple, 
in  French  souple,  from  the  intensive  syllable  sub  and 
ply,  signifies  very  pliable. 

* Flexible  is  used  in  a natural  or  moral  sense ; pliable 
in  the  familiar  and  natural  sense  only;  pliant  in  the 
higher  and  moral  application  only:  what  can  be  bent 
in  any  degree  as  a stick  is  flexible;  what  can  be  bent 
as  wax,  or  folded  like  cloth,  is  pliable.  Supple,  whether 
in  a proper  or  a figurative  sense,  is  an  excess  of  plia- 
bility; what  can  be  bent  backward  and  foivvard,  like 
ozier  twig,  is  supple. 

In  the  moral  application, /exfiZe  is  indefinite  'noth  in 
degree  and  application ; it  may  be  greater  or  less  in 
point  of  degree;  whereas  pliant  supposes  a great  de- 
gree oi  pliability ; and  suppleness,  a great  degree  of 
pliancy  or  pliability : it  applies  likewise  to  the  outward 
actions,  to  the  temper,  the  resolution,  or  the  principles; 
tint  pliancy  is  applied  to  the  principles,  or  the  conduct 
dependent  upon  those  principles;  suppleness  to  the 
outward  actions  and  behaviour  only.  A temper  ia 
flexible  which  yields  to  the  entreaties  of  others ; the 
person  or  character  is  pliant  when  it  is  formed  or 
moulded  easily  at  the  will  of  another;  a person  is 
supple  who  makes  his  actions  and  his  manners  bend 
according  to  the  varying  humours  of  another:  the  first 
belongs  to  one  in  a superiour  station  who  yields  to  the 
wishes  of  the  applicant ; the  latter  two  belong  to  equals 
or  inferiours  who  yield  to  the  influence  of  others. 

Flexibility  may  be  either  good  or  bad,  according  to 
circumstances ; when  it  shortens  the  duration  of  re- 
sentments it  produces  a happy  effect ; but  flexibility  is 
not  a respectable  trait  in  a master  or  a judge,  who  ought 
to  be  guided  by  higher  motives  than  what  the  mo- 
mentary impulse  of  feeling  suggests:  pliancy  is  very 
commendable  in  youth,  when  it  leads  them  to  yield  to 
the  counsels  of  the  aged  and  experienced;  but  it  may 
sometimes  make  young  men  the  more  easy  victims  to 
the  seductions  of  the  artful  and  vicious:  suppleness  is 
in  no  case  good,  for  it  is  flexibility  either  in  indifferent 
matters,  or  such  as  are  expressly  bad.  A good-natured 
man  is  flexible ; a weak  and  thoughtless  man  is  pliant ; 
a parasite  is  supple. 

Flexibility  is  frequently  a weakness,  but  never  a 
vice;  it  always  consults  the  taste  of  others,  sometimes 
to  its  own  inconvenience,  and  often  in  opposition  to  its 
judgement;  ‘Forty-four  is  an  age  at  which  the  mind 
begins  less  easily  to  admit  new  confidence,  and  the  will 
to  grow  less  flexible.' — Johnson.  Pliancy  is  often 
both  a weakness  and  a vice ; it  always  yields  for  its 
own  pleasure,  though  not  always  in  opposition  to  its 
sense  of  right  and  wrong:  ‘As  for  the  bending  and 
forming  the  mind,  we  should  doubtless  do  our  utmost 
to  render  it  pliable,  and  by  no  means  stift'  and  refrac- 
tory.’—Bacon.  ‘ The  future  is  pliant  and  ductile.'^ 
Johnson.  Sujipleness  is  always  a vice,  but  never  a 
weakness  ; it  seeks  its  gratification  to  the  injury  of 
another  by  flattering  his  passions ; ‘ Charles  I.  wanted 
suppleness  and  dexterity  to  give  way  to  the  encroach- 
ments  of  a popular  assembly.’— Hume.  Flexibility  i« 
opposed  to  firmness  ; pliancy  to  steadiness;  supvlcna 
to  rigidity. 

* Vide  Roubaud;  “Flexible,  sounile.  docile 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  2Ci 


TO  ALLAY,  SOOTH,  APPEASE,  ASSUAGE, 
MITIGATE. 

To  allay  is  compounded  of  al  or  ad,  and  lay  to  lay 
to  or  by,  signifying  to  lq,y  a thing  to  rest,  to  abate  it ; 
sootk  probably  comes  from  sweet,  which  is  in  Swedish 
sit,  Low  German,  &;c.  sot,  and  is  doubtless  connected 
with  the  Hebrew  to  allure,  invite,  compose;  ap- 
pease, in  French  appaiser,  is  compounded  of  ap  or  ad 
and  paix  peace,  signifying  to  quiet ; assuage  is  com- 
pounded of  as  or  ad  and  suage,  from  the  Latin  suasi, 
perfect  of  suadeo  to  persuade,  signifying  to  treat  with 
gentleness,  or  to  render  easy  ; mitigate,  from  the  Latin 
vdtis  gentle,  signifies  to  make  gentle  or  easy  to  be 
borne. 

All  these  terms  indicate  a lessening  of  something 
painful.  In  a physical  sense  a pain  is  allayed  by  an 
immediate  ap[tlication ; it  is  soothed  by  affording  ease 
and  comfort  in  other  respects,  and  diverting  the  mind 
from  the  pain.  Extreme  heat  or  thirst  is  allayed; 
‘Without  expecting  the  return  of  hunger,  they  eat  for 
an  appetite,  and  prepare  dishes  not  to  allay,  but  to  ex- 
cite it.’ — Addiso.n.  Extreme  hunger  is  appeased; 

The  rest 

They  cut  in  legs  and  fillets,  for  the  feast. 

Which  drawn  and  served,  their  hunger  they  a/ipease. 

Dryden 

A punishment  or  sentence  is  mitigated; 

I undertook 

Before  thee,  and,  not  repenting,  this  obtain 
Of  right,  that  I may  mitigate  their  doom. 

Milton. 

In  a moral  sense  one  allays  what  is  fervid  and  vehe- 
ment; 

If  by  your  art  you  have 
Put  the  wild  waters  in  this  war,  allay  them. 

SllAKSPEARE. 

One  sooths  what  is  distressed;  ‘Nature  has  given  all 
the  little  arts  oi  soc thing  and  blandishing  to  the  fe- 
male.’— Addison.  One  appeases  what  is  tumultuous 
and  boisterous;  ‘Charon  is  no  sooner  appeased,  and 
the  triple-headed  dog  iafd  asleep,  but  A3neas  makes 
nis  entrance  into  the  dominions  of  Pluto.’ — Addison. 
One  assuages  grief  or  afflictions  ; ‘ If  I can  any  way 
assuage  private  inflammations,  or  allay  publick  fer- 
ments, I shall  apply  myself  to  it  with  the  utmost  en- 
deavours.’— Addison.  One  mitigates  pains,  or  what 
is  rigorous  and  severe ; ‘All  it  can  do  is,  to  devise  how 
thtit  which  must  be  endured  may  be  mitigated.' — 
Hooker.  Nothing  is  so  calculated  to  allay  the  fervour 
of  a distempered  imagination,  as  prayer  and  religious 
meditation ; religion  has  every  thing  in  it  which  can 
sooth  a wounded  conscience  by  presenting  it  with  the 
hope  of  pardon,  that  can  appease  the  angry  passions 
by  giving  us  a sense  of  our  own  sinfulness  and  need 
of  God’s  pardon,  and  that  can  assuage  the  bitterest 
griefs  by  affording  us  the  brightest  prospect  of  future 
bliss. 


TO  ALLEVIATE,  RELIEVE. 

.Alleviate,  in  Latin  alleviatus,  participle  of  allevio, 
is  compounded  of  the  intensive  syllable  al  or  ad,  and 
leva  to  lighten,  signifying  to  lighten  by  making  less; 
relieve,  from  the  Latin  relevo,  is  re  and  levo  to  lift  up, 
signifying  to  take  away  or  remove. 

A pain  is  alleviated  by  making  it  less  burdensome  ; 
a necessity  is  relieved  by  supplying  what  is  wanted. 
Alleviate  respects  our  internal  feelings  only;  relieve 
our  external  circumstances.  That  alleviates  wdiich 
affords  ease  and  comfort ; relieves  which  removes 
the  pain.  It  is  no  alleviation  of  sorrow  to  a feeling 
mind,  to  reflect  that  others  undergo  the  same  suffer- 
ing; ‘Half  the  misery  of  human  life  might  be  extin- 
guished, would  men  alleviate  the  general  curse  they 
lie  under,  by  mutual  offices  of  compassion,  benevo- 
lence, and  humanity’— Addison.  A change  of  post 
tion  is  a considerable  relief  to  an  invalid,  wearied 
with  confinement ; 

Now  sinking  underneath  a load  of  grief. 

From  death  alone  she  seeks  her  last  reZ/e/. 

Dryden. 

Condolence  and  sympathy  tend  greatly  to  alleviate 
the  sufferings  if  our  fellow-creatures ; it  is  an  essential 


part  of  the  Christian’s  duty  to  relieve  the  wants  of  his 
indigent  neighbour. 

APPEASE,  CALM,  PACIFY,  QUIET,  STILL 

Appease,  v.  To  allay ; calm,  in  French  calmer,  from 
almus  fair,  signifies  to  make  fair  ; pacify,  in  Latin 
pacijico,  compounded  of  pax  and  facio,  signifies  to 
make  peace  or  peaceable ; quiet,  in  French  quiet, 
Latin  quietus,  from  quics  rest,  signifies  to  put  to  rest; 
still,  signifies  to  make  still. 

To  appease  is  to  put  an  end  to  a violent  motion  ; to 
calm  is  to  produce  a great  tranquillity.  * The  wind  is 
appeased;  the  sea  is  calmed.  With  regard  to  persons 
it  is  necessary  to  appease  those  who  are  in  transports 
of  passion,  and  to  calm  those  who  are  in  trouble, 
anxiety,  or  apprehension. 

Appease  respects  matters  of  force  or  violence ; 

A lofty  city  by  my  hand  is  rais’d, 

Pygmalion  punish’d,  and  my  lord  appeased 

Dryden 

Calm  respects  matters  of  inquietude  and  distress; 
All-powerful  harmony,  that  can  assuage 
And  calm  the  sorrows  of  the  phrensied  wretch 

Marsh. 

One  is  appeased  by  a submissive  behaviour,  and 
calmed  by  the  removal  of  danger. 

Pacify  corresponds  to  appease,  and  quiet  to  calm 
In  sense  they  are  the  same,  but  in  application  they 
differ.  Appease  and  calm  are  used  only  in  reference 
to  objects  of  importance ; pacify  and  quiet  may  be  ap- 
plied to  those  of  a more  familiar  nature.  The  uneasy 
humours  of  a child  are  pacified,  or  its  groundless  fears 
are  quieted. 

Still  is  a loftier  expression  than  any  of  the  former 
terms;  serving  mostly  for  the  grave  or  poetick  style, 
It  is  an  onomatopela  for  restraining  or  putting  to  si 
lence  that  which  is  noisy  and  boisterous ; 

My  breath  can  still  the  winds, 

Uncloud  the  sun,  charm  down  the  swelling  sea, 
And  stop  the  floods  of  heaven. — Beaumont 


PEACE,  QUIET,  CALM,  TRANQUILLITY. 

Peace,  in  Latin  pax,  may  either  come  from  pactio 
an  agreement  or  compact  which  producca  peace,  or  it 
may  be  connected  with  pausa,  and  the  Greek  iravw  to 
cease,  because  a cessation  of  all  violent  action  and 
commotion  enters  into  the  idea  of  peace;  quiet,  in 
Latin  quietus,  probably  from  Kcipai  to  lie  down,  signi 
ties  a lying  posture  which  best  promotes  quiet;  calm 
signifies  the  state  of  being  calm ; tranquillity,  in  liatin 
tranquillitas,  from  tranquidus,  that  is,*Zrass,  the  in 
tensive  syllable,  and  quillus  or  quietus,  signifies  alto 
gether  or  exceedingly  quiet. 

Peace  is  a term  of  more  general  application,  and 
more  comprehensive  meaning  than  the  others;  it  re- 
spects either  communities  or  individuals  ; but  quiet  re- 
spects only  individuals  or  small  communities.  A’alions 
are  said  to  have  peace,  but  not  quiet;  persons  or  fami 
lies  may  have  both  peace  and  quiet.  Peace  implies  an 
exemption  from  publick  or  private  broils;  (^wreZ  im- 
plies a freedom  from  noise  or  interruption.  Every 
well-disposed  family  strives  to  he  at  peace  with  its 
neighbours,  and  every  affectionate  family  will  naturally 
act  in  such  a manner  as  to  promote  peace  among  all  its 
members;  ‘A  false  person  ought  to  be  looked  upon  as 
a publick  enemy,  and  a disturber  of  the  peace  of  man- 
kind.’— South.  The  quiet  of  a neighbourhood  is  one 
of  its  first  recommendations  as  a place  of  residence, 
‘A  paltry  tale-bearer  will  discompose  the  quiet  of  a 
whole  family.’— South. 

Peace  and  quiet,  in  regard  to  individuals,  have  like 
wise  a reference  to  the  internal  state  of  the  mind ; but 
the  former  expresses  the  permanent  condition  of  the 
mind,  the  latter  its  transitory  condition.  Serious  mat 
ters  only  can  disturb  our  peace;  trivial  matters  may 
disturb  our  quiet : a good  man  enjoys  the  peace  of  a 
good  conscience  ; ‘Religion  directs  us  rather  to  secure 
inward  peace  than  outward  ease,  to  be  more  careful 
to  avoid  everlasting  torments  than  light  affliction. 
Tillotson.  The  best  of  men  may  have  nnavoidahle 
cares  and  anxieties  which  disturb  his  quiet  • 


* Vide  Abbe  Girard : “ Appaiser,  calmer  ' 


362 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


Indigent  quiet,  povv’r  serene, 

Mother  of  peace,  a.;d  joy,  and  love.— Hughes. 

1 here  can  be  no  peace  vi'here  a man’s  passions  are  per- 
petually engaged  in  a conflict  with  each  other ; there 
can  be  no  quiet  where  a man  is  embarrassed  in  Iris 
pecuniary  aflairs. 

Calm  is  a species  of  quiet,  which  respects  objects  in 
the  natural  or  the  moral  world ; it  indicates  the  ab- 
seirce  of  violent  motion,  as  well  as  violent  noise  ; it  is 
that  state  which  more  immediately  succeeds  a state  of 
agitation.  As  storms  at  sea  are  frequently  preceded 
as  well  as  succeeded,  by  a dead  calm,  so  political 
storms  have  likewise  their  calms  which  are  their  at- 
tendants, if  not  their  precursors;  ‘Cheerfulness  ban- 
ishes all  anxious  care  and  discontent,  sooths  and  com- 
poses the  passions,  and  keeps  the  soul  in  a perpetual 
calm.' — Addison.  Peace,  quiet,  and  calm  have  all  re- 
spect to  the  state  contrary  to  their  own ; they  are  pro- 
perly cessations  either  from  strife,  from  disturbance,  or 
from  agitation  and  tumult.  Tranquillity,  on  the  otlier 
hand,  is  taken  more  absolutely ; it  expresses  the  situa- 
tion as  it  exists  in  the  present  moment,  independently 
of  what  goes  before  or  after ; it  is  sometimes  applicable 
to  society,  sometimes  to  natural  objects,  and  sometimes 
to  the  mind.  The  tranquillity  of  the  state  cannot  be 
preserved  unless  the  authority  of  the  magistrates  be 
upheld  ; the  tranquillity  of  the  air  and  of  all  the  sur- 
rounding objects  is  one  thing  which  gives  the  country 
its  peculiar  charms;  the  tranquillity  o{  the  mind  in 
the  season  of  devotion  contributes  essentially  to  pro- 
duce a suitable  degree  of  religious  fervour ; ‘ By  a 
patient  accjuiescence  under  painful  events  for  the  pre- 
sent, we  shall^be  sure  to  contract  a tranquillity  oi 
temper.’ — Cumberland. 

As  epitliets,  these  terms  bear  the  same  relation  to 
each  outer : people  are  peaceable  as  they  are  disposed 
to  pioinote;7eace  in  society  at  large,  or  in  their  private 
relations;  they  are  quiet,  inasmuch  as  they  abstain 
from  every  loud  expression,  or  are  exempt  from  any 
commotion  in  themselves : they  are  calm,  inasmuch  as 
they  are  exempt  from  the  commotion  which  at  any 
given  moment  rages  around  them  ; they  are  tranquil, 
inasmuch  as  they  enjoy  an  entire  exemption  from  every 
thing  which  can  discompose.  A town  is  peaceable  as 
respects  the  disposition  of  the  inhabitants;  it  is  quiet, 
as  respects  its  external  circumstances,  or  freedom  from 
bustle  and  noise;  an  evening  is  calm  when  the  air  is 
’ulled  into  a particular  stillness,  w’hich  is  not  interrupt- 
ed by  any  loud  sounds;  a scene  is  tranquil  which  com- 
bines every  thing  calculated  to  sooth  the  spirits  to  rest. 

PEACEABLE,  PEACEFUL,  PACIFICK. 

Peaceable  is  used  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word 
peace,  as  it  expresses  an  exemption  from  strife  or  con- 
test (tj.  Peace) ; but  peaceful  is  used  in  its  improper 
sense,  as  it  expresses  an  exemption  from  agitation  or 
commotion.  Persons  or  things  are  peaceable;  things, 
particularly  in  the  higher  style,  are  peaceful:  a family 
is  designated  ns  peaceable,  in  regard  to  its  inhabitants; 
‘I  know  that  my  peaceable  disposition  already  gives 
me  a very  ill  figure  here’  (at  Ratisbon). — Lady  W. 
Montague.  A house  is  designated  as  a peaceful 
abode,  as  it  is  remote  from  the  bustle  and  hurry  of  a 
multitude ; 

Still  as  the  peaceful  walks  of  ancient  night, 

Silent  as  are  the  lamps  that  burn  in  tembs. 

Shakspeare. 

Pacific!:  signifies  either  making  peace,  or  disposed  to 
make  peace,  and  is  applied  mostly  to  what  we  do  to 
others.  We  are  peaceable  when  we  do  not  engage  in 
quarrels  of  our  own  ; we  are  pacifick  if  we  wish  to 
keeppeace,  or  make  peace,  between  others.  Hence  the 
term  peaceable  is  mostly  employed  for  individual  or 
private  concerns,  and  pacifick  most  properly  for  national 
concerns ; subjects  ought  to  be  peaceable,  and  monarchs 
pacifick ; ‘The  most  peaceable  way  for  you,  if  you  do 
take  a thief,  is  to  let  him  show  himself,  and  steal  out  of 
your  company.’ — Shakspeare.  ‘The  tragical  and 
untimely  death  of  the  French  monarch  put  an  end  to  all 
pacifick  measures  with  regard  toScotland’.-RoBKRxsoN. 

CALM,  COMPOSED,  COLLECTED. 

Calm,  V.  To  appease;  composed,  from  the  verb  com- 
pose, marks  the  state  of  being  composed;  nnd collected, 
from  collect,  the  state  of  heine  collected 


These  terms  agree  in  expressing  a state ; but  calm 
respects  the  state  of  the  feelings,  composed  the  state  oi 
the  thoughts'  and  feelings,  and  collected  the  state  of  the 
thoughts  more  particular!}. 

Calmness  is  peculiarly  requisite  in  seasons  of  distress, 
and  amid  scenes  of  horror ; composure,  in  moments 
of  trial,  disorder,  and  tumult ; collectedness,  in  moments 
of  danger.  Calmness  is  the  companion  of  fortitude ; 
no  one  whose  spirits  are  easily  disturbed  can  have 
strength  to  bear  misfortune;  composure  is  an  attendant 
upon  clearness  of  understanding  ; no  one  can  exjjres.-i 
himself  with  perspicuity  whose  thoughts  are  any  way 
deranged;  collectedness  is  requisite  for  a determined 
promptitude  of  action ; no  one  can  be  expected  to  act 
promptly  who  cannot  think  fixedly. 

It  would  argue  a want  of  all  feeling  to  he  calm  on 
some  occasions,  when  the  best  aflections  of  our  nature 
are  put  to  a severe  trial ; 

’Tis  godlike  magnanimity  to  keep. 

When  most  provok'd,  our  reason  calm  and  clear 
Thomson. 

Composedness  of  mind  associated  with  the  detection  of 
guilt,  evinces  a hardened  conscience,  and  an  insensi- 
bility to  shame;  ‘A  moping  lover  would  grow  a 
pleasant  fellow  by  that  time  he  had  rid  thrice  about 
the  island  (Anticyra) ; and  a hair-brained  rake,  after  a 
short  stay  in  the  country,  go  home  again  ncom.posed 
grave,  worthy  gentleman.’ — Steele.  Collectedness  of 
mind  has  contributed  in  no  small  degree  to  the  preserva 
tion  of  some  persons’  lives,  in  moments  of  the  mosi 
imminent  peril ; 

Be  collected, 

No  more  amazement.— Shakspeare 


CALM,  PLACID,  SERENE. 

Calm,  V.  To  appease ; placid,  in  Latin  placidus,  from 
placeo  to  please,  signifies  the  state  of  being  pleased,  or 
free  from  uneasiness ; serene,  in  Latin  serenws,  comes 
most  probably  from  the  Greek  iipyvT}  peace,  signifying 
a state  of  peace. 

Calm  and  serene  are  applied  to  the  elements;  placid 
only  to  the  mind.  Calmness  respects  only  the  state  of 
the  winds,  serenity  that  of  the  air  and  heavens ; the 
weather  is  calm  when  it  is  free  from  agitation ; it  is 
serene  when  free  from  noise  and  vapour.  Calm  re 
spects  the  total  absence  of  all  perturbation  ; placid  the 
ease  and  contentment  of  the  mind ; serene  clearness 
and  composure  of  the  mind. 

As  in  the  natural  world  a particular  agitation  of  the 
wind  is  succeeded  by  a calm,  so  in  the  mind  of  man, 
v/hen  an  unusual  eftervescence  has  been  produced,  it 
commonly  subsides  into  a calm  ; 

Preach  patience  to  the  sea,  when  jarring  winds 
Throw  up  the  swelling  billows  to  the  sky ' 

And  if  your  reasons  mitigate  her  fury. 

My  soul  will  be  as  calm. — Smith. 

Placidity  and  serenity  have  more  that  is  even  and  regu 
lar  in  them ; they  are  positively  what  they  are.  Calm 
is  a temporary  state  of  the  feelings  ; placid  and  serene 
are  habits  of  the  mind.  We  speak  of  a calm  slate ; 
but  a placid  and  serene  temper.  Placidity  \s  more  oi 
a natural  gift;  serenity  is  acquired:  people  with  not 
very  ardent  desires  or  warmth  of  feeling  will  evince 
placidity;  they  are  pleased  with  all  that  passes  inwardly 
or  outwardly ; ‘ Placid  and  soothing  is  the  remembrance 
of  a ife  passed  with  quiet,  innocence,  and  elegance.’— 
Steele.  Nothing  contributes  so  much  to  serenity  of 
mind  as  a pervading  sense  of  God’s  good  providence, 
which  checks  all  impatience,  softens  down  every  aspe- 
rity of  humour,  and  gives  a steady  current  to  the  feel 
ings:  ‘ Every  one  ought  to  fence  against  the  temper  of 
his  climate  or  constitution,  and  frequently  to  indulge  in 
himself  those  considerations  which  may  give  him  a 
serenity  of  mind.’— Addison. 


EASE,  aUIET,  REST,  REPOSE. 

Ease  comes  immediately  from  the  French  aisi  glad 
and  that  from  the  Greek  di\rib;  young,  fresh  ; quiet 
in  Latin  quietus,  comes  probably  from  the  Greek 
Kcipai  to  lie  down,  signifying  a lying  posture;  rest,  ii 
German  rast,  comes  from  the  Latin  resto  to  stand 
still  rtr  make  « hah  • revose  comes  from  the  Latii 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


"‘eposui,  perfect  of  repono  to  place  back,  signifying  the 
state  of  placing  one’s  self  backward  or  downward. 

‘The  idea  of  a motionless  state  is  common  to  all  these 
terms : ease  and  quiet  respect  action  on  the  body ; res 
and  repose  respect  the  action  of  the  body : we  are  easy 
or  quiet  when  freed  from  any  external  agency  that  is 
painful ; we  have  rest  or  repose  when  the  body  is  no 
longer  in  motion. 

JSase  denotes  an  exemption  from  any  painful  agency 
in  general ; quiet  denotes  an  exemption  from  that  in 
particular,  which  noise,  disturbance,  or  the  violence  of 
others  may  cause ; we  are  easy  or  at  case,  when  the 
body  is  in  a posture  agreeable  to  itself,  or  when  no  cir- 
cumjacent object  presses  unequally  upon  it:  we  are 
quiet  when  there  is  an  agreeable  stillness  around : our 
ease  may  be  disturbed  either  by  internal  or  external 
causes;  om  quiet  is  most  commonly  disturbed  by  ex- 
ternal objects;  we  may  have  ease  from  pain,  bodily  or 
mental ; we  have  quiet  at  the  will  of  those  around  us  : 
a sick  person  is  often  far  from  enjoying  ease,  although 
he  may  have  the  good  fortune  to  enjoy  the  most  perfect 
quiet:  a man’s  mind  is  often  uneasy  from  its  own 
faulty  constitution ; it  suffers  frequent  disquietudes 
from  the  vexatious  tempers  of  others ; let  a man  be  in 
ever  such  easy  circumstances,  he  may  still  expect  to 
meet  with  disquietudes  in  his  dealings  with  the  world : 
wealth  and  contentment  are  tlie  great  promoters  of 
ease  ; 

By  this  we  plainly  view  the  two  imposthumes 
That  choke  a kingdom’s  welfare ; ease  and  wanton- 
ness.—Beaumont  AND  Fletcher. 

Retirement  is  the  most  friendly  to  quiet : 

But  easy  quiet,  a secure  retreat, 

A harmless  life  that  knows  not  how  to  cheat, 

With  homebred  plenty  the  rich  owner  bless. 

And  rural  pleasures  crown  his  happiness. — Dryden. 
Rest  simply  denotes  the  cessation  of  motion ; repose 
Is  that  species  of  rest  which  is  agreeable  after  labour ; 
we  rest  as  circumstances  require ; in  this  sense,  our 
Creator  is  said  to  have  rested  from  the  work  of  crea- 
tion ; ‘ Like  the  sun,  it  had  light  and  agility  ; it  knew 
no  rest  but  in  motion,  no  quiet  but  in  activity.’— South. 
Repose  is  a circumstance  of  necessity ; the  weary  seek 
repose;  there  is  no  human  being  to  whom  it  is  not 
sometimes  indispensable ; 

I all  the  livelong  day 
Consume  in  meditation  deep,  recluse 
From  human  converse;  nor  at  shut  of  eve 
Enjoy  repose. — Phillips. 

We  may  rest  in  a standing  posture ; we  can  repose  only 
in  a lying  position ; the  dove  which  Noah  first  sent  out 
could  not  find  rest  for  the  sole  of  its  foot ; soldiers  who 
are  hotly  pursued  by  an  enemy,  have  no  time  nor  op- 
portunity to  take  repose : the  night  is  the  time  for  rest ; 
the  pillow  is  the  place  for  repose.  Rest  may  be  pro- 
perly applied  to  things  and  persons ; 

The  peaceful  peasant  to  the  wars  is  press’d. 

The  fields  lie  fallow  in  inglorious  rest.— Dryden. 
Repose  may  be  employed  figuratively  in  the  same 
sense ; 

Nor  can  the  tortur’d  wave  here  find  repose, 

But  raging  still  amid  the  shaggy  rocks, 

Now  flashes  o’er  the  scatter’d  fragments. 

Thomson. 


EASE,  EASINESS.  FACILITY,  LIGHTNESS. 

Ease,  {v.  Ease)  denotes  either  the  abstract  state  of 
a person  or  quality  of  a thing;  easiness,  from  easy, 
signifying  having  ease,  denotes  simply  an  abstract 
quality  which  serves  to  characterize  the  thing : a per- 
son enjoys  ease,  or  he  has  an  easiness  of  disposition  : 
‘Ease  is  the  utmost  that  can  be  hoped  from  a sedentary 
and  inactive  habit.’— Johnson.  ‘His  yielding  unto 
them  in  one  thing  might  happily  put  them  in  hope,  that 
time  would  breed  the  like  easiness  of  condescending 
further  unto  them.’ — Hooker.  Ease  is  said  of  that 
which  is  borne,  or  that  which  is  done  ; easiness  and 
facility,  from  the  Latin  facilis  easy,  most  commonly  of 
that  which  is  to  be  done ; the  former  in  application  to 
the  thing  as  before,  the  latter  either  to  the  person  or  the 
thing  : we  speak  of  the  easiness  of  the  task,  but  of  a 
■jerson’s  facility  in  doing  it : we  judge  of  the  easiness 


36‘J 

of  a thing  by  comparing  it  with  others  more  difficult ; 

‘ Nothing  is  more  subject  to  mistake  and  disappoint 
ment  than  anticipated  judgement,  concerning  the  easi- 
ness or  difficulty  of  any  undertaking.’ — Johnson.  We 
judge  of  a person’s  facility  by  comparing  him  with 
others,  who  are  less  skilful ; ‘ Every  one  must  have  re- 
marked the  facility  with  which  the  kindness  of  others 
is  sometimes  gained  by  those  to  whom  he  never  could 
have  imparted  his  own.’ — Johnson. 

Ease  and  lightness  are  both  said  of  what  is  to  be 
borne ; the  former  in  a general,  the  latter  in  a particu- 
lar sense.  Whatever  presses  in  any  form  is  not  eacy  ; 
that  which  presses  by  excess  of  weight  is  not  light : a 
coat  may  be  easy  from  its  make;  it  can  be  light  only 
from  its  texture.  A work  is  easy  which  requires  no 
great  exertion  either  of  body  or  mind ; ‘ The  service  of 
God,  in  the  solemn  assembly  of  saints,  is  a work, 
though  easy,  yet  withal  very  weighty,  and  of  great 
respect.’— Hooker.  A work  is  light  which  requires 
no  effort  of  the  body ; 

Well  pleas’d  were  all  his  friends,  the  task  was  light. 

The  father,  mother,  daughter,  they  invite. 

Dryden. 

The  same  distinction  exists  between  their  derivatives, 
to  ease,  facilitate,  and  lighten  ; to  ease  is  to  make  easy 
or  free  from  pain,  as  to  ease  a person  of  his  labour ; to 
facilitate  is  to  render  a thing  more  practicable  or  less 
difficult,  as  to  facilitate  a person’s  progress ; to  lighten 
is  to  take  off  an  excessive  weight,  as  to  lighten  a per- 
son’s burdens. 


EASY,  READY 

Easy  {v.  Ease,  easiness)  signifies  here  a freedom 
from  obstruction  in  ourselves , ready,  in  German  bereit, 
Latin  paratus,  signifies  prepared. 

Easy  marks  the  freedom  of  being  done ; ready  the 
disposition  or  willingness  to  do ; the  former  refers 
mostly  to  the  thing  or  the  manner,  the  latter  to  the 
person : the  thing  is  easy  to  be  done ; the  person  is 
ready  to  do  it : it  is  easy  to  make  professions  of  friend- 
ship in  the  ardour  of  the  moment ; but  every  one  is 
not  ready  to  act  up  to  them,  when  it  interferes  with 
his  convenience  or  interest. 

As  epithets,  both  are  opposed  to  difficult  but  agree- 
ably to  the  above  explanation  of  the  terms ; the  former 
denotes  a freedom  from  such  difficulties  or  obstacles 
as  lie  in  the  nature  of  the  thing  itself ; the  latter  an 
exemption  from  such  as  lie  in  the  temper  and  character 
of  the  person  ; hence  we  say  a person  is  easy  of  access 
whose  situation,  rank,  employments,  or  circumstances, 
do  not  prevent  him  from  admitting  others  to  his  pre- 
sence ; he  is  ready  to  hear  when  he  himself  throws  no 
obstacles  in  the  way,  when  he  lends  a willing  ear  to 
what  is  said.  So  likewise  a task  is  said  to  be  easy;  a 
person’s  wit,  or  a person’s  reply,  to  be  ready : a young 
man  who  has  birth  and  fortune,  wit  and  accomplish- 
ments, will  find  an  easy  admittance  into  any  circle ; 
‘ An  easy  manner  of  conversation  is  the  most  desirable 
quality  a man  can  have.’— Steele.  The  very  name 
of  a favourite  author  will  be  a ready  passport  for  the 
works  to  which  it  may  be  affixed  ; 

The  scorpion,  ready  to  receive  thy  laws. 

Yields  half  his  region  and  contracts  his  claws. 

Dryden. 

When  used  adverbially,  they  bear  the  same  relation 
to  each  other.  A man  is  said  to  comprehend  easily 
who  from  whatever  cause  finds  the  thing  easy  to  ba 
comprehended  ; he  pardons  readily  who  has  a temper 
ready  to  pardon. 


TO  RECLINE,  REPOSE. 

To  recline  is  to  lean  back  ; to  repose  is  to  place  one’s 
self  back  ; he  who  reclines  reposes  ; but  we  may  re 
dine  without  reposing:  when  we  recline  we  put  our- 
selves into  a particular  position  ; 

For  consolation  on  his  friend  recZm’d.— Falconer. 

When  we  repose  we  put  ourselves  into  that  position 
which  will  be  most  easy ; 

I first  awak’d,  and  found  myself  repos'd 
Under  a shade,  on  flowers.— Milton 


364 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES, 


HARD,  DlFFICULlili  ARDUOUS. 

Hard  is  here  taken  in  the  improper  sense  of  trouble 
caused,  and  pains  taken,  in  which  sense  it  is  a much 
stronger  term  than  diffinilt,  whicii,  from  the  Latin 
difficilis,  compounded  of  the  privative  dis  and  facilis, 
signifies  merely  not  easy.  Hard  is  therefore  positive, 
and  difficult  negative.  A difficult  task  cannot  be  got 
through  without  exertion,  but  a hard  task  requires 
great  e,xertion.  Difficult  is  applicable  to  all  trivial 
matters  which  call  for  a more  than  usual  portion  either 
of  labour  or  thought ; ‘ As  Swift’s  years  increased,  his 
fits  of  giddiness  and  deafness  grew  more  frequent,  and 
his  deafness  made  conversation  difficult.' — Johnson. 
Hard  is  applicable  to  those  which  are  of  the  highest 
importance,  and  accompanied  with  circumstances  that 
call  for  the  utmost  stretch  of  every  power; 

Antigones,  with  kisses,  often  tried 
To  beg  this  present  in  his  beauty’s  pride. 

When  youth  and  love  are  hard  to  be  denied. 

Drvden. 

It  is  a difficult  matter  to  get  admittance  into  some  cir- 
cles of  society ; it  is  a hard  matter  to  find  societies 
that  are  select:  it  is  difficult  to  decide  between  two 
fine  paintings  which  is  the  finest ; it  is  a hard  matter 
to  come  at  any  conclusion  on  metaphysical  subjects. 
A child  mostly  finds  it  difficult  to  learn  his  letters : 
there  are  many  passages  in  classical  writers  which  are 
hard  to  be  understood  by  the  learned. 

Arduous.,  in  Latin  arduus  lofty,  from  ardeo  to 
burn,  because  flame  ascends  upwards,  denotes  set  on 
high  or  out  of  reach  except  by  great  efforts ; arduous 
expresses  a high  degree  of  difficulty.  What  is  difficult 
requires  only  the  efforts  of  ordinary  powers  to  sur- 
mount; 

Whatever  melting  metals  can  conspire. 

Or  breathing  bell«ws,  or  the  forming  fire, 

Is  freely  yours:  your  anxious  fears  remove, 

And  think  no  task  is  difficult  to  love. — Dryden. 
Hut  what  is  arduous  is  set  above  the  reach  of  common 
intellect,  and  demands  the  utmost  stretch  of  power 
both  physical  and  mental ; ‘ The  translation  of  Homer 
was  an  arduous  undertaking,  and  the  translator  en- 
tered upon  it  with  a candid  confession  that  he  was 
utterly  incapable  of  doing  justice  to  Homer.’— Cum- 
berland. A child  may  have  a difficult  exercise  which 
he  cannot  perform  without  labour  and  attention  : the 
man  who  strives  lo  remove  the  difficulties  of  learners 
undertakes  an  arduous  task.  It  is  difficult  to  conquer 
our  own  passions : it  is  arduous  to  control  the  unruly 
and  contending  wills  of  others. 

HARDLY,  SCARCELY. 

What  is  hard  is  not  common,  and  in  that  respect 
scarce ; hence  the  idea  of  unfrequency  assimilates 
these  terms  both  in  signification  and  application.  In 
many  cases  they  may  be  used  indifferently  ; but  where 
the  idea  of  practicability  predominates,  hardly  seems 
most  proper  ; and  where  the  idea  of  frequency  predo- 
minates, scarcely  seems  preferable.  One  can  hardly 
judge  of  a person’s  features  by  a single  and  partial 
glance ; ‘ I do  not  expect,  as  long  as  I stay  in  India, 
to  be  free  from  a bad  digestion,  the  “nrerbus  literato- 
rum,"  for  which  there  is  hardly  any  remedy  but  ab- 
stinence from  food,  literary  and  culinary.’ — Sin  Wm. 
Jones.  We  scarcely  ever  see  men  lay  aside  their 
vices  from  a thorough  conviction  of  their  enormity  ; 
‘ In  this  assembly  of  princes  and  nobles  [the  Congress 
of  the  Hague],  to  which  Europe  bas  perhaps  scarcely 
seen  any  thing  equal,  was  formed  the  grand  alliance 
against  Lewis.’ — Johnson.  But  in  general  sentences 
it  may  with  equal  propriety  be  said,  hardly  one  in  a 
thousand,  oi  scarcely  one  in  a thousand,  would  form 
such  a conclusion 


TO  HELP  ASSIST  AID,  SUCCOUR,  RELIEVE. 

Help,  in  Saxon  helpav,  German  helfen,  probably 
comes  from  the  Greek  d<pfX\u)  to  do  good  to , a>sisf.,  in 
Latin  assisto,  or  ad  and  sisto,  signifies  to  [dace  one’s 
self  by  another  so  as  to  give  liiin  our  strength;  aid, 
in  Latin  ndjuvo,  that  is,  the  infen.sive  syllable  ad  and 
juvo,  signifies  to  profit  towards  a specifick  end  : suc- 
cour, in  Latin  succurro,  signifies  to  run  to  the  help  of 
onv  one  ; relieve,  v,  To  alleviate. 


The  idea  of  communicating  to  the  advantage  of 
another  is  common  to  all  these  terms.  Help  is  the. 
generick  term  ; the  rest  specifick  : help  may  be  subsU 
tuted  for  the  others,  and  in  many  cases  w’here  they 
would  not  be  applicable.  The  first  three  are  employed 
either  to  produce  a positive  good  or  to  remove  an  evil , 
the  two  latter  only  to  remove  an  evil.  We  help  a 
person  to  prosecute  his  work,  or  help  him  out  of  a 
difficulty  ; we  assist  in  order  to  forward  a scJieme,  or 
we  assist  a person  in  the  time  of  his  embarrassment; 
we  aid  a good  cause,  or  we  aid  a person  to  make  hia 
escape ; we  succour  a person  who  is  in  danger ; we 
relieve  him  in  time  of  distress.  To  help  and  assist 
respect  personal  service,  the  former  by  corporeal,  the 
latter  by  corporeal  or  mental  labour : one  servant  helps 
another  by  taking  a part  in  his  employment;  one 
author  assists  another  in  the  composition  of  his  work. 
We  help  up  a person’s  load,  we  assist  him  to  rise  when 
he  has  fallen  : we  speak  of  a helper  or  a helpmate  in 
mechanical  employments,  of  an  assistant  to  a pro 
fessional  man ; 

Their  strength  united  best  may  help  to  bear.— Pope. 

’T  is  the  first  sanction  nature  gave  to  man, 

Each  other  to  assist  in  what  they  can. — Denham. 

To  assist  and  aid  are  used  for  services  directly  or 
indirectly  performed  ; but  assist  is  said  only  of  indi- 
viduals, aid  may  be  said  of  bodies  as  well  as  indivi 
duals.  One  friend  assists  another  with  his  purse,  with 
his  counsel,  his  interest,  and  the  like;  ‘ She  no  sooner 
yielded  to  adultery,  but  she  agreed  to  assist  in  the 
murder  of  lier  husband.’ — Browne.  One  person  aids 
another  in  carrying  on  a scheme ; or  one  king,  or  nation, 
aids  another  with  armies  and  subsidies; 

Your  private  right,  should  impious  power  invade, 

The  peers  of  Ithaca  would  rise  in  aid. — PcyPE. 

We  come  to  the  assistance  of  a person  when  he  lias 
met  with  an  accident ; we  come  to  his  aid  when  con- 
tending against  numbers.  Assistance  is  given,  aid  is 
sent. 

To  succour  is  a species  of  immediate  assi.%tance, 
which  is  given  on  the  spur  of  the  occasion  ; the  good 
Samaritan  went  to  the  succour  of  the  man  who  had 
fallen  among  thieves ; 

Patroclus  on  tlie  shore, 

Now  pale  and  dead,  shall  succour  Greece  no  more 

Pope. 

So  in  like  manner  we  may  succour  one  who  calls  us  by 
his  cries  ; or  we  may  succour  the  poor  whom  we  find 
in  circumstances  of  distress  ; 

My  father 

Flying  for  succour  to  his  servant  Banister, 

Being  distress’d,  was  by  that  wretch  betrayed. 

Shakspeare. 

The  word  relieve  has  nothing  in  common  with  succom 
except  that  they  both  express  the  removal  of  pain  , 
but  the  latter  does  not  necessarily  imply  any  mode  by 
which  this  is  done,  and  therefore  excludes  the  idea  of 
personal  interference. 

All  these  terms,  except  succour,  may  be  applied  to 
things  as  well  as  persons;  we  may  walk  by  the  help 
of  a stick  ; ‘A  man  reads  his  prayers  out  of  a book, 
as  a means  to  help  liis  understanding  and  direct  his 
expressions.’— Stillingflekt.  We  read  with  the 
assistance  of  glasses;  ‘Acquaintance  with  method 
will  assist  one  in  ranging  human  affairs.’ — Watts. 
We  learn  a task  quickly  by  the  aid  of  a good  memory ; 

Wise,  weighty  counsels  aid  a state  distress’d. — Pope 

We  obtain  relief  from  medicine ; ‘ An  unbelievei 
feels  the  whole  pressure  of  a present  calamity,  without 
being  relieved  by  the  memory  of  any  thing  that  is 
[last,  or  the  prospect  of  any  thing  that  is  to  come.’— 
Addison. 

To  help  or  as.?ist  is  commonly  an  act  of  good 
nature  ; to  aid,  frequently  an  act  of  policy  ; to  sue 
courox  relieve,  an  act  of  generosity  or  humanity.  Help' 
is  necessary  for  one  who  has  not  sufficient  strength  to 
perform  his  task  ; assistance  is  necessary  when  a per- 
son’s time  or  talent  is  too  much  occupied  to  perform 
the  whole  of  his  office  ; aid  is  useful  when  it  serves  to 
give  strength  and  efficacy  to  our  operations  ; succour 
is  timely  when  it  serves  to  ward  off  some  danger  ; 
relief  is  salutary  when  it  serves  to  lessen  pain  or  want. 
When  a person  meets  with  an  accident,  he  requires 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


365 


the  help  of  the  by-standers,  the  assistance  of  his 
friends,  and  the  aid  of  a medical  man ; it  is  noble 
to  succour  an  enemy ; it  is  charitable  to  relieve  the 
wretched, 

TO  SECOND,  SUPPORT. 

To  second  is  to  give  the  assistance  of  a second  per- 
son ; to  support  is  to  bear  up  on  one’s  own  shoulders. 
To  second  does  not  express  so  much  as  to  support ; 
we  second  only  by  our  presence,  or  our  word ; but  we 
support  by  our  influence,  and  all  the  means  that  are 
in  our  power : we  second  a motion  by  a simple  declara- 
tion of  our  assent  to  it ; we  support  a motion  by  the 
force  of  persuasion;  so  likewise  we  are  said  always  to 
second  a person’s  views  when  we  give  him  openly  our 
countenance  by  declaring  our  approbation  of  his  mea- 
sures ; 

The  blasting  vollied  thunder  made  all  speed, 

And  seconded  thy  else  not  dreaded  spear. — Milton. 
And  we  are  said  to  support  him  when  we  give  the  as- 
sistance of  our  purse,  our  influence,  or  any  other  thing 
essential  for  the  attainment  of  an  end'; 

Impeachments  NO  can  best  resist. 

And  AYE  support  the  civil  list. — G.vy 

ABETTOR,  ACCESSARY,  ACCOMPLICE. 

/Ibettor,  or  one  that  abets,  gives  aid  and  encourage- 
ment by  counsel,  promises,  or  rewards.  An  accessary^ 
or  one  added  and  annexed,  takes  an  active  though 
subordinate  part;  an  accomplice,  from  the  word  ac- 
complish, implies  the  principal  in  any  plot,  who  takes 
a leading  part  and  brings  it  to  perfection ; abettors 
propose,  accessaries  assist,  accomplices  execute.  The 
abettor  and  accessary,  or  the  abettor  and  accom- 
plice, may  be  one  and  the  same  person ; but  not  so  the 
accessary  and  accomplice. 

In  every  grand  scheme  there  must  be  abettors  to 
set  it  on  foot,  accessaries  to  co-operate,  and  accom- 
plices to  put  it  into  execution.  In  the  gunpowder  plot 
there  were  many  secret  aiettors,  some  noblemen  who 
were  accessaries,  and  Guy  Fawkes  the  principal  ac- 
complice; ‘I  speak  this  with  an  eye  to  those  cruel 
treatments  which  men  of  all  sides  are  apt  to  give  the 
characters  of  those  who  do  not  agree  with  them.  How 
many  men  of  honour  are  exposed  to  publick  obloquy 
and  reproach  1 Those  therefore  who  are  either  the 
instruments  or  abettors  in  such  infernal  dealings 
ought  to  be  looked  upon  as  persons  who  make  use  of 
religion  to  support  their  cause,  not  their  cause  to  pro- 
mote religion.’ — Addison.  ‘ Why  are  the  French 
obliged  to  lend  us  a part  of  their  tongue  before  we  can 
know  they  are  conquered  ? They  must  be  made  ac- 
cessaries to  their  own  disgrace,  as  the  Britons  were 
formeilyso  artificially  wrought  in  the  curtain  of  the 
Roman  theatre,  that  they  seemed  to  draw  it  up  in 
order  to  give  the  spectators  an  opportunity  of  seeing 
their  own  defeat  celebrated  on  the  stage.’ — Addison. 
Either  he  picks  a purse,  or  robs  a house, 

Or  is  accomplice  with  some  knavish  gang. 

CUMBEULAND. 

REDRESS,  RELIEF. 

Redress,  like  address  (w.  Accost)  in  all  probability 
comes  from  the  Latin  dirigo,  signifying  to  direct  or 
bring  back  to  the  former  point;  relief,  v.  To  help. 

Redress  is  said  only  with  regard  to  matters  of  right 
and  justice ; relief  to  those  of  kindness  and  humanity : 
by  power  we  obtain  redress;  by  active  interference 
we  obtain  a relief:  an  injured  person  looks  for  redress 
to  the  government;  an  unfortunate  person  looks  for 
relief  to  the  compassionate  and  kind : what  we  suffer 
through  the  oppression  or  wickedness  of  others  can 
only  be  redressed  by  those  who  have  the  power  of 
dis|)ensing  justice ; whenever  we  suffer,  in  the  order 
of  Providence,  we  may  meet  with  some  relief  from 
those  who  are  more  favoured.  Redress  applies  to  pub- 
lick  as  well  as  private  grievances  ; ‘ Instead  of  redress- 
ing grievances,  and  improving  the  fabrick  of  their 
state,  the  French  were  made  to  take  a very  different 
course.’— Burke.  Relief  applies  only  to  private  dis- 
tresses ; 

This  one 

Relief  the  vanquish’d  have,  to  hope  for  none. 

Denham 


Under  a pretence  of  seeking  redress  of  grieiumces, 
mobs  are  frequently  assembled  to  the  disturbartce  of 
the  better  disposed;  under  a pretence  of  soliciting 
charitable  relief,  thieves  gain  admittance  into  families 


TO  CURE,  HEAL,  REMEDY 
Cure,  in  Latin  euro,  signifies  to  take  care  of,  that  is 
by  distinction,  to  take  care  of  that  which  requires  par- 
ticular care,  in  order  to  remove  an  evil ; heal,  in  Get' 
man  heilen,  comes  from  heil  whole,  signifying  to  make 
whole  that  which  is  unsound ; remedy,  in  Latin  re 
medium,  is  compounded  of  re  and  medeor  to  cure  or 
heal,  which  comes  from  the  Greek  prjSdpai  and  MgiJra 
Media,  the  country  which  contained  the  greatest  imm- 
ber  of  healing  plants.  The  particle  re  is  here  but  an 
intensive. 

To  cure  is  employed  for  what  is  out  of  order;  to 
heal  for  that  which  is  broken ; diseases  are  cured, 
wounds  are  healed;  the  former  is  a complex,  the  latter 
is  a simple  process.  Whatever  requires  to  be  cured  is 
wrong  in  the  system;  it  requires  many  and  various 
applications  internally  and  externally; 

If  the  frail  body  feels  disorder’d  pangs. 

Then  drugs  medicinal  can  give  us  ease; 

The  soul  no  iEsculapian  medicine  can  cure 

Gentleman 

Whatever  requires  to  be  healed  is  occasioned  exter 
nally  by  violence,  and  requires  external  applications. 
In  a state  of  refinement  men  have  the  greatest  number 
of  disorders  to  be  cured;  in  a savage  state  there  is 
more  occasion  for  the  healing  art 
Cure  is  used  as  properly  in  the  moral  as  the  natural 
sense ; heal  in  the  moral  sense  is  altogether  figurative. 
The  disorders  of  the  mind  are  cured  with  greater  diffi  ■ 
culty  than  those  of  the  body.  The  breaches  which 
have  been  made  in  the  affections  of  relatives  towards 
each  other  can  be  healed  by  nothing  but  a Christian 
spirit  of  forbearance  and  forgiveness ; 

Scarcely  an  ill  to  human  life  belongs, 

But  what  our  follies  cause,  or  mutual  wrongs 
Or  if  some  stripes  from  Providence  we  feel, 

He  strikes  with  pity,  and  but  wounds  to  heal. 

Jenyns 

To  remedy,  in  the  sense  of  applying  remedies,  has 
a moral  application,  in  which  it  accords  most  with 
cure.  Evils  are  either  cured  or  remedied,  but  the  former 
are  of  a much  more  serious  nature  than  the  latter 
The  evils  in  society  require  to  be  cured;  an  omission, 
a deficiency,  or  a mischief,  requires  to  be  remedied. 

When  bad  habits  become  inveterate  they  are  put 
out  of  the  reach  of  cure.  It  is  an  exercise  for  the  in- 
genuity of  man  to  attempt  to  remedy  the  various  trou- 
bles and  inconveniences  which  are  dai.'y  occurring; 
‘Everyman  has  frequent  grievances  which  only  the 
solicitude  of  friendship  will  discover  and  remedy  ’ — 
Johnson. 


CURE,  REMEDY. 

Cure  {v.  To  cure)  denotes  either  the  act  of  curing, 
or  the  thing  that  cures.  Remedy  is  mostly  employed 
for  the  thing  that  remedies.  In  the  former  sense  the 
remedy  is  to  the  cure  as  the  means  to  the  end  ; a cure 
is  perlbrmed  by  the  application  of  a remedy.  That  is 
incurable  for  which  no  remedy  can  be  found  ; but  a 
cure  is  sometimes  performed  without  the  application 
of  any  specifick  remedy  The  cure  is  complete  when 
the  evil  is  entirely  removed  ; the  remedy  is  sure  which 
by  proper  application  never  fails  of  efiecting  the  cure. 
The  cure  of  disorders  depends  upon  the  skill  of  the 
physician  and  the  state  of  the  patient;  the  efficacy  of 
remedies  depends  upon  their  suitable  choice  and  appli- 
cation ; but  a cure  may  be  defeated  or  a remedy  made 
of  no  avail  by  a variety  of  circumstances  independect 
of  either. 

Cure  is  sometimes  employed  for  the  thing  that  cures, 
but  only  in  tile  sense  of  what  infallibly  citrcs.  Quacks 
always  hold  forth  their  nostrums  .as  infallible  cures,  not 
for  one  but  for  every  sort  of  disorder  ; 

Why  should  he  choose  these  miseries  to  endure 

If  death  could  grant  an  everlasting  cure? 

’Tis  plain  there ’s  something  whispers  in  his  ear 

(Tho’  fain  he ’d  hide  it)  he  has  much  to  fear. 

Jenyns 


366 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


Experience  lias  fatally  proved  that  the  remedy  in  most 
cases  where  quack  medicines  are  applied  is  worse  than 
the  disease ; ‘ The  difference  between  poisons  and  re- 
medies is  easily  known  by  their  effects  ; and  common 
reason  soon  distinguishes  between  virtue  and  vice.’ — 
Swift. 


HEALTHY,  WHOLESOME,  SALUBRIOUS, 
SALUTARY. 

Healthy  signifies  not  only  having  health,  but  also 
causing  health,  ox  keeping  in  health;  wholesome,  like 
the  German  heilsam,  signifies  making  whole,  keeping 
whole  or  sound;  salubrious  and  salutary,  from  the 
Latin  salus  safety  or  health,  signify  likewise  contri- 
butive  to  health  or  good  in  general. 

These  epithets  are  all  applicable  to  such  objects  as 
have  a kindly  influence  on  the  bodily  constitution : 
healthy  is  the  most  general  and  indefinite ; it  is  applied 
to  exercise,  to  air,  situation,  climate,  and  most  other 
things,  but  food,  for  which  wholesome  is  commonly 
substituted;  the  life  of  a farmer  is  reckoned  the  most 
healthy;  ‘ You  are  relaxing  yourself  with  the  healthy 
and  manly  exercise  of  tlie  field.’ — Sir  Wm.  Jones. 
The  simplest  diet  is  reckoned  the  most  wholesome; 

Here  laid  his  scrip  with  wholesome  viands  fill’d  ; 

There,  listening  every  noise,  his  watchful  dog. 

Thomson. 

Healthy  and  wholesome  are  rather  negative  in  their 
sense;  salubrious  and  salutary  are  positive;  that  is 
healthy  and  wholesome  which  serves  to  keep  one  in 
health ; that  is  salubrious  which  serves  to  improve  the 
health ; and  that  is  salutary  which  serves  to  remove 
a disorder ; climates  are  healthy  or  unhealthy,  accord- 
ing to  the  constitution  of  the  person ; ‘ Gardening  or 
husbandry,  and  working  in  wood,  are  fit  and  healthy 
recreations  for  a man  of  study  or  business.’ — Locke. 
Water  is  a wholesome  beverage  for  those  who  are  not 
dropsical ; bread  is  a wholesome  diet  for  man ; ‘ False 
decorations,  fucuses,  and  pigments  deserve  the  imper- 
fections that  constantly  attend  them,  being  neither 
commodious  in  application,  nor  wholesome  in  their 
use.’ — Bacon.  The  air  and  climate  of  southern 
France  has  been  long  famed  for  its  salubrity,  and 
has  induced  many  invalids  to  repair  thither  for  the 
’jenefit  of  their  health;  ‘If  that  fountain  (the  heart) 
he  once  poisoned,  you  can  never  expect  that  saZaftrious 
streams  will  flow  from  it.’ — Blair.  The  effects  have 
not  been  equally  salutary  in  all  cases  ; it  is  the  con- 
cern of  government  that  the  places  destined  for  the 
publick  education  of  youth  should  be  in  healthy  situa- 
ions ; that  their  diet  should  be  wholesome  rather  than 
delicate;  and  that  in  all  their  disorders  care  should  be 
taken  to  administer  the  most  salutary  remedies. 

Wholesome  and  salutary  have  likewise  an  extended 
and  moral  application  ; healthy  and  salubrious  are 
employed  only  in  the  proper  sense;  wholesome  in  this 
case  seems  to  convey  the  idea  of  making  vvhole  again 
what  has  been  unsound  ; ‘ So  the  doctrine  contained 
be  but  wholesome  and  edifying,  a want  of  exactness  in 
speaking  may  be  overlooked.’ — Atterbury.  But 
salutary  retains  tbe  idea  of  improving  the  condition 
of  those  who  stand  in  need  of  improvement;  ‘A  sense 
of  the  Divine  presence  exerts  this  salutary  influence 
of  promoting  temperance  and  restraining  the  disorders 
incident  to  a prosperous  state".’ — Blair.  Correction  is 
wholesome  which  serves  the  purpose  of  amendment 
without  doing  any  injury  to  the  body;  instruction  or 
admonition  is  salutary  when  it  serves  the  purpose  of 
strengthening  good  principles  and  awakening  a sense 
of  guilt  or  impropriety;  laws  and  punishments  are 
wholesome  to  the  body  politick,  as  diet  is  to  the  phy- 
sical body;  restrictions  are  salutary  in  checking  irre- 
gularities. 

SAFE,  SECURE. 

Safe,  in  Latin  salvus,  comes  from  the  Hebrew  nSt5^ 
to  be  tranquil;  secure,  v.  Certain. 

Safett  implies  exemption  from  harm,  or  the  danger 
of  harm  ; secwre,  the  exemption  from  danger  ; a person 
may  bn  safe  or  saved  in  the  midst  of  a fire,  if  he  be 
untouched  by  the  fire ; but  he  is,  in  such  a case,  the 
reverse  of  seeure.  In  the  sense  of  exemption  from 
danger,  .se/nty  expresses  much  less  than  security:  we 
may  be  sa/e  without  using  any  particular  measures; 
hut  none  can  reckon  on  any  degree  of  security  without 


great  precaution ; a person  may  be  very  safe  on  the 
top  of  a coach  in  the  daytime;  but  if  he  wisn  to 
secure  himself,  at  night,  from  falling  off,  he  must  be 
fastened ; ‘ It  cannot  be  safe  for  any  man  to  walk  upon 
a precipice,  and  to  be  always  on  the  very  border  of 
destruction.’ — South.  ‘No  man  can  rationally  ac 
count  himself  secure  unless  he  could  command  all  the 
chances  of  the  world.’ — South. 


CERTAIN,  SURE,  SECURE. 

Certain,  in  French  certain,  Latin  certus,  comes  from 
cerno  to  perceive,  because  what  we  see  or  perceive  13 
supposed  to  be  put  beyond  doubt ; sure  and  secure  are 
variations  of  the  same  word,  in  French  sur,  German 
sicher.  Low  German  seker,  &c.,  Latin  securus,  this  is 
compounded  of  se  (sme)  apart,  and  cura,  signifying 
without  care,  requiring  no  care. 

Certain  respects  matters  of  fact  or  belief ; sure  and 
secure  the  quality  or  condition  of  things.  A fact  is 
certain,  a person’s  step  is  sure,  a house  is  secure. 
Certain  is  opposed  to  dubious,  sure  to  wavering,  secure 
to  dangerous.  A person  is  certain  who  has  no  doubt 
remaining  in  his  mind ; ‘ It  is  very  certain  that  a man 
of  sound  reason  cannot  forbear  closing  with  religion 
upon  an  impartial  examination  of  it.’-~ADDisoN.  A 
person  is  sure  whose  conviction  is  steady  and  un 
changeable ; ‘ When  these  everlasting  doors  are  thrown 
open,  we  may  be  sure  that  the  pleasures  and  beauties 
of  this  place  will  infinitely  transcend  our  present  hopes 
and  expectations,  and  that  the  glorious  appearance  of 
the  throne  of  God  will  rise  infinitely  beyond  whatever 
we  are  able  to  conceive  of  it.’ — Addison.  A person 
feels  himself  secure  when  the  prospect  of  danger  is 
removed ; 

Weigh  well  the  various  terms  of  human  fate. 

And  seek  by  mercy  to  secure  your  state. 

Dryden. 

When  applied  to  things,  certain  is  opposed  to  what 
is  varying  and  irregular;  sure  to  what  is  unerring; 
secure  is  used  only  in  its  natural  sense.  It  is  a defect 
in  the  English  language,  that  there  are  at  present  no 
certain  rules  for  its  orthography  or  pronunciation ; the 
learner,  therefore,  is  at  a loss  for  a sure  guide. 
Amid  opposing  statements  it  is  difficult  to  ascertain 
the  real  state  of  the  case.  No  one  can  ensure  his  life 
for  a moment,  or  secure  his  properly  from  the  contin- 
gencies to  which  all  sublunary  things  are  exposed. 


SOUND,  SANE,  HEALTHY. 

Sound  and  sane,  in  Latin  sanus,  come  probably 
from  sanguis  the  blood,  because  in  that  lies  the  seat 
of  health  or  sickness;  /teaZf/ty  signifies  here  the  state 
of  being  in  health. 

Sound  is  extended  in  its  application  to  all  things  that 
are  in  the  state  in  which  they  ought  to  be,  so  as  to 
preserve  their  vitality;  thus,  animals  and  vegetables 
are  said  to  be  sound  when  in  the  former  there  is  no- 
thing amiss  in  their  limbs  or  vital  parts,  and  in  the 
latter  in  their  root.  By  a figurative  application,  wood 
and  other  things  may  be  said  to  be  sound  when  they 
are  entirely  free  from  any  symptom  of  decay,  or  mix- 
ture of  corruption  ; in  this  sense  the  heart  is  said  to  be 
sound;  ‘He  hath  a heart  as  sound  as  a bell,  and  his 
tongue  is  the  clapper,  for  what  his  heart  thinks,  his 
tongue  speaks.’ — Shakspeare.  Sane  is  applicable  to 
human  beings,  in  the  same  sense,  but  with  reference 
to  the  mind ; a sane  person  is  opposed  to  one  that  is 
insane ; 

How  pregnant,  sometimes,  his  replies  are! 

A happiness  that  often  madness  hits  on. 

Which  sanity  and  reason  could  not  be 
So  prosperously  delivered  of. — Shakspeare. 

The  mind  is  also  said  to  be  sound  when  it  is  in  a state 
to  form  right  opinions ; 

But  Capys,  and  the  rest  of  sounder  mind. 

The  fatal  present  to  the  flames  design’d. 

Dryden. 

Healthy  expresses  more  than  either  sound  or  sane; 
we  are  healthy  in  every  part,  but  we  are  sound  in  that 
which  is  essential  for  life ; he  who  is  sound  may  live. 
I ut  he  who  is  healthy  enjoys  life;  ‘ But  the  course  of 
succession  (to  the  crown)  is  the  healthy  habit  of  tb? 
, British  constiluflon.’— Burke. 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


m 


mSORDEK,  DISEASE,  DISTEMPER, 
MALADY. 

Disorder  signifies  the  state  of  being  out  of  order ; 
disease,  the  state  of  being  ill  at  ease;  distemper,  the 
state  of  being  out  of  temper,  or  out  of  a due  tempera- 
ment; malady,  from  the  Latin  malus  evil,  signifies 
an  ill. 

All  these  terms  agree  in  their  application  to  the 
state  of  the  animal  body.  Disorder  is,  as  before 
{v.  To  disorder),  the  general  term,  and  the  others 
specifick.  In  this  general  sense  disorder  is  altogether 
indefinite;  but  in  its  restricted  sense  it  expresses  less 
than  all  the  rest:  it  is  the  mere  commencement  of  a 
disease : disease  is  also  more  general  than  the  other 
terms,  for  it  comprehends  every  serious  and  permanent 
disorder  in  the  animal  economy,  and  is  therefore  of 
universal  application.  The  disorder  is  slight,  partial, 
and  transitory;  the  disease  is  deep-rooted  and  per- 
manent. The  disorder  may  lie  in  the  extremities: 
the  disease  lies  in  the  humours  and  the  vital  parts. 
Occasional  headaches,  colds,  or  what  is  merely  cuta- 
neous, are  termed  disorders ; fevers,  dropsies,  and  the 
like,  are  diseases.  Distemper  is  used  for  such  par- 
ticularly as  throw  the  animal  frame  most  completely 
out  of  its  temper  or  course,  and  is  consequently  applied 
properly  to  virulent  disorders,  such  as  the  small-pox. 
Malady  has  less  of  a technical  sense  than  the  other 
terms ; it  refers  more  to  the  suftering  than  to  the  state 
of  the  body.  There  may  be  many  maladies  where 
there  is  no  disease;  but  diseases  are  themselves  in 
general  maladies.  Our  maladies  are  frequently  born 
with  us;  but  our  diseases  may  come  upon  us  at  any 
time  of  life.  Blindness  is  in  itself  a malady,  and  may 
be  produced  by  a disease  in  the  eye.  Our  disorders 
are  frequently  cured  by  abstaining  from  those  things 
which  caused  them ; the  whole  science  of  medicine 
consists  in  finding  out  suitable  remedies  for  our  dis- 
eases; our  maladies  may  be  lessened  with  patience, 
although  they  cannot  always  be  alleviated  or  removed 
by  art. 

All  these  terms  may  be  applied  with  a similar  dis- 
tinction to  the  mind  as  well  as  the  body.  The  dis- 
orders are  either  of  a temporary  or  a permanent 
nature;  but  unless  specified  to  the  contrary,  are  un- 
derstood to  be  temporary ; ‘Strange  disorders  are  bred 
in  the  mind  of  those  men  whose  passions  are  not 
regulated  by  virtue.’ — Addison.  Diseases  consist  in 
vicious  habits ; ‘ The  jealous  man’s  disease  is  of  so 
malignant  a nature  that  it  converts  all  it  takes  into  its 
own  nourishment.’ — Addison.  Our  distempers  arise 
from  the  violent  operations  of  passion ; ‘ A person  that 
is  crazed,  though  with  pride  or  malice,  is  a sight  very 
mortifying  to  human  nature  j but  when  the  distemper 
arises  from  any  indiscreet  fervours  of  devotion,  it  de- 
serves our  compassion  in  a more  particular  manner.’ — 
Addison.  Our  maladies  lie  in  the  injuries  which  the 
affections  occasion ; ‘Phillips  has  been  always  praised 
without  contradiction  as  a man  modest,  blameless,  and* 
pious,  who  bore  narrowness  of  fortune  without  dis- 
content, and  tedious  and  painful  maladies  without  im- 
patience.’—Johnson.  Any  perturbation  in  the  mind 
is  a disorder : avarice  is  a disease : melancholy  is  a 
distemper  as  far  as  it  throws  the  mind  out  of  its  bias ; 
M is  a malady  as  far  as  it  occasions  suffering. 


SICK,  SICKLY,  DISEASED,  MORBID. 

Sick  denotes  a partial  state;  sickly  a permanent 
state  of  the  body,  a proneness  to  be  sick : he  who  is 
sick  may  be  made  well ; but  he  who  is  sickly  is  seldom 
really  well : all  persons  are  liable  to  be  sick,  though 
few  have  the  misfortune  to  be  sickly:  a person  may  be 
sick  from  the  effect  of  cold,  violent  exercise,  and  the 
like ; ‘ For  aught  I see,  they  are  as  sick  that  surfeit 
with  too  much,  as  they  that  starve  with  nothing.’ — 
Shakspeare.  a person  is  sickly  only  from  constitu- 
tion ; ‘ Both  Homer  and  Virgil  were  of  a very  delicate 
and  sickly  constitution.’ — Walsh. 

Sickly  expresses  a permanent  state  of  indisposition ; 
but  diseased  expresses  a violent  state  of  derangement 
without  specifying  its  duration  ; it  may  be  for  a time 
only,  or  for  a permanency:  the  person,  or  his  constitu- 
tion, is  sickly;  the  person,  or  his  frame,  or  particular 
parts,  as  his  lungs,  his  inside,  his  brain,  and  the  like, 
■anay  he  diseased  • 


We  are  all  diseased," 

And  with  our  surfeiting  and  wanton  hours 

Have  brought  ourselves  into  a burning  fever. 

Shaksreark. 

Sick,  sickly,  and  diseased  may  all  be  used  in  a moral 
application  ; morbid  is  rarely  used  in  any  other  except 
in  a technical  sense.  Sick  denotes  a partial  state,  as 
before,  namely,  a state  of  disgust,  and  is  always  asso- 
ciated with  the  object  of  the  sickness ; we  are  sick  of, 
turbulent  enjoyments,  and  seek  for  tranquillity : sickly 
and  morbid  are  applied  to  the  habitual  state  of  the 
feelings  or  character ; a sickly  sentimentality,  a morbid 
sensibility;  ‘While  the  distempers  of  a relaxed  fibre 
prognosticate  all  the  morbid  force  of  convulsion  in  the 
body  of  the  state,  the  steadiness  of  the  physician  is 
overpowered  by  the  very  aspect  of  the  disease.' — 
Burke.  Diseased  is  applied  in  general  to  individuals 
or  communities,  to  persons  or  to  things;  a person’s 
mind  is  in  a diseased  state  when  it  is  under  the  in- 
ffuence  of  corrupt  passions  or  principles;  society  is  in 
a diseased  state  when  it  is  overgrown  with  wealth  and 
luxury;  ‘ For  a mind  diseased  with  vain  longings  after 
unattainable  advantages,  no  medicine  can  be  pre 
scribed.’ — Johnson. 

SICKNESS,  ILLNESS,  INDISPOSITION. 

Sickness  denotes  the  state  of  being  sick  (r.  Sick) ; 
illness  that  of  being  ill  {v.  Evil) ; indisposition  that 
of  being  not  well  disposed.  Sickness  denotes  the  state 
generally  or  particularly : illness  denotes  it  particularly 
we  speak  of  sickness  as  opposed  to  good  health;  in 
sickness  or  in  health ; but  of  the  illness  of  a particular 
person:  when  sickness  is  said  of  the  individual,  it 
designates  a protracted  state ; a person  may  be  said  to 
have  much  sickness  in  his  family;  ‘ Sickness  is  a sort 
of  early  old  age;  it  teaches  us  a diffidence  in  oui 
earthly  state.’ — Pope.  Illness  denotes  only  a par 
ticular  or  partial  sickness:  a person  is  said  to  have 
had  an  illness  at  this  or  that  time,  in  this  or  that  place, 
for  this  or  that  period ; ‘ This  is  the  first  letter  that  1 
have  ventured  upon,  which  w'ill  be  written,  I fear 
vacillantibus  literis ; as  Tully  says  Tyro’s  Letters  wera 
after  his  recovery  from  an  illness.' — Atterbury 
Indisposition  is  a slight  illness,  such  a one  as  is  ca- 
pable of  deranging  a person  either  in  his  enjoyment* 
or  in  his  business ; colds  are  the  ordinary  causes  of  in- 
disposition ; ‘ It  is  not,  as  you  conceive,  an  indisposi- 
tion of  body,  but  the  mind’s  disease.’— Ford. 

INVALID,  PATIENT. 

Invalid,  in  Latin  invalidus,  signifies  literally  one 
not  strong  or  in  good  health ; patient,  from  the  Latin 
pattens  suffering,  signifies  one  suffering  under  disease. 
Invalid  is  a general,  and  patient  a particular  term : a 
person  may  be  an  invalid  without  being  patient : he 
may  be  a patient  without  being  an  invalid.  An  invalid 
is  so  denominated  from  his  wanting  his  ordinary  share 
of  health  and  strength  ; but  the  patient  is  one  who  is 
labouring  under  some  bodily  suffering.  Old  soldiers 
are  'called  invalids  who  are  no  longer  able  to  bear  the 
fatigues  of  warfare : but  they  are  not  necessarily 
patients.  He  who  is  under  the  surgeon’s  hands  for 
a broken  limb  is  a patient,  but  not  necessarily  an 
invalid. 

DEBILITY,  INFIRMITY,  IMBECILITY. 

Debility,  in  Latin  dehilitas,  from  debilis.  or  de  pri 
vative  and  habilis,  signifies  a deficiency,  or  not  having ; 
infirmity,  in  Latin  infirmitas,  from  infirmus,  or  in 
privative  and  firmus  strong,  signifies  the  absence  of 
strength ; imbecility,  in  Latin  imbecilitas  from  imbe- 
cillis,  or  in  privative,  and  becillis,  bacillum,  or  baculus 
a staff,  signifies  not  having  a staff  or  support. 

All  these  terms  denote  a species  of  weakness,  but 
the  two  former,  particularly  the  first,  respects  that 
which  is  physical,  and  the  latter  that  which  is  either 
physical  or  mental.  Debility  is  constitutional,  or 
otherwise;  imbecility  is  always  constitutional;  in 
firmity  is  accidental,  and  results  from  sickness,  or  • 
decay  of  the  frame.  Debility  may  be  either  general 
or  local;  infirmity  is  always  local;  imbecility  oXwa.yn 
general.  Debility  prevents  the  active  |]erformance  of 
the  ordinary  fimctions of  nature;  it  is  a deficiency  in 
the  muscular  power  of  the  body:  infirmity  is  a partin' 


368 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES 


ivant  of  power,  wliich  interleies  with,  but  does  not 
necessarily  destroy,  the  activity : imbecility  lies  in  the 
whole  frame,  and  renders  it  almost  entirely  powerless. 

Young  people  are  frequently  troubled  with  debilities 
in  their  ankles  or  legs,  of  which  they  are  never  cured  ; 

As  increasing  years  debilitate  the  body,  so  they 
weaken  the  force  and  diminish  the  warmth  of  the 
affections.’ — Blair.  Old  age  is  most  e.xposed  to  in- 
firmities; but  there  is  no  age  at  which  human  beings 
are  exempt  from  infirmity  of  some  kind  or  another ; 
‘This  is  weakness,  not  wisdom,  I own,  and  on  that 
account  fitter  to  be  trusted  to  the  bosom  of  a friend, 
where  I may  safely  lodge  all  my  infirmities' — Atter- 
BURY.  The  imbecility  natural  to  youth,  both  in  body 
and  mind,  would  make  them  willing  to  rest  on  the 
strength  of  their  elders,  if  they  were  not  too  often 
misled  by  a mischievous  confidence  in  their  own 
strength ; ‘ It  is  seldom  that  we  are  otherwise  than  by 
affliction  awakened  to  a sense  of  our  imbecility.' — 
Johnson. 


DECAY,  DECLINE,  CONSUMPTION. 
Decay,  French  dechoir,  from  the  Latin  dccado,  sig- 
nifies literally  to  fall  off  or  away;  decline,  from  the 
Latin  declino,  or  de  and  clino,  signifies  to  turn  away 
or  lean  aside;  the  direction  expressed  by  both  these 
actions  is  very  similar;  it  is  a sideward  movement, 
but  decay  expresses  more  than  decline.  What  is  de- 
cayed is  lallen  or  gone ; what  declines  leans  towards  a 
fall,  or  is  going ; when  applied,  therefore,  to  the  same 
objects,  a decline  is  properly  the  commencement  of  a 
decay.  The  health  may  experience  a decline  at  any 
period  of  life  from  a variety  of  causes,  but  it  naturally 
experiences  a decay  in  old  age;  consumption  {v.  To 
consume)  implies  a rapid  decay. 

* By  decay  things  lose  their  perfection,  their  great- 
ness, and  their  consistency;  by  dechne  they  lose  their 
strength,  their  vigour,  and  their  lustre ; by  consump- 
tion ‘hey  lose  their  existence.  Decay  brings  to  ruin ; 
declti'.e  leads  to  an  end  or  expiration.  There  are  some 
things  to  which  decay  is  peculiar,  and  some  things  to 
which  decline  is  peculiar,  and  other  things  to  which 
Doth  decay  and  decline  belong.  The  corruption  to 
which  material  substances  are  particularly  exposed  is 
termed  decay:  the  close  of  life,  when  health  and 
Btrenglh  begin  to  fall  away,  is  termed  the  decline;  the 
decay  of  states  in  the  moral  world  takes  place  by  the 
same  process  as  the  decay  of  fabricks  in  the  natural 
world  ; tlvc  decline  of  empires,  from  their  state  of  ele- 
vation and  splendour,  is  a natural  figure  drawn  from 
the  declir.e  of  the  setting  sun.  Consumption  is  seldom 
applied  to  any  thing  but  animal  bodies; 

The  seas  shall  waste,  the  skies  in  smoke  decay, 
Rocks  fall  to  dust,  and  mountains  melt  away ; 

But  fix’d  his  word,  his  saving  power  remains. 

Thy  realm  for  ever  lasts,  thy  own  Messiah  reigns. 

Pope. 

After  the  death  of  Julius  and  Augustus  Ctesar  the 
Roman  empire  declined  every  day.’— South.  ‘ By  de- 
grees the  empire  shrivelled  and  pined  away  ; and  from 
such  a surfeit  of  immoderate  prosperity  passed  at  length 
into  a final  consumption.' — South. 


WEAK,  FEEBLE,  INFIRM. 
fVealc,  in  Sa.xon  wace,  Dutch  waclc,  German  schwach, 
IS  in  all  probability  an  intensive  of  weich  soft,  which 
comes  from  weichen  to  yield,  and  this  from  bewegen  to 
move ; feeble  is  probably  contracted  fwm  f ailable  ; in- 
firm, V.  Debility. 

The  Saxon  term  weak  is  here,  as  it  usually  is,  the 
familiar  and  universal  term  ; feeble  is  suited  to  a more 
polished  style;  infirm  is  only  a species  of  the  weak  : 
we  may  be  weak  in  body  or  mind ; but  we  are  com- 
monly feeble  and  infirm  only  in  the  body  : we  may  be 
weak  from  disease,  or  weak  by  nature,  it  equally  con- 
veys the  gross  idea  of  a defect  ; but  the  terms /eeile 
and  infirm  are  qualified  expressions  for  weakness  : a 
child  is  feeble  from  its  infancy;  an  old  man  is/cciZe 
from  age;  the  latter  may  likewise  be  infirm  in  conse- 
quence of  sickness.  We  pity  the  weak,  but  their 
weakness  often  gives  us  pain  ; 

* Vide  Trusler;  “Decay,  decline,  disease.’’ 


I You,  gallant  Vernon  1 saw 

The  miserable  scene;  you  pitying  saw 
To  infant  weakness  sunk  the  warriour’s  aim 

Thomson 

We  assist  the  feeble  when  they  attempt  to  walk ; 
Command  th’  assistance  of  a friend. 

But  feeble  are  the  succours  lean  send. — Drvdsn. 
We  support  the  infirm  when  they  are  unable  to  stand 
‘ At  my  age,  and  under  my  infirmities,  I can  have  nc 
relief  but  those  with  which  religion  furnishes  me  ' — 
Atterbury.  The  same  distinction  exists  betweer 
weak  imd  feeble  in  the  moral  use  of  the  words  : a weak 
attempt  to  excuse  a person  conveys  a reproachful 
meaning  ; but  the  eft'orts  which  we  make  to  defend  an 
other  may  be  praiseworthy,  although /eeZiIe. 

TO  WEAKEN,  ENFEEBLE,  DEBILITATE, 
ENERVATE,  INVALIDATE. 

To  weaken  is  to  make  weak  (v.  Weak),  and  is,  as 
before,  the  generick  term:  to  enfeeble  is  to  m?ike  feeble 
(w.  Weak) ; to  debilitate  is  to  cause  debility  {v.  De- 
bility); to  enervate  is  to  unnerve;  and  to  invalidate 
is  to  make  not  valid  or  strong : all  of  which  are  but 
modes  of  weakening  applicable  to  diflerent  objects. 
To  weaken  may  be  either  a temporary  or  permanent 
act  when  applied  to  persons;  enfeeble  is  permanent 
either  as  to  the  body  or  the  mind ; we  may  be  weak- 
ened suddenly  by  severe  pain  ; we  are  enfeebled  in  a 
gradual  manner,  either  by  the  slow  effects  of  disease 
or  age.  To  weaken  is  either  a particular  or  a com- 
plete act ; to  enfeeble,  to  debilitate,  and  enervate  are 
properly  partial  acts : what  enfeebles  deprives  of  vital 
or  essential  power; 

So  much  hath  hell  debas’d,  and  pain 
Enfeebled  me,  to  what  I was  in  heav’n. — Milton. 
What  debilitates  may  lessen  power  in  one  particular, 
though  not  in  another;  the  severe  exercise  of  any 
power,  such  as  the  memory  or  the  attention,  will  tend 
to  debilitate  that  faculty  ; 

Sometimes  the  body  in  full  strength  we  find, 

While  various  ails  debilitate  the  mind. — Jknyns 
What  enervates  acts  particularly  on  the  nervous  sys- 
tem ; it  relaxes  the  frame,  and  unfits  the  person  for 
action  either  of  body  or  mind;  ‘Elevated  by  success 
and  enervated  by  luxury,  the  military,  in  the  time  of 
the  emperors,  soon  became  incapable  of  fatigue.’— 
Gibbon.  To  weaken  is  said  of  things  as  well  as  per 
sons  ; to  invalidate  is  said  of  things  only  : we  weaken 
thqforceof  an  argument  by  an  injudicious  application; 
‘No  article  of  faith  can  be  true  which  weakens  t\\^ 
practical  part  of  religion.’ — Addison.  Wemvalidate 
the  claim  of  another  by  proving  its  informality  in  law 
‘ Do  they  (the  Jacobins)  mean  to  invalidate  that  great 
body  of  our  statute  law,  which  passed  under  those 
whom  they  treat  as  usurpers?’— Burke. 

TO  FLAG,  DROOP,  LANGUISH,  PINE. 

To  flag  is  to  hang  down  loose  like  a flag ; droop,  v. 
To  fall;  to  languish  is  to  become  or  continue  languid 
{v.  Faint) ; to  pine,  from  the  German  pein  pain,  is  to 
be  or  continue  in  pain. 

In  the  proper  application,  nothing  flags  but  that 
which  can  be  distended  and  made  to  flutter  by  the 
wind,  as  the  leaves  of  plants  when  they  are  in  want  of 
water  or  in  a weakly  condition  ; hence  figuratively  the 
spirits  are  said  to  flag;  ‘It  is  variety  which  keeps 
alive  desire,  which  would  otherwise  jZao-.’ — South. 
Things  are  said  to  droop  when  their  heads  flag  or 
drop  ; the  snowdrop  drao/js,  and  flowers  will  generally 
droop  from  excess  of  drought  or  heat : the  spirits  in 
the  same  manner  are  said  to  droop,  which  expresses 
more  than  to  flag;  the  human  body  also  droops  when 
the  strength  fails ; 

Shrunk  with  dry  famine,  and  with  toils  declin’d. 

The  drooping  body  will  desert  the  mind.— Pope. 
Languish  is  a still  stronger  expression  than  droop,  and 
is  applicable  principally  to  persons  ; some  languish  in 
sickness,  some  in  prison,  and  some  in  a state  of  dis- 
tress ; ‘ How  finely  has  tlie  poet  told  us  that  the  sick 
persons  languished  under  lingering  and  incurable  dis 
tempers.’ — Addison.  To  pine  is  to  be  in  a state  of 
wearing  pain  which  is  mostly  of  a mental  nature  a 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


369 


Hild  may  pine  when  absent  from  all  ia  friends,  and 
opposing  itself  deserted; 

From  beds  of  raging  fire  to  starve  in  ice 
Their  soft  ethereal  warmth,  there  iopine, 
Immoveably  infix’d. — Milton. 


FAINT,  LANGUID. 

Faint,  from  the  French  faner  to  fiide,  signifies  that 
which  is  faded  or  withered,  which  has  lost  its  spirit; 
languid,  in  Latin  languidus,  from  to  languish, 

signifies  languished. 

Faint  is  less  than  languid  ; faintness  is  in  fact  in 
the  physical  application  the  commencement  of  lan- 
guor ; we  may  be  faint  for  a short  time,  and  if  con- 
tinued and  extended  through  the  limbs  it  becomes 
languor  ; thus  we  say  to  speak  with  a faint  tone,  and 
feave  a languid  frame  ; and  in  the  figurative  applica- 
tion to  make  a faint  resistance,  to  move  with  a lan- 
guid air;  to  form  a faint  idea,  to  make  a languid 
effort ; 

Low  the  woods 

Bow  their  hoar  head : and  here  the  languid  sun. 

Faint  from  the  west,  emits  his  evening  ray. 

Thomson 


PALE,  PALLID,  WAN. 

Pale,  in  French  pale,  anA pallid,  in  Latin  pallidus, 
both  come  from  palleo  to  turn  pale,  which  probably 
comes  from  the  Greek  TraXAdvo)  to  make  white,  and 
that  from  noXv  flour;  wan  is  connected  with  want 
and  wane,  signifying  it;  general  a deficiency  or  a losing 
colour. 

Pallid  rises  upon  pale,  and  wan  upon  pallid : the 
absence  of  colour  in  any  degree,  where  colour  is  a re- 
quisite or  usual  quality,  constitutes  paleness,  but  pal- 
' Aness  is  an  excess  of  paleness,  and  wan  is  an  unusual 

tgree  of  pallidness:  paleness  in  the  countenance 
may  be  temporary ; but  pallidness  and  wanness  are 
permanent;  fear,  or  any  sudden  emotion,  may  pro- 
duce paleness:  but  protracted  sickness,  hunger,  and 
fatigue  bring  on  pallidness;  and  when  these  calami- 
ties are  combined  and  heightened  by  every  aggrava- 
tion, they  may  produce  that  which  is  peculiarly  termed 
wanness. 

Pale  is  an  ordinary  term  for  an  ordinary  quality, 
applicable  to  many  very  different  objects,  to  persons, 
colours,  lights,  and  luminaries.  Paleness  may  be 
either  a natural  or  an  acquired  deficiency : a person  is 
said  to  be  pale,  a colour  pale,  a light  pale,  the  sun 
pale;  the  deficiency  may  be  desirable  or  otherwise  ; 
the  paleness  of  the  moon  is  agreeable,  that  of  the  com- 
plexion the  contrary : 

Now  morn,  her  lamp  pale  glimmering  on  the  sight, 

Scatter’d  before  her  sun  reluctant  night. 

Falconer.  . 

Pallid  is  an  ordinary  term  for  an  extraordinary  quality ; 
nothing  is  said  to  he  pallid  but  the  human  face,  and 
that  not  from  the  ordinary  course  of  nature,  but  as  the 
effect  of  disease ; those  who  paint  are  most  apt  to  look. 
pallid; 

Her  spirits  faint. 

Her  cheeks  assume  4 pallid  tint.— Addison. 

Wan  is  an  extraordinary  term  for  an  ordinary  pro- 
perty, it  is  applicable  only  to  ghostly  objects,  or  such  as 
are  rendered  monstrous  by  unusually  powerful  causes: 
/he  effects  of  death  on  the  human  visage  are  fully  ex- 
pressed by  the  term  ware,  when  applied  to  an  individual 
who  is  red’uced,  by  sever  3 abstinence  or  sickness,  to  a 
state  bordering  on  the  grave ; 

And  with  them  comes  a third  with  regal  pomp. 

But  faded  splendour  wan. — Milton. 

FATIGUE,  WEARINESS,  LASSITUDE. 

Fatigue,  from  the  Latin  fatigo,  that  is,  fatim 
abundantly  or  powerfully,  and  ago  to  act,  or  agito  to 
■gitate,  designates  an  effect  from  a powerful  or  stimu- 
ating  cause ; weariness,  from  weary,  a frequentative 
of  wear,  marks  an  efiect  from  a continued  or  repeated 
cause;  lassitude,  from  the  Latin  lassus,  changed  from 
lazus  relaxed,  marks  a state  without  specifying  a 
«awie 


Fatigue  is  an  exhaustion  of  the  animal  or  mentai 
powers ; weariness  is  a wearing  out  of  the  strength,  or 
breaking  the  spirits;  lassitude  is  a general  relaxation 
of  the  animal  frame.  The  labourer  experiences  fatigue 
from  the  toils  of  the  day;  the  man  of  business,  who  is 
harassed  by  the  multiplicity  and  complexity  of  his  con- 
cerns, safUexs  fatigue;  and  the  student,  who  labours  to 
fit  himself  for  a publick  exhibition  of  his  acquirements 
is  in  like  manner  exposed  to  fatigue ; ‘ One  of  the 
amusements  of  idleness  is  reading  without  the  fatigui 
of  close  attention.’ — Johnson.  Weariness  attends  the 
traveller  who  takes  a long  or  pathless  journey;  wean 
ness  is  the  lot  of  the  petitioner,  who  attends  in  the  anti 
chamber  of  a great  man  ; the  critic  is  doomed  to  suffe* 
weariness,  who  is  obliged  to  drag  through  the  shallovif 
but  voluminous  writings  of  a dull  author;  and  the  cn 
lightened  hearer  will  suffer  no  less  weariness  in  listen- 
ing to  the  absurd  effusions  of  an  extemporaneous 
preacher;  ‘For  want  of  a process  of  events,  neither 
knowledge  nor  elegance  preserves  the  reader  from  weari 
ness.' — Johnson. 

I^assitude  is  the  consequence  of  a distempered  sya 
tern,  sometimes  brought  on  by  an  excess  of  fatigue, 
sometimes  by  sickness,  and  frequently  by  the  action 
of  the  external  air;  ‘The  cattle  in  the  fields  show 
evident  symptoms  of  lassitude  and  disgust  'x  an  un 
pleasant  season,’ — Cowper. 


TO  WEARY,  TIRE,  JADE,  HARASS. 

To  weary  is  a frequentative  of  wear,  that  is,  r, 
wear  out  the  strength  ; to  tire,  from  the  French  tirer 
and  the  Latin  traho  to  draw,  signifies  to  draw  out  the 
strength  ; to  jade  is  the  same  as  to  goad;  to  harass,  v. 
Distress. 

Long  exertion  wearies ; a little  exertion  will  tire  a 
child  or  a weak  man  ; forced  exertions  jade ; painfui 
exertions,  or  exertions  coupled  with  painful  circum- 
stances, harass  : the  horse  is  jaded  which  is  forced  oil 
beyond  his  strength  ; the  soldier  is  harassed  who 
marches  in  perpetual  fear  of  an  attack  from  the  enemy 
We  are  wearied  with  thinking  when  it  gives  us  pain  to 
think  any  longer;  ‘All  pleasures  that  affect  the  body 
must  needs  zoear^.’— South.  We  are  tired  of  our  em- 
ployment when  it  ceases  to  give  us  pleasure  ; ‘ Every 
morsel  to  a satisfied  hunger  is  only  a new  labour  to  a 
tired  digestion.’— South.  We  are  jaded  by  incessant 
attention  to  business ; ‘ I recall  the  time  (and  am  glad 
it  is  over)  when  about  this  hour  ^six  in  the  morning)  I 
used  to  be  going  to  bed  surfeited  with  pleasure,  or  jadt  i 
with  business.’— Bolingbroke.  We  axe  harassed  bv 
perpetual  complaints  which  we  cannot  redress; 
Bpkrupt  nobility,  a factious,  giddy,  and 
Divided  Senate,  harass'd  cemmonalty. 

Is  all  the  strength  of  Venice.— Otw.vy. 


WEARISOME,  TIRESOME,  TEDIOUS. 
Wearisome  (v.  To  weary)  is  the  general  and  indefi- 
nite term  ; tiresome,  v.  To  weary ; and  tedious,  caus- 
ing tedium,  a specifick  form  of  wearisomeness : common 
things  may  cause  weariness ; that  which  acts  painfully 
is  eWhex  tiresome  ox  tedious ; but  in  different  degrees 
the  repetition  of  the  same  sounds  will  grow  tiresome; 
long  waiting  in  anxious  suspense  is  tedious : there  is 
more  of  that  which  is  physical  in  the  tiresome,  and 
mental  in  the  tedious;  ‘All  weariness  presupposes 
weakness,  and  consequently  every  long,  importune, 
wearisome  petition,  is  truly  and  properly  a force  upon 
him  that  is  pursued  with  it.’— South. 

Far  happier  were  the  meanest  peasant’s  lot. 

Than  to  be  plac’d  on  high,  in  anxious  pride, 

The  purple  drudge  and  slave  of  tiresome  stale. 

Wk»t 

Happy  the  mortal  man  who  now,  at  last. 

Has  through  this  doleful  vale  of  mis  ry  pass’d 
Who  to  his  destin’d  stage  has  carried  on 
The  tedious  load,  and  laid  his  burden  down. 

Prior 


WEIGHT,  HEAVINESS,  GRAVITY. 
Weight,  from  to  weigh,  is  that  which  a thing 
weighs;  heaviness,  from  heavy  and  heave,  signilti-s 
the  abstract  quality  of  the  heavy,  or  difficult  to  heave 


24 


3*0 


ENGLISH  S\NONYMES 


gravity,  from  the  Latin  gravis,  likewise  denotes  the 
name  abstract  qualities. 

Weight  is  indefinite;  wliatever  may  be  weighed  has 
a weight,  whether  large  or  small:  heaviness  and 
gravity  are  the  property  of  bodies  having  a great 
weight.  Weight  is  only  opposed  to  that  which  has  oi- 
ls supposed  to  liave  no  weight,  that  is,  what  is  incorpo- 
real oj-  linniatenal ; for  we  may  speak  of  the  weight 
of  the  lightest  conceivable  bodies,  as  the  weight  of  a 
feather : heaviness  is  opposed  to  lightness  ; the  heavi- 
ness of  lead  is  opposed  to  the  lightness  of  a feather. 

Weight  lies  absolutely  in  the  thing ; heaviness  is 
relatively  considered  with  respect  to  the  person  : we 
estimate  the  weight  of  things  according  to  a certain 
measure  : we  estimate  the  heaviness  of  things  by  our 
feelings. 

Gravity  is  that  species  of  weight,  which  is  scientifi- 
cally considered  as  inherent  in  certain  bodies;  the  term 
is  therefore  properly  scientifick. 


WEIGHT,  BURDEN,  LOAD. 

Weight,  V.  Weight;  burden,  from  bear,  signifies  the 
thing  borne ; load,  in  German  laden,  is  supposed  by 
Adelung  to  admit  of  a derivation  from  different 
sources;  but  he  does  not  suppose  that  which  appears 
to  me  the  most  natural,  namely,  from  lay,  which  be- 
comes in  our  preterit  laid,  particularly  since  in  Low 
German  and  Dutch  laden,  to  load,  is  contracted  into 
lacyen,  and  the  literal  ineaiung  of  load  is  to  lay  on  or 
in  any  thing. 

The  term  weight  is  here  considered  in  common  with 
the  other  terms”  in  the  sense  of  a positive  weight,  as 
respects  the  persons  or  things  by  which  it  is  allied  to 
the  word  burden:  the  weight  is  said  either  of  persons 
or  things ; the  burden  more  commonly  respects  per- 
sons ; tile  load  may  be  said  of  either  : a person  may 
sink  under  the  weight  that  rests  upon  him  ; a platform 
may  break  down  from  the  weight  upon  it;  a person 
sinks  under  his  burden  or  load;  a cart  breaks  down 
from  the  load.  The  weight  is  abstractedly  taken  for 
what  is  without  reference  to  the  cause  of  its  being 
there;  burden  and  Zoad  have  respect  to  the  person  or 
thing  by  which  they  .are  produced  ; accident  produces 
the  weight;  a person  takes  a ftrrrdtn  upon  himself,  or 
has  it  imposed  upon  him  ; the  load  is  always  laid  on  ; 
it  is  not  prfiper  to  carry  any  weight  that  exceeds  our 
strength ; those  who  bear  the  burden  expect  to  reap  the 
fruit  of  their  labour;  he  who  carries  ioads  must  be  con- 
tented to  take  such  as  are  given  him. 

In  the  moral  application,  these  terms  mark  the  pain 
which  is  produced  by  a pressure;  but  the  weight  and 
load  rather  describe  the  positive  severity  of  the  pres- 
sure: the  burden  respects  the  temper  and  inclinations  of 
the  sufferer;  the  Zead  is  in  this  case  a very  great  ; 

a minister  of  state  has  a weight  on  his  mind  at  all 
times,  from  the  heavy  responsibility  which  attaches  to 
bis  station;  ‘With  what  oppressive  wezV/iZ  will  sick- 
ness, disappointment,  or  old  age  fall  upon  the  spirits  of 
that  man  who  is  a stranger  to  God!’— Blair.  One 
who  labours  under  strong  apprehensions  or  dread  of 
an  evil  has  a load  on  his  mind  ; ‘ How  a man  can  have 
a quiet  and  cheerful  mind  under  a burden  and  load  of 
guilt,  I know  not,  unless  he  be  very  ignorant.’ — Ray. 
Any  sort  of  employment  is  a burden  to  one  who  wishes 
to  be  idle;  and  time  unemployed  is  a burden  to  him 
who  wishes  to  be  always  in  action ; 

I understood  not  that  a grateful  mind 

By  owing  owes  not,  but  still  pays  at  once  ; 

Indebted  and  discharg’d:  what  burden  then? 

Milto.n. 


HEAVY,  BURDENSOME,  WEIGHTY,  PON- 
DEROUS. 

Heavy,  from  heave,  signifies  the  causing  to  heave, 
or  requiring  to  be  lifted  up  with  force ; burdensome, 
having  a burden ; weighty  and  ponderous,  from  the 
Latin ;)ondMS  a weight,  both  signify  having  a weight. 

Heaviness  is  the  natural  property  of  some  bodies : 
burdensomeness  is  incidental  to  others.  In  the  vulgar 
sense,  thintrs  are  termed  Aeawj/whicli  are  found  difficult 
to  lift,  in  distinction  from  those  which  are  light  or  easy 
to  be  lifted  ; but  those  things  are  burdensome  which  are 
too  troublesome  to  be  carried  or  borne : many  things 
tiieiefi^o  are  actinllv  heavy  that  are  never  burden- 


some; and  others  are  occasionally  iurdcasoKie  tha.  ait 
newx  heavy : that  which  is  heavy  is  so  whether  lifted 
or  not,  but  that  which  is  burdensome  must  be  burden- 
some to  some  one;  ‘Though  philosophy  toacheg,  that 
no  element  is  heavy  in  its  own  place,  yet  experience 
shows  that  out  of  its  own  place  it  proves  exceeding 
burdensome  ' — South.  Hard  substances  are  mostly 
heavy ; but  to  a weak  person  the  softest  sub.stancemay 
sometimes  be  burdensome  if  he  is  obliged  to  bear  it. 
things  are  heavy  according  to  the  difficulty  with  which 
they  are  lifted  ; but  they  are  weighty.  accoxA'mg  as  they 
weigh  other  things  down.  The  heavy  is  therefore  in- 
definite; but  the  weighty  is  definite,  and  something 
positively  great : what  is  heavy  to  one  may  be  light  to 
another;  but  that  which  is  weighty  exceeds  the  ordi 
nary  weight  of  other  things ; 

The  sable  troops  along  the  narrow  tracks 

Scarce  bear  the  weighty  burden  on  their  backs. 

Dryden. 

Ponderous  expresses  even  more  than  weighty,  for  it 
includes  also  the  idea  of  bulk  ; the  ponderous  there- 
fore is  that  which  is  so  weighty  and  large  that  it  can- 
not etisily  be  moved ; ‘ The  diligence  of  an  idler  is  rapid 
and  impetuous,  as  ponderous  bodies  forced  into  velocity 
move  with  violence  proportionate  to  their  weight.’- 
JOHNSON. 


TO  CLOG,  LOAD,  ENCUMBER. 

Clog  is  probably  changed  from  clot  or  clod,  signify- 
ing to  put  a heavy  lump  in  the  way  ; load,  from  to 
load,  in  Saxon  laden,  Dutch,  &c.  laden,  signifies  to 
burden  with  a load,  or  lay  any  thing  on  so  as  to  form 
a load  ; encumber,  compounded  of  en  ox  in  and  cum- 
ber, in  German  hummer,  sorrow,  signifies  to  burden 
with  trouble. 

Clog  is  figuratively  employed  for  whatever  impedes 
the  motion  or  action  of  a thing,  drawn  from  the  fami- 
liar object  which  is  used  to  impede  the  motion  of  ani- 
mals : load  is  used  for  whatever  occasions  an  excess 
of  weight  or  materials.  A wheel  is  clogged,  or  a ma- 
chine is  clogged:  a fire  may  be  loaded  with  coals,  or 
a picture  with  colouring.  The  stomach  and  memory 
may  be  either  clogged  or  loaded:  in  the  former  case 
by  the  introduction  of  improper  food  ; and  in  the 
second  case  by  the  introduction  of  an  improper  quan- 
tity. A memory  that  is  clogged  becomes  confused, 
and  confounds  one  thing  with  another ; that  which  it 
loaded  loses  the  impression  of  one  object  by  the  intro- 
duction of  another;  ‘Butler  gives  Hudibras  that  pe- 
dantick  ostentation  of  knowledge,  which  has  no  rela- 
tion to  chivalry,  and  loads  him  with  martial  encum- 
brances that  can  add  nothing  to  his  civil  dignity.’ — 
Johnson. 

Clog  and  encumber  have  the  common  signification 
of  interrupting  or  troubling  by  means  of  something 
irrelevant.  Whatever  is  clogged  has  scarcely  the 
liberty  of  moving  at  all ; whatever  is  encumbered 
moves  and  acts,  but  with  difficulty.  When  the  roots 
of  plants  are  clogged  with  mould,  or  any  impropei 
substance,  their  growth  is  .almost  stopped  : weeds  and 
noxious  plants  are  encumbrances  in  the  ground  where 
flowers  should  grow  : the  commands  or  prohibition 
of  parents  sometimes  very  fortunately  clog  those  whose 
sanguine  tempers  would  lead  them  into  imprudence , 
‘ Whatsoever  was  observed  by  the  ancient  philoso- 
phers, either  irregular  or  defective  in  the  workings  of 
the  mind,  was  all  charged  upon  the  body  as  its  great 
cZoo'.’— South.  No  one  can  expect  to  proceed  with 
ease  to  himself  in  any  transaction,  who  is  encumbered 
with  a variety  of  concerns  at  the  same  time ; ‘ This 
minority  is  great  and  formidable.  I do  not  know  whe- 
ther, if  I aimed  at  the  tot<al  overthrow  of  a kingdom, 
I should  wish  to  be  encumbered  with  a large  body  of 
partizans.’— Burke. 

TO  POISE,  BALANCE. 

Poise,  in  French  peser,  probably  comes  from  pes  a 
foot,’On  which  the  body  is  .as  it  were  poised;  balance 
in  French  balancer,  comes  from  the  Latin  bilanx,  oi 
bis  .and  lanx,  a pair  of  scales. 

The  idea  of  bringing  into  an  equilibrium  is  commor 
to  both  terms ; but  poise  is  a particular,  and  balanc 
a more  general  term:  .a  thing  is  poised  as  reaped 
itself ; it  is  balanced  as  restiects  otlier  binas 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


371 


potjes  a plain  stick  in  his  hand  when  he  wants  it  to 
lie  even ; he  balances  the  stick  if  it  has  a particular 
weight  at  each  end:  a person  may  poise  himself,  but 
he  balances  others  : when  not  on  firm  ground,  it  is  ne- 
cessary to  poise  oneself ; when  two  persons  are  situated 
one  at  each  end  of  a beam,  they  may  balance  one  an- 
other. These  terms  preserve  the  same  distinction  in 
a figurative  acceptation ; 

Some  evil,  terrible  and  unforeseen, 

Must  sure  ensue,  to  poise  the  scale  against 
This  vast  profusion  of  exceeding  pleasure. — Rowe. 
This,  O ! this  very  moment  let  me  die, 

While  hopes  and  fears  in  equal  balance  lie. 

Drydkn. 


TO  PERISH,  DIE,  DECAY. 

• Perish,  in  French  perir,  in  Latin  pereo,  compounded 
of  per  and  eo,  signifies  to  go  thoroughly  away  ; die,  v. 
To  die ; and  decay,  v.  To  decay. 

To  perish  expresses  more  than  to  die,  and  is  appli- 
cable to  many  objects ; for  the  latter  is  properly  ap- 
plied only  to  express  the  extinction  of  animal  life,  and 
figuratively  to  express  the  extinction  of  life  or  spirit 
in  vegetables  or  other  bodies;  but  the  former  is  ap- 
plied to  express  the  dissolution  of  substances,  so  that 
they  lose  their  existence  as  aggregate  bodies.  What 
perishes,  tlierefore,  does  not  always  die,  although  what- 
ever dies,  by  that  very  act  perishes  to  a certain  extent. 
Hence  we  say  that  wood  perishes,  altliough  it  does  not 
die;  people  are  said  either  to  perish  or  die:  but  as 
the  term  perish  expresses  even  more  than  dying,  it  is 
possible  for  the  same  thing  to  die  and  noi perish;  thus 
a plant  may  be  said  to  die  when  it  loses  its  vegetative 
power  ; but  it  is  said  to  perish  if  its  substance  crum- 
bles into  dust. 

To  perish  expresses  the  end  ; to  decay,  the  process 
by  wliich  this  end  is  brought  about : a thing  may  be 
long  in  decaying,  but  when  it  perishes  it  ceases  at  once 
to  act  or  to  exist : tilings  may,  therefore,  perish  with- 
out decaying ; they  may  likewise  decay  witliout  perish- 
ing. Things  may  perish  by  means  of  water,  fire,  light- 
ning, and  the  like,  which  are  altogether  new,  and  have 
experienced  no  kind  of  decay : on  the  other  hand,  wood, 
iron,  and  other  substances  may  begin  to  decay,  but  may 
be  saved  from  immediately  perishing  by  the  applica- 
tion of  preventives. 

In  a moral  or  extended  application  of  the  terms  tliey 
preserve  a similar  distinction  : to  die  signifies  simply 
to  fall  away ; thus,  thoughts  may  die  in  one’s  breast 
which  never  return,  or  power  may  die  with  the  pos- 
sessor ; ‘ Whatever  pleasure  any  man  may  take  in 
spreading  whispers,  he  will  find  greater  satisfaction  in 
letting  the  secret  die  within  his  own  breast-’ — Specta- 
tor. With  perish  is  always  associated  the  manner 
and  degree  of  the  extinction,  namely,  that  it  is  com- 
plete, and  effected  for  the  most  part  by  violence  ; 

Beauty  and  youth  about  to  perish  finds 

Such  noble  pity  in  brave  English  minds. — Waller. 
Decay  is  figuratively  employed  in  the  sense  of  gra- 
dually sinking  into  a state  of  non  existence; 

The  soul’s  dark  cottage,  batter’d  and  decay'd. 

Lets  in  new  light  through  cliinks  that  time  has  made. 

Waller. 


TO  DIE,  EXPIRE. 

Die,  in  Low  German  doen,  Danish  doe,  from  the 
Greek  to  kill,  designates  in  general  the  extinction 
of  being,  which  may  be  considered  either  as  gradual 
or  otherwise  ; ‘ She  died  every  day  she  lived.’ — Rowe. 
Expire,  from  the  Latin  e or  ex  and  spiro  to  breathe 
out,  designates  the  last  action  of  life  in  certain  objects, 
and  is  of  course  a momentary  act ; ‘ Pope  died  in  the 
evening  of  the  thirtieth  day  of  May,  1744,  so  placidly, 
that  the  attendants  did  not  discern  the  exact  time  of 
his  expiration.' — Johnson. 

* There  are  beings,  such  as  trees  and  plants,  which' 
are  said  to  live,  although  they  have  not  breatlj;  tlicse 
die,  hut  do  not  expire:  there  are  other  beings  which 
absorb  and  emit  air,  but  do  not  live  ; such  as  the  flame 
of  a lamp,  which  does  not  die,  but  it  expires.  By  a 
natural  metaphor,  the  time  of  being  is  put  for  the  life 

* VideTrusler;  “ Die,  expire.” 

21* 


of  objects  ; and  he^ice  we  speak  of  the  date  expiring, 
the  term  expiring,  and  the  like;  ‘A  parliament  may 
expire  by  length  of  time.’ — Blackstone.  As  life  ig 
applied  figuratively  to  moral  objects,  so  may  death  to 
objects  not  having  physical  life  ; ‘ A dissolution  is  the 
civil  death  of  parliament.’ — Blackstone.  ‘ When 
Alexander  the  Great  died,  the  Grecian  monarchy  ex 
pired  with  him.’ — South. 

DEATH,  DEPARTURE,  DECEASE,  DEMISE 

Death  signifies  the  act  of  dying;  departure,  the  act 
of  departing  : decease,  from  flic  Latin  decedo  to  fall  off, 
the  act  of  falling  away  ; demise,  from  dcmitto  to  lay 
down,  signifies  literally  resigning  possession. 

Death  is  a general  or  a particular  term  ; it  marks  in 
the  abstract  sense  the  extinction  of  life,  and  is  appli- 
cable to  men  or  animals;  to  one  or  many.  Departure, 
decease,  and  demise  are  particular  expressions  suitec 
only  to  the  condition  of  human  beings.  * Departure 
is  a Christian  term,  which  carries  with  it  an  idea  of  a 
passage  from  one  life  to  another ; decease  is  a techni- 
cal term  in  law,  which  is  introduced  into  common  Ian 
guage  to  designate  one’s  falling  off'  from  the  number 
of  the  living  ; demise  is  substituted  for  decease  in 
speaking  of  princes,  who  by  their  death  also  put  On 
their  eaithly  power;  ‘So  tender  is  the  law  of  sup- 
posing even  a possibility  of  the  king’s  death,  that  his 
natural  dissolution  is  generally  called  his  demise  ’ — 
Blackstone. 

Death  of  itself  has  always  something  terrifick  in  it; 
but  the  Gospel  has  divested  it  of  Its  terrours:  the  hour 
of  departure,  therefore,  for  a Christian  is  often  the 
happiest  period  of  his  mortal  e.xistence ; ‘ How  quickly 
would  the  honours  of  illustrious  men  perish  after  death, 
if  their  souls  performed  nothing  to  preserve  their  fame.' 
— Hughes  (after  Xenophon).  Decease  presents  only 
tlie  idea  of  leaving  life  to  the  survivors.  Of  death  it 
has  been  saio,  that  nothing  is  more  certain  than  that  it 
will  come,  and  nothing  more  uncertain  than  when  it 
will  come.  Knowing  tliat  we  have  here  no  resting 
place  of  abode,  it  is  the  part  of  wisdom  to  look  forward 
to  o\ix  departure ; ‘The  loss  of  our  friends  impresse.s 
upon  us  hourly  the  necessity  of  our  own  departure.' 
Johnson.  Property  is  in  perpetual  occupancy  ; at  the 
decease  of  one  possessor,  it  passes  into  the  hands  of 
another ; ‘ Though  men  see  every  day  people  go  to 
their  long  home,  they  are  not  so  apt  to  be  alarmed  at 
that,  as  at  the  decease  of  those  who  have  lived  longer 
in  their  sight.’ — Steele. 

The  death  of  an  individual  is  sometimes  attended 
with  circumstances  peculiarly  distressing  to  those  who 
are  nearly  related.  The  tears  which  are  shed  at  the 
departure  of  those  we  love  are  not  always  indica- 
tions of  our  weakness,  but  rather  testimonies  of  their 
worth. 

As  an  epithet,  dead  is  used  collectively  ; departed  is 
used  with  a noun  only ; deceased  generally  without 
a noun,  to  denote  one  or  more  according  to  the  con 
nexion. 

There  is  a respect  due  to  the  dead,  which  cannot  be 
violated  without  offence  to  the  living; 

The  living  and  the  dead,  at  his  command, 

■Were  coupled  face  to  face,  and  hand  to  hand. 

Dryden. 

It  is  a pleasant  reflection  to  conceive  of  departed 
spirits,  as  taking  an  interest  in  the  concerns  of  those 
whom  they  have  left : ‘ The  sophistick  tyrants  of  Paris 
are  loud  in  their  declamations  against  the  departed 
regal  tyrants,  who  in  former  ages  have  vexed  the 
world.’ — Burke.  All  the  marks  on  the  body  of  the 
deceased  indicated  that  he  had  met  with  his  death  by 
some  violence;  ‘It  was  enacted  in  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward I.,  that  the  ordinary  shall  be  bound  to  pay  the 
debts  of  the  intestate,  in  the  same  manner  that  exe 
cutors  were  bound  in  case  the  deceased  left  a wiU  ’ 
Blackstone. 


DEADLY,  MORTAL,  FATAL. 

Deadly  or  deadlike  signifies  like  death  itself  in  its 
effects ; mortal,  in  Latin  rnortalis,  signifies  belonging 
to  death;  fatal,  in  Latin  fatalis,  i.  e.  according  to  fate 
Deadly  is  applied  to  vrhat  is  productive  of  death ; 

* Vide  Trusler : “ Departure,  death,  decease  ’’ 


372 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


On  him  amid  the  flying  numbers  found, 
Eurypilus  inflicts  a deadiy  wound.— Pope. 
Mortal  to  what  terminates  in  or  is  liable  to  death; 
‘For  my  own  part,  I never  could  think  that  the  soul, 
while  in  a mortal  body,  lives.’ — Hughes  {after  Xeno- 
phon). Fatal  applies  not  only  to  death,  but  every 
thing  which  may  be  of  great  mischief ; 

O fatal  change!  become  in  one  sad  day 
A senseless  corse ! inanimated  clay. — Pope. 

A poison  is  deadly ; a wound  or  a wounded  part  is 
mortal;  a step  in  walking,  or  a step  in  one’s  conduct, 
may  be  fatal.  Things  only  are  deadly.,  creatures  are 
mortal.  Hatred  is  deadly ; whatever  lias  life  is  mortal. 
Tliere  may  be  remedies  sometimes  to  counteract  that 
which  is  deadly ; but  that  which  is  mortal  is  past  all 
cure;  and  that  which  is  fatal  cannot  be  retrieved. 

NUMB,  BENUMBED,  TORPID. 

JiTumb  and  benumbed  come  from  the  Hebrew  num 
to  sleep;  the  former  denoting  the  quality,  and  the 
latter  the  state:  there  are  but  few  things  numb  by 
nature;  but  there  may  be  many  things  which  may  be 
benumbed.  Torpid,  in  Latin  torpidus,  from  torpeo  to 
languisi),  is  most  commonly  employed  to  express  the 
permanent  state  of  being  benumbed,  as  in  the  case  of 
some  animals,  which  lie  in  a torpid  state  all  the  winter ; 
or  in  the  moral  sense  to  depict  the  benumbed  state  of 
the  thinking  faculty;  in  this  manner  we  speak  of  the 
torpor  of  persons  who  are  benumbed  by  any  strong 
aflTection,  or  by  any  strong  external  action ; ‘ The  night, 
with  its  silence  and  darkness,  shows  the  winter,  in 
which  all  the  powers  of  vegetation  are  benumbed.' — 
Johnson.  ‘ There  must  be  a grand  spectacle  to  rouse 
the  imagination,  grown  torpid  with  the  lazy  enjoyment 
of  sixty  years’  security.’— Burke. 

EXIT,  DEPARTURE. 

Bath  these  words  are  metaphorically  employed  for 
death,  or  a passage  out  of  this  life : tlie  former  is  bor- 
rowed from  the  act  of  going  off  the  stage ; the  latter 
from  tlie  act  of  setting  off  on  a journey.  The  exit 
seems  to  convey  the  idea  of  volition ; for  we  speak  of 
making  our  exit : the  departure  designates  simply  the 
event;  the  hour  of  a man’s  departure  is  not  made 
known  to  him.  When  we  speak  of  the  exit,  we  think 
only  of  the  place  left ; when  we  speak  of  departure, 
we  think  not  only  of  the  object  left,  but  of  the  place 
gone  to.  The  unbeliever  may  talk  of  his  exit;  the 
Christian  most  commonly  speaks  of  his  departure; 
‘ There  are  no  ideas  strike  more  forcibly  upon  our  ima- 
ginations than  those  which  are  raised  from  reflections 
upon  the  exits  of  great  and  excellent  men.’— Steele. 
‘Happy  was  their  good  prince  in  his  timely  departure, 
which  barred  him  from  the  knowledge  of  his  son’s 
miseries.’ — Sidnev. 


TO  STRENGTHEN,  FORTIFY,  INVIGORATE. 

Strengthen,  from  strength,  and  fortify,  from  fortis 
and /ac20,  signify  to  make  strong  ; invigorate  signifies 
to  put  in  vigour  {v.  Energy). 

Whatever  adds  to  the  strength,  be  it  in  ever  so  small 
a degree,  strengthens ; exercise  strengthens  either 
body  or  mind;  ‘There  is  a certain  bias  towards  know- 
ledge, in  every  mind,  which  may  be  strengthened  and 
improved.’ — Budgell.  Whatever  gives  strength  for 
a particular  emergence  fortifies  ; religion  fortifies  the 
mind  against  adversity;  ‘This  relation  will  not  be 
wholly  without  its  use,  if  those  who  languish  under 
any  part  of  its  sufferings  shall  be  enabled  to  fortify 
their  patience  by  reflecting  that  they  feel  only  those 
afflictions  from  which  the  abilities  of  Savage  could  not 
exempt  him.’ — Johnson.  Whatever  adds  to  the 
strength,  so  as  to  give  a positive  degree  of  strength, 
invigorates ; morning  exercise  in  fine  weather  invi- 
gorates ; 

For  much  the  pack 

(Rmis’d  from  their  dark  alcoves)  delight  to  stretch 

And  bask  in  his  invigorating  ray. — Somerville. 

STRONG,  FIRM,  ROBUST,  STURDY. 

Strong  is  in  all  probability  a variation  of  strict, 
which  is  in  German  strong,  because  strength  is  alto- 


gether derived  from  the  close  coAtextuie  of  bodies; 
robust,  in  Latin  robustus,  from  robur,  signifies  lite- 
rally having  the  strength  of  oak ; sturdy,  like  the  word 
stout,  steady  {v.  Firm),  comes  in  all  probability  from 
stehen  to  stand,  signifying  capable  of  standing. 

Strong  is  here  the  generick  term ; the  others  are  sue 
cifick,  or  specify  strength  under  different  circiim 
stances;  robust  is  a positive  and  high  degree  of 
strength,  arising  from  a peculiar  bodily  make;  sturdy 
indicates  not  only  strength  of  body  but  also  of  mind 
a man  may  be  strong  from  the  strength  of  his  consti- 
tution, from  the  power  which  is  inherent  in  his  frame; 

If  thou  hast  strength,  ’t  was  Heaven  that  strength 
bestow’d. — Pope. 

A robust  man  has  strength  both  from  the  size  and  tex 
ture  of  his  body,  he  has  a bone  and  nerve  which  is 
endowed  with  great  power.  A little  man  may  be 
strong,  although  not  robust;  a tall,  stout  man,  in 
full  health,  may  be  termed  robust. 

A man  may  be  strong  in  one  part  of  his  body  and 
not  in  another  ; he  may  be  stronger  at  one  time,  from 
particular  circumstances,  than  he  is  at  another ; but  a 
robust  man  is  strong  in  his  whole  body;  and  as  he  ia 
robust  by  nature,  he  will  cease  to  be  so  only  from 
disease  ; 

The  huntsman  ever  gay,  robust,  and  bold. 

Defies  the  noxious  vapour. — Somerville. 

Sturdiness  lies  both  in  the  make  of  the  body  and  the 
temper  of  the  mind  : a sturdy  man  is  capable  of  making 
resistance,  and  ready  to  make  it ; he  must  be  naturally 
strong,  and  not  of  slender  make,  but  he  need  not  be 
robust;  a sturdy  peasant  presents  us  with  the  picture 
of  a man  who,  both  by  nature  and  habit,  is  formed  foi 
withstanding  the  inroads  of  an  enemy ; 

This  must  be  done,  and  I would  fain  see 
Mortal  so  sturdy  as  to  gainsay.— Hudibras. 
Sometimes  this  epithet  is  applied  to  those  objecn 
which  cause  a violent  resistance ; 

Beneath  their  sturdy  strokes  the  billows  roar. 

Dryden 

Every  object  is  termed  strong  which  is  the  reverse 
of  weak;  persons  only  are  termed  robust  who  havt 
every  bodily  requisite  to  make  them  more  than  ordi- 
narily strong;  persons  only  are  sturdy  whose  habits  c( 
life  qualify  them  both  for  action  and  for  endurance 


SUBSTANTIAL,  SOLID. 

Substantial  signifies  having  a substance:  solid  slg 
nifies  having  a firm  substance.  The  substantial  ii 
opposed  to  that  which  is  thin  and  has  no  consistency; 
the  solid  is  opposed  to  the  liquid,  or  that  which  is  of 
loose  consistency.  All  objects  which  admit  of  being 
handled  are  in  their  nature  substantial ; those  which 
are  of  so  hard  a texture  as  to  require  to  be  cut  are 
solid.  Substantial  food  is  that  which  has  a consist 
ency  in  itself,  and  is  capable  of  giving  fulness  to  tlu 
empty  stomach ; solid  food  is  meat  in  distinction  frow 
drink. 

In  the  moral  application,  an  argument  is  said  to  b( 
substantial  which  has  weight  in  itself; 

Trusting  in  its  own  native  and  substantial  worth, 

Scorns  all  meretricious  ornaments. — Milton. 

A reason  is  solid  whicli  has  a high  degree  of  substan- 
tiality; 

As  the  swoln  columns  of  ascending  smoke. 

So  solid  swells  thy  grandeur,  pigmy  man. 

Young 

ENERGY,  FORCE,  VIGOUR. 

Energy,  in  French  energie,  Latin  energir%,  Greek 
heoyia  from  evcpyfw  to  operate  inwardly,  signifies  tho 
power  of  producing  positive  effects ; force,  v.  To  com 
pel;  vigour,  from  the  Latin  vigeo  to  flourish,  signifies 
unimpaired  power,  or  that  which  belongs  to  a subject 
*in  a sound  or  flourishing  state. 

With  energy  is  connected  the  idea  of  activity;  with 
force  that  of  capability;  with  vigour  that  of  health. 
Energy  lies  only  in  the  mind ; force  and  vigour  are  the 
property  of  either  body  or  mind.  Knowledge  and 
freedom  combine  to  produce  energy  of  character; 
‘Our  powers  awe  much  of  their  energy  to  our  hopes, 
possunt  guia  posse  videntur  When  success  seems 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


373 


Attainable,  diligence  is  enforced.’ — Johnson.  Force  is 
a gift  of  nature  that  may  be  increased  by  exercise ; 

On  the  passive  main 

Descends  th’  ethereal  /orce,  and  v\'idi  strong  gust 

Turns  from  its  bottom  the  discolour’d  deep. 

Thomson. 

Vigour,  both  bodily  and  mental,  is  an  ordinary  accom- 
panimen  youth,  but  is  not  always  denied  to  old 
»ge;  ‘No  man  at  the  age  and  vigour  of  thirty  is  fond 
of  sugar-plums  and  rattles.’ — South. 

HARD,  FIRM,  SOLID. 

Ihe  close  adherence  of  the  component  parts  of  a 
bi)dy  constitutes  hardness.  The  close  adherence  of 
difierent  bodies  to  each  other  constitutes  firmness 
(u  Fixed).  That  is  hard  which  will  not  yield  to  a 
closer  compression ; ‘ I see  you  labouring  through  all 
your  inconveniences  of  the  rough  roads,  the  hard 
saddle,  the  trotting  horse,  and  what  not.’ — Pope. 
That  is  firm  which  will  not  yield  so  as  to  produce  a 
separation ; 

The  loosen’d  ice 

Rustles  no  more;  but  to  the  sedgy  bank 
Fast  grows,  or  gathers  round  the  pointed  stone, 

A crystal  pavement,  by  the  breath  of  heaven 
Cemented  — Thomson. 

Ice  is  hard,  as  far  as  it  respects  itself,  when  it  resists 
every  pressure;  it  is  firm,  with  regard  to  the  water 
which  it  covers,  when  it  is  so  closely  bound  as  to  resist 
every  weight  without  breaking. 

Hard  and  solid  respect  the  internal  constitution  of 
bodies,  and  the  adherence  of  the  component  parts ; 
but  hard  denotes  a much  closer  degree  of  adherence 
than  solid : the  hard  is  opposed  to  the  soft ; the  solid 
to  the  fluid;  every  hard  body  is  by  nature  solid; 
although  every  solid  body  is  not  hard.  Wood  is 
.always  a solid  body,  but  is  sometimes  hard  and  some- 
times soft:  water,  when  congealed,  is  a solid  body, 
and  admits  of  different  degrees  of  hardness ; ‘A  co- 
pious manner  of  expression  gives  strength  and  weight 
to  our  ideas,  which  frequently  makes  impression  upon 
the  mind,  as  iron  does  upon  solid  bodies,  rather  by  re- 
peated strokes  than  a single  blow.’— Mklmoth  {Letters 
of  Pliny). 

In  the  improper  application,  hardness  is  allied  to  in- 
nensibility ; firmness  to  fixedness;  solidity  to  substan- 
tiality; a hard  man  is  not  to  be  acted  upon  by  any 
tender  motives;  a firm  man  is  not  to  be  turned  from 
his  purpose;  a.  solid  man  holds  no  purposes  that  are 
not  well  founded.  A man  is  hardened  in  that  which 
is  bad,  by  being  made  insensible  to  that  which  is  good : 
a man  is  confirmed  in  any  thing  good  or  bad,  by  being 
rendered  less  disposed  to  lay  it  aside  ; his  mind  is  con- 
solidated by  acquiring  fresh  motives  for  action. 


HARD,  CALLOUS,  HARDENED,  OBDURATE. 

Hard  is  here,  as  in  the  former  case  (?;.  Hard),  the 
general  term,  and  the  rest  particular:  hard,  in  its  most 
extensive  and  physical  sense,  denotes  the  property  of 
resisting  the  action  of  external  force,  so  as  not  to  un- 
dergo any  change  in  its  form,  or  motion  in  its  parts: 
callous  is  that  species  of  the  hard,  in  application  to  the 
skin,  which  arises  from  its  dryness,  and  the  absence  of 
all  nervous  susceptibility.  Hard  and  callous  are  like- 
wise applied  in  the  moral  sense : but  hard  denotes  the 
absence  of  tender  feeling,  or  the  property  of  resisting 
any  impreaiion  which  tender  objects  are  apt  to  pro- 
duce; 

Such  woes 

Not  e’en  the  hardest  of  our  foes  could  hear. 

Nor  stitrn  Ulysses  tell  without  a tear. — Dryden. 
Callous  denotes  the  property  of  not  yielding  to  the 
force  of  objects  acting  on  the  senses  of  the  mind; 
‘Licentiousness  has  so  long  passed  for  sharpness  of 
wit,  and  greatness  of  tnind,  that  the  conscience  is 
growh  %aWo?<s. ’—L’Estrange.  A hard  heart  cannot 
be  mo\ed  by  the  sight  of  misery,  let  it  be  presented  in 
ever  so  affecting  a form  : a callous  mind  is  not  to  be 
touched  by  any  persuasions  however  powerful. 

Hard  does  not  designate  any  circumstance  of  its 
existence  or  origin  : we  may  be  hard  from  a variety  of 
causes;  hnt  callousness  arises  from  the  indulgence  of 
vices,  passions,  and  the  pursuit  of  vicious  practices 


When  we  speak  of  a person  as  hatd,  it  simply  deter- 
ntines  what  he  is:  if  we  speak  of  him  as  callous,  it 
refers  also  to  what  he  was,  and  from  what  lie  is  be- 
come so ; ‘By  degrees  the  sense  grows  callous,  and 
loses  that  exquisite  relish  of  trifles.’ — Berkeley. 

Callous,  hardened,  nnA.  obdurate  aie  all  employed  to 
designate  a morally  depraved  character:  hnl  callous 
ness  belongs  properly  to  the  heart  and  affections; 
hardened  to  both  the  heart  and  the  understanding; 
obdurate  more  particularly  to  the  will.  Callousness 
is  the  first  stage  of  hardness  in  moral  depravity  ; it 
may  exist  in  the  infant  mind,  on  its  first  tasting  the 
poisonous  pleasures  of  vice,  without  being  acquainted 
with  its  remote  consequences;  ‘If  they  let  go  their 
hope  of  everlasting  life  with  willingness,  and  entertain 
final  perdition  with  exultation,  ought  they  not  to  be 
esteemed  destitute  of  common  sense,  and  abandoned 
to  a callousness  and  numbness  of  soulT — Bentley. 
A hardened  state  is  the  work  of  time;  it  arises  from  a 
continued  course  of  vice,  which  becomes  as  it  were 
habitual,  and  wholly  unfits  a person  for  admitting  of 
any  other  impressions; 

His  harden'd  heart,  nor  prayers,  nor  threatenings 
move ; 

Fate  and  the  gods  had  stopp’d  his  ears  to  love. 

Dryden 

Obduracy  is  the  last  stage  of  moral  hardness,  which 
supposes  the  whole  mind  to  be  obstinately  bent  on 
vice ; 

Round  he  throws  his  baleful  eyes, 

That  witness’d  huge  affliction  and  dismay. 

Mix’d  with  obdurate  pr  ide  and  steadfast  hate 

Milton. 

A child  discovers  himself  to  be  callous,  when  the  tears 
and  entreaties  of  a patent  cannot  awaken  in  him  a 
single  sentiment  of  contrition  ; a youth  discovers  him- 
self to  bo  hardened  when  he  begins  to  take  a pride  and 
a pleasure  in  a vicious  career;  a man  shows  himself 
to  be  obdurate  when  he  betrays  a settled  and  confirmed 
purpose  to  pursue  his  abandoned  course,  without  re 
gard  to  consequences. 

HARDHEARTED,  CRUEL,  UNMERCIFUL, 
MERCILESS. 

Hardhearted  is  here,  as  the  word  hard  (v.  Hard, 
the  strongest  of  these  ternrs:  in  regard  to  cruel,  it  be 
speaks  a settled  character;  whereas  that  may  be  fre 
quently  a temporary  disposition,  or  even  extend  no 
farther  than  the  action.  A hardhearted  man  must 
always  be  cruel;  but  it  is  possible  to  be  cruel,  and  yet 
not  hardhearted.  A hardhearted  parent  is  a monster 
who  spurns  from  him  the  being  that  owes  his  existence 
to  him,  and  depends  upon  him  for  support.  A child  is 
often  cruel  to  animals  from  the  mistaken  conception 
that  they  are  not  liable  to  the  same  sufferings  as  him- 
self. 

The  unmerciful  and  merciless  are  both  modes  or 
characteristicks  of  tke  hardhearted.  An  unmerciful 
man  is  hardhearted,  ittasmircir  as  he  is  urrwiilittg  to  ex 
tend  his  cotttpassion  or  mercy  to  one  who  is  in  his 
power;  a merciless  man,  which  is  more  than  an  ww- 
merciful  man,  is  hardhearted,  inasmuch  as  he  is  re- 
strained by  no  conrpunctioirs  feelings  from  inflicting 
pain  on  those  who  are  in  his  power.  Avarice  makes 
a man  hardhearted  even  to  those  who  are  bound  to 
him  by  the  closest  ties.  Avarice  will  make  a man  un- 
merciful to  those  who  are  in  his  debt.  There  are  ntany 
merciless  tyrants  in  domestick  life,  who  show  their 
disposition  by  their  merciless  treatment  of  their  poor 
brutes ; ‘ Single  men,  thoirgh  they  be  many  tinres  more 
charitable,  on  the  other  side,  are  more  cruel  and  hard- 
hearted, because  their  tenderness  is  not  so  oft  called 
upon.’ — Bacon. 

Relentless  love  the  cruel  mother  led 

The  blood  of  her  unhappy  babes  to  shed. — Dryden. 

‘ I saw  how  unmerciful  you  were  to  your  eyes  in  you*’ 
last  letter  to  me.’ — Tillotson. 

To  crush  a merciless  and  cruel  victor. — Dryden 


CRUEL,  INHUMAN,  BARBAROUS,  BRUTAL, 
SAVAGE. 

Cruel,  from  the  Latin  crudelis  and  crudus  raw 
rough,  or  untutored ; inhuman,  compounded  of  the 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


privative  in  and  huvian^  signifies  not  human;  bar- 
barous, from  the  Greek  (SdpISapos  rude  or  unsettled, 
all  mark  a degree  of  bad  feeling  which  is  uncontrolled 
by  culture  or  refinement;  brutal,  signifying  like  a 
brute ; and  savage,  from  the  Latin  scevus  fierce,  and 
the  Hebrew  3 XT  a wolf,  marks  a still  stronger  degree 
of  this  bad  passion. 

Cruel  is  the  most  familiar  and  the  least  powerful 
epithet  of  all  these  terms;  it  designates  the  ordinary 
propensity  which  is  innate  in  man,  and  which  if  not 
overpowered  by  a better  principle,  will  invariably  show 
itself  by  the  desire  of  inflicting  positive  pain  on  others, 
or  abridging  their  comfort:  inhuman  and  barbarous 
are  higher  degrees  of  cruelty;  brutal  m\A  savage  rise 
so  much  in  degree  above  the  rest,  as  almost  to  partake 
of  another  nature.  A child  gives  early  symptoms  of 
his  natural  cruelty  by  his  ill-treatment  of  animals  ; 
but  we  do  not  speak  of  his  inhumanity,  because  this  is 
a term  confined  to  men,  and  more  properly  to  their 
treatment  of  their  own  species,  although  extended  in 
its  sense  to  their  treatment  of  tire  brutes  : barbarity  is 
but  too  common  among  children  and  persons  of  riper 
years.  A person  is  cruel  who  neglects  the  creature 
he  should  protect  and  take  care  of ; 

Now  be  thy  rage,  thy  fatal  rage  resign’d, 

A cruel  heart  ill  suits  a manly  mind.— Pope. 

A person  is  inhuman  if  he  withhold  from  him  the 
common  marks  of  tenderness  or  kindness  which  are 
to  be  expected  from  one  human  being  to  another ; 

Love  lent  the  sword,  the  mother  struck  the  blow. 
Inhuman  she,  but  more  inhuman  thou. — Dryden. 

A person  is  barbarous  if  he  find  amusement  in  inflict- 
ing pain ; 

I have  found  out  a gift  for  my  fair, 

I have  found  where  the  wood-pigeons  breed. 

But  let  me  that  plunder  forbear. 

She  will  say,  ’twas  a barbarous  deed. 

Shenstone. 

A person  is  brutal  or  savage  according  to  the  circum- 
stances of  aggravation  which  accompany  the  act  of 
torturing;  ‘The  play  was  acted  at  the  other  theatre, 
and  the  brutal  petulance  of  Cibber  was  confuted, 
though  perhaps  not  shamed,  by  general  applause.’ — 
Johnson. 

Brothers  by  brothers’  impiou.s  hands  are  slain ! 

Mistaken  zeal,  how  savage  is  thy  reign  ! 

Jenyns. 

Ci-uel  is  applied  either  to  the  disposition  or  the  con- 
duct; inhuman  and  barbarous  mostly  to  the  outward 
conduct:  brutal  and  savage  mostly  to  the  disposition. 
Cruelties  and  even  barbarities,  too  horrid  to  relate,  are 
daily  practised  by  men  upon  dogs  and  horses,  the  use- 
fullest  and  most  unoffending  of  brutes  ; either  for  the 
indulgence  of  a naturally  brutal  temper,  or  from  the 
impulse  of  a savage  fury : we  need  not  wonder  to  find 
the  same  men  inhuman  towards  their  children  or  tlieir 
servants.  Domitian  was  notorious  for  the  cruelly  of 
his  disposition:  the  Romans  indulged  themselves  in 
the  inhuman  practice  of  making  tlieir  slaves  and  con- 
victs fight  with  wild  beasts;  but  the  barbaritiesvj\nc\\ 
have  been  practised  on  slaves  in  the  colonies  of  Eu- 
ropean states,  exceed  every  thing  in  atrocity  that  is  re- 
ated  of  ancient  times ; proving  that,  in  spite  of  all  the 
refinement  which  the  religion  of  our  blessed  Saviour 
has  introduced  into  the  world,  the  possession  of  un- 
controlled power  will  inevitably  brutalize  the  mind,  and 
give  a savage  ferocity  to  the  character. 


FEROCIOUS,  FIERCE,  SAVAGE. 

Ferocious  and  fierce  are  both  derived  from  the  Latin 
ferox,  which  comes  from  fera  a wild  beast  : savage, 
V.  Cruel;  ferocity  marks  the  untamed  character  of  a 
cruel  disposition : fierceness  has  a greater  mixture  of 
pride  and  anger  in  it,  the  word  fiertd  in  French  being 
taken  for  haughtiness:  savageness  marks  a more  per- 
manent, but  not  so  violent,  a sentiment  of  either  cruelty 
or  anger  as  the  two  former.  Ferocity  and  fierceness 
are  in  common  applied  to  the  brutes,  to  designate  their 
natural  tempers:  savage  is  mostly  employed  to  desig- 
nate the  natural  tempers  of  man,  when  uncontrolled 
by  the  force  of  reason  and  a sense  of  religion.  Eero- 
is  the  nature!  characteristick  of  wild  beasts-  it  is 


a delight  in  blood  that  needs  no  outwaii  stimulus 
call  it  into  action ; but  it  displays  itself  most  strikingly 
in  the  moment  when  the  animal  is  going  to  grasp,  or 
when  in  the  act  of  devouring,  its  prey : fierceness  may 
be  provoked  in  many  creatures,  but  it  does  not  dis- 
cover itself  unless  roused  by  sonie  circumstances  cf 
aggravation  ; many  animals  become  fierce  by  being 
shut  up  in  cages,  and  exposed  to  the  view  of  specta 
tors:  savageness  is  as  natural  a temper  in  the  un- 
civilized man,  as  ferocity  or  fierceness  in  the  brute  ; it 
does  not  wait  for  an  enemy  to  attack,  but  is  restless  in 
search  of  some  one  whom  it  may  make  an  enemy,  and 
have  an  opportunity  of  destroying.  It  is  an  easy  tran- 
sition for  the  savage  to  become  the  ferocious  cannibal, 
glutting  himself  in  the  blood  of  his  enemies  or  the 
fierce  antagonist  to  one  who  sets  himself  up  :n  oppo- 
sition to  hihi. 

In  an  extended  application  of  these  terms,  they  beat 
the  same  relation  to  each  other : the  countenaiice  may 
be  c'nhnr  ferocious,  fierce,  or  savage,  accorditig  to  cir- 
cumstances. A robber  who  spends  his  life  in  the  act 
of  unlawfully  shedding  blood  acquires  a ferocity  of 
countenance;  ‘The  ferocious  character  of  Moloch 
appears  both  in  the  battle  and  the  council  with  exact 
consistency.’ — Johnson.  A soldier  who  follows  a pre- 
datory and  desultory  mode  of  warfare  betrays  the 
licentiousness  of  his  calling,  and  his  undisciplined 
temper,  in  the  fierceness  of  his  countenance; 

The  tempest  falls, 

• The  weary  winds  sink,  breathless.  But  who  knows 
What  fiercer  tempest  yet  may  shake  this  night'? 

Thomson. 

The  wretch  whose  enjoyment  consists  in  inflicting 
misery  on  his  dependants  or  subjects,  evinces  the 
savageness  of  his  temper  by  the  savage  joy  with 
which  he  witnesses  their  groans  and  tortures  ; 

Nay,  the  dire  monsters  that  infest  the  flood, 

By  nature  dreadful,  and  athirst  tor  blood. 

His  will  can  calm,  their  savage  tempers  bind, 

And  turn  to  mild  protectors  of  mankind. — Young 


HARD,  HARDY,  INSENSIBLE,  UNFEELING. 

Hard  (?;.  Hard)  may  either  be  applied  to  that  which 
makes  resistance  to  external  impressions,  or  that  which 
pres.ses  with  a force  upon  other  objects:  hardy,  which 
is  only  a variation  oi  hard,  is  applicable  only  in  the 
first  case  : thus,  a person’s  skin  may  be  hard,  which  is 
not  easily  acted  upon ; but  the  person  is  said  to  be 
hardy  who  can  withstand  the  elements; 

Oenus  was  next,  who  led  his  native  train 

Of  hardy  warriours  through  the  watery  plain. 

Dryuen. 

On  the  other  hand,  hard,  when  employed  as  an  active 
principle,  is  only  applied  to  tlm  moral  character;  hence, 
the  diference  between  a hardy  man  who  endures  every 
thing,  and  a hard  man  who  makes  others  endure.  In- 
sensible and  unj^eling  are  but  modes  of  the  hard; 
that  is,  they  designate  the  negative  quality  of  hard- 
ness, or  its  incapacity  to  receive  impression:  hard, 
therefore,  is  always  the  strongest  term  of  the  three ; 
and  of  the  two,  unfeeling  is  stronger  than  insensible. 
Hard  and  insensible  are  applied  physically  and  mo- 
rally ; unfeeling  is  employed  only  as  a moral  charac- 
teribtick.  A horse’s  mouth  is  hard,  inasmuch  as  it  is 
insensible  to  the  action  of  the  bit ; a man’s  heart  is 
Aarrf  which  is  insensible  to  the  miseries  of  others;  a 
man  is  unfeeling  who  does  not  regard  the  feelings  of 
others.  The  heart  may  be  hard  by  nature,  or  ren- 
dered so  by  the  influence  of  some  passion;  but  the 
person  is  commonly  unfeeling  from  circumstances. 
Shylock  is  depicted  by  Shakspeare  as  hard,  from  his 
strong  antipathy  to  the  Christians  : people  who  enjoy 
an  uninterrupted  state  of  good  health,  are  often  unfeel- 
ing in  cases  of  sickness. 

As  that  which  is  hard  mostly  hurts  or  pains  when  it 
comes  in  contact  with  the  soft,  the  term  hard  is  pecu 
liarly  applicable  to  superiours,  or  such  as  have  power 
to  inflict  pain  • a creditor  may  be  hard  towards  a 
debtor;  ‘To  be  inaccessible,  contemptuous,  and  hard 
of  heart,  is  to  revolt  against  our  own  nature.’ — Blair. 
As  insensible  signifies  a w'ant  of  sense,  it  may  be  some- 
times necessary  , a surgeon,  when  performing  an  ope- 
lation,  must  be  insensible  to  the  present  pain  which  hj 
inflicts ; but  as  a habit  of  the  mind  it  is  alwave  bad  \ 


KNGLIShi  SYNONYMES.  375 


l is  both  reproachCin  and  criminal  to  have  an  insen- 
sible heart.’— Blair.  As  unfeeling  signifies  a want 
cf  feeling,  it  is  always  taken  for  a want  of  good  feel- 
ing where  the  removal  of  pain  is  required ; the  surgeon 
shows  himself  to  be  unfeeling  who  does  not  do  every 
thing  in  his  power  to  lessen  the  pain  of  the  sufferer ; 
The  father  too  a sordid  man, 

Who  love  nor  pity  knew, 

Was  all  unfeeling  as  the  rock 

From  whence  his  riches  grew.— Mallet. 


INDIFFERENCE,  INSENSIBILITY,  APATHY. 

Indifference  signifies  no  difference;  that  is,  having 
no  diff'erence  of  feeling  for  one  thing  more  than  an- 
other ; insensibility,  from  sense  and  able,  signifies  in- 
capable of  feeling  ; apathy,  from  the  Greek  privative 
a and  nddos  feeling,  implies  witliout  feeling. 

Indifference  is  a partial  state  of  the  mind  ; apathy, 
and  insensibility  are  general  states  of  the  mind ; he 
who  has  indifference  is  not  to  be  awakened  to  feeling 
by  some  objects,  though  he  may  by  others;  but  he  who 
has  not  sensibility  is  incapable  of  feeling  ; and  he  who 
has  apathy  is  without  any  feeling.  Indifference  is 
mostly  a temporary  state ; insensibility  is  either  a 
temporary  or  a permanent  state ; apathy  is  always  a 
permanent  state : indifference  is  either  acquired  or 
accidental ; insensibility  is  either  produced  or  natural ; 
apathy  is  natural.  A person  may  be  in  a state  of  m- 
d«pre?rce  about  a thing  the  value  of  which  ho  is  not 
aware  of,  or  acquire  an  indifference  for  that  which  he 
knows  to  be  of  comparatively  little  value  : he  may  be 
in  a state  of  insensibility  from  some  lethargick  torpor 
which  has  seized  his  mind ; or  he  may  have  an  habitual 
insensibility  arising  either  from  the  contractedness  of 
his  powers,  or  the  physical  bluntness  of  his  under- 
standing, and  deadness  of  his  passions ; his  apathy  is 
born  with  him,  and  forms  a prominent  feature  in  tlie 
constitution  of  his  mind. 

Indifference  is  often  the  consequence  of  insensi- 
bility; for  he  who  is  not  sensible  or  alive  to  any  feel- 
ing must  naturally  be  without  choice  or  preference  : 
but  indifference  is  not  always  insensibility,  since  we 
may  be  indifferent  to  one  thing  because  we  have  an 
equal  liking  to  another ; ‘ I could  never  prevail  with 
myself  to  exchange  joy  and  sorrow  for  a state  of  con- 
stant tasteless  indifference.' — Hoadly.  In  like  man- 
ner insensibility  may  spring  from  apathy,  for  lie  vi  ho 
has  no  feeling  is  naturally  not  to  be  awakened  to  feel- 
ing, that  is,  he  is  unfeeling  or  insensible  by  constitu- 
lion  ; but  since  his  insensibility  may  spring  from  other 
causes  besides  those  that  are  natural,  he  may  be  insen- 
sible without  having  apathy ; ‘ 1 look  upon  Iseus  not 
only  as  the  most  eloquent  but  the  most  happy  of  men ; 
as  I shall  esteem  you  the  most  insensible  if  you  ap- 
pear to  slight  his  acquaintance.’ — Melmoth  {Letters 
of  Pliny).  Moreover,  it  is  observable  that  between 
insensibility  and  apathy  there  is  this  farther  distinc- 
tion, that  the  former  refers  only  tf>  our  capacity  for 
being  moved  by  the  outward  objects  that  surround  us; 
whereas  apathy  denotes  an  entire  internal  deadness 
of  all  the  feelings:  but  we  may  be  insensible  to  the 
present  external  objects  from  the  total  absorption  of  ail 
the  powers  and  feelings  in  one  distant  object ; ‘ I’o 
remain  insensible  of  such  provocations,  is  not  con- 
stancy, but  apathy.' — South. 


INDIFFERENT,  UNCONCERNED, 
REGARDLESS. 

Indifferent  {v.  Indifference)  marks  the  want  of  inclina- 
tion : unconcerned,  that  is,  having  no  concern  {v.  Care) ; 
and  regardless,  that  is,  without  regard  {v.  Care) ; mark 
the  want  of  serious  consideration. 

Indifferent  respects  only  the  will,  unconcerned  either 
the  will  or  the  understanding,  regardless  the  under- 
standing only;  we  are  indifferent  about  matters  of 
minor  consideration : we  are  unconcerned  or  regard- 
less about  serious  matters  that  have  remote  conse- 
quences ; an  author  will  seldom  be  indifferent  about 
the  success  of  his  work  ; he  ought  not  to  be  uncon- 
cerned about  the  influence  which  his  writings  may 
have  on  the  publick,  or  regardless  of  the  estimation  in 
which  his  own  character  as  a man  may  be  held.  To 
se  indifferent  is  sometimes  an  act  of  wisdom  or  virtue ; 


to  be  unconcerned  or  regardless  is  mostly  fi\  act  of 
folly  or  a breach  of  duty. 

When  the  object  is  purely  of  a personal  nature,  it  ii 
but  treating  it  as  it  deserves  if  we  are  indifferent  about 
it ; hence  a wise  man  is  indifferent  about  the  applause 
of  the  multitude  ; ‘As  an  author  I am  perfectly  indif 
ferent  to  the  judgement  of  all  except  the  few  who  are 
really  judicious.’ — Cowper.  As  religion  should  be 
the  object  of  our  concern,  if  we  are  unconcerned  about 
any  thing  connected  w'ith  it,  the  fault  is  in  ourselves 
a good  parent  will  never  be  unconcerned  about  the  reli 
gious  education  of  his  children ; 

Not  the  most  cruel  of  our  conquering  foes. 

So  unconcern' dly  can  relate  our  woes. — Denham. 

Whatever  tends  to  increase  our  knowledge  or  to  add 
to  the  comfort  of  others,  ought  to  excite  our  regard; 
if  therefore  we  are  regardless  of  these  things,  we  be 
tray  a culpable  want  of  feeling;  a good  child  will 
never  be  regardless  of  the  admonition  of  a parent; 
Regardless  of  my  words,  he  no  reply 
Returns.— Drydkn. 


SENSIBLE,'  SENSITIVE,  SENTIENT. 

All  these  epithets,  which  are  derived  from  the  same 
source  {v.  To  feel),  have  obviously  a great  sameness 
of  meaning,  though  not  of  aitjrlication.  Sensible  and 
sensitive  both  denote  the  capacity  of  being  moved  to 
feeling  ; sentient  implies  the  very  act  of  feeling.  Sen- 
sible expresses  either  a habit  of  the  body  and  mind, 
or  only  a particular  state  referring  to  some  particular 
object ; a person  may  be  sensible  of  things  in  general, 
or  sensible  of  cold,  or  sensible  of  injuries,  or  sensib 
of  the  kindnesses  which  he  lias  received  from  an  indi 
vidual ; 

And  with  affection  wondrous  sensible. 

He  wrung  Bassanio’s  hand,  and  so  they  parted 

Shakspeare. 

Sensitive  signifies  always  an  habitual  or  permanent 
quality;  it  is  the  characteristick  of  objects;  a sensi- 
tive creature  implies  one  whose  sense  is  by  distinction 
quickly  to  be  acted  upon  : a sensitive  plant  is  a pecu- 
liar species  of  plants,  marked  for  the  property  of  hav- 
ing sense  or  being  sensible  of  the  touch ; ‘ Those  crea- 
tures live  more  alone  whose  food,  and  therefore  prey 
is  upon  other  sensitive  creatures.’ — Temple. 

Sensible  and  sensitive  have  always  a reference  to 
external  objects;  but  sentient  expresses  simply  the 
possession  of  feeling,  or  the  power  of  feeling,  and  ex 
eludes  the  idea  of  the  cause.  Hence,  the  terms  sen 
sible  and  sensitive  are  applied  only  to  persons  or  cor 
poreal  objects  ; but  sentient  is  likewise  applicable  to 
spirits;  sentient  beings  may  include  angels  as  well  aa 
men  ; ‘ This  iTCting  of  the  sentient  phantasy  is  per 
formed  by  the  presence  of  sense,  as  the  horse  is  under 
the  sense  of  hunger,  and  that  without  any  formal  svi 
logism  presseth  him  to  eat.’— Hale. 


SENSUALIST,  VOLUPTUARY,  EPICURE. 

The  sensualist  lives  for  the  indulgence  of  his  senses , 
the  voluptuary,  from  voluptas  pleasure,  is  devoted  to 
liis  pleasures,  and  as  far  as  these  pleasures  are  the 
pleasures  of  sense,  the  voluptuary  is  a sensualist : the 
epicure,  from  the  philosopher  Epicurus,  who  is  charged 
with  having  been  the  votary  of  pleasure,  is  one  who 
makes  the  pleasures  of  sense  his  god,  and  in  this  sense 
he  is  a sensualist  and  a voluptuary.  In  the  applica- 
tion of  these  terms,  however,  the  sensualist  is  one  who 
is  a slave  to  the  grossest  appetites ; ‘ Let  the  sensualist 
satisfy  himself  as  he  is  able  ; he  will  find  that  there  is 
a certain  living  spark  within  which  all  the  drink  he 
can  pour  in  will  never  be  able  to  quench.’ — South. 
TJie  voluptuary  is  one  who  studies  his  pleasures  so  as 
to  make  them  the  most  valuable  to  himself ; ‘ To  fill 
up  the  drawing  of  this  personage,  he  conceived  a vo 
luptuary,  who  in  his  person  should  be  bloated  and 
blown  up  to  the  size  of  a Silenus  ; laz)^  luxurious,  in 
sensuality;  in  intemperance  a bacchanalian.’ — Cum 
berland.  The  epicure  is  a species  of  voluptuary  whe 
practises  more  than  ordinary  refinement  in  the  choice 
of  his  pleasures  ; ‘ What  epicure  can  be  alvvavg  plying 
his  palate  -South. 


ENGLISH  Sn\ONYMES 


37tJ 


SENTENTIOUS,  SENTIMENTAL 

^Sententious  signifies  having  or  abounding  in  scn- 
tivces  or  judgements;  sentimental,  having  sentiment 
(V.  Opinion).  Books  and  authors  are  termed  senten- 
tious; but  travellers,  society,  intercourse,  corresp  ond- 
ence, and  the  like,  are  characterized  as  sentimental. 
Moralists  like  Dr.  Johnson  are  termed  sententious, 
whose  works  and  conversation  abound  in  moral  sen- 
tences; ‘His  (Mr.  Ferguson’s)  love  of  Montesquieu 
and  Tacitus  Jias  led  him  into  a manner  of  writing  too 
short-winded  ax\A  sententious.' — Gray.  Novelists  and 
romance  writers,  like  Mrs.  Radcliffe,  are  properly  sen- 
dmental ; ‘ In  books,  whether  moral  or  amusing,  there 
are  no  passages  more  captivating  than  those  delicate 
strokes  of  sentimental  morality  which  refer  our  actions 
to  the  determination  of  feeling.’ — Mackenzie.  Sen- 
tentious books  always  serve  for  improvement ; senti- 
mental works,  unless  they  are  of  a superiour  order,  are 
in  general  hurtful. 

SENTIMENT,  SENSATION,  PERCEPTION. 

Sentiment  and  sensation  are  obviously  derived  from 
the  same  source,  namely,  from  the  Greek  awtri^ia  to 
make  intelligent,  and  enviTjfii  to  understand ; percep- 
tion, from  perceive  {v.  To  see),  expresses  the  act  of 
perceiving,  ox  IhQ  impressions  produced  by  perceiving. 

The  impressions  which  objects  make  upon  the  per- 
son are  designated  by  all  these  terms ; but  thesewti- 
ment  has  its  seat  in  the  heart,  the  sensation  is  confined 
to  the  senses,  and  the  perception  rests  in  the  under- 
standing. Sentiments  are  lively,  sensations  are  grate- 
ful, are  clear. 

Gratitude  is  a sentiment  tlie  most  pleasing  to  the 
human  mind; 

Alike  to  council,  or  the  assembly  came. 

With  equal  souls  and  sentiments  the  same. — Pope. 
The  sensation  produced  by  the  action  of  electricity  on 
the  frame  is  generally  unpleasant ; ‘ Diversity  of  con- 
atitution,  or  other  circumstances,  vary  the  sensatioiis, 
and  to  them  Java  pepper  is  cold.’ — Glanville.  A 
nice  perception  of  objects  is  one  of  the  first  requisites 
Sts:  perfection  in  any  art;  ‘Matter  hath  no  life  nor 
perception,  and  is  not  conscious  of  its  own  existence.’ 
— Bentley  * The  seiitment  extends  to  the  manners 
and  morals,  and  renders  us  alive  to  the  happiness  or 
misery  of  others  as  well  as  our  own;  ‘ I am  framing 
every  possible  pretence  to  live  hereafter  according  to 
my  own  taste  and  sentiments.' — Melmoth  {Letters 
of  Cicero).  The  sensation  is  purely  physical ; it  makes 
us  alive  only  to  the  eftects  of  external  objects  on  our 
physical  organs ; ‘When  we  describe  our  sensations 
of  another’s  sorrows  in  condolence,  the  customs  of 
the  world  scarcely  admit  of  rigid  veracity.’ — Johnson. 
Perceptions  carry  us  into  the  district  of  science  ; they 
give  us  an  interest  in  all  the  surrounding  objects  as  in- 
tellectual observers ; 

When  first  the  trembling  eye  receives  the  day. 

External  forms  on  yooog  perception  play. 

Langhoune. 

A man  of  spirit  or  courage  receives  marks  of  honour, 
ctr  affronts,  with  very  different  sentiments  from  the 
poltroon ; he  who  bounds  his  happiness  by  the  present 
fleeting  existence  must  be  careful  to  remove  every 
painful  sensatioM.'  we  judge  of  objects  as  complex  or 
simple,  according  to  the  number  of  perceptions  which 
they  produce  in  us. 


TO  FEEL,  BE  SENSIBLE,  CONSCIOUS. 

From  the  simple  idea  of  a sense,  the  word  feel  has 
acquired  the  most  extensive  signification  and  applica- 
tion in  our  language,  and  may  be  employed  indiffer- 
ently for  all  the  other  terms,  but  not  in  all  cases;  to 
feel  is  said  of  the  whole  frame,  inwardly  and  out- 
wardly; it  is  the  accompaniment  of  existence;  to  ie 
sensible,  from  the  Latin  sentio,  is  said  only  of  the 
senses.  It  is  the  property  of  all  living  creatures  to 
feel  pleasure  and  pain  in  a greater  or  a less  degree : 
those  creatures  which  have  not  the  sense  of  hearing 
will  not  be  sensible  of  sounds. 

In  the  moral  application,  to  feel  ;s  peculiarly  the  pro- 
perty or  act  of  the  heart ; to  be  sensible  is  that  of  the 

* Albe  Girard  • “ Sentiment,  sensation,  perception.” 


understanding ; an  ingenuous  mind  feels  pain  whM 
it  is  sensible  of  having  committed  an  erroui  ; or4 
may,  however,/ffI  as  well  as  be  sensible  by  means  oi 
the  understanding;  a person/ecZs  the  value  of  another’ 
services,  he  is  sensible  of  his  kindness. 

One  feels  or  is. sensible  of  what  passes  outwardly 
one  is  conscious  only  of  what  passes  inwardly,  fron 
con  or  cum  and  scio  to  know  to  oneself ; we  feel  the 
force  of  another’s  remark ; ‘ The  devout  man  does  not 
only  believe,  but  feels  there  is  a Deity.’ — Addison 
We  are  sensible  of  the  evil  which  must  spring  from 
the  practice  of  vice  ; ‘ There  is,  doubtless,  a faculty  in 
spirits  by  which  they  apprehead  one  another,  as  ou' 
senses  do  material  objects ; and  there  is  no  question  bu , 
our  souls,  when  they  are  disembodied,  will,  by  this 
faculty,  be  always  sensible  of  the  Divine  presence.’— 
Addison.  We  are  conscious  of  having  fallen  short  ot 
our  duty; 

A creature  of  a more  exalted  kind 

W’as  wanting  yet,  and  then  was  man  design’d ; 

Conscious  of  thought,  of  more  capacious  breast. 

For  empire  form’d,  and  fit  to  rule  the  rest. — Dryden 

FEELING,  SENSATION,  SENSE. 

Feeling  and  sensation  express  either  the  particular 
act,  or  the  general  property  of  feeling  ; sense  expresses 
the  general  property,  or  the  particular  mode  of  feeling. 
P'eeling  is,  as  before  («.  To  feel),  the  general,  sensation 
and  sense  are  the  special  terms  ; the  feeling  is  either 
physical  or  moral ; the  sensation  is  mostly  physical , 
the  sense  physical  in  the  general,  and  moral  in  the  par 
ticular  application. 

We  speak  either  of  the  feeling  or  sensation  of  cold, 
the  feeling  or  sense  of  virtue ; it  is  not  easy  to  describe 
the  feelings  which  are  excited  by  the  cutting  of  cork, 
or  the  sharpening  of  a saw ; ‘ I am  sure  the  natural 
feeling,  as  I have  just  said,  is  a far  more  predominant 
ingredient  in  this  war,  than  in  that  of  any  other  tha,t 
was  ever  waged  by  this  kingdom.’ — Burke.  The  sen- 
sation which  pervades  the  frame  after  bathing  is  ex- 
ceedingly grateful  to  one  who  is  accustomed  to  the 
water ; ‘ Those  ideas  to  which  any  agreeable  sensation 
is  annexed  are  easily  excited,  as  leaving  behind  them 
the  most  strong  and  permanent  impressions.’ — Somer- 
ville. The  pleasures  of  sense  are  not  comparable 
with  those  of  intellect; 

In  distances  of  things,  their  shapes,  and  size, 

Our  reason  judges  better  than  our  eyes  ; 

Declares  not  this  the  soul’s  pre-eminence, 

Superiour  to,  and  quite  distinct  from  sense  ? 

Jenyns 

The  term  feeling  is  most  adapted  to  ordinary  dis- 
course; sensation  is  a term  better  suited  to  the  grave 
or  scientifick  style;  a child  may  talk  of  an  unpleasant 
feeling ; a professional  man  talks  of  the  sensation  of 
giddiness,  a gnawing  sensation,  or  of  sensations  from 
the  rocking  of  a vessel,  the  mol  ion  of  a carriage,  and 
the  like:  it  is  our  duty  to  command  and  curb  oox  feel 
ings;  it  is  folly  to  watch  every  passing  sensation. 

The  feeling,  in  a moral  sen.se,  has  ils  seat  in  the 
heart;  it  is  transitory  and  variable;  ‘Their  king,  out 
of  a princely /eeZin^,  was  sparing  and  compassionate 
towards  his  subjects.’ — Bacon.  Sense  has  its  seat  in 
the  understanding  ; it  is  permanent  and  regular.  We 
may  have  feelings  of  anger,  ill-will,  envy,  and  the 
like,  which  cannot  be  too  quickly  overpowered,  and 
succeeded  by  thos  of  love,  charity,  and  benevolence  ; 
although  there  is  no  feeling,  however  good,  which 
does  not  require  to  be  kept  under  control  by  a proper 
sense  of  religion;  ‘T'his  Basilius  having  the  quick 
sense  of  a lover  took  as  though  his  mistress  had  given 
him  a secret  reprehension.’ — Sidney. 


FEELING,  SENSIBILITY,  SUSCEPTIBILITY. 

Feeling,  in  the  present  case,  is  taken  for  a positive 
cbaracterisiick,  namely,  the  property  of  feeling  {v.  To 
feel)  in  a strong  degree ; in  this  sense/ee/iw,^  expresses 
either  a particular  det,  or  an  habitual  property  of  the 
mind ; sensibility  is  always  taken  in  the  sense  of  a 
habit.  Traits  ot  feeling  in  young  people  are  happy 
omens  in  the  estimation  of  the  preceptor;  ‘ Gentleness 
is  x\at\ve  feeling  improved  by  principle.’ — Blair.  An 
ov.qu\s\te  sensibility  is  not  a desirable  gift;  it  creates 
an  infinite  disproportion  of  pains  ; ‘Modesty  is  a kinc" 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


37’: 


it  quick  and  deucate/ceJew^  in  the  soul ; it  is  such  an 
axquisile  sensibility.,  as  warns  a woman  to  shun  the 
first  appearance  of  any  tiling  hurtful.’ — Addison. 
This  term,  like  that  of  feeling,  may  sometimes  be 
taken  in  a general  sense,  but  still  it  expresses  the  idea 
more  strongly  ; ‘ By  long  habit  in  carrying  a btj-den  we 
lose  in  great  part  our  sensibility  of  its  weight.’ — 
Johnson.  Feeling  and  sensibility  are  here  taken  as 
moral  properties,  which  are  awakened  as  much  by  the 
operations  of  the  mind  within  itself  as  by  external  ob- 
jects: susceptibility,  from  the  Latin  suscipiy  to  take 
or  receive,  designates  that  property  of  the  body  or  the 
mind  which  consists  in  being  ready  to  lake  an  affec- 
tion from  external  objects;  hence  we  speak  of  a per- 
son’s susceptibility  to  take  cold,  or  his  susceptibility 
to  be  affected  with  grief,  Joy,  or  any  other  passion:  if 
an  excess  of  sensibility  be  an  evil,  an  excess  of  sus- 
ceptibility is  a still  greater  evil ; it  makes  us  a slave  to 
every  circumstance,  however  trivial,  which  comes 
under  our  notice  ; ‘It  pleases  me  to  think  that  it  was 
from  a principle  of  gratitude  in  me,  that  my  mind  was 
susceptible  of  such  generous  transport  (in  my  dreams) 
wlien  I thought  myself  repaying  the  kindness  of  my 
friend.’ — Byron. 

HUMAN,  HUMANE. 

Though  both  derived  from  homo  a man,  tliey  are 
thus  far  distinguished,  that  human  is  said  of  the  genus, 
and  humane  of  the  species.  The  human  race  or  hu- 
man beings  are  opposed  to  the  irrational  part  of  the 
creation;  a humane  race  or  a humane  individual  is 
opposed  to  one  that  is  cruel  and  fond  of  inflicting  pain. 
He  who  is  not  human  is  dive.sted  of  the  first  and  distin- 
guishing characteristicks  of  his  kind;  ‘Christianity 
has  rescued  human  nature  from  that  ignominious  i 
yoke,  under  which  in  former  times  the  one-half  of 
mankind  groaned.’ — Blair.  He  who  is  not  humane, 
is  divested  of  the  most  important  and  elevated  charac- 
tcristick  that  belongs  to  his  nature  ; 

Life,  fill’d  with  grief’s  distressful  train. 

For  ever  asks  the  tear  Aumarje.— Langhorne. 


TO  NOURISH,  NURTURE,  CHERISH. 

To  nourish  and  nurture  are  but  variations  from  the 
same  Latin  verb  nutria;  cherish,  from  the  French 
Cher,  and  the  Latin  carus  dear,  to  treat  as  something 
dear  to  one. 

The  thing  nourishes,  the  person  nurtures  and 
cherishes : to  nourish  is  to  afford  bodily  strength,  to 
supply  the  physical  necessities  of  the  body;  ionurture 
is  to  extend  one’s  care  to  the  supply  of  all  its  physical 
necessities,  to  preserve  life,  occasion  growth,  and  in- 
crease vigour:  the  breast  of  the  mother  nourishes; 

Air,  and  ye  elements,  the  eldest  birth 

Of  nature’s  womb,  that  in  quaternion  run 

Perpetual  circle,  multiform  ; and  mix 

And  nourish  all  things. — Milton 
The  fostering  care  and  attention  of  the  mother  nur- 
tures; ‘They  suppose  mother  earth  to  be  a great  ani- 
mal, and  to  have  nurtured  up  her  young  oftspring  with 
conscious  tenderness.’ — Bentley  To  nurture  is  a 
physical  act ; to  cherish  is  a mental  as  well  as  a physi- 
cal act:  a mother  nurtures  her  infant  while  it  is  en- 
tirely dependent  upon  her;  she  cherishes  her  child  in 
her  bosom,  and  protects  it  from  every  misfortune,  or 
affords  consolation  in  the  midst  of  all  its  troubles, 
when  it  is  no  longer  an  infant ; 

Of  thy  superfluous  brood,  she  ’ll  cherish  kind 
The  alien  offspring. — Somerville. 

TO  FOSTER,  CHERISH,  HARBOUR, 
INDULGE. 

To  foster  is  probably  connected  with  father,  in  the 
natural  sense,  to  bring  up  with  a parent’s  care;  to 
cherish,  from  the  Latin  carus  dear,  is  to  feed  with 
afiection ; to  harbour,  from  a harbour  or  haven,  is  to 
provide  with  a shelter  and  protection ; to  indulge,  front 
the  Latin  dulcis  sweet,  is  to  render  sweet  and  agree- 
able. These  terms  are  all  employed  here  in  the  moral 
acceptation,  to  express  the  idea  of  giving  noui  'shment 
to  an  object. 

To  foster  in  the  mind  is  to  keep  with  care  and  posi- 
tive endeavours:  as  when  one /esters  prejudices  by 


encouraging  every  thing  which  favours  them ; ‘ Th 
greater  part  of  those  who  live  but  to  infuse  malignity 
and  multiply  enemies,  have  no  hopes  to  foster,  no  de- 
signs to  promote,  nor  any  expectations  of  attaining 
power  by  insolence.’ — Johnson.  To  cherish  in  the 
mind  is  to  hold  dear  or  set  a value  upon ; as  when  one 
cherishes  good  sentiments,  by  dwelling  upon  them  with 
inward  satisfaction  ; ‘As  social  inclinations  are  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  the  well  being  of  the  world,  it  is  the 
duty  and  interest  of  every  individual  to  cherish  and 
improve  them  to  the  benefit  of  mankind.’ — Berkeley 
To  harbour  is  to  allow  room  in  the  mind,  and  is  gene- 
rally taken  in  the  worst  sense,  for  giving  admission  to 
that  which  ought  to  be  excluded ; as  when  one  har 
boars  resentment  by  permitting  it  to  have  a resting 
place  in  the  heart ; 

This  is  scorn. 

Which  the  fair  soul  of  gentle  Athenais 

Would  ne’er  have  harbour'd. — Lee. 

To  indulge  in  the  mind,  is  to  give  the  whole  mind  to 
any  thing,  to  make  it  the  chief  source  of  pleasure;  as 
when  one  indulges  an  affection,  by  making  the  W'ill 
and  the  outward  conduct  bend  to  its  gratifications; 
‘ The  king  (Charles  I.)  would  indulge  no  refinements 
of  casuistry,  however  plausible,  in  such  delicate  sub- 
jects, and  was  resolved,  that  what  depredations  soever 
fortune  should  commit  upon  him,  she  never  should  be 
reave  him  of  his  honour.’ — Hume. 

He  who  fosters  pride  in  his  breast  lays  up  for  him 
self  a store  of  mortification  in  his  intercourse  with  the 
world ; it  is  the  duty  of  a man  to  cherish  sentiinente 
of  tenderness  and  kindness  towards  the  woman  whom 
he  has  made  the  object  of  his  choice;  nothing  evinces 
the  innate  depravity  of  the  human  heart  more  forcibly 
i than  the  spirit  of  malice,  which  some  men  harbour  for 
years  together  ; any  affection  of  the  mind,  if  indulged 
beyond  the  hounds  of  discretion,  will  become  a hurtful 
passion,  that  may  endanger  the  peace  of  society  as 
much  as  that  of  the  individual. 


TO  CARESS,  FONDLE. 

Both  these  terms  mark  a species  of  endearment; 
caress,  like  cherish,  comes  from  the  French  chirir, 
and  cher,  Latin  carus  dear,  signifying  the  expressioK 
of  a tender  sentiment ; fondle,  from  fond,  is  a fre- 
quentative verb,  signifying  to  become  fond  of,  or  ex 
press  one’s  fondness  for. 

We  caress  by  words  or  actions;  we  fondle  by  ac 
tions  only:  caresses  are  not  always  unsuitable;  but 
fondling,  which  is  the  extreme  of  caressing,  is  not 
less  unfit  for  the  one  who  receives  than  for  the  one 
who  gives:  animals  caress  each  other,  as  the  natural 
mode  of  indicating  their  afiection  ; fondling,  which  is 
for  the  most  part  the  expression  of  perverted  feeling,  ia 
peculiar  to  human  beings,  who  alone  abuse  the  facul- 
ties with  which  they  are  endowed. 

TO  CLASP,  HUG,  EMBRACE. 

To  clasp,  from  the  noun  clasp,  signifies  to  lay  hold 
of  like  a clasp  ; hug,  in  Saxon  hogan,  comes  from  the 
German /ta,o-en,  which  signifies  to  enclose  with  a hedge, 
and  figuratively  to  cherish  or  take  special  care  of ; 
"embrace,  in  French  embrasser,  is  compounded  of  enoi 
im  and  bras  the  arm,  signifying  to  take  or  iock  in  the 
arms. 

All  these  terms  are  employed  to  ex  [tress  the  act  of 
enclosing  another  in  one’s  arms  : clasp  marks  this  ac- 
tion when  it  is  performed  with  the  warmth  of  true 
affection  ; hug  is  a ludicrous  sort  of  clasping,  which 
is  the  consequence  of  ignorance  and  extravagant  feel 
ing;  embrace  is  simply  a mode  of  ordinary  salutation; 
a parent  will  clasp  his  long-lost  child  in  iiis  arms  on 
their  remeeting ; 

Thy  suppliant, 

I beg,  and  clasp  thy  knees. — Milton. 

A peasant  in  the  excess  of  his  raptures  would  throw 
Ins  body,  as  well  as  his  arms,  over  the  object  of  hia 
joy,  and  stifle  with  hugging  him  whom  he  meant  to 
love ; 

Thyself  a boy,  assume  a boy’s  dissembled  face. 
That  when  amid  the  fervour  of  the  feast 
The  Tyrian  hugs  and  fonds  thee  on  her  breast. 
Thou  rnayest  infuse  thy  venom  in  her  veins. 

Dryden 


378 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


In  the  continenial  parts  of  Europe  emhracivg  between 
males,  as  well  as  females,  is  universal  on  meeting  after 
a Icng  absence,  or  on  taking  leave  for  a length  of 
lime;  embraces  are  sometimes  given  in  England  be- 
Aveen  near  relatives,  but  in  no  other  case ; ‘ The  king 
at  length  having  kindly  reproached  Helim  for  de- 
priving him  so  long  of  such  a brother,  e?ni7-aced  Bal- 
Kora  with  the  greatest  tenderness.’ — Addison. 

Claej:  may  also  be  employed  in  tlie  same  sense  for 
other  objects  besides  persons ; 

Some  more  aspiring  catch  the  neighbouring  shrub, 

With  clasping  tendrils,  and  invest  her  branch. 

COWPKR. 

Embrace  may  be  employed  figuratively  in  the  sense  of 
including  {v.  Comprehend). 

INDULGENT,  FOND. 

Indulgent  s\g\\\fi^s  disposed  to  indulge ; /ond,  from 
lo find,  signifies  trying  to  find,  longing  for. 

Indulgence  lies  more  in  forbearing  from  the  exercise 
of  authority  ; fondness  in  the  outward  behaviour  and 
endearments : they  may  both  arise  from  an  excess  of 
kindness  or  love ; but  the  former  is  of  a less  objection- 
able character  than  the  latter.  Indulgence  may  be 
sometimes  wrong;  hwt  fondness  is  seldom  right;  an 
indulgent  parent  is  seldom  a prudent  parent;  but  a 
fond  parent  does  not  rise  above  a fool : all  who  Jiave 
the  care  of  young  people  should  occasionally  relax 
from  the  strictness  of  tlie  disciplinarian,  and  show  an 
indulgence  where  a suitable  opportunity  oliers;  a fond 
mother  takes  away  from  the  value  of  indulgences  by 
an  invariable  compliance  with  the  humours  of  her 
children ; iiowever,  when  applied  generally  or  ab- 
stractedly, they  are  both  taken  in  a good  sense; 

God  then  thro’  all  creation  gives,  we  find. 

Sufficient  marks  of  an  indulgent  mind  — Jenvns. 
While,  for  a while  h\sfond  paternal  care. 

Feasts  us  with  every  joy  our  state  can  bear. — Jenyns. 

AMOROUS,  LOVING,  FOND. 

.Amorous,  from  amor  love,  signifies  full  of  love ; 
loving,  the  act  of  loving,  that  is,  of  continually 
hving ; fond  has  the  same  signification  as  given 
under  the  head  of  Indulgent,  fond. 

These  epithets  are  ail  used  to  mark  the  excess  or 
distortion  of  a tender  sentiment,  .^morons  is  taken 
in  a criminal  sense,  loving  and  fond  in  a contemptuous 
sense:  an  indiscriminate  and  dishonourable  attach- 
ment to  the  fair  sex  characterizes  the  amorous  man; 
‘ I shall  range  all  old  amorous  dotards  under  the  de- 
nomination of  grinners.’ — Steele.  An  overweening 
and  childisli  attachment  to  any  object  marks  the  loving 
and  fond  person. 

Loving  is  less  dishonourable  than  fond : men  may 
be  loving; 

So  loving  to  my  mother 

That  he  would  not  let  ev’n  the  winds  of  heaven 

Visit  her  face  too  roughly. — Shakspeare. 

Children,  females,  and  brutes  maybe/n?ifZ;  ‘I’m  a 
foolish  fond  wife.’ — Addison.  Those  who  have  not 
a well  regulated  affection  for  each  other  will  be  loving 
by  fits  and  starts  ; children  and  animals  who  have  no 
control  over  their  appetites  will  be  apt  to  be  fond  of 
those  who  indulge  them.  An  amorous  temper  should 
be  suppressed;  a loving  should  be  regulated; 

a fond  temper  should  be  checked.  When  loving  and 
fond  are  applied  generally,  they  may  sometimes  be 
taken  in  a good  or  indifferent  sense; 

Tliis  place  may  seem  for  shepherd.s’  leisure  made. 

So  lovingly  these  elms  unite  their  shade. — Phillips. 
‘ My  impatience  for  your  return,  my  anxiety  for  your 
welfare,  and  my  fondness  for  my  dear  Ulysses,  were 
the  only  distempers  that  preyed  upon  my  life.’ — Ad- 
dison. 

AMIABLE,  LOVELY,  BELOVED. 

.Amiable,  in  Latin  amabilis,  from  amo  and  habilis, 
signifies  fit  to  be  loved;  lovely,  compounded  of  love 
and  ly  or  like,  signifies  like  that  wliich  we  love;  be- 
loved, liaving  or  receiving  love. 

The  first  two  express  the  fitness  of  an  object  to 
awaken  the  sentiment  of  love;  the  latter  expresses 


tlie  state  of  being  in  actual  possession  of  that  fove 
The  amiable  designates  that  sentiment  in  its  most  spi 
ritual  form,  as  it  is  awakened  by  purely  spiritual  ob 
jects;  the  lovely  applies  to  this  sentimait  as  It  is 
awakened  by  sensible  objects. 

One  is  amiable  according  to  the  qualities  of  the 
heart:  one  is  ZoueZy  according  to  the  external  figure 
and  manners  ; one  is  beloved  according  to  the  circum 
stances  that  bring  him  or  her  into  connexion  w'itli 
others.  Hence  it  is  that  thing.s  as  well  as  persons  may 
be  lovely  or  beloved ; but  persons  only,  or  that  which 
is  personal,  is  amiable; 

Sweet  Auburn,  loveliest  village  of  the  plain. 

Goldsmith. 

Sorrow  would  be  a rarity  most  belov'd. 

If  all  could  so  become  it.~SH.AKSPEARE. 

An  amiable  disposition,  without  a lovely  person, 
will  render  a person  beloved ; ‘ Tully  has  a very  beau- 
tiful gradation  of  thoughts  to  show  how  amiable  virtue 
is.  “ We  love  a virtuous  man,”  says  he,  “who  lives 
in  the  remotest  parts  of  the  earth,  although  we  are 
altogether  out  of  the  reach  of  his  virtue,  and  can  re- 
ceive from  it  no  manner  of  benefit.”  ’—Addison.  It 
is  distressing  to  see  any  one  who  is  lovely  in  person 
unamiable  in  character 


AMICABLE,  FRIENDLY 
.Amicable,  from  amicus  a friend,  signifies  able  or  lit 
for  a friend ; friendly,  like  a friend.  The  word  amicus 
comes  from  amo  to  love,  and  friend  in  the  .northern 
languages  from  fregan  to  love.  .Amicable  and  friendly 
therefore  both  denote  the  tender  sentiment  of  good 
will  which  all  men  ought  to  bear  one  to  another ; but 
amicable  rather  implies  a negative  sentiment,  a free 
dom  from  discordance;  and  friendly  a positive  feeling 
of  regard,  the  absence  of  indifference. 

We  make  an  amicable  accommodation,  and  a 
friendly  visit.  It  is  a happy  thing  when  people  who 
have  been  at  variance  can  amicably  adjust  all  their 
disputes.  Nothing  adds  more  to  the  charms  of  society 
than  a friendly  correspondence. 

.Amicable  is  always  said  of  persons  who  have  been 
in  connexion  with  each  other ; friendly  may  be  applied 
to  those  who  are  perfect  strangers.  Neighbours  must 
always  endeavour  to  live  amicably  wiih  each  other; 
‘ What  first  presents  itself  to  be  recommended  is  a dis- 
position averse  to  offence,  and  desirous  of  cultivating 
harmony,  and  amicable  intercourse  in  society,’ — 
Bl.air.  Travellers  should  always  endeavour  to  keep 
up  a friendly  intercourse  with  the  inhabitants,  wher- 
ever they  come; 

Who  slake  his  thirst;  who  spread  the  friendly  board 
To  give  the  famish’d  Belisarius  food  ?— Phillips. 
The  abstract  terms  of  the  preceding  qualities  admit 
of  no  variation  but  in  the  signification  of //•Zg7icZsZi?>, 
which  marks  an  individual  feeling  only;  to  live  ami- 
cably, or  in  amity  with  all  men,  is  a point  of  Christian 
duty,  but  we  cannot  live  in  friendship  with  all  men ; 
HxncG  friendship  must  be  confined  to  a few  ; 

Beasts  of  each  kind  their  fellows  spare ; 

Bear  lives  in  amity  with  bear. — Johnson. 

‘ Every  man  micht,  in  the  multitudes  that  swarm  about 
him,  find  some  kindred  mind  with  which  he  could  unite 
in  confidence  and  friendship.' — Johnson. 


AFFECTION,  LOVE. 

.Affection  denotes  the  state  of  being  kindly  affected 
towards  a person ; love,  in  Low  German  leeve.  High 
German  licbe,  from  the  English  lief.  Low  German  leef, 
High  German  lieb  dear  or  pleasing,  the  Latin  hbet  it  is 
pleasing,  and  by  metathesis  from  the  Greek  <pChoi  dear, 
signifies  the  state  of  holding  a person  dear. 

These  words  express  two  sentiments  of  the  heart 
which  do  honour  to  human  nature ; they  are  the  bonds 
by  wnich  mankind  are  knit  to  each  other.  Both  imply 
good-will : but  affection  is  a tender  sentiment  that 
dwells  with  pleasure  on  the  object;  love  is  a tender 
sentiment  accompanied  with  longing  for  the  object:  we 
cannot  have  love  without  affection,  but  we  may  have 
affection,  without  love. 

Lone  is  the  natural  sentiment  between  hear  relations 
affection,  subsists  between  those  who  are  less  intimately 
connected,  being  the  consequence  either  of  relationship 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


379 


kTiendsnif),  or  long  intercourse;  it  is  the  sweetener  of 
human  society,  which  carries  with  it  a thousand 
charms,  in  all  the  varied  modes  of  kindness  which  it 
gives  birth  to;  it  is  not  so  active  as  love,  but  it  diffuses 
itself  wider,  and  embraces  a larger  number  of  objects. 

Love  is  powerful  in  its  effects,  awakening  vivid  sen- 
timents of  pleasure  or  pain ; it  is  a passion  exclusive, 
restless,  and  capricious.  Affection  is  a chastened  feel- 
ig  under  the  control  of  the  understanding;  it  promises 
no  more  pleasure  than  it  gives,  and  has  but  few  alloys. 
Marriage  may  begin  with  love ; but  it  ought  to  termi- 
nate in  affection; 

But  thou,  whose  years  are  more  to  mine  allied, 

No  fate  my  vow’d  affection  shall  divide 
From  thee,  heroic  youth ! — Dryden. 

•The  poets,  the  moralists,  the  painters,  in  all  their  de- 
scriptions, allegories,  and  pictures,  have  represented 
love  as  a soft  torment,  a bitter  sweet,  a pleasing  pain,  or 
an  agreeable  distress.’ — Addison. 

AFFECTIONATE,  KIND,  FOND. 

Affectionate  denotes  the  quality  of  having  affection 
(v.  Affection) ; kind,  from  the  word  kind  kindred  or 
family,  denotes  the  quality  or  feeling  engendered  by 
the  family  tie ; fond,  from  to  find,  denotes  a vehement 
attachment  to  a thing. 

Affectionate  and  fond  characterize  feelings,  or  the 
expression  of  those  feelings;  lujid  is  an  epithet  applied 
to  outward  actions,  as  well  as  inward  feelings ; a dis- 
position \s  affectionate  ox  fond;  a behaviour  is  kind. 

Affection  is  a settled  state  of  the  mind ; kindness,  a 
temporary  state  of  feeling,  mostly  discoverable  by  some 
outward  sign ; both  are  commendable  and  honourable, 
as  to  the  nature  of  the  feelings  themselves,  the  objects 
of  the  feelings,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  display 
themselves;  the  understanding  always  approves  the 
kindness  which  affection  dictates,  or  that  which  springs 
from  a tender  heart.  Fondness  is  a less  respectable 
feeling;  it  is  sometimes  the  excess  of  affection,  or  an 
extravagant  mode  of  expressing  it,  or  an  attachment  to 
an  inferiour  object. 

A person  is  affectionate,  who  has  the  object  of  his 
regard  strongly  in  his  mind,  who  participates  in  his 
pleasures  and  pains,  and  is  pleased  with  his  society. 
A person  is  kind,  who  expresses  a tender  sentiment,  or 
does  any  service  in  a pleasant  manner;  ‘Our  saluta- 
tions were  very  hearty  on  both  sides,  consisting  of 
hiany  kind  shakes  of  the  hand,  and  affectionate  looks 
which  we  cast  upon  one  another.’ — Addison.  A per- 
son is  fond,  who  caresses  an  object,  or  makes  it  a source 
of  jileasure  to  Jiimself ; ‘ Riches  expose  a man  to  pride 
and  luxury,  a foolish  elation  of  heart,  and  too  great 
fondness  for  the  present  world.’ — Addison. 

Relatives  should  he  affectionate  to  each  other:  we 
should  be  kind  to  all  who  stand  in  need  of  our  kind- 
ness; children  are  fond  of  whatever  affords  them 
pleasure,  or  of  whoever  gives  them  indulgences. 


ATTACHMENT,  AFFECTION, 
INCLINATION. 

Attachment  resiiects  persons  and  things;  affection 
(w.  Affection)  regards  persons  only  ; inclination  has  re- 
spect to  things  mostly,  but  it  may  be  applied  to  objects 
generally. 

Attachment,  as  it  regards  persons,  is  not  so  powerful 
or  solid  as  affection.  Children  are  attached  to  those 
who  will  minister  to  their  gratifications:  they  have  an 
affection  for  their  nearest  and  dearest  relatives. 

Attachment  is  sometimes  a tender  sentiment  between 
the  persons  of  different  sexes;  affection  is  an  affair  of 
the  heart  without  distinction  of  sex.  Tlie  passing  at- 
achments  of  young  people  are  seldom  entitled  to  serious 
notice;  although  sometimes  they  may  ripen  by  long 
intercourse  into  a laudable  and  steady  affection; 
‘Though  devoted  to  the  study  of  philosophy,  and  a 
great  master  in  the  early  science  of  the  times,  Solon 
mixed  with  cheerfulness  in  society,  and  did  not  hold 
back  from  those  tender  ties  and  attachments  which  con- 
nect a man  to  the  world.’— Cu.mberland.  Nothing  is 
so  deliglitfiil  as  to  see  affection  among  brothers  and 
sisters;  ‘ When  I was  sent  to  school,  the  gayety  of  my 
look,  and  the  liveliness  of  my  loquacity,  soon  gained 
me  admission  to  hearts  not  yet  fortified  against  nff'ec- 
'don  by  artifice  or  interest.’— Johnson.  Attachment  is 


more  powerful  than  inclination;  the  lattei  is  a rising 
sentiment,  the  forerunner  of  attachment,  which  is  posi 
tive  and  fixed  ; ‘ I am  glad  that  he  whom  I must  have 
loved  from  duty,  whatever  he  had  been,  is  such  a one 
as  I can  love  from  inclination.' — Steele. 

As  respects  things  generally,  attachment  and  inclina 
tion  are  similarly  distinguisied.  We  strive  to  obtain 
that  to  which  we  are  attached;  but  an  inclination  sel 
(lorn  leads  to  any  effort  for  possession.  Little  minds 
are  always  betraying  their  attachment  to  trifles.  It  is 
the  character  of  indifference  not  to  show  an  inclina 
tion  to  any  thing.  Attachments  are  formed  ; inclina 
tions  arise  of  themselves. 

Interest,  similarity  of  character,  or  habit  give  rise  to 
attachment ; ‘The  Jews  are  remarkable  for  an  avtach 
ment  to  their  own  country.’ — Addison.  A natura 
warmth  of  temper  gives  birth  to  various  inclinations ; 
‘A  mere  inclination  to  a thing  is  not  properly  a willing 
of  that  thing;  and  yet,  in  matters  of  duty,  men  fre- 
quently reckon  it  for  such.’ — South. 

Suppress  the  first  inclinationto  gaming,  le.st  it  grows 
into  an  attachment. 


BENEVOLENCE,  BENIGNITY,  HUMANITY, 
KINDNESS,  TENDERNESS. 

Benevolence,  from  bene  and  volo  to  will,  signifies 
wishing  well ; benignity,  in  Latin  bemgnitas,  from 
bene  tiwA  gigno,  signifies  the  quality  or  disposition  for 
producing  good  ; humanity,  in  French  humanity,  Latin 
humanitas  from  humanus  and  homo,  signifies  the  qua- 
lity of  belonging  to  a man,  or  having  what  is  com- 
mon to  man;  kindness  is  the  abstract  quality  of  kind 
(v.  Affectionate) ; tenderness,  the  abstract  quality  of 
tender,  from  the  Latin  tener,  Greek  repyv. 

Benevolence  and  benignity  lie  in  the  will ; humanity 
lies  in  the  heart;  kindness  and  tenderness  in  the  affec- 
tions: benevolence  indicates  a general  good  will  to  all 
mankind  ; benignity  a particular  good  will,  flowing 
out  of  certain  relations ; humanity  is  a general  tone 
of  feeling ; kindness  and  tenderness  are  particulai 
modes  of  feeling. 

Benevolence  consists  in  the  wish  or  intention  to  do 
good  ; it  is  confined  to  no  station  or  object : the  bene- 
volent man  may  be  rich  or  poor,  and  his  benevolena 
will  be  exerted  wherever  there  is  an  opportunity  cf 
doing  good : benignity  is  always  associated  w tn 
power,  and  accompanied  with  condescension. 

Benevolence  in  its  fullest  sense  is  the  sum  of  mora 
excellence,  and  comprehends  every  other  virtue ; when 
taken  in  this  acceptation,  benignity,  humanity,  kind- 
ness, and  tenderness  are  but  modes  of  benevolence. 

Benevolence  and  benignity  tend  to  the  communi- 
cating of  happiness;  humanity  \s  concerned  in  the 
removal  of  evil.  Benevolence  is  common  to  the 
Creator  and  his  creatures;  it  differs  only  in  degree; 
the  former  has  the  knowledge  and  power  as  well  as 
the  will  to  do  good  ; man  often  has  the  will  to  do  good 
without  having  the  power  to  carry  it  into  effect;  ‘I 
have  heard  say,  that  Pope  Clement  XI.  never  passes 
through  the  people,  who  always  kneel  in  crowds  and 
ask  his  benediction,  but  the  tears  are  seen  to  flow  from 
his  eyes.  This  must  proceed  from  an  imagination  that 
he  is  the  father  of  all  these  people,  and  that  he  is 
touched  with  so  extensive  a benevolence,  that  it  breaks 
out  into  a passion  of  tears.’ — Steele.  Benignity  is 
ascribed  to  the  stars,  to  heaven,  or  to  princes ; fgiiorant 
and  superstitious  people  are  apt  to  ascribe  their  good 
fortune  to  the  benign  influence  of  the  stars  rather  than 
to  the  gracious  dispensations  of  Providence ; ‘A  con- 
stant benignity  in  commerce  with  the  rest  of  the  world, 
which  ought  to  run  through  all  a man’s  actions,  has 
effects  more  useful  to  those  whom  you  oblige,  and  is 
less  ostentatious  in  yourself.’ — Steele.  Humanity 
belongs  to  man  only ; it  is  his  peculiar  characteristick, 
and  ought  at  all  times  to  be  his  boast;  when  he  threws 
off  this  his  distinguishiim  badge,  he  loses  every  thing 
valuable  in  him  ; it  is  a virtue  that  is  indispensable  in 
his  present  suffering  condition  : humanity  is  as  uni- 
versal in  its  application  as  benevolence;  wherever 
there  is  distress,  humanity  flies  to  its  relief  ; ‘ The 
greatest  wots  I have  conversed  with  are  men  eminent 
for  iheir  humanity.' — Audison.  Kindness  and  tender- 
ness are  partial  modes  of  affection,  confined  to  those 
who  know  or  are  related  to  each  ether  : we  are  kind 
to  fiiends  and  acquaintances,  tender  towards  those 
who  are  near  and  dear : kindness  is  a mode  of  aflec- 


380 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES 


tion  most  fitted  for  social  beings ; it  is  what  every  one 
can  snow,  and  every  one  is  pleased  to  receive  ; ‘ Bene- 
ficence, would  the  followers  of  Epicurus  say,  is  all 
founded  in  weakness  ; and  whatever  be  pretended,  the 
kindness  tliat  passeth  between  men  and  men  is  by 
every  man  directed  to  himself.  This  it  must  be  con- 
fessed is  of  a piece  with  that  hopeful  philosophy  which, 
having  patched  man  up  out  of  the  four  elements,  at- 
tributes his  being  to  chance.’ — Grove.  Tenderness  is 
a state  of  feeling  that  is  occasionally  acceptable : the 
young  and  the  w’eak  demand  tenderness  from  those 
who  stand  in  the  closest  connexion  with  them,  but 
this  feeling  may  be  carried  to  an  excess  so  as  to  injure 
the  object  on  which  it  is  fixed ; ‘ Dependence  is  a per- 
petual call  upon  humanity,  and  a greater  incitement  to 
tenderness  and  pity  than  any  other  motive  whatso- 
ever.’— Addison. 

There  are  no  circumstances  or  situation  in  life  which 
preclude  the  exercise  of  benevolence : next  to  the  plea- 
sure of  making  others  happy,  the  benevolent  man  re- 
joices in  seeing  them  so ; the  benign  influence  of  a 
benevolent  monarch  extends  to  the  remotest  corner  of 
his  dominions ; benignity  is  a becoming  attribute  for  a 
prince,  wheti  it  does  not  lead  him  to  sanction  vice  by 
its  impunity  ; it  is  highly  to  be  applauded  in  him  as  far 
as  it  renders  him  forgiving  of  minor  offences,  gracious 
to  all  who  are  deserving  of  his  favours,  and  ready  to 
afford  a gratification  to  all  whom  it  is  in  his  power  to 
serve;  the  multiplied  misfortunes  to  which  all  men  are 
exposed  afford  ample  scope  for  the  exercise  of  humanity, 
which,  in  consequence  of  the  unequal  distribution  of 
wealth,  pow'er,  and  talent,  is  peculiar  to  no  situation  of 
life;  even  the  profession  of  arms  does  not  exclude  hu- 
manity from  the  breasts  of  its  followers  : and  when  we 
observe  men’s  habils  of  thinking  in  various  situations, 
we  may  remark  that  the  soldier,  with  arms  by  his  side, 
is  commonly  more  humane  than  the  partisan  with  arms 
in  his  hands.  Kindness  is  always  an  amiable  feeling, 
and  in  a grateful  mind  always  begets  kindness ; but  it 
is  sometimes  ill  bestowed  u[>on  selfish  people  who  re- 
quite it  by  making  fresh  exactions  ; tenderness  is  fre- 
quently little  better  than  an  amiable  weakness,  when 
directed  to  a wrong  end,  and  fixed  on  an  improper  ob- 
ject ; the  false  tenderness  of  parents  has  often  been  the 
rein  of  children. 


LOVE,  FRIENDSHIP. 

Ijove  (v.  Affection)  is  a term  of  very  extensive  im- 
port ; it  may  be  either  taken  in  the  most  general  sense 
for  every  strong  and  passionate  attachment,  or  only  for 
such  as  subsist  between  the  sexes;  in  either  of  which 
cases  it  has  features  by  which  it  has  been  easily  distin- 
guished from  friendship. 

Love  subsists  between  members  of  the  same  family  ; 
it  springs  out  of  their  natural  relationship,  and  is  kept 
alive  by  their  close  intercourse  and  constant  inter- 
change of  kindnesses;  friendship  excludes  the  idea  of 
any  tender  and  natural  relationship  ; nor  is  it,  like 
love,  to  be  found  in  children,  but  is  confined  to  tnaturer 
years;  it  is  formed  by  time,  by  circumstances,  by  con- 
gruity  of  character,  and  sympathy  of  sentiment,  l^ove 
always  operates  with  ardour;  friendship  \s  remarkable 
for  fiminess  and  constancy.  Love  is  peculiar  to  no 
station  it  is  to  be  found  equally  among  the  high  and 
the  low,  the  learned  and  the  unlearned  ; friendship  is 
of  nobler  growth ; it  finds  admittance  only  into  minds 
of  a loftier  make ; it  cannot  be  felt  by  men  of  an  ordi- 
nary stamp. 

Both  love  and  friendship  are  gratified  by  seeking  the 
good  of  the  object;  but  Zo?;e  is  more  selfish  in  its  nature 
than  friendship  ; in  indulging  another  it  seeks  its  own, 
and  when  this  is  not  to  be  obtained,  it  will  change  into 
the  contrary  passion  of  hatred;  friendship,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  altogether  disinterested,  it  makes  sacri- 
fices of  every  description,  and  knows  no  limits  to  its 
sacrifice.  As  love  is  a jiassion,  it  has  all  the  errours  at- 
tendant upon  passion  ; but  friendship,  which  is  an  af- 
fection tempered  by  reason,  is  exempt  from  every  such 
exceptionable  quality.  Love  is  blind  to  the  faults  of 
the  object  of  its  devotion;  it  adores,  it  idolizes,  it  is 
fond,  it  is  foolish ; friendship  sees  faults,  atid  strives  to 
correct  them;  it  aims  to  render  the  object  more  worthy 
of  esteem  and  regard.  Love  is  capricious,  humour- 
jorne,  and  changeable  ; it  will  not  bear  contradiction, 
disappointtnent,  nor  any  cross  or  untoward  circiim- 
Ktance ; friendship  is  stable;  *.  withstands  the  rudest 


blasts,  and  is  unchanged  by  the  severest  shocks  cf  ad 
versity ; neither  the  smiles  nor  frowns  of  fortune  can 
change  its  form  , its  serene  and  placid  countenance  is 
unrufiied  by  the  rude  blasts  of  adversity;  it  rejoices 
and  sympathizes  in  prosperity  ; it  cheers,  consoles,  and 
assists  in  adversity.  Love  is  exclusive  in  its  nature : it 
insists  upon  a devotion  to  a single  object ; it  is  jealous 
of  any  intrusion  from  others ; friendship  is  liberal  and 
communicative ; it  is  bounded  by  nothing  but  rules  of 
prudence ; it  is  not  confined  as  to  the  number  but  as  to 
the  nature  of  the  objects. 

When  love  is  not  produced  by  any  social  relation,  it 
has  its  groundwork  in  sexuality,  and  subsists  only  be- 
tween persons  of  different  sexes  ; in  this  case  it  has  all 
the  former  faults  with  which  it  is  chargeable  to  a still 
greater  degree,  and  others  peculiar  to  itself;  it  is  even 
more  selfish,  more  capricious,  more  changeable,  and 
more  exclusive,  than  when  subsisting  between  persons 
of  the  same  kindred.  Love  is  in  this  case  as  unreason- 
able in  its  choice  of  an  object,  as  it  is  extravagant  in  its 
regards  of  the  object ; it  is  formed  without  examina- 
tion ; it  is  the  effect  of  a sudden  glance,  the  work  of  a 
moment,  in  which  the  heart  is  taken  by  surprise,  and 
the  understanding  is  discarded  ; friendship,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  the  entire  work  of  the  understanding ; it 
does  not  admit  of  the  senses  or  the  heart  to  have  any 
undue  influence  in  the  choice.  A fine  eye,  a fair  hand, 
a graceful  step,  are  the  authors  of  love ; talent,  virtue, 
fine  sentiment,  a good  heart,  and  a sound  head,  are  the 
promoters  of  friendship:  love  wants  no  excitement 
from  personal  merit;  friendship  cannot  be  produced 
without  merit.  Time,  which  is  the  consolidator  of 
, friendship,  \s  the  destroyer  of  love;  an  object  impro 
vidently  chosen  is  as  carelessly  thrown  aside ; and  that 
which  was  not  chosen  for  its  merits,  is  seldom  rejected 
for  its  demerits,  the  fault  lying  rather  in  the  humour 
of  love,  which  can  abate  of  its  ardour  as  the  novelty 
of  the  thing  ceases,  and  transfer  itself  to  other  ob- 
jects; friendship,  on  the  other  liand,  is  slow  and  cau- 
tious in  choosing,  and  still  more  gradual  in  the  con- 
firmation, as  it  rests  on  virtue  and  excellence ; it  grows 
only  with  the  growth  of  one’s  acquaintance,  and  ripens 
with  the  maturity  of  esteem.  Love,  while  it  lasts, 
subsists  even  by  those  very  means  which  may  seem 
rather  calculated  to  extinguish  it;  namely,  caprice, 
disdain,  cruelty,  absence,  jealousy,  and  the  like; 

So  every  passion,  but  fond  love, 

Unto  its  own  redress  does  move. — Waller. 
Friendship  is  supported  by  nothing  artificial ; it  de- 
pends upon  .eciprocity  of  esteem,  which  nothing  but 
solid  qualit’ss  can  ensure  or  render  durable  ; 

For  natural  affection  soon  doth  cease. 

And  quenched  is  with  Cupid’s  greater  flame. 

But  faithful  friendship  doth  them  both  suppress. 

And  them  with  mastering  discipline  doth  tanre. 

Spenser. 

In  the  last  place,  love  when  misdirected  is  dangerous 
and  mischievous  ; in  ordinary  cases  it  awakens  flatter- 
ing hopes  and  delusive  dreams,  which  end  in  disap 
pointment  and  mortification  ; and  in  some  cases  it  is 
the  origin  of  the  most  frightful  evils ; there  is  nothing 
more  atrocious  than  what  has  owed  its  origin  to 
slighted  love:  hni  friendship,  even  if  mistaken,  will 
awaken  no  other  feeling  than  that  of  pity  ; when  a 
friend  proves  faithless  or  wicked,  he  is  lamented  as  one 
who  has  fallen  from  the  high  estate  to  which  we 
thought  him  entitled. 


LOVER,  SUITOR,  WOOER. 

Jjover  signifies  literally  one  who  loves,  and  is  appli 
cable  to  any  object ; there  are  lovers  of  money,  and 
lovers  of  wine,  lovers  of  things  individually,  and  thing* 
collectively,  that  is,  lovers  of  particular  women  in  the 
good  sense,  or  lovers  of  women  in  the  bad  sense,  but 
lover,  taken  absolutely,  signifies  one  who  feels  or  pro- 
fesses his  love  for  a female;  ‘ It  is  very  natural  for  a 
young  friend,  and  a young  lover,  to  think  the  persons 
they  love  have  nothing  to  do  but  to  please  them.’  — 
Pope.  The  suitor  is  one  who  sues  and  strives  after  a 
thing;  the  term  is  equally  undefined  as  to  the  object, 
but  may  be  employed  for  such  as  sue  for  favours  from 
their  superiours,  ox  sue  for  the  affections  and  person  of 
a female;  ‘What  pleasure  can  it  be  to  be  thronged 
with  petitioners,  and  those  perhaps  suitors  for  tiie 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


381 


tame  thing  V — South.  The  wooer  is  only  a species  of 
lover,  who  woos  or  solicits  the  kicd  regards  of  a fe- 
male ; ‘ I am  glad  this  parcel  of  wooers  are  so  reason- 
able, for  there  is  not  one  of  them  but  I dote  on  his  very 
absence.’ — Shakspeare.  When  applied  to  the  same 
cbject,  namely,  the  female  sex,  the  lover  is  employed 
or  persons  of  all  ranks,  who  are  equally  alive  to  the 
tender  passion  of  love : suitor  is  a title  adapted  to  that 
class  of  life  where  all  the  genuine  affections  of  human 
nature  are  adulterated  by  a false  refinement,  or  entirely 
lost  in  other  passions  of  a guilty  nature.  Wooer  is  a 
tender  and  passionate  title,  which  is  adapted  to  that 
class  of  beings  that  live  only  in  poetry  and  romance. 
There  is  most  sincerity  in  the  lover,  he  simply  proffers 
his  love ; there  is  most  ceremony  in  the  suitor,  he  pre- 
fers his  suit;  there  is  most  ardour  in  the  wooer,  he 
makes  his  vows. 


GALLANT,  BEAU,  SPARK. 

These  words  convey  nothing  respectful  of  the  person 
to  whom  they  are  applied;  but  the  first,  as  is  evident 
from  its  derivation,  has  something  in  it  to  recommend 
it  to  attention  above  the  others:  as  true  valour  is  ever 
associated  with  a regard  for  the  fair  sex,  a gallant  man 
will  always  be  a gallant  when  he  can  render  the  female 
any  service;  sometimes,  however,  his  gallantries  may 
be  such  as  to  do  them  harm  rather  than  good  ; 

The  god  of  wit,  and  light,  and  arts. 

With  all  acquir’d  and  natural  parts. 

Was  an  unfortunate  gallant.— ^vii¥T. 
Insignificance  and  effeminacy  characterize  the  heau  or 
fine  gentleman ; he  is  the  woman’s  man — the  humble 
servant  to  supply  the  place  of  a lacquey ; 

His  pride  began  to  interpose, 

Preferr’d  before  a crowd  of  beaux. — Swift. 

The  sparic  has  but  a spark  of  that  fire  which  shows 
Itself  in  impertinent  puerilities  ■;  it  is  applicable  to 
youth  who  are  just  broke  loose  from  school  or  college, 
and  eager  to  display  their  manhood; 

Oft  it  has  been  my  lot  to  mark 
A proud,  conceited,  talking  s^a?-fc. — Merrick. 


MALEVOLENT,  MALICIOUS,  MALIGNANT. 

These  words  have  all  their  derivation  Uommalus  bad : 
that  is,  malevolent,  wishing  ill;  malicious  {v.  Malice), 
having  an  evil  disposition ' and  malignant,  having  an 
evil  tendency. 

Malevolence  has  a deep  root  in  the  heart,  and  is  a 
settled  part  of  the  character ; we  denominate  the  per-> 
son  malevolent,  to  designate  the  ruling  temper  of  his 
mind : maliciousness  may  be  applied  as  an  epithet  to 
particular  parts  of  a man’s  character  or  conduct ; one 
may  have  a malicious  joy  or  pleasure  in  seeing  the  dis- 
tresses of  another;  malignity  is  not  employed  to 
characterize  the  person,  but  the  thing;  ihemalignity  of 
a design  is  estimated  by  the  degree  of  mischief  which 
was  intended  to  be  done.  Whenever  malevolence  has 
taken  possession  of  the  heart,  all  the  sources  of  good- 
will are  dried  up ; a stream  of  evil  runs  through  the 
whole  frame,  and  contaminates  every  moral  feeling ; 
the  being  who  is  under  such  an  unhappy  influence 
neither  thinks  nor  does  any  thing  but  what  is  evil ; ‘ I 
have  often  known  very  lasting  malevolence  excited  by 
unlucky  censures.’ — Johnson.  A malicious  disposi- 
tion is  that  branch  of  malevolence  which  is  the  next  to 
it  in  the  blackness  of  its  character ; it  differs,  how'ever, 
in  this,  that  malice  will,  in  general,  lie  dormant,  until  it 
is  provoked ; 

Greatness,  the  earnest  of  malicious  Fate 
For  future  wo,  was  never  meant  a good. 

Southern. 

But  malevolence  is  as  active  and  unceasing  in  its  ope- 
rations for  mischief,  as  its  opposite,  benevolence,  is  in 
wishing  and  doing  good. 

Malicious  and  malignant  are  both  applied  to  things ; 
but  the  former  is  applied  to  those  which  are  of  a per- 
sonal nature,  the  latter  to  objects  purely  inanimate: 
a story  or  tale  is  termed  malicious,  which  emanates 
from  a malicious  disposition  ; a star  is  termed  malig- 
nant, which  is  supposed  to  have  a bad  or  malignant 
kifluence 


Still  horrour  reigns,  a dreary  twilight  round, 

Of  struggling  night  and  day  malignant  mix’d 

Thomscn 

MALICE,  RANCOUR,  SPITE,  GRUDGE,  PIQUE, 
Malice,  in  Latin  malitia,  from  malus  bad,  significi 
the  very  essence  of  badness  lying  in  the  hear.  ; ran- 
cour (v.  Hatred)  is  only  continued  hatred:  the  forme! 
requires  no  external  cause  to  provoke  it,  it  is  inherent 
in  the  mind  ; the  latter  must  be  caused  by  some  per- 
sonal offence.  Malice  is  properly  the  love  of  evil  for 
evil’s  sake,  and  is,  therefore,  confined  to  no  number  or 
quality  of  objects,  and  limited  by  no  circumstance  • 
rancour,  as  it  depends  upon  external  objects  for  iu 
existence,  so  it  is  confined  to  such  objects  only  as  art 
liable  to  cause  displeasure  or  anger  : rnahce  will  impe 
a man  to  do  mischief  to  those  who  have  not  injuret 
him,  and  are  perhaps  strangers  to  him ; 

If  any  chance  has  hither  brought  the  name 
Of  Palaniedes,  not  unknown  to  fame. 

Who  suffer’d  from  the  malice  of  the  time& 

Drsden. 

Rancour  can  subsist  only  between  those  who  have  had 
sufficient  connexion  to  be  at  variance ; ‘ Party  spirH 
fills  a nation  with  spleen  and  rancour.' — Addison. 

Spite,  from  the  Italian  dispetto  and  the  French 
despit,  denotes  a petty  kind  of  malice,  or  disposition 
to  offend  another  in  trifling  matters  ; it  may  be  in  the 
temper  of  the  person,  or  it  may  have  its  source  in  some 
external  provocation : children  often  show  their  spite 
to  each  other ; 

Can  heav’nly  minds  such  high  resentment  show, 

Or  exercise  their  spite  in  human  wo  1 — Dryden. 
Grudge,  connected  with  grumble  and  growl,  an^ 
pique,  from  pike,  denoting  the  prick  of  a pointed  in- 
strument, are  employed  for  that  particular  state  af 
rancorous  or  spiteful  feeling  which  is  occasioned  by 
personal  offences : the  grudge  is  that  which  has  l.ong 
existed ; 

The  god  of  wit,  to  show  his  grudge. 

Clapp’d  asses’  ears  upon  the  judge.— Swift. 

The  pique  is  that  which  is  of  recent  date  ; ‘ You  may 
be  sure  the  ladies  are  not  wanting,  on  their  side,  in 
cherishing  and  improving  these  important  piques.., 
which  divide  the  town  almost  into  as  many  parties  as 
there  are  families.’ — Lady  M.  W.  Montague.  A per 
son  is  said  to  owe  another  a grudge  for  having  done 
him  a disservice  ; or  he  is  said  to  have  a pique  towards 
another,  who  has  shown  him  an  affront. 


IMPLACABLE,  UNRELENTING,  RELENTLESS 
INEXORABLE. 

Implacable,  unappeaseable,  signifies  not  to  be  allayed 
nor  softened  ; unrelenting  or  relentless,  from  the  Latin 
lenio  to  soften,  or  to  make  pliant,  signifies  not  rendered 
soft ; inexorable,  from  oro  to  pray,  signifies  not  to  be 
turned  by  prayers. 

Inflexibility  is  the  idea  expressed  in  common  by 
these  terms,  but  they  differ  in  the  causes  and  circum- 
stance with  which  it  is  attended.  Animosities  are 
implacable  when  no  misery  which  we  occasion  can 
diminish  their  force,  and  no  concessions  on  the  part  of 
the  offender  can  lessen  the  spirit  of  revenge ; ‘ Impla- 
cable as  the  enmity  of  the  Mexicans  was,  they  were  so 
unacquainted  w'ith  the  science  of  war  that  they  knew 
not  how  to  take  the  proper  measures  for  the  destruc 
tion  of  the  Spaniards.’ — Robertson.  The  mind  oei 
character  of  a man  is  unrelenting,  when  it  is  not  to  be 
turned  from  its  purpose  by  a view  of  the  pain  which 
it  inflicts; 

These  are  the  realms  of  unrelenting  fate. — Dryden. 

A man  is  inexorable  who  turns  a deaf  ear  to  every 
solicitation  or  entreaty  that  is  made  to  induce  him  to 
lessen  the  rigour  of  his  sentence  ; 

You  are  more  inhuman,  more  inexorable. 

Oh,  ten  times  more,  than  tigers  of  Hyrcania ! 

Shakspeare. 

A man’s  angry  passions  render  him  implacable;  it  la 
not  the  magnitude  of  the  offence,  but  the  temper  of 
the  offended  that  is  here  in  Question  ; by  implacability 
he  is  rendered  insensible  to  the  misery  he  occasions, 


382 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


and  to  every  satisfactiot)  which  the  offender  may  offer 
him  : fixedness  of  purpose  renders  a man  unrelenting 
or  relentless  ; an  unrelenting  temper  is  not  less  cal- 
lous to  the  misery  produced,  than  a:i  implacable  tem- 
per ; but  it  is  not  grounded  always  on  resentment  for 
personal  injuries,  but  sometimes  on  a certain  principle 
of  right  and  a sense  of  necessity  ; the  inexorable  man 
adheres  to  his  rule,  as  the  unrelenting  man  does  to 
his  purpose  ; the  former  is  insensible  to  any  workings 
of  his  heart  which  might  shake  his  purpose,  the  latter 
turns  a deaf  ear  to  all  the  solicitations  of  others  which 
would  go  to  alter  his  decrees : savages  are  mostly  im- 
placable in  their  animosities ; Titus  Manlius  Torquatus 
displayed  an  instance  of  unrelenting  severity  towards 
his  son  , Minos,  iEacus,  and  Rhadamanthus  were  the 
inexorable  judges  of  hell. 

Implacable  and  unrelenting  are  said  only  of  animate 
beings  in  whom  is  wanting  an  ordinary  portion  of  the 
tender  affections : inexorable  may  be  improperly  ap- 
plied to  inanimate  objects  ; justice  and  death  are  both 
represented  as  inexorable ; 

Acca,  ’t  is  past,  he  swims  before  my  sight. 

Inexorable  death,  and  claims  his  right. — Dryden. 

HARSH,  ROUGH,  SEVERE,  RIGOROUS. 

These  terms  mark  different  modes  of  treating  those 
that  are  in  one’s  power,  all  of  wdiicli  are  the  reverse  of 
the  kind. 

Harsh  and  rough  borrow  their  moral  signification 
from  the  physical  properties  of  the  bodies  to  which 
they  belong.  The  harsh  and  the  rough  both  act  pain- 
fully upon  the  taste,  but  the  former  with  much  more  vio- 
lence than  the  latter.  An  excess  of  the  sour  mingled 
with  other  unpleasant  properties  constitutes  harsh- 
ness : an  excess  of  astringency  constitutes  roughness. 
Cheese  is  said  to  be  harsh  when  it  is  dry  and  biting  : 
roughness  is  the  peculiar  quality  of  the  damascene. 

From  this  physical  distinction  between  these  terms 
we  discover  the  ground  of  their  moral  application. 
Harshness  in  a person’s  conduct  acts  upon  the  feel- 
ings, and  does  violence  to  the  affections:  roughness 
acts  only  externally  on  the  senses : w'e  may  be  rough 
in  the  tone  of  the  voice,  in  the  mode  of  address,  or  in 
the  manner  of  handling  or  touching  an  object:  but  we 
are  harsh  in  the  sentiment  w'c  convey,  and  according 
to  the  persons  to  whom  it  is  conveyed  : a stranger  may 
be  rough  when  he  has  it  in  his  power  to  be  so : a 
friend,  or  one  in  the  tendercst  relation,  only  can  be 
harsh.  An  officer  of  justice  deals  roughly  with  the 
prisoner  in  his  charge,  to  whom  he  denies  every  in- 
dulgence in  a rough  and  forbidding  tone  ; 

Know,  gentle  youth,  in  Lybian  lands  there  are 

A people  rude  in  peace,  and  rough  in  war. 

Dryden. 

A parent  deals  harshly  with  a child  who  refuses  every 
endearment,  and  only  speaks  to  command  or  forbid ; 
' I would  rather  he  was  a man  of  a roiigh  temper,  who 
would  treat  me  harshly,  than  of  an  efteniinate  nature.’ 
— Addison.  Harsh  and  rough  are  unamiable  and 
always  censurable  qualities : they  spring  from  tiie 
harshness  and  roughness  of  the  humour  ; ‘ No  com- 
plaint is  more  feelingly  made  than  that  of  the  harsh 
and  rugged  manners  of  persons  with  whom  we  have 
an  intercourse.’ — Blair.  Severe  and  rigorous  are  not 
always  to  be  condemned  ; they  spring  from  principle, 
and  are  often  resorted  to  by  necessity.  Harshness  is 
always  mingled  with  anger  and  personal  feeling: 
severity  or  rigour  characterizes  the  thing  more  than 
the  temper  of  the  person. 

A harsh  master  renders  every  burden  which  he  im- 
poses doubly  severe,  by  the  grating  manner  in  which  he 
communicates  his  will:  a severe  master  simply  imposes 
the  burden  in  a manner  to  enforce  obedience.  The 
one  seems  to  indulge  himself  in  inflicting  pain : the 
other  seems  to  act  from  a motive  that  is  independent 
of  the  pain  inflicted.  A harsh  man  is  therefore  always 
severe,  but  with  injustice : a severe  man,  however,  is 
not  always  harsh.  Rigour  is  a high  degree  of  severity. 
One  is  severe  in  the  punishment  of  offences : one  is 
rigorous  in  exacting  compliance  and  obedience.  Se- 
verity is  always  more  or  less  necessary  in  the  army,  or 
in  a school,  for  the  preservation  of  good  order  rigour 
is  essential  in  dealing  with  the  stubborn  will  and  unruly 
passions  of  men.  A general  must  be  severe  while  lying 
m ni'arters,  to  prevent  drunkenness  and  theft : but  he 


must  be  rigorous  when  invading  i foreign  country,  tr 
prevent  the  ill-treatment  of  the  inhabitants;  It  is 
pride  which  fills  the  world  with  so  much  harshness 
and  severity.  We  are  rigorous  to  offences  as  if  we 
had  never  offended.’ — Blair. 

A measure  is  severe  that  threatens  heavy  conse 
quences  to  those  who  do  not  comply  : a line  of  conduct 
is  rigorous  that  binds  men  down  with  great  exactitude 
to  a particular  mode  of  proceeding.  A judge  is  severe 
who  is  ready  to  punish  and  unwilling  to  pardort. 


AUSTERE,  RIGID,  SEVERE,  RIGOROUS, 
STERN. 

Jlustere,  in  Latin  austerus  sour  or  rough,  from  the 
Greek  av<o  to  dry,  signifies  rough  or  harsh,  from 
drought;  rigid  and  rigorous,  from  the  Latin  rigeo 
and  the  Greek  piyim,  signifies  stiffness  or  unbending- 
ness ; severe,  in  Latin  severus,  comes  from  s<bvus 
cruel ; stern,  in  Saxon  sterne,  German  streng  strong, 
has  the  sense  of  strictness. 

.Austere  applies  to  ourselves  as  well  as  to  others ; 
rigid  applies  to  ourselves  only ; severe,  rigorous,  stern, 
apply  to  others  only.  We  are  austere  in  our  manner 
of  living ; rigid  in  our  mode  of  thinking  ; austere, 
severe,  rigorous,  and  stern  in  our  mode  of  dealing 
with  others.  Effeminacy  is  opposed  to  austerity,  plia- 
bility to  rigidity. 

The  austere  man  mortifies  himself ; the  rigid  man 
binds  himself  to  a rule  ; the  austerities  formerly  prac- 
tised among  the  Roman  Catholicks  were  in  many  in 
stances  the  consequence  of  rigid  piety : the  manners  of 
a man  are  austere  when  he  refuses  to  take  part  in  any 
social  enjoyments ; his  probity  is  rigid,  that  is,  inacces- 
sible to  the  aflurements  of  gain,  or  the  urgency  of  ne 
cessity  : an  austere  life  consists  not  only  in  the  priva 
tion  of  every  pleasure,  but  in  the  infliction  of  every 
pain  : ‘ Austerity  is  the  proper  antidote  to  indulgence  , 
the  diseases  of  the  mind  as  well  as  body  are  cured  by 
contraries.’ — Johnson.  Rigid  justice  is  unbiassed,  no 
less  by  the  fear  of  loss  than  by  the  desire  of  gain  • the 
present  age  affords  no  examples  of  austerity,  but  too 
many  of  its  opposite  extreme,  effeminacy ; and  the 
rigidity  of  former  times,  in  modes  of  thinking,  has 
been  succeeded  by  a culpable  laxity  ; ‘ In  things  which 
are  not  immediately  subject  to  religious  or  moral  con- 
sideration, it  is  dangerous  to  be  too  long  or  too  rigidly 
in  the  right.’ — Johnson. 

Austere,  when  taken  with  relation  to  others,  is  said 
of  the  behaviour;  severe  oi  the  conduct:  a parent  is 
austere  in  his  looks,  his  manners,  and  his  words  to  his 
child ; he  is  severe  in  the  restraints  he  imposes,  and  the 
punishments  he  inflicts:  an  austere  master  speaks  but 
to  command,  and  commands  so  as  to  be  obeyed ; a 
severe  master  punishes  every  fault,  and  pun.shes  in  an 
undue  measure:  an  awstere  temper  is  never  softened; 
the  countenance  of  such  a one  never  relaxes  into  a 
smile,  nor  is  he  pleased  to  witness  smiles ; a severe 
temper  is  ready  to  catch  at  the  imperfections  of  others, 
and  to  wound  the  offender:  a judge  should  be  a rigid 
administrator  of  justice  between  man  and  man,  and 
severe  in  the  punishment  of  offenc  es  as  occasion  re- 
quires; but  nevere  austere  towards  those  who  appear 
before  him  ; austerity  of  manner  would  ill  become 
him  who  sits  as  a protector  of  either  the  innocent  or 
the  injured. 

Rigour  is  a species  of  great  severity,  namely,  in  the 
infliction  of  punishment;  towards  enormous  offenders, 
or  on  particular  occasions  where  an  example  is  requV 
site,  rigour  may  be  adopted,  but  otherwise  it  mark 
a cruel  temper.  A man  is  austere  in  his  manners, 
sencre  in  his  remarks,  and  rigorous  in  his  discipline; 
‘If  you  are  hard  or  contracted  in  your  judgements, 
severe  in  your  censures,  and  oppressive  in  jour  deal 
ings;  then  conclude  with  certainty  that  what  you  hau 
termed  piety  was  but  an  empty  name.’ — Blair.  ‘ It 
is  not  by  rigorous  discipline  and  unrelaxing  austerity 
that  the  aged  can  maintain  an  ascendant  over  youthful 
minds.’ — Blair. 

Austerity,  rigidity,  and  severity  may  be  habitual ; 
rigour  and  sternness  are  occasional.  Sternness  is  a 
species  of  severity  more  in  manner  than  in  direcj 
action ; a commancier  may  issue  his  comman  is  sternly 
or  a despot  may  issue  his  stern  decrees; 

A man  severe  he  was,  and  stern  to  view, 

1 I knew  him  well,  and  everv  truant  knew 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES  383 


Vet  lie  was  kind,  or  if  severe  in  aught, 

The  love  he  bore  to  learning  was  in  fault. 

Goldsmith. 

It  is  stern  criticism  to  say,  that  Mr.  Pope’s  is  not  a 
lanslation  of  Homer.’ — Cumberland. 


ACRIMONY,  TARTNESS,  ASPERITY, 
HARSHNESS. 

These  epithets  are  figuratively  employed  to  denote 
sharpness  of  feeling  corresponding  to  the  quality  in 
natural  bodies. 

Acrimony^  in  Latin  acrimonia,  from  acer  sharp,  is 
the  characteristick  of  garlick,  mustard,  and  pepper, 
that  is,  a biting  sharpness ; tartness,  from  tart,  is  not 
improbably  derived  from  tartar,  the  qualify  of  which 
it  in  some  degree  resembles,  expressing  a high  degree 
of  acid  peculiar  to  vinegar ; asperity,  in  Latin  aspe- 
ritas,  from  asper,  comes  from  the  Greek  acirpos  fallow, 
without  culture  and  without  fruit  as  applied  to  land 
that  is  too  hard  and  rough  to  be  tilled  ; harshness, 
from  harsh,  in  German  and  Teutonick  herbe,  hcrbisch, 
Swedish  kerb,  Latin  acerbus,  denotes  the  sharp,  rough 
taste  of  unripe  fruit. 

A.  quick  sense  produces  acrimzny : it  is  too  frequent 
imong  disputants,  who  inibitter  each  other’s  feelings. 
An  acute  sensibility,  coupled  with  quickness  of  intel- 
lect, produces  tartness : it  is  too  frequent  among  fe- 
males. Acrimony  is  a transient  feeling  that  discovers 
itself  by  the  words;  ‘The  genius  even  when  he  en- 
deavours only  to  entertain  or  instruct,  yet  suffers  per- 
secution from  innumerable  criticks,  whose  acrimony  is 
excited  merely  by  the  pain  of  seeing  others  pleased.’— 
Johnson.  Tartness  is  an  habitual  irritability  that 
mingles  itself  with  the  tone  and  looks;  ‘When  his 
humours  grew  tart,  as  being  now  in  the  lees  of  fa- 
vour, they  brake  forth  into  certain  sudden  excesses.’— 
VVoTTON.  An  acrimonious  reply  frequently  gives  rise 
to  much  ill-will ; a tart  reply  is  often  treated  with  in- 
difference, as  indicative  of  the  natural  temper,  rather 
than  of  any  unfriendly  feeling. 

Asperity  and  harshness  respect  one’s  conduct  to  in- 
feriours  • the  latter  expresses  a strong  degree  of  the 
former.  Asperity  is  opposed  to  mildness  and  forbear- 
ance ; harshness  to  kindness.  A reproof  is  conveyed 
with  asperity,  when  the  words  and  looks  convey  strong 
displeasure ; ‘ The  charity  of  the  one,  like  kindly  ex- 
halations, will  descend  in  showers  of  blessings;  but 
the  rigour  and  asperity  of  the  other,  in  a severe  doom 
upon  ourselves.’ — Government  of  the  Tongue.  A 
treatment  is  harsh  when  it  wounds  the  feelings,  and 
does  violence  to  the  affections  : 

Thy  tender  hefted  nature  shall  not  give 

riiee  o'er  to  harshness : her  eyes  are  fierce,  but 
thine 

Do  comfort  and  not  burn.— Shakspeare. 

Mistresses  sometimes  chide  their  servants  with  as- 
perity; parents  sometimes  deal  harshly  with  their 
children. 

Harshness  and  asperity  are  also  applied  to  other 
objects ; the  former  to  sounds  or  words,  the  latter  figu- 
ratively to  the  atmosphere ; ‘ Cowley  seems  to  have 
possessed  the  power  of  writing  easily  beyond  any  other 
of  our  poets,  yet  his  pursuit  of  remote  tlioughts  led 
him  often  into  harshness  of  expression.’— Johnson. 
‘The  nakedness  auA  asperity  of  the  wintery  world 
always  fills  the  beholder  with  pensive  and  profound 
astonishment.’ — Jon  n so  .n. 


^ TO  SATISFY,  PLEASE,  GRATIFY. 

To  satisfy  (v.  Contentment)  is  rather  to  produce  plea- 
sure ndirectly;  to  please  {v.  Agreeable)  is  to  produce 
it  directly ; the  former  is  negative,  the  latter  positive, 
pleasure ; as  every  desire  is  accompanied  with  more  or 
less  pain,  satis/actfow  which  is  the  removal  of  desire 
is  itself  to  a certain  extent  pleasure ; but  what  satisfies 
is  not  always  calculated  to  please;  nor  is  that  which 
pleases,  that  which  will  always  satisfy:  plain  food 
satisfies  a hungry  person  but  does  not  please  him 
when  he  is  not  hungry;  social  enjoyments  please,  but 
they  are  very  far  from  satisfying  those  who  do  not 
re.strict  their  iudulgeucies  ; ‘ ile  who  has  run  over  the 
whole  circle  of  earthly  pleasures  will  be  forced  to 
romplai'i  that  either  *hey  were  not  pleasures  o'  Uiat 


pleasure  was  not  satisfaction.' — South  To  gratify 
is  to  please  in  a high  degree,  to  produce  a vivid  plea- 
sure ; we  may  ho  pleased  with  trifles,  but  we  are  com- 
monly gratified  with  such  things  as  act  strongly  either 
on  the  senses  or  the  affections : an  epicure  is  gratified 
with  those  delicacies  which  suit  his  taste;  an  amateur 
in  musick  will  be  gratified  with  hearing  a piece  of 
Handel’s  composition  finely  performed;  ‘Did  we  con- 
sider that  the  mind  of  a man  is  the  man  himself,  we 
should  think  it  the  most  unnatural  sort  of  self-murder 
to  sacrifice  the  sentiment  of  the  soul  to  gratify  '.he 
appetites  of  the  body.’ — Steele. 


TO  SATISFY,  SATIATE,  GLUT,  CLUi:. 

To  satisfy  is  to  take  enough ; satiate  is  a frequenta 
tive  formed  from  satis  enough,  signifying  to  have  more 
than  enough  ; glut,  in  Latin  glutio,  from  gula  the 
throat,  signifies  to  take  down  the  throat ; cloy  is  a 
variation  of  clog. 

Sati.</acf lira  brings  pleasure;  it  is  what  nature  de- 
mands ; and  nature  therefore  makes  a suitable  return  • 
satiety  is  attended  with  disgust ; it  is  what  appetite 
demands;  but  appetite  is  the  corruption  of  nature  and 
produces  nothing  but  evil ; glutting  is  an  act  of  in 
temperance;  it  is  what  the  inordinate  appetite  de- 
mands ; it  greatly  exceeds  the  former  in  degree  both 
of  the  cause  and  the  consequence  ; cloying  is  the  con 
sequence  of  glutting.  Every  healthy  person  satisfies 
himself  with  a regular  portion  of  food  ; children  if 
unrestrained  seek  to  satiate  their  appetites,  and  cloy 
themselves  by  their  excesses  ; brutes,  or  men  debased 
into  brutes,  glut  themselves  with  that  whicli  is  agree- 
able to  their  appetites. 

The  first  three  terms  are  employed  in  a moral  appli- 
cation ; tlie  last  may  also  be  used  figuratively;  we 
satisfy  desires  in  general,  or  any  particular  desire ; 
‘ The  only  thing  that  can  give  the  mind  any  solid  satis- 
faction is  a certain  complacency  and  repose  in  the 
good  providence  of  God.’ — Herring.  We  satiate  the 
appetite  for  pleasure  or  power  ; 

’T  was  not  enough. 

By  subtle  fraud  to  snatch  a single  life ; 

Puny  impiety  1 whole  kingdoms  fell. 

To  sate  the  lust  of  power. — Porteus. 

One  gluts  the  eyes  or  the  ears  by  any  tiling  that  1a 
horrid  or  extravagant ; ‘ If  the  understanding  be  de- 
tained by  occupations  less  pleasing,  it  returns  again  to 
study  with  greater  alacrity  than  when  it  is  glutted 
with  ideal  pleasures.’ — Johnson.  We  may  be  cloyed 
by  an  uninterrupted  round  of  pleasures  ; ‘ Religious 
pleasure  is  such  a jileasure  as  can  never  cloy  or  ovei 
work  the  mind.’ — South. 


ENJOYMENT,  FRUITION,  GRATIFICATION. 

Enjoyment,  from  enjoy  to  have  the  joy  or  pleasure, 
signifies  either  the  act  of  enjoying,  or  the  pleasure 
itself  derived  from  that  act;  fruition,  fioni  fruor  to 
enjoy,  is  employed  only  for  the  act  of  enjoying. 

We  speak  either  of  the  enjoyment  of  any  pleasure, 
or  of  the  enjoyment  as  a pleasure:  we  speak  of  those 
pleasures  which  are  received  from  the  fruition,  in 
distinction  from  those  which  are  only  in  expectation. 
The  enjoyment  is  either  corjioreal  or  spiritual,  as  the 
enjoyment  of  musick,  or  the  ewjoyincTit  of  study;  ‘The 
enjoyment  of  fame  brings  but  very  little  pleasure, 
though  the  loss  or  want  of  it  be  very  sensible  and 
afflicting.’ — Addison.  FrMitiore  mostly  relates  to  sen- 
sible, or  at  least  to  external  objects ; hope  intervenes 
between  the  desire  and  the  fruition;  ‘Fame  is  a good 
so  wholly  foreign  to  ournatures  that  we  have  no  faculty 
in  the  soul  adapted  to  it,  nor  any  organ  in  the  body  to 
relish  it;  an  object  of  desire  placed  out  of  the  possi 
bility  of  fruition.' — Addison. 

Gratification,  from  the  verb  to  gratify  make  grate- 
ful or  pleasant,  signifies  either  the  act  of  giving  plea 
sure,  or  the  pleasure  received.  Enjoyment  springs 
from  every  object  which  is  capable  of  yielding  plea- 
sure ; by  distinction  however  from  moral  and  rationa 
objects;  ‘His  hopes  and  expectations  are  bigger  than 
liis  enjoyments' — Tillotson.  But  the  gratification., 
which  is  a species  of  enjoyment,  is  obtained  through 
the  medium  of  the  senses;  ‘The  man  of  pleasure  little 
knows  the  perfect  joy  he  loses  for  the  disappointing 
gratifications  which  he  pursues.’ — Addison  Th<? 


384 


ENGLISH  SlfNONYMLS. 


enjoyment  is  not  so  vivid  as  the  gratification:  the 
gratification  is  not  so  permanent  as  the  enjoyment. 
Domestick  life  has  its  peculiar  enjoyments ; brilliant 
spectacles  a.f[o\A  gratification.  Our  capacity  for  enjoy- 
ments depends  upon  our  intellectual  endowments ; our 
gratification  depends  upon  the  tone  of  our  feelings, 
and  the  nature  of  our  desires. 


CONTENTMENT,  SATISFACTION. 

Conte  itment,  in  French  contentment,  from  content, 
’fn  Latin  contentus,  participle  of  contineo  to  contain  or 
told,  signifies  the  keeping  one’s  self  to  a thing ; satis- 
faction, in  Latin  satisfacio,  compounded  of  satis  and 
fajcio,  signifies  the  making  or  having  enough. 

Contentment  lies  in  ourselves : satisfaction  is  de- 
rived from  eiiternal  objects ; one  is  contented  when 
one  wishes  for  no  more : one  is  satisfied  when  one  has 
obtained  wluit  one  wishes ; the  contented  man  has 
always  enougn  ; the  satisfied  man  receives  enough. 

The  cioitcwted  man  will  not  he  dissatisfied ; but  he 
who  looks  fot'  satisfaction  will  never  be  contented. 
Contentment  i j the  absence  of  pain ; satisfaction  is 
positive  pleasire.  Contentment  is  accompanied  with 
the  enjoyment  of  what  one  has;  s atisf action  h otien 
quickly  I'ollowf  d with  the  alloy  of  wanting  more.  A 
contented  man  can  never  be  miserable ; a satisfied 
man  can  scarcely  be  long  happy.  Contentment  is  a 
permanent  and  habitual  state  of  mind  ; it  is  the  restric- 
tion of  all  our  thoughts,  views,  and  desires  within  the 
compass  of  present  possession  and  enjoyment ; 

True  happiness  is  to  no  place  confin’d. 

But  still  is  found  in  a contented  mind.— Anonymous. 
Satisfaction  is  a partial  and  turbulent  state  of  the 
feelings,  which  awakens  rather  than  deadens  desire ; 
‘ Women  who  have  been  married  some  time,  not  hav- 
ing it  in  their  heads  to  draw  after  them  a numerous 
train  of  followers,  find  their  satisfaction  in  the  pos- 
session of  one  man’s  heart.’ — Spectator.  Content- 
ment is  suited  to  our  present  condition ; it  accommo- 
dates itself  to  the  vicissitudes  of  human  life:  satisfac- 
tion belongs  to  no  created  being ; one  satisfied  desire 
engenders  another  that  demands  satisfaction.  Con- 
tentment is  within  the  reach  of  the  poor  man,  to 
whom  it  is  a continual  feast;  but  satisfaction  has 
never  been  procured  by  wealth,  however  enormous,  or 
ambition,  however  boundless  and  successful.  We 
should  therefore  look  for  the  contented  man,  where 
there  are  the  fewest  means  of  being  satisfied.  Our 
duty  bids  us  be  contented ; our  desires  ask  to  be  satis- 
fied; but  our  duty  is  associated  with  our  happiness ; 
our  desiies  are  the  sources  of  our  misery. 


PLAY,  GAME,  SPORT. 

Play,  frohi  the  French  plaire  to  please,  signifies  in 
general  what  one  does  to  please  one’s  self ; game,  in 
Saxon  very  probably  comes  from  the  Greek 

yayiw  io  marry,  which  is  the  season  for  games;  the 
word  yayiw,  itself,  comes  from  yaim  to  be  buoyant  or 
boasting,  whence  comes  our  word  gay ; sport,  in 
German  spass  or  posse,  comes  from  the  Greek 
to  jest. 

Play  and  game  both  include  exercise,  corporeal  or 
mental,  or  btiih  ; hwtjday  is  an  unsystematick,  game  a 
systernatick,  exercise  ; children  pZay  when  they  merely 
run  after  each  other,  but  this  is  no  game ; on  the  other 
hand,  when  they  exercise  with  the  ball  according  to 
any  rule,  this  is  a game ; every  game  therefore  is  a 
play,  but  every  play  is  not  a game : trundling  a hoop 
is  a play,  but  not  a game  : cricket  is  both  a play  and 
a game.  One  person  may  have  his  pZay  by  himself, 
but  there  must  be  more  than  one  to  have  a game. 
PZay  is  adapted  to  infants;  games  to  those  who  are 
more  advanced.  Play  is  the  neces.sary  unbending  of 
the  mind  to  give  a free  exercise  to  the  body  : game  is 
the  direction  of  the  mind  to  the  lighter  objects  of  in- 
tellectual pursuit.  An  intemperate  love  of  play, 
though  prejudicial  to  the  improvement  of  young 
people,  is  not  always  the  worst  indication  which  they 
can  give ; it  is  often  coupled  with  qualities  of  a better 
kind  ; ‘ Play  is  not  unlawful  merely  as  a contest.’ — 
Hawkesworth.  When  games  are  pursued  with  too 
much  ardour,  particularly  for  the  purposes  of  gain, 
they  are  altogether  prejudicial  to  the  understanding, 
and  ruinctis  to  *he  morals* 


What  arms  to  use,  or  nets  to  frame, 

Wild  beasts  toconibat  or  to  tame. 

With  all  the  mysteries  of  that  game  — Waller 
Sport  is  a bodily  exercise  connected  with  the  prose 
cation  of  some  olqect ; it  is  so  far,  therefore,  distinct 
from  either  play  or  game:  fot  play  may  be  purely 
corporeal;  game,  principally  intellectual;  but  sport 
is  a mixture  of  both.  The  game  comprehends  the 
exercise  of  an  art,  and  the  perfection  which  is  attained 
in  that  art  is  the  end  or  source  of  pleasure  ; the  span 
is  merely  the  prosecution  of  an  object  which  may  be, 
and  mostly  is,  attainable  by  one’s  physical  j)owers 
without  any  exercise  of  art : the  game,  therefore,  is 
intellectual  both  in  the  end  and  the  means;  the  sport 
only  in  the  end.  Draughts,  backgammon,  cards,  and 
the  like,  are  games  : but  liuntlng,  shooting,  racing, 
bowling,  quoits,  &c.  are  termed  more  properly  spo7-ts  . 
there  are,  however,  many  things  which  may  be  deno 
minated  either ^ame  or  sport  according  as  it  has  more 
or  less  of  art  in  it.  Wrestling,  boxing,  chariot-racing, 
and  the  like,  were  carried  to  such  perfection  by  the 
ancients  that  they  are  always  distinguished  by  the 
name  of  games  ; of  which  we  have  historical  accounts 
under  the  difierent  titles  of  the  Olympick,  the  Pythian, 
the  Nemean,  and  the  Isthmian  games.  Similar  exer- 
cises, when  practised  by  the  rusticks  in  England,  have 
been  commonly  denominated  rural  sports.  Upon  this 
ground  game  is  used  abstractedly  for  the  part  of  the 
game  in  which  the  whole  art  lies : ‘ There  is  no  man 
of  sense  and  honesty  but  must  see  and  own,  whethei 
he  understands  the  game  or  not,  that  it  is  an  evident 
folly  for  any  people,  instead  of  prosecuting  the  old 
honest  Methods  of  industry  and  frugality,  to  sit  down 
to  a publick  gaming  table,  and  play  oft’  their  money 
to  one  another.’ — Berkeley.  Sport  is  used  for  the 
end  of  the  sport  or  the  pleasure  produced  by  the  attain- 
ment of  that  end : thus  we  say  that  the  game  is  won  or 
lost ; to  be  clever  or  inexpert  at  a game;  to  have  much 
spo7-t,  to  enjoy  the  sport,  or  to  spoil  the  sport; 

Now  for  our  mountain  sport  up  to  yon  hill : 

Your  legs  are  young. — Shakspeare. 

Game  is  sometimes  used  figuratively  for  any  3che.ne 
or  course  of  conduct  pursued  ; 

War ! tliat  mad  game  the  world  so  loves  to  play. 

Swift 

Sport  is  sometimes  used  for  the  subject  of  sport  t*. 
another ; 

Commit  not  thy  prophetick  mind 
To  flitting  leaves,  the  sport  of  every  wind, 

Lest  they  disperse  in  air. — Dry  den. 

Why  on  that  brow  dwell  sorrow  and  dismay, 
Where  loves  were  wont  to  spo7-t,  and  smiles  to  play  I 

Swift. 

The  epithets pZay/wZ,  gamesome,  and  spo7-tiveheax  a 
very  similar  distinction.  Playful  is  taken  in  a general 
sense  for  a disposition  to  play,  and  applies  peculiarly 
to  children ; ‘ He  is  scandalized  at  youth  for  being 
lively,  and  at  childhood  for  being pZay/aZ.’ — Addison. 
Gamesome  denotes  a disposition  to  indulge  in  jest,  but 
is  seldom  employed  in  a good  sense; 

Belial  in  like  gamesome  mood. — Milton. 

SporZrae,  which  denotes  a disimsition  to  sporting  or 
carrying  on  a sport,  is  a term  of  stronger  import  than 
plaijful ; ♦ 

I am  not  in  a sportive  humour  new  ; 

Tell  me,  and  dally  not,  where  is  the  money  ? 

Shakspeare. 


FREAK,  WHIM. 

Freak  most  probably  comes  from  the  German /rccA 
bold  and  petulant.  Whim,  from  the  Teutonick  whnmen 
to  whine  or  whimj)er:  but  they  have  at  present  some- 
what deviated  from  their  original  meaning;  for  a /real 
has  more  of  childishness  and  humour  than  boldness  in 
it,  a whim  more  of  eccentricity  than  of  childishness. 
Fancy  and  fortune  are  both  said  to  have  their/reaAs, 
as  they  both  deviate  most  widely  in  their  movements 
from  all  rule;  butwAZms  are  at  most  but  singular devia 
lions  of  the  mind  from  its  ordinary  and  even  course 
Females  are  most  liable  to  be  seized  with/rea/is,  which 
are  in  their  nature  sudden  and  not  to  be  calculated 
noon : men  are  apt  to  indulge  themselves  in  whims 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  385 


VTiiicl)  aio  In  tlieir  nature  strange  and  often  laughable. 
We  should  call  it  a freak  for  a female  to  put  on  the 
habit  of  a male,  and  so  accoutred  to  sally  forth  into  the 
streets ; 

But  the  long  pomp,  the  midnight  masquerade, 

With  all  the  freaks  of  wanton  wealth  array’d. 

In  these,  ere  trifles  half  their  wish  obtain, 

The  toiling  pleasure  sickens  into  pain. — Goldsmith. 

We  term  it  a whim  in  a man  w'ho  takes  a resolution 
never  to  shave  himself  any  more ; 

’T  it  all  bequeath’d  to  publick  uses, 

To  publick  uses  ! There ’s  a whim  I 
What  had  the  publick  done  for  him? — Swift 


fANClFUL,  FANTASTICAL,  WHIMSICAL, 
CAPRICIOUS. 

Fanciful  signifies  full  of  fancy  (v.  Cunceit) ; fantas- 
tical signifies  belonging  to  the  phantasy,  vvliich  is  the 
immediate  derivative  from  the  Greek ; whimsical  sig- 
nifies either  like  a whim,  or  having  a whim  ; capricious 
signifies  having  caprice. 

Fanciful  ruA  fantastical  arc  both  employed  for  per- 
sons and  things  ; whimsical  and  capricious  are  mostly 
smployed  for  persons,  or  what  is  personal.  Fanciful., 
In  regard  to  persons,  is  said  of  that  which  is  irregular 
in  the  taste  or  judgement;  fantastical  is  said  of  that 
which  violates  all  propriety,  as  well  as  regularity;  the 
former  may  consist  of  a simple  deviation  from  rule; 
the  latter  is  something  e.\travagant.  A person  may, 
therefore,  sometimes  be  advantageously  fanciful, 
although  he  can  never  be  fantastical  but  to  his  dis- 
credit. Lively  minds  will  be  fanciful  in  the  choice  of 
their  dress,  furniture,  or  equipage;  ‘There  is  some- 
thing very  sublime,  though  very  fanciful,  in  Plato’s 
description  of  the  Supreme  Being,  that  “ truth  is  his 
body,  and  light  his  shadow.”  ’—Addison.  The  affecta- 
tion of  singularity  frequently  renders  people  fantas- 
tical in  their  manners  as  well  as  their  dress; 

Methinks  heroick  poe.sy,  till  now. 

Like  some  fantastick  fairy  land  did  show. 

* Cowley. 

Fanciful  is  said  mostly  in  regard  to  errours  of  opi- 
nion or  taste ; it  springs  from  an  aberration  of  the 
mind:  whimsical  is  a species  of  the  fanciful  in  regard 
to  one’s  likes  or  dislikes  : capricious  respects  errours 
of  temper,  or  irregularities  of  feeling.  The  fanciful 
does  not  necessarily  imply  instability ; but  the  capri- 
cious excludes  the  idea  of  fixedness.  One  is  fanciful 
by  attaching  a reality  to  that  which  oidy  passes  in 
one’s  own  mind ; one  is  whimsical  in  the  inventions 
of  the  fancy ; one  is  capricious  by  acting  and  judging 
without  rule  or  reason  in  that  which  admits  of  both. 
A person  discovers  himself  to  he  fanciful  who  makes 
difficnlties  and  objections  which  have  no  foundation  in 
the  external  object,  but  in  his  own  mind;  ‘The  Eng- 
lish are  naturally /ftnc?//tZ.’ — Addison.  A person  dis- 
covers himself  to  be  capricious  when  he  likes  and  dis- 
likes the  same  thing  in  quick  succession  ; ‘ Many  of 
the  pretended  friendships  of  youth  are  founded  on 
capricious  liking.’— Blair.  A person  discovers  him- 
self to  be  whimsical  who  falls  upon  unaccountable 
modes,  and  imagines  unaccountable  things; 

’T  is  this  exalted  power,  whose  business  lies 
In  nonsense  and  impossibilities  : 

This  made  a whimsical  philosopher 
Before  the  spacious  world  a tub  prefer. 

Rochester. 

Sick  persons  are  apt  to  be  fanciful  in  their  food ; 
females,  whose  minds  are  not  well  disciplined,  are  apt 
to  be  capricious ; the  English  have  the  character  of 
being  a whimsical  nation.  In  application  to  things, 
Avt  terms  fanciful  and  fantastical  preserve  a similar 
distinction;  what  is  fanciful  may  be  the  real  and  just 
combination  of  a well  regulated  fancy,  or  the  unreal 
combination  of  a distempered  fancy ; the  fantastical 
is  not  only  the  unreal,  but  the  distorted  combination  of 
a disordered  fancy.  In  sculpture  or  painting  drapery 
{nay  he  f and  fully  disposed : the  airiness  and  showiness 
which  would  not  be  becoming  even  in  the  dress  of  a 
foung  female,  would  be  fantastical  in  that  of  an  old 
woman 


FASTIDIOUS,  SaUEAMISll. 

Fastidious,  in  Latin  faslidiosus,  (rom  fastus  pride 
signifies  proudly,  nice,  not  easily  pleased  : squeamish, 
changed  from  qualmish  or  weak-stomached,  signifies, 
in  the  moral  sense,  foolishly  sick,  easily  disgusted. 

A female  is  fastidious  when  she  criticises  the  dress 
or  manners  of  her  rival ; ‘ The  perception  as  well  as 
the  senses  may  be  improved  to  our  own  disquiet ; and 
we  may  by  diligent  cultivation  of  the  powers  of  dislike 
raise  in  lime  an  artificial  fastidiousness.' — Johnson 
She  is  squeamish  in  the  choice  of  her  own  dress,  com 
pany,  words,  kc.  Whoever  examines  his  own  impe/ 
lections  will  cease  to  be  fastidious ; 

Were  the  fates  more  kind, 

Our  narrow  luxuries  would  soon  grow  stale  ; 

Were  these  exhausilcss,  nature  would  grow  sick. 

And,  cloy’d  with  pleasure,  squeamishly  complain 

That  all  is  vanity,  and  life  a dream. — Armstrono. 
Whoever  restrains  humour  and  caprice  will  cease  tf 
be  squeamish. 

PARTICULAR,  SINGULAR,  ODD,  ECCEN 
TRICK,  STRANGE. 

Particular,  in  French  particulisr,  Latin  particu 
laris,  from  pariicula  a particle,  signifies  belonging  to 
a particle  or  a very  small  part ; singular,  in  French 
singulicr,  Latin  singularis,  from  singulus  every  one, 
which  very  probably  comes  from  tlie  Hebrew 
peculium,  or  private  property ; odd  is  probably  changed 
from  add,  signifying  something  arbitrarily  added;  eccen 
trick,  from  ex  and  centre,  signifies  out  of  the  centre  ci 
direct  line ; strange,  in  French  Strange,  Latin  extra, 
and  Greek  e\  out  of,  signifies  out  of  some  other  part, 
or  not  belonging  to  this  part. 

All  these  terms  are  employed  either  as  characteris- 
ticks  of  persons  or  things.  What  is  particular  belongs 
to  some  small  particle  or  point  to  which  it  is  confined  • 
what  is  singular  is  single,  or  the  only  one  of  its  kind ; 
what  is  odd  is  without  an  equal  or  any  thing  with 
which  it  is  fit  to  pair  ; what  is  eccentrick  is  not  to  be 
brought  within  any  rule  or  estimate,  it  deviates  to  the 
right  and  the  left ; what  is  strange  is  different  from 
that  which  one  is  accustomed  to  see,  it  does  not  admit 
of  comparison  or  assimilation.  A person  is  particular 
as  it  respects  himself;  he  is  singular  as  it  respects 
others ; he  is  particular  in  his  habits  or  modes  of 
action  ; he  is  singular  in  that  which  is  about  him ; 
we  may  he  particular  or  singular  in  our  dress  ; in  the 
former  case  we  study  the  minute  points  of  our  dress  to 
please  ourselves;  in  the  latter  case  we  adopt  a mode 
of  dress  that  di.stitiguishes  us  from  all  others. 

One  is  odd,  eccentrick,  and  strange  more  as  it  re 
spects  established  modes,  forms,  and  rules,  than  indivi- 
dual circumstances  : a person  is  odd  when  his  actions' 
or  his  words  bear  no  lesemblance  to  that  of  others, 
he  is  eccentrick  if  he  irregularly  departs  from  the  cus 
tomary  modes  of  proceeding;  he  is  sZraw^e  when  that 
which  he  docs  makes  him  new  or  unknown  to  those 
who  are  about  him.  Particularity  and  singularity 
are  not  always  taken  in  a bad  sense ; oddness,  ecceii- 
tricity,  and  strangeness  are  never  taken  in  a good 
one.  A person  ought  to  be  particular  in  the  choice 
of  his  society,  his  amusements,  his  books,  and  the  like ; 
he  ought  to  be  singtilar  in  virtue,  when  vice  is  unfor 
Innately  prevalent : but  particularity  becomes  ridicii 
lous  when  it  respects  trifles  ; and  singularity  becomes 
culpable  when  it  is  not  warranted  by  the  most  impe 
rious  necessity.  As  oddness,  eccentricity,  and  strange 
jiess  consist  in  the  violation  of  good  order,  of  the  de- 
cencies of  human  life,  or  the  more  important  points  of 
moral  duty,  they  can  never  be  justifiable,  and  often 
unpardonable.  An  odd  man,  whom  no  one  can  asso 
ciate  with,  and  who  likes  to  associate  with  no  one,  is 
an  outcast  by  nature,  and  a burden  to  the  society 
which  is  troubled  with  his  presence.  An  eccentrick 
character,  who  distinguishes  himself  by  nothing  but 
the  breach  of  every  established  rule,  is  a being  who 
deserves  nothing  but  ridicule,  or  the  more  serious  treat 
merit  of  censure  or  rebuke.  A strange  person,  who 
makes  himself  a stranger  among  those  to  whom  he 
is  bound  by  the  closest  ties,  is  a being  as  unfortunate 
as  he  is  worthless.  Particularity,  in  the  bad  sense, 
arises  either  from  a naturally  frivolous  character,  or 
the  want  of  more  serious  objects  to  engage  the  mind  ; 

‘ There  is  such  a particularity  for  ever  aflected  by 


25 


386 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


great  beauties,  that  they  are  eiicumhered  with  their 
charms  in  all  they  say  or  do.’ — Hughes.  Singularity, 
which  is  much  ofleiier  taken  in  the  bad  than  in  the 
good  sense,  arises  from  a preposterous  pride  which 
thirsts  after  distinction  even  in  folly  ; ‘ Singularity  is 
only  vicious,  as  it  makes  men  act  contrary  to  reason.’ 
— Addison.  Oddness  is  mostly  the  effect  of  a dis- 
toited  Jiumour,  attributable  to  an  unhappy  frame  of 
Inind ; 

So  proud,  I am  no  slave, 

So  it  jpudent,  I own  myself  no  knave, 

So  odd,  my  country’s  ruin  makes  me  grave. — Pope. 

Eccentricity,  which  is  the  excess  of  singularity,  arises 
commonly  from  the  undisciplined  state  of  strong 
powers ; ‘ That  acute,  though  eccentrick  observer, 
Rousseau,  had  perceived  that  to  strike  and  interest 
the  publick,  the  marvellous  must  be  produced.’  — 
Burke.  Strangeness,  which  is  a degree  of  oddness, 
has  its  source  in  the  perverted  state  of  the  heart ; ‘ A 
strange,  proud  return  you  may  think  1 make  you, 
madam,  when  I tell  you,  it  is  not  from  every  body  1 
would  be  thus  obliged.’ — Suckling.  ‘ Artists,  who 
propose  only  the  imitation  of  such  a.  particular  person, 
without  election  of  ideas,  have  been  often  reproached 
for  that  omission.’ — Dryden. 

So  singular  a madness 
Must  have  a cause  as  strange  as  the  effect. 

Denham. 

When  applied  to  characterize  inanimate  objects 
they  are  mostly  used  in  an  indifferent  sense,  but  some- 
times in  a bad  sense : the  particular  serves  to  define 
or  specify,  it  is  opposed  to  the  general  or  indefinite; 
a particular  day  or  liour,  a particular  case,  a particu- 
lar person,  are  expressions  which  confine  one’s  atten- 
tion to  one  precise  object  in  distinction  from  the  rest ; 
singular,  like  the  word  particular,  marks  but  one  ob- 
ject, and  that  which  is  clearly  pointed  out  in  distinc- 
tion from  the  rest ; but  this  term  difters  from  the  former, 
inasmuch  as  the  particular  is  said  only  of  that  which 
one  has  arbitrarily  made  particular,  but  the  singular 
is  80  from  its  own  properties  ; thus  a place  is  particu- 
lar when  we  fix  upon  it,  and  mark  it  out  in  any  man- 
ner so  that  it  may  be  known  from  others  ; a place  is 
singular  if  it  have  any  thing  in  itself  which  distin- 
guishes it  from  others."  Odd,  in  an  indifferent  sense, 
is  opposed  to  even,  and  applied  to  objects  in  general; 
an  odd  number,  an  odd  person,  an  odd  book,  and  the 
like : but  it  is  also  employed  in  a bad  sense,  to  mark 
objects  which  are  totally  dissimilar  to  others,  as  an 
odd  idea,  an  odd  conceit,  an  odd  whim,  an  odd  way, 
an  odd  place ; ‘ History  is  the  great  looking-glass, 
through  which  we  may  behold  with  ancestral  eyes, 
not  only  the  various  actions  of  past  ages,  and  the  odd 
accidents  that  attend  time,  but  also  discern  the  differ- 
ent humours  of  men.’ — Howell.  Eccentrick  is  ap- 
plied in  its  proper  sense  to  mathematical  lines  or  cir- 
cles, which  have  not  the  same  centre,  and  is  never 
employed  in  regard  to  things  in  an  improper  sense : 
strange,  in  its  proper  sense,  marks  that  which  is  un- 
known or  unusual,  as  a strange  face,  a strange  figure, 
a strange  place;  but  in  the  moral  application  it  is 
like  the  word  odd,  and  conveys  the  unfavourable  idea 
of  that  which  is  uncommon  and  not  worth  knowing ; 
a strange  noise  designates  not  oidy  that  which  has  not 
, been  heard  before,  but  that  which  it  is  not  desirable 
to  hear;  a strange  place  may  signify  not  only  that 
which  we  have  been  unaccustomed  to  see,  but  that 
which  has  also  much  in  it  that  is  objectionable  ; ‘Is  it 
not  strange  that  a rational  man  should  worship  an 
oxT— Soum. 


STRANGER,  FOREIGNER,  ALIEN. 

Stranger,  in  French  Stranger,  Latin  extraneus  or 
extra,  in  Greek  signifies  out  of,  that  is,  out  of  an- 
other country ; foreigner,  from  f oris  abroad,  and  alien, 
from  alienus  another’s,  have  obviously  tb.e  same  ori- 
ginal meaning.  They  have,  however,  deviated  in 
their  acceptations.  Stranger  is  a general  term,  and 
apfdies  to  one  not  known  or  not  an  inhabitant,  whe- 
ther of  the  same  or  another  country;  foreigner  is  ap- 
plied only  to  strangers  of  another  country  ; and  alien 
is  a technical  term  applied  to  foreigners  as  subjects  or 
residents,  in  distinction  from  natural-born  subj('cts. 
Ulysses  after  his  return  from  the  Trojan  war,  was  a 


stranger  in  hisr  wn  house.  The  French  are  foreigners 
in  England,  and  the  English  in  France.  NeithtTr  can 
enjoy,  as  aliens,  the  same  privileges  in  a foreign  conn 
try  as  they  do  in  their  own.  The  laws  of  hospitality 
require  us  to  treat  strangers  with  more  ceremony  thar 
we  do  members  of  the  same  family,  or  very  intimate 
friends.  The  lower  orders  of  the  English  are  apt  to 
treat  foreigners  with  an  undeserved  contempt.  Every 
alien  is  obliged  in  lime  of  war  to  have  a license  for  re- 
siding in  England. 

'The  term  stranger  is  sometimes  employed  to  denote 
one  not  acquainted  with  an  object,  or  not  having  ex- 
perienced its  effects,  as  to  be  a stranger  to  sorrow,  or 
to  be  a stranger  to  any  work  or  subject ; I was  no 
stranger  to  the  original  ; I had  also  studied  Virgil’s 
design,  and  his  disposition  of  it.  Foreigner  is  used 
only  in  the  above-mentioned  sense;  but  the  epithet 
foreign  sometimes  signifies  not  belonging  to  an  object ; 

I All  the  distinctions  of  this  little  life 

Are  quite  cutaneous,  quite  foreign  to  the  man. 

Young 

Jilien  is  sometimes  employed  by  the  poets  in  the  sens<» 
of  foreigner; 

Like  you  an  alien  in  a land  unknown, 

I learn  to  pity  woes  so  like  my  own. — Dryden. 

From  stranger  and  alien  come  the  verbs  to  estrange 
and  alienate,  which  are  extended  in  their  meaning  and 
application  ; the  former  signifying  to  make  the  under 
standing  or  mind  of  a person  strange  to  an  object,  and 
the  latter  to  make  the  heart  or  affections  of  one  person 
strange  to  another.  Thus  we  may  say  that  the  mind 
becomes  alienated  to  one  object,  when  it  has  fi.xed  its 
affections  on  anothei  ; ‘The  manner  of  men’s  writing 
must  not  alienate  our  hearts  from  the  truth.’— 
Hooker.  Or  a person  estranges  himself  from  his 
family ; ‘ Worldly  and  corrupt  men  estrc.nge  them 
selves  from  all  that  is  divine.’ — Blair. 


FINICAL,  SPRUCE,  FOPPISH. 

These  epithets  are  applied  to  such  as  attempt  a*, 
finery  by  improper  means.  The  finical  is  insigniR 
cantly  fine  ; the  spruce  is  laboriously  and  artfully  fine; 
the  foppish  is  fantastically  and  affectedly  fine.  The 
finical  is  said  mostly  of'  manners  and  speech ; ihe 
spruce  is  said  of  the  dress : the  fopvish  of  dresis  ane 
manners. 

A finical  gentleman  clips  his  words  andscrewi  his 
body  into  as  small  a compass  as  possible  to  give  nim- 
self  the  air  of  a delicate  person ; a spruce  gentlemau 
strives  not  to  have  a fold  wrong  in  his  frill  or  cravat, 
nor  a hair  of  his  head  to  lie  amisa;  a foppish  gentle- 
man seeks,  by  extravagance  in  the  out  of  his  clothes, 
and  by  the  tawdriness  in  their  ornaments,  to  render 
hiuKself  distinguished  for  finery  A little  mind,  full  of 
conceit  of  itself,  will  lead  a man  to  be  finical ; ‘ I can- 
not hear  a finical  fop  romancing  how  the  king  took 
him  aside  at  such  a lime ; what  the  queen  said  to  him 
at  another.’ — L’Estrange.  A vacant  mind  that  is 
anxious  to  be  pleasing  will  not  object  to  the  empkiy 
ment  of  rendering  the  person  spruce; 

Methinks  I see  thee  spruce  and  fine. 

With  coat  embroider’d  richly  shine. — Swift. 

A giddy,  vain  mind,  eager  after  applause,  impels  a man 
to  every  kind  of  foppery; 

The  learned,  full  of  inward  pride, 

The /ops  of  outward  show  deride. — Gay. 

Finical  may  also  be  applied  in  the  same  sense  as  an 
epithet  for  things;  ‘ At  the  top  of  the  building  (Blen- 
heim house)  are  several  cupolas  and  little  turrets  that 
have  but  an  ill  effect,  and  make  the  building  look  at 
once  finical  and  heavy.’— Pope. 


HUMOUR,  CAPRICE. 

Humour  {v.  Humour)  is  general ; caprice  (w.  F^an 
tastical)  is  particular : humour  may  be  good  or  bad , 
caprice  is  always  taken  in  a bad  sense.  Humour  is 
alwa)’s  independent  of  fixed  principle;  it  is  the  feeling 
or  impulse  of  the  moment:  caprice  is  always  opposed 
infixed  principle,  or  rational  motives  of  actiai:;  it  is 
the  feeling  of  the  individual  setting  at  nought  all  rule, 
and  defying  all  reason.  The  feeling  only  is  perverted 
when  the  humour  predominates  ; 


ENGLISH  SYNOjNYMES. 


38T 


i ou  II  dsk  me,  why  I rather  choose  to  have 
A weight  of  carrion  flesh  than  to  receive 
Tliree  thousand  ducats ; I ’ll  not  answer  that, 

But  say,  it  is  my  humour— Shxksvkxre. 

The  judgement  and  will  are  perverted  by  caprice:  a 
child  shows  its  humour  in  fretfulness  and  impatience  ; 
a man  betrays  his  caprice  in  his  intercourse  with 
others,  in  the  management  of  his  concerns,  in  the 
choice  of  his  amusements;  ‘Men  will  submit  to  any 
rule  by  which  they  may  be  exempted  from  the  tyranny 
of  caprice  and  chance.’ — Johnso.n. 

Indulgence  renders  children  and  subordinate  persons 
humonsome:  ‘lam  glad  that  though  you  are  incix;du- 
lous  you  are  not  humorsome  too.’ — Goodman.  Pros- 
perity or  unlimited  power  is  apt  to  render  a man  capri- 
cious ; ‘A  subject  ouglit  to  suppose  that  tliere  are  rea- 
sons, although  he  be  not  apprized  of  them,  otherwise  he 
must  tax  his  prince  of  capriciousness,  inconstancy,  or 
ill  design.’ — Swift.  A humorsome  person  commonly 
objects  to  be  pleased,  or  is  easily  displeased ; a ca- 
pricious person  likes  and  dislikes,  approves  and  disap- 
proves the  same  thing  in  quick  succession.  Humour, 
when  applied  to  things,  has  the  sense  of  wit ; whence 
the  distinction  between  humorsome  and  humorous : 
the  former  implying  the  existence  of  humour  or  per- 
verted feeling  in  the  person  ; the  latter  implying  the  ex- 
istence of  humour  or  wit  in  the  person  or  thing ; 

Thy  humorous  vein,  thy  pleasing  folly 
Lies  all  neglected,  all  forgot. 

And  pensive,  wayward,  melancholy, 

I'hou  dread’st  and  hop’st  thou  know’st  not  what. 

Prior. 

Caprice  is  improperly  applied  to  things  to  designate 
their  total  irregularity  and  planlessness  of  proceeding; 
as,  in  speaking  of  fashion,  we  notice  its  caprice,  when 
that  which  has  been  laid  aside  is  again  taken  into  use: 
diseases  are  termed  capricious  which  act  in  direct 
opposition  to  all  established  rule;  ‘Does  it  imply  that 
our  language  is  in  its  nature  irregular  and  capricious  ?’ 
Lowth. 


HUMOUR,  TEMPER,  MOOD. 

Humour  literally  signifies  moisture  or  fluid,  in  which 
•ense  it  is  used  for  the  fluids  of  the  human  body;  and 
as  far  as  these  humours  or  their  particular  state  is  con- 
nected with,  or  has  its  influence  on,  the  animal  spirits 
and  the  moral  feelings,  so  far  is  humour  applicable  to 
moral  agents ; temper  (v.  Disposition)  is  less  specifick 
in  its  signification;  it  may  with  equal  propriety,  under 
the  changed  form  of  temperament,  be  applicable  to  the 
general  state  of  the  body  or  the  mind ; mood,  which  is 
but  a change  from  mode  or  manner,  has  an  original 
signification  not  less  indefinite  than  the  former  ; it  is 
applied  only  to  the  mind. 

As  the  humours  of  the  body  are  the  most  variable 
parts  of  the  animal  frame,  humour  in  regard  to  the 
mind  denotes  but  a partial  and  transitory  state  when 
compared  with  the  temper,  which  is  a general  and 
habitual  state.  The  humour  is  so  fluctuating  that  it 
varies  in  the  same  mind  per])etnally  ; but  the  temper  is 
so  far  confined  that  it  always  shows  itself  to  be  the 
same  whenever  it  shows  itself  at  all;  the  humour 
makes  a man  different  from  himself;  the  temper  makes 
him  different  from  others.  Hence  we  speak  of  the 
humour  of  the  moment;  of  the  temper  of  the  youth  or 
of  old  age:  so  likewise  we  say,  to  accommodate  one’s 
self  to  the  humour  of  a person , to  manage  his  temper : 
to  put  one  into  a certain  Awmeur;  to  correct  or  sour 
the  temper.  Humour  is  not  less  partial  in  its  nature 
than  in  its  duration;  it  fixes  itself  often  on  only  one 
object,  or  respects  only  one  particular  direction  of  the 
feelings ; temper  extends  to  all  the  actions  and  opinions 
as  well  as  feelings  of  a man  ; it  gives  a colouring  to  all 
he  says,  does,  thinks,  and  feels:  ‘There  are  three  or 
four  single  men  who  suit  my  temper  to  a hair.’— Cow- 
PKH.  We  may  be  inRhumour  for  writing,  or  reading; 
for  what  is  gay  or  what  is  serious  ; for  what  is  noisy  or 
what  is  quiet;  but  our  temper  is  discoverable  in  onr 
daily  conducr,;  we  may  be  in  a good  or  ill  humour  in 
company,  but  in  domestic  life  and  in  our  closet  rela- 
tions we  show  whether  we  are  good  or  ill  tempered.  A 
man  shows  his  humour  in  different  or  trifling  actions  ; 
be  shows  his  temper  is  the  most  important  actions  : it 


may  be  a man’s  humour  to  sit  while  othirs  stand,  or  to 
go  unshaven  while  others  shave;  but  he  shows  his 
temper  as  a Christian  or  otherwise  in  forgiving  injuries 
or  harbouring  resentments;  in  living  peaceably,  or  in* 
dulging himself  in  contentions; 

It  is  the  curse  of  kings  to  be  attended 
By  slaves,  that  take  their  humours  for  a warrant 
To  break  into  the  bloodhouse  of  life. 

SlIAKSPE.^RE 

‘This,  I shall  call  it  evangelical,  temper  is  far  from 
being  natural  to  any  corrupt  sou  of  Adam.’ — Ham- 
mond. 

The  same  distinction  is  kept  up  between  the  terms 
when  applied  to  bodies  of  men.  A nation  may  have 
its  humour  and  its  temper  as  much  as  an  individual ; 
the  former  discovers  itself  in  the  manners  and 
fashion  ; the  latter  in  its  publick  spirit  towards  its  go- 
vernment or  other  nations.  It  has  been  the  most  un- 
lucky humour  of  the  present  day  to  banish  ceremony, 
and  consequently  decency,  from  all  companies;  ‘True 
modesty  is  ashamed  to  do  any  thing  that  is  opposite  to 
the  humour  of  the  company.’— Addison.  The  temper 
of  the  times  is  somewhat  more  sober  now  than  it  was 
during  the  heat  of  the  revolutionary  mania ; ‘All  irre 
gular  tempers  in  trade  and  business  are  but  like  irregu 
lar  tempers  in  eating  and  drinking.’— Law. 

Humour  and  mood  agree  in  denoting  a particular  and 
temporary  state  of  feeling ; but  they  differ  in  the  cause, 
the  former  being  attributable  rather  to  the  physical 
state  of  the  body ; and  the  latter  to  the  moral  frame  ef 
the  mind:  the  former  therefore  is  independent  of  all 
external  circumstances,  or  at  all  events,  of  any  that  are 
reducible  to  system;  the  latter  is  guided  entirely  by 
events.  Humour  is  therefore  generally  taken  in  a bad 
sense,  unless  actually  qualified  by  some  epithet  to  the 
contrary ; 

Their  humours  are  not  to  be  won 
But  when  they  are  imposed  upon. — Hudibras 
Mood  is  always  taken  in  an  indifferent  sense ; Strange 
as  it  may  seem,  the  most  ludicrous  lines  I ever  wrote 
have  been  written  in  the  saddest  mood.' — Cowpkr. 
There  is  no  calculating  on  the  humour  of  a man  ; it 
depends  upon  his  mood  whether  he  performs  iii  or  well; 
it  is  necessary  to  suppress  humour  in  a child;  we  dis- 
cover by  the  melancholy  mood  of  a man  that  sometlting 
distressing  has  happened  to  him. 


DISPOSITION,  TEMPER. 

Disposition,  from  dispose  {v.  To  dispose),  signifies 
here  the  state  of  being  disposed ; temper,  like  teinpera- 
ment,  from  the  Latin  temper  amentum  and  temper  o to 
temper  or  manage,  signifies  the  thing  modelled  or 
formed. 

These  terms  are  both  applied  to  the  mind  and  its 
bias;  but  disposition  respects  the  whole  frame  and 
texture  of  the  iniml;  respects  only  the  bias  or 

tone  of  the  feelings. 

Disposition  is  permanent  and  settled;  ‘My  friend 
has  his  eye  more  upon  the  virtue  and  disposition  of  his 
children  than  their  advancement  or  wealth.’ — Steele. 
Temper  is  transitory  and  fluctuating  ; ‘The  man  who 
lives  under  an  habitual  sense  of  the  Divine  presence 
keeps  up  a perpetual  cheerfulness  of  temper.' — Addi- 
son. The  disposition  comprehends  the  springs  and 
motives  of  action ; the  temper  influences  the  actions 
for  the  time  being:  it  is  possible  and  not  unfrequent  to 
have  a good  disposition  with  a bad  temper,  and  vice 
versa. 

A good  disposition  makes  a man  a useful  member  of 
society,  but  not  always  a good  companion  ; ‘ Akenside 
was  a young  man  warm  with  every  notion  that  by 
nature  or  accident  had  been  connected  with  the  sound 
of  liberty,  and  by  an  eccentricity  which  such  disposi- 
tions do  not  easily  avoid,  a lover  of  contradiction,  and 
no  friend  to  any  thing  established.’ — Johnson.  A good 
temper  renders  a man  acceptable  to  all  and  peaceable 
with  all,  but  essentially  useful  to  none;  ‘In  coffee- 
houses a man  of  my  temper  is  in  his  element,  for 
if  he  cannot  talk  he  can  be  still  more  agreeable  to  his 
company  as  well  as  pleased  in  himself  in  being  a 
hearer.’ — Steele.  A good  disposition  will  go  far 
towards  correcting  the  errours  of  temper;  but  where 
there  is  a bad  disposition  there  are  no  hopes  of  amend- 
ment. 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


H8e 


DIfel’OSrnON,  INCLINATION. 

Disposition  in  the  preceding  section  is  taken  for  the 
general  frame  of  the  mind  ; in  the  present  case  for  its 
particular  frame ; inclination,  v.  Jlttachment. 

Disposition  is  more  positive  than  inclination.  We 
may  always  expect  a man  to  do  that  which  he  is  dis- 
•posed  to  do;  but  we  cannot  always  calculate  upon  his 
executing  that  to  which  he  is  merely  inclined. 

We  indulge  a disposition ; we  yield  to  an  inclination. 
The  disposition  comprehends  the  whole  state  of  the 
n?.ind  at  the  time;  ‘It  is  the  duty  of  every  man  who 
would  be  true  to  himself,  to  obtain  if  possible  a disposi- 
tion to  be  pleased.’ — Steklk.  An  inclination  is  parti- 
cular, referring  always  to  a particular  object;  ‘There 
never  was  a time,  believe  me,  when  I wanted  an  incli- 
nation to  cultivate  your  esteem,  and  promote  your  in- 
terest.’— Melmoth’s  {Letters  of  Cicero).  After  the 
performance  of  a serious  duty,  no  one  is, expected  to  be 
in  a disposition  for  laughter  or  merriment:  it  is  be- 
coming to  suppress  our  inclination  to  laughter  in  the 
presence  of  those  who  wish  to  be  serious ; we  should 
be  careful  not  to  enter  into  controversy  with  one  who 
shows  a disposition  to  be  unfriendly.  When  a young 
person  discovers  any  inclination  to  study,  there  are 
hopes  of  his  improvement. 

TEMPERAMENT,  TEMPERATURE. 

Temperament  and  temperature  are  both  used  to  ex- 
press that  state  which  arises  from  the  tempering  of  op- 
posite or  varying  qualities  ; the  temperament  is  said  of 
animal  bodies,  and  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere. 
Men  of  a sanguine  temperament  ought  to  be  cautious 
in  their  diet;  ‘Without  a proper  temperament  for  the 
particular  art  which  he  studies,  his  utmost  pains  will 
be  to  no  purpose.’ — Budgell.  All  bodies  are  strongly 
affected  by  the  temperature  of  the  air;  ‘O  happy  Eng- 
land, where  there  is  such  a rare  temperature  of  heat 
and  cold.’— Howell. 


FRAME,  TEMPER,  TEMPERAMENT,  CON- 
STITUTION. 

Frame  in  its  natural  sense  is  that  which  forms  the 
exteriour  edging  of  any  thing,  and  consequently  deter- 
mines its  form ; it  is  applied  to  man  physically  or  men- 
tally, as  denoting  that  constituent  portion  of  himw'hich 
seems  to  hold  the  rest  together;  which  by  an  extension 
of  the  metaphor  is  likewise  put  for  the  whole  contents, 
the  whole  body,  or  the  whole  mind;  temper  nnd  tem- 
perament, in  Latin  tern  per  amentum,  from  tempera  to 
govern  or  dispose,  signify  the  particular  modes  of  being 
disposed  or  organized  ; constitution,  from  constitute  or 
appoint,  signifies  the  particular  mode  of  being  consti- 
tuted or  formed. 

Frame,  when  applied  to  the  body,  is  taken  in  its  most 
universal  sense;  as  when  v/e  speak  of  the  frame  being 
violently  agitated,  or  the  human  frame  being  wonder- 
fully constructed;  when  applied  to  the  mind  it  will 
admit  either  of  a general  or  restricted  signification  ; 

The  soul 

Contemplates  what  she  is,  and  whence  she  came. 

And  almost  comprehends  her  own  amazing /ra?ne. 

Jenyns. 

Temper,  which  is  applicable  only  to  the  mind,  is  taken 
for  the  general  or  particular  state  of  the  individual ; 

’T  is  he 

S^ets  superstition  high  on  virtue’s  throne. 

Then  thinks  his  Maker’s  temper  like  his  own. 

Jenyns. 

The  frame  comprehends  either  the  whole  body  of 
mental  powers,  or  the  particular  disposition  of  those 
powers  in  individuals;  the  temper  comprehends  the 
general  or  particular  state  of  feeling  as  well  as  thinking 
in  the  individual.  The  mental  frame  which  receives 
any  violent  concussion  is  liable  to  derangement; 

Your  steady  soul  preserves  her  frame. 

In  good  and  evil  times  the  same. — Swift. 

It  is  necessary  for  those  who  govern  to  be  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  temper  of  those  whom  they  govern  ; 
‘The  brain  may  devise  laws  for  the  blood,  but  a hot 
temper  leaps  o’er  a cold  decree.’ — Shakspkare.  By 
reflection  on  the  various  attributes  of  the  Divine  Being, 
a man  may  easily  bring  his  mind  into  a frame  of 
devotion:  ‘There  is  a great  tendency  to  cheerfulness 


in  religion;  and  such  a frame  of  mind  is  not  only 
the  most  lovely,  but  the  most  commendable  in  a vir- 
tuous person.’— Addison.  By  the  indulgence  of  a fret- 
ful, repining  temper,  a man  destroys  his  own  peace  of 
mind,  and  offends  his  Maker;  ‘The  sole  strength  of 
the  sound  from  the  shouting  of  multitudes  so  amazes 
and  confounds  the  imagination,  that  the  best  esta- 
blished tempers  can  scarcely  forbear  being  borne  down  ’ 
— Burke. 

Temperament  and  constitution  mark  the  general 
state  of  the  individual;  the  former  comprehends  a 
mixture  of  the  physical  and  mental ; the  latter  has  a 
purely  physical  application.  A man  with  a warm  tem- 
perctment  owes  his  warmth  of  character  to  the- rapid 
impetus  of  the  blood ; a man  with  a delicate  constitu 
tion  is  exposed  to  great  fluctuations  in  his  health;  ‘I 
have  always  more  need  of  a laugh  than  a cry,  being 
somewhat  disposed  to  melancholy  by  my  temperament.- 
— Cow'PER.  ‘How  little  our  constitution  is  able  to 
bear  a remove  into  parts  of  this  air,  not  much  higher 
than  that  we  commonly  breathe  in!’ — Locke. 

The  whole  frame  of  a new-born  infant  is  peculiarly 
tender.  Men  of  fierce  tempers  are  to  be  found  in  all 
nations ; men  of  sanguine  tempers  are  more  frequent 
in  warm  climates;  the  constitutions  of  females  are 
more  tender  than  those  of  the  male,  and  their  frames 
are  altogether  more  susceptible. 

TO  QUALIFY,  TEMPER,  HUMOUR. 

Qualify,  compounded  of  the  Latin  gualis  ami  facto, 
signifies  to  make  a thing  what  it  ought  to  be;  to  tem- 
per, from  tempera,  \s  to  regulate  the  temperament;  to 
humour  is  to  suit  to  the  humour. 

Things  are  qualified  according  to  circumstances: 
what  is  too  harsh  must  be  qualified  by  something  that 
is  soft  and  lenitive;  things  are  tempered  by  nature  so 
that  things  perfectly  discordant  should  not  be  com 
bined ; things  are  humoured  by  contrivance : what  is 
subject  to  many  changes  requires  to  be  humoured ; a 
polite  person  will  qualify  his  refusal  of  a request  by 
some  expression  of  kindness;  ‘It  is  the  excellency  of 
friendship  to  rectifie  or  at  least  to  qualifie  the  malignity 
of  these  surmises.’ — South.  Providence  has  tempered 
the  seasons  so  as  to  mix  something  that  is  pleasant  ia 
them  all : ‘ God  in  his  mercy  has  so  framed  and  tem- 
pered his  word,  that  we  have  for  the  most  part  a re 
serve  of  mercy  wrapped  up  in  a curse.’ — South.  Nk 
ture  itself  is  sometimes  to  be  humoured  when  art  ig 
employed : but  the  tempers  of  men  require  still  n.oro 
to  be  humoured;  ‘Our  British  gardeners,  instead  of 
humouring  nature,  love  to  deviate  from  it  as  much  as 
possible  ’ — Addison. 

GOOD-NATURE,  GOOD-HUMOUR. 

Good-nature  and  good-humour  both  imply  the  dis- 
position to  please  and  be  pleased:  but  the  former  is 
habitual  and  permanent,  the  latter  is  temporary  and 
partial ; the  former  lies  in  the  nature  and  frame  of  thC' 
mind  ; the  latter  in  the  state  of  the  humours  or  spirits. 
A good-natured  man  recommends  himself  at  all  times 
by  his  good-nature ; a go»d-humoured  man  recom- 
mends himself  particularly  as  a companion:  good- 
nature displays  itself  by  a readiness  in  doing  kind 
offices;  ‘Affability,  mildness,  tenderness,  and  a word 
which  I would  fain  bring  back  to  its  original  significa- 
tion of  virtue,  I moan  good-nature,  are  of  daily  use.’ — 
Addison.  Good-humour  is  confined  mostly  to  the 
ease  and  cheerfulness  of  one’s  outward  deportment  in 
social  converse  ; ‘There  was  but  one  who  kept  up  his 
good-humour  to  the  Land’s  End.’ — Addison.  Good- 
nature is  apt  to  be  guilty  of  weak  compliances  ; good- 
humour  is  apt  to  be  succeeded  by  fits  of  peevishness 
and  depression.  Good-nature  is  applicable  only  to  the 
character  of  the  individual ; good-humour  may  be  said 
of  a whole  company:  it  is  a mark  of  good- nature  in  a 
man  not  to  disturb  the  good-humour  of  the  company  he 
is  in,  by  resenting  the  affront  that  is  offered  him  by 
another. 

Good  nature  qualifies  every  thing  wo  say  or  do,  so 
as  to  render  even  reproof  bearable;  ‘1  concluded, 
however  unaccountable  the  assertion  might  appear  at 
first  sight,  that  good-nature  was  an  essential  quality  in 
a satirist.’ — Addison.  Good-humour  takes  off  from  the 
personality  of  every  remark  ; ‘When  Virgil  said  “ He 
that  did  not  hate  Bavius  might  love  Maevius,”  he  was 
in  perfect  good-humour.' — Addison. 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  3By 


JEALOUSY,  ENVY,  SUSPICION. 

Jealousy,  in  French  _;aZoMs?e,  Latin  zclotypia,  Greek 
^XoTvnia,  compounded  of  i,TjXos  and  tvtttu)  to  strike  or 
&I,  signifies  properly  filled  vvitli  a burning  desire ; envy, 
in  French  envie,  Latin  invidia,  from  invideo,  com- 
pounded of  in  privative  and  video  to  see,  signifies  not 
looking  at,  or  looking  at  in  a contrary  direction. 

We  are  jealous  of  what  is  our  own,  we  are  envious 
of  what  is  another’s.  Jealousy  fears  to  lose  what  it 
has;  envy  is  pained  at  seeing  another  have.  Princes 
are  jealous  of  their  authority;  subjects  are  jealous  of 
tJieir  rights : courtiers  are  envious  of  those  in  favour ; 
women  are  envious  of  superior  beauty. 

'The  jealous  man  has  an  object  of  desire,  something 
lo  get  and  something  to  retain;  he  does  not  look  beyond 
the  object  that  interferes  with  his  enjoyment ; u jealous 
husband  may  therefore  be  appeased  by  the  declaration 
of  his  wife’s  animosity  against  the  object  of  liis^'ea- 
lousy.  The  envious  man  sickens  at  the  sight  of  enjoy- 
ment; he  is  easy  only  in  the  misery  of  others:  all  en- 
deavours, therefore,  to  satisfy  an  envious  man  are 
fruitless.  Jealousy  is  a noble  or  an  ignoble  passion, 
according  to  the  qbject:  in  the  former  case  it  is  emula- 
tion sharpened  by  fear,  in  the  latter  case  it  is  greediness 
stimulated  by  fear;  ‘ Every  man  is  mo):e jealous  of  his 
natural  than  liis  moral  qualities.’ — Hawkesworth. 

’T  is  doing  wrong  creates  such  doubts  as  these. 
Renders  us  jealous,  and  destroys  our  peace. 

Waller. 

Envy  is  always  a base  passion,  liaving  the  worst  pas- 
sions in  its  train;  ‘ The  eraa/oits  man  is  in  pain  upon 
all  occasions  which  should  give  him  pleasure.’ — 
Addison. 

Jealous  is  applicable  to  bodies  of  men  as  well  as 
individuals;  ewmows  to  individuals  only.  Nations  are 
jealous  of  any  interference  on  the  part  of  any  other 
power  in  their  commerce,  government,  or  territory; 
‘ While  the  people  are  so  jealous  of  the  clergy’s  am- 
bition, 1 do  not  see  any  other  method  left  them  to  reform 
the  world,  than  by  using  all  honest  arts  to  make  them- 
selves acceptable  to  the  laity.’ — Swift.  Individuals 
are  envious  of  the  rank,  wealth,  and  honours  of  each 
other;  ‘A  woman  does  not  envy  a man  for  fighting 
courage,  nor  a man  a woman  for  her  beauty.’ — 
Collier. 

Jealousy  and  suspicion  both  imply  a fear  of  an- 
other’s will,  intentions,  or  power,  to  dispossess  one  of 
some  object  of  desire:  but  in  jeaZoi/sy  there  is  none  of 
the  iistrust  which  belongs  to  suspicion.  The  jealous 
man  does  not  dispute  the  integrity  or  sincerity  of  his 
opponent;  the  suspicious  man  thinks  ill  of  both. 
Jealousy  exists  properly  between  equals,  or  those  who 
may  without  direct  injustice  make  pretensions  to  the 
same  thing;  rival  lovers  uxe  jealous  of  each  other: 
suspicion  fixes  on  the  person  who  by  fraud  or  circum- 
vention is  supposed  to  aim  at  getting  what  he  has  no 
right  to;  men  suspect  those  who  have  once  cheated 
them.  Jealousy  is  most  alive  when  the  person’s  in- 
tentions are  known;  swspicfom can  only  exist  while  the 
views  of  the  party  are  concealed.  According  to  this 
distinction  Lord  Clarendon  has  erroneously  substituted 
the  word  jealousy  for  that  of  suspicion  when  he  says, 
‘The  obstinacy  in  Essex,  in  refusing  to  treat  with  the 
king,  proceeded  only  from  his  jealousy,  that  when  the 
king  had  got  him  into  his  hands,  he  would  take  revenge 
upon  him.’— There  can  be  no  jealousy  between  a sub- 
ject and  a king,  orbetween  parties  entering  into  a treaty ; 
but  there  may  be  suspicion  of  the  good  faith  of  either 
side  towards  the  other ; 

Though  wisdom  wake,  suspicion  sleeps 
At  wisdom’s  gate ; and  to  simplicity 
Resigns  her  charge;  while  goodness  thinks  no  ill 
Where  no  ill  seems. 


INVIDIOUS,  ENVIOUS. 

fnvidiou\  in  Latin  invidiosus,  from  invidia  and 
invidco  not  to  look  at,  signifies  looking  at  with  an  evil 
eye;  envious  is  literally  only  a variation  of  invidious. 
Invidious  in  ifs  common  acceptation  signifies  causing 
ill  will ; envious  signifies  having  ill  will. 

A task  is  invidious  that  puts  one  in  the  way  of 
jliving  oflTence : a look  is  envious  that  is  full  of  envy. 
Invidious  qualifies  the  thing;  envious  qualifies  the 
e«i[>  of  the  mind  /'  is  invidious  for  one  author  to 


be  judge  against  another  who  has  written  on  the  same 
subject ; 

For  I must  speak  what  wisdom  would  conceal. 

And  truths  invidious  to  the  great  reveal. — Pope. 

A man  is  envious  when  the  prospect  of  another’s  hap- 
piness gives  him  pain;  ‘ They  that  desire  to  excel  in 
too  many  matters  out  of  levity  and  vainglory,  are  ever 
envious.' — Bacon. 


LIVELY,  SPRIGHTLY,  VIVACIOUS, 
SPORTIVE,  MERRY,  JOCUND. 

Lively  signifies  having  life,  or  the  animal  spirita 
which  accompany  the  vital  spark;  sprightly,  con- 
tracted from  sprightfully  or  spiritfully,  signifies  full 
of  spirits;  vivacious,  in  Latin  vivax,  from  vivo  to  live, 
has  the  same  original  meaning  as  lively ; sportive,  fond 
of  or  ready  for  sport ; merry,  v.  Cheerful ; jocund,  in 
Latin  jocundus,  from  jucundus  and  juvo  to"  delight  or 
please,  signifies  delighted  or  pleased. 

The  activity  of  the  heart  when  it  beats  high  with  a 
sentiment  of  gayety  is  strongly  depicted  by  all  these 
terms : the  lively  is  the  most  general  and  literal  in  its 
signification;  life,  as  a moving  or  active  principle, -is 
supposed  to  be  inherent  in  spiritual  as  well  as  material 
bodies;  the  feeling,  as  well  as  the  body  which  has 
within  a power  of  moving  arbitrarily  of  itself,  is  said 
to  have  life,  and  in  whatever  object  this  is  wanting, 
this  object  is  said  to  be  dead:  in  like  manner,  accord 
ing  to  the  degree  or  circumstances  under  which  this 
moving  principle  displays  itself,  the  object  is  denomi 
nated  lively,  sprightly,  vivacious,  and  the  like.  Live- 
liness is  the  property  of  childhood,  youth,  or  even 
maturer  age ; sprightliness  is  the  peculiar  property 
of  youth  ; vivacity  is  a quality  compatible  with  the 
sobriety  of  years  : an  infant  shows  itself  to  be  lively 
or  otherwise  in  a few  months  after  its  birth ; a female, 
particularly  in  her  early  years,  affords  often  a pleasing 
picture  of  sprightliness ; a vivacious  companion  re- 
commends himself  wherever  he  goes.  Sportiveness  is 
an  accompaniment  of  liveliness  or  sprightliness:  a 
sprightly  child  will  show  its  sprightliness  by  its  sport- 
ive humour:  mirth  and  jocundity  are  the  forms  of 
liveliness  which  display  themselves  in  social  life;  the 
former  is  a familiar  quality,  more  frequently  to  be  dis- 
covered in  vulpr  Hiaii  in  polished  society : jocundity 
is  a form  of  liveliness  which  poets  have  ascribed  to 
nymphs  and  goddesses,  and  other  aerial  creatures  of 
the  imagination. 

The  terms  preserve  the  same  sense  when  applied  to 
the  characteristicks  or  actions  of  persons  as  when  ap 
plied  to  the  persons  themselves : imagination,  wit,  con 
ception,  representation,  and  the  like,  are  lively  ; ‘ One 
study  is  inconsistent  vvilli  a ZiceZy  imagination,  anothei 
with  a solid  judgement.’— Johnson.  A person’s  air 
manner,  look,  tune,  dance,  are  sprightly ; 

His  sportive  lambs. 

This  way  and  that  convolv’d,  in  fi  iskful  glee 

Their  frolicks  play.  And  now  the  sprightly  race 

Invites  them  forth. — Thomson. 

A conversation,  a turn  of  mind,  a society,  is  vivacious ; 

‘ By  every  victory  over  appetite  or  passion,  the  mind 
gains  new  strength  to  refuse  those  solicitations  by 
which  the  young  and  vivacious  are  hourly  assaulted.’ 
—Johnson.  The  muse,  the  pen,  the  imagination,  it 
sportive;  the  meeting,  the  laugh,  the  song,  the  con 
ceit,  is  merry; 

Warn’d  by  the  streaming  light  and  merry  lark. 

Forth  rush  the  jolly  clans. — Somerville. 

The  train,  the  dance.  Is  jocund; 

Thus  joewnd  fleets  with  them  the  winter  night. 

Thomson 

CHEERFUL,  MERRY,  SPRIGHTLY  GAY. 

Cheerful  signifies  full  of  cheer,  or  of  that  which 
cheers  {v.  To  animate);  merry,  in  Saxon  merig,  is 
probably  connected  with  the  word  mare,  and  the  Latin 
meretrix  a strumpet;  sprightly  is  contracted  from 
spiritedly;  gay  is  connected  with  joy  and  jocund,  in 
Latin  jocundus,  from  juvo  to  delight;  cheerful  marks 
an  unruffled  flow  of  spirits;  with  mirth  there  is  more 
of  tumult  and  noise;  with  sprightliness  there  is  more 
buoyancy ; gayety  comprehends  mirth  and  indulgence 
A cheerful  person  smiles;  the  merry  person  laiishs 


390 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


Ihe  sprightly  person  dances  ; the  gay  person  takes  his 
pleasure. 

The  cheerful  countenance  remains  cheerful;  it 
.narks  tlie  contentment  of  the  lieart,  and  its  freedom 
from  pain  ; the  merry  {act  will  often  look  sad  ; a trifle 
will  turn  mirth  into  sorrow : the  sprightliness  of  youth 
is  often  succeeded  by  the  lisiiesbuess  of  bodily  in- 
firmity, or  the  gloom  of  despondency  : gayety  is  as 
transitory  as  the  pleasures  ujton  which  it  subsists ; it 
is  often  followed  by  sullenness  a;id  discontent. 

C/icer/uZaess  is  an  habitual  state  of  the  mind  ; mirlh 
is  an  occasional  elevation  of  the  spirits ; sprightliness 
hes  in  the  temperature  and  flow  of  the  blood ; gayety 
depends  altogether  on  external  circumstances.  Re- 
ligion is  the  best  promoter  of  cheerfulness : it  makes 
its  possessor  pleased  with  himself  and  all  around  him  ; 
‘ 1 have  always  preferred  cheerfulness  to  mirth : the 
latter  I consider  as  an  act,  tlie  former  as  a habit  of 
ahe  mind.  Mirth  is  short  and  transient;  cheerfulness 
fixed  and  permanent.’ — Addison.  Company  and  wine 
are  but  too  often  the  only  promoters  of  mirth;  ‘Man- 
kind may  be  divided  into  the  merry  and  the  serious, 
who  both  of  tliein  make  a very  good  figure  iii  the 
species  so  long  as  they  keep  their  respective  humours 
from  degenerating  into  the  neighbouring  extreme.’ — 
Addison.  Youth  and  health  will  naturally  be  attended 
with  sjirightliness  ; 

But  Venus,  anxious  for  her  son’s  affairs. 

New  counsels  tries,  and  new  designs  prepares  : 

That  Cupid  should  assume  the  shape  and  face 

Of  sweet  Ascanius,  and  the  sprightly  grace. 

Drvdkn. 

A succession  of  pleasures,  an  exemption  from  care, 
and  the  banishment  of  thought,  will  keep  gayety  alive. 

Sprightly  and  merry  are  seldom  employed  but  in  the 
proper  sense  as  respects  persons;  but  cheerful  and 
gay  are  extended  to  different  objects ; as  a cheerful 
prospect,  a cheerful  room,  gay  attire,  a gay  scene,  gay 
colours,  &:c.; 

To  kinder  skies,  where  gentler  manners  reign, 

I turn  ; and  France  displays  her  bright  domain. 

Gay,  sprightly  land  of  mirth  and  social  ease. 

Pleas’d  with  thyself,  whom  all  the  world  can  please. 

Goldsmith. 


LIGHTNESS,  LEVITY,  FLIGHTINESS, 
VOLATILITY,  GIDDINESS. 

Lightness,  from  light,  signifies  the  abstract  quality; 
levity,  in  Latin  levitas,  from  levis  light,  signifies  the 
same;  volatility,  in  Latin  volatilitas,  imin  volo  to  fly, 
signifies  flitting,  or  ready  to  fly  swiftly  on  ; Jiightiness, 
from  Highly  and  fly,  signifies  the  readiness  to  fly  ; gid- 
diness, from  giddy,  in  Saxon  gidig,  is  probably  con- 
nected with  the  verb^eAeri  to  go,  signifying  a state  of 
going  unsteadily. 

Lightness  is  taken  either  in  the  natural  or  meta- 
phorical sense;  the  rest  only  in  the  moral  sense: 
lightness  is  said  of  the  outward  carriage,  or  the  in- 
ward temper;  levity  is  said  only  of  the  outward  car- 
riage ; a light  minded  man  treats  every  thing  lightly, 
be  it  ever  so  serious;  the  lightness  of  his  mind  is  evi- 
dent by  the  lightness  of  his  motions.  Lightness  is 
common  to  both  sexes;  /cuity  is  peculiarly  striking  in 
females;  and  in  respect  to  them,  they  are  both  ex- 
ceptionable qualities  in  the  highest  degree:  when  a 
woman  has  lightness  of  mind,  she  verges  very  near 
towards  direct  vice  ; when  there  is  lemty  in  her  con- 
duct she  exposes  herself  to  the  imputation  of  crimi- 
nality; ‘ Innocence  gives  a lightness  to  the  spirits,  ill 
imitated  and  ill  supplied  by  that  forced  levity  of  the 
vicious.’ — Blair.  Volatility,  jiightiness,  and  giddi- 
ness are  degrees  of  lightness,  which  rise  in  significa- 
tion on  one  another ; volatility  being  more  than  light- 
ness, and  the  others  more  than  volatility:  lightness 
and  volatility  are  defects  as  they  relate  to  age ; those 
only  who  ought  to  be  serious  or  grave  are  said  to  be 
light  or  volatile.  When  we  treat  that  as  light  which 
is  weighty,  when  we  suffer  nothing  to  sink  intp  the 
mind,  or  make  any  impression,  this  is  a defective 
tightness  of  character ; when  the  spirits  are  of  a 
buoyant  nature,  and  the  thoughts  fly  from  one  object 
to  another,  without  resting  on  any  for  a moment, 
this  lightness  becomes  volatility;  ‘If  w’e  see  people 
dancing,  even  in  wooden  shoes,  and  a fiddle  always 


their  hee’s,  we  are  soon  convinced  of  the  volatile 
spirits  of  those  merry  slaves.’ — Somerville.  A light 
minded  person  sets  care  at  a distance ; a volatile 
person  catches  pleasure  from  every  passing  object. 
Flightiness  and  giddiness  are  the  defects  of  youth; 
they  bespeak  that  entire  want  of  command  over  one’s 
feelings  and  animal  spirits  which  is  inseparable  from 
a state  of  childhood  : a flighty  child,  liowever,  only 
fails  from  a want  of  attention  ; but  a giddy  child,  like 
one  whose  head  is  in  the  natural  sense  giddy,  is  unable 
to  collect  itself  so  as  to  have  any  consciousness  of 
what  passes:  a fliglity  \)Gxson  commits  improprieties , 
‘ Remembering  many  jlightinesses  in  her  writing,  J 
know  not  how  to  behave  myself  to  her.’— Richard- 
son. A giddy  person  commits  extravagances ; 

The  giddy  vulgar,  as  theii  fancies  guide. 

With  noise,  say  nothing,  and  in  parts  divide. 

Dryden. 


FROLICK,  GAMBOL,  PRANK. 

Frolick,  in  German,  &c.  frbhlich  cheerful,  comes 
from  froh  merry,  and  freude  joy;  gambol  signifies 
literally  leaping  into  the  an,  from  the  Italian  gamba, 
in  FrcnchyamA  the  leg ; prank  is  changed  from  prance, 
which  literally  signifies  to  throw  up  the  hind  feet  after 
tlie  manner  of  a horse,  and  is  most  probably  connected 
with  the  German  prangen  to  make  a parade  or  fuss, 
and  the  Hebrew  to  set  free,  because  the  freedom 
indicated  by  the  word  prank  is  more  or  less  discover 
able  in  the  sense  of  all  these  terms.  The  frolick  is  a 
merry,  joyous  entertainment ; the  gambol  is  a dancing, 
light  entertainment;  the  prank  is  a freakish,  wild  en- 
tertainment. Laughing,  singing,  noise,  and  feasting 
constitute  the  frolick  of  the  careless  mind  ; it  belongs 
to  a company:  conceit,  levity,  and  trick,  in  movement, 
gesture,  and  contrivance,  constitute  the  gambol;  if 
belongs  to  the  individual : adventure,  eccentricity,  and 
humour  constitute  the  prank;  it  belongs  to  one  or 
many.  One  has  a froLck ; one  ])l.^ys  a gambol,  or  a 
prank.  Frolick  is  the  mirth  rather  of  vulgar  minds; 
servants  have  their  frolicks  in  the  kitchen  while  their 
masters  have  jileasures  abroad  ; ‘I  have  heard  of  some 
very  merry  fellows,  among  whom  the  frolick  was 
started  and  passed  by  a great  majority,  that  every 
man  should  immediately  draw  a tooth.’ — Steels. 
Gambols  are  the  diversions  of  youth;  the  Christmas 
season  has  given  rise  to  a variety  of  gambols  for  the 
entertainment  of  both  sexes.  The  term  gambol  may 
also  be  applied  to  the  tricks  of  animals  ; 

The  monsters  of  the  flood 
Gambol  around  him  in  the  wat’ry  way. 

And  heavy  whales  in  awkward  measures  play 

Pope. 

And  in  the  same  sense  the  term  may  be  applied  figura 
tively ; 

What  are  those  crested  locks 
That  make  such  wanton  ^amAoZs  with  the  wind  1 
Shakspeare. 

Pranks  are  the  diversions  of  the  undisciplined ; the 
rude  schoolboy  broke  loose  from  school  spends  his 
time  in  molesting  a neighbourhood  with  his  mis- 
chievous ; ‘Some  time  afterward  (1756),  some 

young  men  of  the  college,  whose  chambers  were  near 
his  (Gray’s),  diverted  themselves  by  frequent  and  trou- 
blesome noises,  and,  as  is  said,  by  pranks  yet  more 
offensive  and  contemptuous.’ — Johnson.  Frolick  is 
the  diversion  of  human  beings  only ; gambcl  and 
prank  are  likewise  applicable  to  brutes  ; a kitter  gam- 
bols; a horse,  a monkey,  and  a squirrel  will  play 
pranks 

TO  AMUSE,  DIVERT,  ENTERTAIN. 

To  amuse  is  to  occupy  the  mind  lightly,  from  the 
Latin  musa  a sonir,  signifying  to  allure  the  attention 
by  any  thing  as  light  and  airy  as  a song  ; divert,  in 
French  divertir,  Latin  diverto,  is  compounded  of  di 
and  verto  to  turn  aside,  signifying  to  turn  the  mind 
aside  from  an  object;  entertain,  in  French  entretenir, 
compounded  of  ent'^e,  inter,  and  tenir,  or  the  Latin 
teneo  to  keep,  signifies  to  keep  the  mind  fixed  on  a 
thing. 

We  amuse  or  entertainby  engaging  the  attention  on 
'•some  present  occupation;  we  divert  by  drawing  the 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


3Wl 


attention  from  a present  object ; all  this  proceeds  by 
the  means  of  that  pleasure  which  the  object  produces, 
which  in  the  first  case  is  less  vivid  than  in  the  second, 
and  in  the  second  case  is  less  durable  than  in  the  third. 
Whatever  aiungcs  serves  to  kill  time,  to  lull  the  facul- 
ties, and  banish  reflection;  it  may  be  solitary,  se- 
dentary, and  lifeless,  but  also  sociable  or  intellectual, 
according  to  the  temper  of  the  person  ; ‘ 1 yesterday 
passed  a whole  afternoon  in  the  churchyard,  the 
cloisters,  and  the  church,  aniusivg  myself  with  the 
tombstones  ami  inscriptions  that  I met  with  in  those 
several  regions  of  tJie  dead.’ — Addison.  Whatever 
diverts  causes  mirth,  and  provokes  laughter;  it  will 
be  active,  lively,  and  sometimes  tumultuous;  ‘His 
diversion  o\\  this  occasion  was  to  see  the  cross-bows, 
mistaken  signs,  and  wrong  connivances  that  passed 
amid  sc  many  broken  and  refracted  rays  of  sight.’ — 
Addieon.  Whatever  entertains' acts  on  the  senses, 
jnd  awakens  the  understanding;  it  must  be  rational, 
and  is  mostly  social  ; ‘Will  Honeycomb  was  very 
entertaining^  the  other  night  at  the  play,  to  a gentle- 
man who  sat  on  Ins  right-hand,  while  I was  at  his 
left.  The  gentleman  believed  Will  was  talking  to 
himself.’ — Addison.  I'lie  bare  act  of  walking  and 
changing  place  may  amuse ; the  tricks  of  animals 
divert;  conversation  entertains.  We  sit  down  to  a 
card-table  to  be  amused;  we  go  to  a comedy  or  pan- 
tomime to  be  diverted ; we  go  to  a tragedy  to  be  enter- 
tained. Children  are  amused  with  looking  at  pictures; 
ignorant  people  are  diverted  with  shows;  intelligent 
people  are  entertained  with  reading. 

The  dullest  and  most  vacant,  as  well  as  the  most  in- 
telligent, minds  may  be  amused;  the  most  volatile  are 
diverted ; the  most  reflective  are  entertained : the  em- 
perour  Domitian  amused  himself  with  killing  flies:  the 
emperour  Nero  diverted  himself  with  appearing  before 
his  subjects  in  the  characters  of  gladiator  and  cha- 
rioteer; Socrates  entertained  himself  by  discoursing 
on  the  day  of  his  execution  with  his  friends  on  the 
immortality  of  the  soul. 

TO  AMUSE,  BEGUILE. 

.Amuse  signifies  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  article; 
beguile  is  compounded  of  be  and  guile  signifying  to 
overreach  with  guile.  As  amuse  denotes  the  occupa- 
tion of  the  mind,  so  beguile  expresses  an  efiect  or  con- 
sequence of  amusement. 

When  amuse  and  beguile  express  any  species  of  de- 
ception, the  former  indicates  what  is  eflected  by  per- 
oons,  and  the  latter  that  which  is  eflected  by  things. 
To  amuse  is  to  practise  a fraud  upon  the  understand- 
aig;  to  beguile  is  to  practise  a fraud  uponAhe  memory 
and  corsscitmsness.  We  are  amused  by  a false  story; 
our  misfortunes  are  beguiled  by  the  charms  of  fine 
music  or  fine  scenery.  To  siifler  one’s  self  to  be 
amused  is  an  act  of  weakness;  to  be  beguiled  is  a relief 
and  a privilege.  Credulous  people  are  easily  amused 
by  any  idle  tale,  and  thus  prevented  from  penetrating 
the  designs  of  the  artful ; ‘ In  latter  ages  piou.s  frauds 
were  made  use  of  to  amuse  mankind.’ — Addison. 
Weary  travellers  beguile  the  tedium  of  the  journey  by 
lively  conversation ; 

With  seeming  innocence  the  cro\Vd  beguil'd., 

^ut  made  the  desperate  passes  when  he  smil’d. 

Dryden. 

AMUSEMENT,  ENTERTAINMENT,  DIVER- 
SION, SPORT,  RECREATION,  PASTIME. 

Amusement  signifies  here  that  which  serves  to  amuse 
iv.  To  amuse,  divert);  entertainment,  that  which 
serves  to  entertain  {v.  To  amuse);  diversion,  that 
which  serves  to  divert  {v.  To  amuse,  divert) ; sport, 
that  which  serves  to  give  sport ; recreation,  that  which 
serves  io  recreate,  from  recreatus,  participle  of  recreo 
or  re  and  creo  to  create  or  make  alive  again ; pastime, 
that  which  seives  to  pass  time. 

The  first  four  of  these  terms  are  either  applied  to 
objects  which  specifically  serve  the  purposes  of  plea- 
sure, or  to  such  as  may  accidentally  serve  this  purpose ; 
thejast  two  terms  are  employed  only  in  the  latter  sense. 

X he  distinction  between  the  first  three  terms  are 
very  similar  in  this  as  in  the  preceding  case.  Amuse- 
ment is  a general  term,  which  comprehends  little  more 
than  the  common  idea  of  pleasure,  whether  small  or 
peat; 


As  Atlas  groan’d 

The  world  beneath,  we  groan  beneath  an  hour: 

We  cry  for  mercy  to  the  next  amusement. 

The  next  amusement  mortgages  our  fields. 

Younu 

Entertainment  is  a species  of  amusement  which  is 
always  more  or  less  of  an  intellectual  nature;  ‘The 
stage  might  be  made  a perpetual  source  of  the  most 
noble  and  useful  entertaiiwients,  were  it  under  proper 
regulations.’ — Addison.  Diversions  and  sports  are  a 
species  of  amusements  more  adapted  to  the  young  and 
the  active,  particularly  the  latter:  the  theatre  or  the 
concei  t is  tin  entertainment : fairs  and  publick  ex- 
hibitions are  diversions ; ‘ When  I was  some  years 
younger  than  I am  at  present,  I used  to  employ  myself 
in  a more  laborious  diversion,  which  I learned  from  a 
Latin  treatise  of  exercises  that  is  written  with  great 
erudition ; it  is  there  called  the  <rx‘0P«X‘®' 
fighting  with  a man’s  own  shadow.’ — Addison. 
Games  of  racing  or  cricket,  hunting,  shooting,  and  the 
like,  are  sports ; ‘With  great  respect  to  country  sports, 
I may  say  this  gentleman  could  pass  his  time  agree- 
ably, if  there  were  not  a fox  or  a hare  in  his  county.’ — 
Steele. 

Recreation  and  pastime  are  terms  of  relative  import , 
the  former  is  of  use  for  those  who  labour ; the  lattei 
for  those  who  are  idle.  A recreation  must  partake 
more  or  less  of  the  nature  of  an  amusement,  but  it  is 
an  occupation  which  owes  its  pleasure  to  the  relaxation 
of  the  mind  fioin  severe  exertion;  in  this  manner  gar- 
dening may  be  a recreation  to  one  who  studies;  ‘Plea- 
sure and  recreation  of  one  kind  or  other  are  absolutely 
necessary  to  relieve  our  minds  and  bodies  from  too 
constant  attention  and  labour;  where  therefore  publick 
diversions  are  tolerated,  it  behooves  persons  of  dis- 
tinction, with  their  power  and  example,  to  preside  over 
them.’ — Steele.  Company  is  a recreation  to  a man 
of  business : the  pastime  is  the  amusement  of  the  leisure 
hour;  it  may  be  alternately  a diversion,  a sport,  or  a 
simple  amusement,  as  circumstances  require;  ‘Your 
microscope  brings  to  sight  shoals  of  living  creatures  in 
a spoonful  of  vinegar;  but  we,  wlio  can  distinguish 
them  in  their  different  magnitudes,  see  among  them 
several  huge  Leviathans  that  terrify  the  little  fry  of 
animals  about  them,  and  take  their  pastime  as  in  an 
ocean.’ — Addison. 


MIRTH,  MERRIMENT,  JOVIALITY,  JOLLITY, 
HILARITY. 

These  terms  all  express  that  species  of  gayety  or  joy 
which  belongs  to  company,  or  to  men  in  their  social 
intercourse. 

Mirth  refers  to  the  feeling  displayed  in  the  outward 
conduct;  merriment,  and  the  other  terms,  refer  rathei 
to  the  external  exinessions  of  the  feeling,  or  the  causes 
of  the  feeling,  than  to  the  feeling  itself:  mirth  shows 
itself  in  laughter,  in  dancing,  singing,  and  noise;  mer- 
riment consists  of  such  things  as  are  apt  to  excite 
mirth  : the  more  we  are  disposed  to  laugh,  the  greater 
is  our  mirth ; the  more  there  is  to  create  laughter,  the 
greater  is  the  merriment:  the  tricks  of  Punch  and  his 
wife,  or  the  jokes  of  a clown,  cause  much  mirth  among 
the  gaping  crowd  of  rustics;  the  amusements  with  the 
swing,  or  the  roundabout,  afford  much  merriment  to  the 
visitants  of  a fair.  Mirth  is  confined  to  no  age  or 
station;  but  merriment  belongs  more  particularly  to 
young  people,  or  those  of  the  lower  station  ; mirth  may 
be  provoked  w'licrever  any  number  of  persons  is  assem 
bled  ; ‘The  highest  gratification  we  receive  here  from 
company  is  mirth,  which  at  the  best  is  but  a fluttering, 
unquiet  motion.’ — Pope.  Merriment  cannot  go  for- 
ward any  where  so  properly  as  at  fairs,  or  common  and 
publick  places;  ‘He  who  best  knows  our  natures  by 
such  afflictions  recalls  our  wandering  thoughts  from 
idle  merriment.' — Gray.  .Joviality  or  jollity,  and  hila 
rity,  are  species  of  merriment  which  belong  to  the  con 
vivial  board,  or  to  less  refined  indulgences;  joviality  ot 
jollity  is  the  unrefined,  unlicensed  indulgence  in  the 
pleasures  of  the  table,  or  any  social  entertainments ; 

Now  swarms  the  village  o’er  i\\e  jovial  mead. 

Thomson 

With  branches  we  the  fanes  adorn,  and  waste 

In  jollity  the  day  ordain’d  to  be  the  last. 

Dryden. 

Hilarity  is  the  same  thing  qualified  by  the  caltivatioi 


392 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


tnd  good  sense  of  tlie  company:  we  may  expect  to  find 
.imch  joviality  and  jiUUy  at  a publick  dinner  of  me- 
clianicks,  watermen,  or  labourers : we  may  expect  to 
find  /uZarrt?/ at  a publick  dinner  of  nobleme:i;  eating, 
drinking,  and  noise  constitute  the  joviality ; tire  con- 
versation, the  songs,  the  toasts,  and  the  |»ubli.".k  epiritof 
the  company  contribute  to  hilarity;  ‘He  th\t  contri- 
butes to  the  hilarity  the  vacant  hour  will  be  u'el- 
comed  with,  ardour.’ — Johnson. 


FESTIVITY,  MIRTH. 

There  is  commonly  mirth  with  festivity’,  but  there 
nray  be  f-equently  mirth  without  J'estiviiy.  I he  fes- 
tivity lies  in  the  outward  circumstances:  mitth  in  the 
temper  of  the  mind.  Eestmt?;  is  rather  tlve  producer 
of  mirth  than  the  mirth  itself.  Festivity  includes  the 
social  enjoyments  of  eating,  drinking,  dancir  g,  cards, 
and  other  pleasures  ; ‘ Pisistralus,  fearing  that  the  fes- 
tivity of  his  guests  would  be  interrupted  by  ths  mis- 
conduct of  Thrasippus,  rose  from  his  seat,  and  enti  eated 
him  to  stay.’ — Cumberland.  Mirth  includes  in  U 
the  buoyancy  of  spirits  which  is  engendered  by  a par- 
ticipation in  such  pleasures ; 

Low  lies  that  house  where  nut-brown  draughts  in- 
spir’d. 

Where  graybeard  mirth  and  smiling  toil  retir’d. 

-Ggldsm:tk. 


GRAVE,  SERIOUS,  SOLEMxV. 

(frave,  in  Latin  gravis  heavy,  denotes  the  weight 
which  keeps  tlie  mind  or  person  down,  and  prsvents 
buoyancy;  it  is  opposed  to  the  light;  serious,  iti  Latin 
serus  late  or  slow,  marks  tlie  quality  of  slowness  or 
considerateness,  either  in  the  mind,  or  that  which 
occupies  the  mind : it  is  opposed  to  the  jocose. 

Grave  expresses  more  than  serious;  it  does  not 
merely  bespeak  the  absence  of  mirth,  but  that  heavi- 
ness of  mind  which  is  displayed  in  all  the  movements 
of  the  body;  seriousness,  on  the  other  hand,  bespeaks 
no  depression,  but  simply  steadiness  of  action,  and  a 
refrainment  from  all  that  is  jocular.  A man  may  be 
gi-ave  in  bis  w'alk,  in  his  tone,  in  his  gesture,  in  his 
looks,  and  all  his  exteriour ; he  is  serious  oidy  in  his 
general  air,  his  countenance,  and  demeanour.  Gravity 
is  produced  by  some  external  circumstance;  serious- 
ness springs  from  the  operation  of  the  mind  itself,  or 
from  circumstances.  Misfortunes  or  age  will  produce 
gravity : seriousness  is  the  fruit  of  reflection.  Gravity 
is,  in  the  proper  sense,  confined  to  the  person,  as  a 
characteristick  of  his  temper ; 

If  then  some  grave  and  pious  man  appear. 

They  hush  their  noise,  and  lend  a listening  ear. 

Dryden. 

Serious,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a characteristick  eitlierof 
persons  or  things;  ‘ In  our  retirements  every  thing  dis- 
poses us  to  be  serious.' — Addison.  Hence  we  should 
speak  of  a grave  assembly,  not  a serious  assembly,  of 
old  men;  grave  senators,  not  serious  senators;  of  a 
grave  speaker,  not  a serious  speaker:  but  a serious, 
not  a grave  sermon;  a serious,  not  a grave  writer;  a 
serious,  not  a grave  sentiment ; a serious,  not  properly 
a grave  objection:  grave  is,  however,  sometimes  ex- 
tended to  things  in  the  sense  of  weighty,  as  when  we 
speak  of  grave  matters  of  deliberation.  Gravity  is 
peculiarly  ascribed  to  a judge,  from  the  double  cause, 
that  much  depends  upon  his  deportment,  in  which 
there  ought  to  be  gravity,  and  that  the  weighty  con- 
cerns which  press  on  his  mind  are  most  apt  to  produce 
gravity : on  the  other  hand,  both  gravity  and  serious- 
ness may  be  applied  to  the  preacher;  the  former  only 
as  it  respects  the  manner  of  delivery;  the  latter  as  it 
respects  especially  the  matter  of  his  discourse:  the 
person  may  be  grave  or  seriates  ; the  discourse  only  is 
serious. 

Solemn  expresses  more  than  either  grave  or  serious, 
from  the  Latin  solennis  yearly ; as  applied  to  the  stated 
religious  festivals  of  the  Romans,  it  has  acquired  the 
collateral  meaning  of  religious  like  ser?0M5, 

it  is  employed  not  so  much  to  characterize  the  person 
03  the  thing:  a judge  pronounces  the  solemn  sentence 
of  condemiaation  in  a solemn  manner;  a preacher  de- 
livers many  solemn  warnings  to  his  hearers.  Gravity 
may  be  the  effect  of  corporeal  habit,  and  seriousness  of 
mental  habit  bui  solemnity  is  something  occasional 


and  extraordinary ; ‘ The  necessary  business  ui  a man  t 
calling,  with  some,  will  not  afford  much  time  for  set  and 
solemn  prayer.’ — W hole  Di  t y of  Man.  Some  children 
discover  a remarkable  gravit.y  as  soon  as  they  begin  to 
observe;  a regular  attention  to  religious  worship  will 
induce  a habit  of  seriousness ; the  admonitions  of  a 
parent  on  his  death-bed  w'ill  have  peculiar  solemnity; 
‘ The  stateliness  and  gravity  of  the  Spaniards  shows 
itself  in  the  solemnity  of  their  language.’ — Addison. 
‘ In  most  of  our  long  words  which  are  derived  from  the 
Latin,  we  contract  the  length  of  the  syllables,  that  gives 
them  a grave  and  solemn  air  in  their  own  language.’ — 
Addison. 


EAGER,  EARNEST,  SERIOUS. 

Eager  signifies  the. same  as  in  the  preceding  article; 
earnest  most  probably  comes  from  the  thing  earnest,  hi 
Saxon  thornest  a pledge,  or  token  of  a person’s  real  in- 
tentions, whence  the  word  has  been  employed  to  qualify 
the  state  of  any  one’s  mind,  as  settled  or  fixed ; serious, 
in  Latin  serius  or  sine  risu,  signifies  without  laughter. 

Eager  is  used  to  qualify  the  desires  or  passions ; 
earnest  to  qualify  the  wishes  or  sentiments:  the  former 
has  either  a physical  or  moral  application,  the  latter 
altogether  a moral  application:  a child  is  eager  to  get 
a plaything;  a hungry  person  is  to  get  food;  a 
covetous  man  is  eager  to  seize  whatever  comes  within 
his  grasp  : a person  is  earnest  in  solicitation;  earnest 
in  exhortation ; earnest  in  devotion. 

Eagerness  is  mostly  faulty  ; it  cannot  be  too  early 
restrained ; we  can  seldom  have  any  substantial  reason 
to  be  eager  ; 

With  joy  the  ambitious  youth  his  mother  heard. 
And,  eager  for  the  journey,  soon  prepar’d. 

Dryden. 

Whence  this  term  is  applied  with  particular  propriety 
to  brutes  ; 

The  panting  steeds  impatient  fury  breathe. 

But  snort  and  tremble  at  the  gulf  beneath  ; 

Eager  they  view’d  the  prospect  dark  and  deep. 

Vast  was  the  leap,  and  headlong  hung  the  steep. 

Fore. 

Earnestness  is  always  taken  in  a good  sense  ; it  denote# 
the  inward  conviction  of  the  mind,  and  the  warmth  of 
the  heart  when  awakened  by  important  objects; 

Then  even  superiour  to  ambition,  we 
With  earnest  eye  anticipate  tlio.se  scenes 
Of  hapjiiness  and  wonder. — '1’homson. 

A person  is  said  to  be  earnest,  or  in  earnest ; a persoK 
or  thing  is  said  to  be  serious : the  former  characterizes 
the  tenqier  of  the  mind,  thelattercharacterizes  tlieofeject 
itself.  In  regard  to  persons,  in  which  alone  they  are  to 
be  compared,  earnest  expresses  more  than  ser  ous ; the 
former  is  opiiosed  to  lukewarmness,  the  lat'.e.i  touncou- 
cernedness:  we  are  earnest  as  to  our  wishes,  o'-  / prayers, 
or  our  persuasions;  ‘He  which  prayeth  in  dja  sort,  is 
thereby  made  the  more  attentive  to  hear ; a id  Ite  which 
heareth,  the  more  earnest  to  jii  ay  for  the  tin  e vhichwe 
be.stow,  as  well  in  the  one  as  the  other.’ — H j i>zer.  We 
are  serious  as  to  our  intentions,  or  the  ten'j'tr  of  mind 
with  which  we  set  about  things;  ‘It  is  hcrdly  possible 
to  sit  down  to  the  serious  perusal  of  Virgil's  vyorks,  but 
a man  shall  rise  more  disposed  to  virtue  and  goodness.’ 
— Walsh.  The  earnestJicss  with  which  rve  address 
ano'her  depends  upon  the  force  of  our  conviction  ; the 
seriousness  with  which  we  address  them  depends  upon 
our  sincerity,  and  the  nature  of  the  subject : tie  preacher 
earnestly  exhorts  his  hearers  to  lay  aside thoii  sins;  In' 
seriously  admonishes  those  who  are  guilty  of  irregu 
larities. 


SOBER,  GRAVE. 

Sober  {v.  Mstinent)  expresses  the  absence  of  aii 
exhilaration  of  spirits ; grave  (v.  Grave)  expresses  i 
weight  in  the  intellectual  operaliona  wlrich  makes 
them  proceed  slowly.  Sobriety  is  therefore  a more 
natural  and  ordinary  date  'htr  the  Icman  mind  than 
gravity:  it  behooves  every  man  to  Di  seber  in  all  .situ? 
•tions ; but  those  who  ffll  the  most  in^  ortant  ar,ation»  or 
life  must  be  grave.  Even  in  our  rie^viurcN  we  may 
observe  sobriety,  which  keeps tis  fr<w:i  *'vcrv  uHseeinl} 
ebullition  of  mirth;  but  on  pat’.iculor  LCCA,*{ons  wbers 
the  importance  of  the  rulject  ought  i t v»ygh  or  thf 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES, 


393 


mill  J It  bee  .mes  us  to  be  I'rave.  At  a feast  we  have 
need  of  sabriety  ; al  a funeral  we  have  need  of  gravity : 
soiricti/ extends  to  many  more  objects  than  gravity; 
we  must  be  sober  in  our  thoughts  and  o[)iiiions,  as  well 
as  in  our  outward  conduct  and  behaviour;  ‘These 
confusions  disposed  men  of  any  sober  understanding 
to  Wish  for  peace.’ — Clarendon.  Wc  can  he.  grave^ 
properly  speaking,  only  in  our  looks  and  our  outward 
deportment : 

So  spake  the  Cherub,  and  his  grave  rebuke, 

Severe  in  youthful  beauty,  added  grace 
htvincible. — Milton. 

Sjber  is  often  poetically  and  figuratively  applied ; 

Now  came  still  ev’ning  on,  and  twilight  gray 
Had  in  her  sober  liv’ry  all  things  clad. — Milton. 


GLAD,  PLEASED,  JOYFUL,  CHEERFUL. 

Glad  is  obviously  a variation  of  glee  and  glow ; 
vleased,  from  to  please^  marks  the  state  of  being 
pleased;  joyful  bespeaks  its  own  meaning,  either  as 
full  of  joy  or  productive  of  great  joy ; cheerful^  v. 
Cheerful. 

Glad  denotes  either  a partial  state,  or  a permanent 
and  habitual  sentiment:  in  the  former  sense  it  is  most 
nearly  allied  io  pleased;  in  the  latter  sense  to  joyful  SluA 
merry. 

Glad  and  pleased  are  both  applied  to  the  ordinary 
occurrence  of  the  day ; but  the  former  denotes  rather 
a lively  and  momentary  sentiment,  the  latter  a gentle 
but  rather  more  lasting  feeling  ; we  are  glad  to  see  a 
friend  who  has  been  long  absent;  we  are  glad  to  have 
good  intelligence  from  our  friends  and  relatives ; we 
are  glad  to  get  rid  of  a troublesome  companion  ; 

O Sol,  in  whom  my  thoughts  find  all  repose. 

My  glory,  my  perfection  ! glad  I see 

Thy  face,  and  morn  return’d. — Milton. 

We  are  pleased  to  have  the  approbation  of  those  we 
esteem  : we  are  pleased  to  hear  our  friends  well  spoken 
of ; we  are  with  the  company  of  an  intelligent 

and  communicative  person  ; ‘The  soul  has  many  dif- 
ferent faculties,  or,  in  other  words,  many  diflerent 
ways  of  acting,  and  can  be  intensely  pleased  or  made 
happy  by  all  these  different  faculties  or  ways  of  acting.’ 
-Addison. 

Glad.,  joyful,  and  cheerful,  all  express  more  or  less 
lively  sentiments  ; but  glad  is  less  vivid  than  joyful, 
and  more  so  than  cheerful.  Gladness  seems  to  rise 
as  much  from  physical  as  mental  causes;  wine  is  said 
to  make  the  heart  glad : joy  has  its  source  in  the  mind, 
as  it  is  influenced  by  external  circumstances  ; instances 
of  good  fortune,  either  for  ourselves,  our  friends,  or  our 
country,  excite  joy;  cheerfulness  is  an  even  tenour  of 
the  mind,  which  it  may  preserve  of  itself  independently 
of  all  external  circumstances:  religious  contemplation 
produces  habitual  cheerfulness. 

A comfortable  meal  to  an  indigent  person  gladdens 
his  heart:  a nation  rejoices  at  the  return  of  peace  after 
a long  protracted  war:  a traveller  is  cheered  in  a soli- 
tary desert  by  the  sight  of  a human  being,  or  the  sound 
of  a voice ; or  a sufferer  is  cheered  by  his  trust  in  Divine 
Providence. 

Glad  is  seldom  employed  as  an  epithet  to  qualify 
things,  except  in  the  scriptural  or  solemn  «tyle,  as,  glad 
tidings  of  great  joy ; 

Man  superiour  walks 

Amid  the  glad  creation,  musing  praise. — Thomson. 
Joyful  is  seldomer  used  to  qualify  persons  than  things  ; 
hence  we  speak  oi  joyful  news,  a.  joyf  ul  occurrence, 
joyful  faces,  joyf  ul  sounds,  and  the  like ; 

Thus  joyful  Troy  maintain’d  the  watch  of  night, 

While  fear,  pale  comrade  of  inglorious  flight. 

And  heaven-bred  horrour,  on  the  Grecian  part, 

Sat  on  each  face,  and  sadden’d  every  heart.— Pope. 
Cheerful  is  employed  either  to  designate  the  state  of 
the  mind  or  the  property  of  the  thing:  we  either  speak 
of  a cheerful  disposition,  a cheerful  person,  a cheerful 
society,  or  a cheerful  face,  a cheerful  sound,  a cheerful 
aspect,  and  the  like; 

No  sun  e’er  gilds  the  gloomy  horrours  there. 

No  cheerful  gales  refresh  the  lazy  air. — Pope. 

When  used  to  qualify  a person’s  actions,  they  all 
bespeak  the  temper  of  the  mind : gloj^  denotes  a high 


degree  of  willingness  as  opposed  to  aversion ; one  who 
is  sufferijig  under  excruciating  pains  gladly  submits  to 
any  thing  which  promises  relief; 

For  his  particular  I’ll  receive  him gladhj, 

But  not  one  follower. — Shakspeare. 

Joyfully  denotes  unqualified  pleasure,  unmixed  with 
any  alloy  or  restrictive  consideration : a convert  to 
Christianity  joyfully  goes  through  all  the  initiatory 
ceremonies  which  entitle  him  to  all  Us  privilegeSs 
spiritual  and  temporal ; 

Never  did  men  more  joyfully  obey, 

Or  sooner  understood  the  sign  to  flie; 

With  such  alacrity  they  bore  away, 

As  if  to  praise  them  all  the  states  stood  by. 

Dryden 

Cheerfully  denotes  the  absence  of  unwillingness,  it  is 
opposed  to  reluctantly;  the  zealous  Christian  cheer- 
fully submits  to  every  hardship  to  wliich  he  is  exposed 
in  the  course  of  his  religious  profession;  ‘Doctrine  is 
that  which  must  prepare  men  for  discipline ; and  men 
never  go  on  so  cheerfully,  as  when  they  see  where  they 
go.’ — South. 

JOY,  GLADNESS,  MIRTH. 

The  happy  condition  of  the  soul  is  designated  by  all 
these  terms  (v.  Pleasure) ; but  joy  and  gladness  lie 
more  intei  naily;  mirth,  or  the  feeling  of  being  merry, 
{v.  Glad)  is  the  more  immediate  result  of  external  cir- 
cumstances. What  creates  joy  and  gladness  is  of  a 
permanent  nature;  that  which  creates  mirth  is  tempo- 
rary: joy  is  the  most  vivid  sensation  in  the  soul ; - lad 
ness  is  the  same  in  quality,  but  inferiour  in  degree  Joy 
is  awakened  in  the  mind  by  the  most  important  evliits 
in  life;  gladness  springs  up  in  the  mind  on  ordinary 
occasions:  the  return  of  the  prodigal  son  awakened 
joy  in  the  heart  of  his  father;  a man  feels  gladness  at 
being  relieved  from  some  distress  or  trouble:  puhlick 
events  of  a gratifying  nature  produce  universal  joy  ; 
His  thoughts  triumphant,  heav’n  alone  employs, 
And  hope  anticipates  his  future  joys. — Jenyns. 
Relief  from  either  sickness  or  want  brings  gladness  to 
an  oppressed  heart;  ‘ None  of  the  poets  have  observed 
so  well  as  Milton  those  secret  overflowings  of  gladness., 
which  diffuse  themselves  through  the  mind  of  the  be- 
holder upon  surveying  the  gay  scenes  of  nature.’ — 
Addison.  He  who  is  absorbed  in  his  private  distresses 
is  ill  prepared  to  partake  of  the  mirth  with  which  he  is 
surrounded  at  the  festive  board. 

Joy  is  depicted  on  the  countenance,  or  expresses 
itself  by  various  demonstrations:  gladness  is  a more 
tranquil  feeling,  which  is  enjoyed  in  secret,  and  seeks 
no  outward  expression : mirth  displays  itself  in  laugh- 
ter, singing,  and  noise.  ‘ Most  of  the  appearing  mirth 
in  the  world,  is  not  mirth,  but  art.  The  wounded  spirit 
is  not  seen,  but  walks  under  a disguise.’— South. 


PLEASURE,  JOY,  DELIGHT,  CHARM 

Pleasure,  from  the  Latin  placeo  to  j)lease  or  giv?. 
content,  is  the  generick  term,  involving  in  itself  th/; 
common  idea  of  the  other  terms  ; jny,v.  Glad;  delight, 
in  Latin  delicice,  comes  from  delicio  to  allure,  signify 
ing  the  thing  that  allures  the  mind. 

Pleasure  is  a term  of  most  extensive  use ; it  em- 
braces one  grand  class  of  our  feelings  or  sensations, 
and  is  opposed  to  nothing  but  pain,  which  embraces 
the  opposite  class  or  division:  joy  and  delight  are  but 
modes  or  modifications  of  pleasure,  differing  as  to  the 
degree,  and  as  to  the  objects  or  sources.  Pleasure,  in 
its  peculiar  acceptation,  is  smaller  in  degree  than  either 
joy  or  delight,  but  in  its  universal  acceptation  it  defines 
no  degree:  the  term  is  indifferently  employed  for  the 
highest  as  well  as  the  lowest  degree ; whereas  joy  and 
delight  can  only  be  employed  to  express  a positively 
high  degree.  Pleasure  is  produced  by  any  or  every 
object;  every  thing  by  which  we  are  surrounded  acts 
upon  us  more  or  less  to  produce  it;  we  may  nave 
pleasure  either  from  without  or  from  within  : pleo.^urB 
from  the  gratification  of  our  senses,  from  the  exercise 
of  our  affections,  or  the  e.xercise  of  our  understand 
ings  ; pleasures  from  our  own  selves,  or  jjeasures  from 
others:  but  joy  is  derived  from  the  exercise  of  the 
affections  ; and  delight  either  from  the  affections  or  the 
undei standing.  In  this  manner  we  distinguish  the 


iy4  ENGLISH  SYNOIn  YMES. 


pleasurei  -»f  the  tablf,  social  pleasures,  or  intellectual 
pleasures , the  joy  of  meeting  an  old  friend ; or  the 
delight  of  ^.ursuing  a favourite  object. 

Pleasures  are  either  transitory  or  otherwise  ; they 
may  arise  from  momentary  circumstances,  or  be 
attached  tr  some  permanent  condition  : all  earthly 
pleasure  is  in  its  nature  fleeting  ; and  heavenly  plea- 
sure, on  tlic contrary,  lasting;  'That every  day  has  its 
pains  and  sorrows  is  universally  experienced;  but  if 
we  look  impartially  about  us,  we  shall  find  that  every 
day  has  likewise  \\s. pleasures  and  iis  joys.' — John- 
80K.  Joy  is  in  its  nature  commonly  of  short  duration, 
it  springs  from  particular  events  ; it  ispleasure  at  high 
tide,  but  it  may  come  and  go  as  suddenly  as  the  events 
which  caused  it:  one’s  jot/  may  be  awakened  and 
damped  in  quick  succession  ; earthly  joys  are  pecu- 
liarly of  this  nature,  and  heavenly  joys  are  not  alto- 
gether divested  of  this  characteristick  ; they  are  sut)- 
posed  to  spring  out  of  particular  occurrences,  when  the 
spiritual  and  holy  aflections  are  peculiarly  called  into 
action ; 

♦Vhile  he  who  virtue’s  radiant  course  has  run. 

Descends  like  a serenely  setting  sun  ; 

His  thoughts  triumphant  heav’n  alone  employs. 

And  hope  anticipates  his  future  joys. — Jknyns. 
Delight  is  not  so  fleeting  as  joy,  but  it  may  be  less  so 
than  simple  pleasure;  delight  arises  from  a state  of 
outward  circumstances  which  is  naturally  more  dura- 
ble than  that  of  joy;  but  it  is  a state  seldomer  attain- 
able, and  not  so  much  at  one’s  command  as  pleasure  : 
this  last  is  very  seldom  denied  in  some  form  or  another 
to  every  human  being,  but  those  only  are  susceptible 
of  delight  who  have  acquired  a certain  degree  of 
mental  reiineme'il, ; we  must  have  a strong  capacity  for 
enjoyment  upfere  we  can  find  delight  in  the  pursuits 
of  literature,  *r  the  cultivation  of  the  arts.  Pleasures 
are  often  cab  . moderate  ; they  do  not  depend  upon 
a man’s  rank  Oi  condition  ; they  are  within  the  reach 
of  all,  more  or  less,  and  more  or  less  at  one’s  com- 
mand : joys  are  buoyant;  they  dilate  the  heart  for  a 
time,  but  they  must  and  will  subside;  they  depend 
likewise  on  casualties  which  are  under  no  one’s  con- 
trol: delights  are  ardent  and  excessive;  they  are 
within  the  reach  of  a few  only,  but  depend  less  on 
external  circumstances  than  on  the  temper  of  the 
recei  ver. 

Pleasure  may  be  had  either  by  reflection  on  the 
past,  or  by  anticipation  of  the  future;  joy  and  delight 
can  be  produced  only  by  the  present  object:  we  have 
a pleasure  in  thinking  on  what  we  have  once  enjoyed, 
or  what  we  may  again  enjoy  ; we  experience  joy  on 
the  receipt  of  particularly  good  news;  one  may  expe- 
rience delight  from  a musical  entertainment.  Pleasure 
and  delight  may  be  either  individual  or  social ; joy  is 
rather  of  a social  nature:  we  feel  a pleasure  in  soli- 
tude when  locked  up  oidy  in  our  own  contemplations; 
we  experience  delight  in  the  prosecution  of  some  great 
end;  we  feel  joy  in  the  presence  of  those  whom  we 
love,  when  we  see  them  likewise  happy.  Pleasures 
are  particularly  divided  into  selfish  or  benevolent; 
joys  and  delights  flow  commonly  fiorn  that  which  im- 
mediately interests  ourselves,  but  very  frequently 
spring  from  the  higher  source  of  interest  in  the  hap- 
pinessof  othera:  the  pZea.'^Mre  of  serving  a friend,  or  of 
relieving  a distressed  object,  has  always  been  esteemed 
by  moralists  as  the  purest  of  pleasures  ; we  are  told 
that  in  heaven  there  is  more  joy  over  one  sinner  that 
repenteth.  than  over  the  ninety  and  nine  that  need  no 
repentance ; the  delight  which  a parent  feels  at  seeing 
the  improvement  of  his  child  is  one  of  those  enviable 
sorts  of  pleasures  which  all  may  desire  to  experience, 
but  which  many  must  be  contented  to  forego. 

Pleasure,  joy,  and  delight  arc  likewise  employed  for 
the  things  which  g\\e  pleasure,  joy,  or  delight. 

Charm  {v.  Attraction)  is  used  only  in  the  sense  of 
what  charms,  or  gives  a high  degree  of  pleasure;  but 
not  a degree  equal  to  that  of  joy  or  delight,  though 
greater  than  of  ordinary  pleasure : pleasure  intoxi- 
cates ; the  joys  of  heaven  are  objects  of  a Christian’s 
Virsuit;  i\\e  deli ghts  oi  matrimony  are  lasting  to  those 
who  are  susceptible  of  true  affection  ; ‘ Before  the  day 
ct  departure  (from  the  country),  a week  is  always  ap- 
propriated for  the  payment  and  reception  of  ceremonial 
visits,  at  which  nothing  can  be  mentioned  but  the  de- 
lights of  London.’ — Johnson.  The  alarms  of  rural 
scenery  never  fail  of  their  effect  whenever  they  offer 
themselves  to  the  eye ; 


When  thus  creation’s  charms  arounc.  romDii'M. 
Amid  the  store  should  thankless  pridt  repine? 

•UOLDSMIIH 

HAPPINESS,  FELICITY,  BLISS,  BLESSED 
NESS,  BEATITUDE.' 

Happiness  signifies  the  state  of  being  happy ; felt 
city,  in  Latin  felicitas,  from  felix  happy,  most  pro 
bably  comes  from  the  Greek  youth,  which  is  tlu 
age  of  purest  enjoyment;  bliss,  blessedness,  signifv 
the  state  or  property  of  being  blessed ; beatitude,  froiii 
the  Latin  beatus,  signifies  the  property  of  being  happy 
in  a superiour  degree. 

Happiness  comprehends  that  aggregate  of  plea 
surable  sensations  which  we  derive  from  external  ob- 
jects; it  is  the  ordinary  term  which  is  employed  aiike 
in  the  colloquial  or  the  philosophical  style : felicity  is 
a higher  expression,  that  comprehends  inward  enjoy- 
ment, or  an  aggregate  of  inward  pleasure,  without 
regard  to  the  source  whence  they  are  derived  : bliss  is 
a still  higher  term,  expressing  more  than  either  happi 
ness  or  felicity,  both  as  to  the  degree  and  nature  of 
the  enjoyment.  Happiness  is  the  thing  adapted  to 
our  present  condition,  and  to  the  nature  of  our  being, 
as  a compound  of  body  and  soul ; it  is  impure  in  its 
nature,  and  variable  in  degree ; it  is  sought  for  by 
various  means  and  with  great  eagerness  ; but  it  often 
lies  much  more  within  our  reach  than  we  are  apt  to 
imagine:  it  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  possession  of 
great  wealth,  of  great  power,  of  great  dominions,  of 
great  splendour,  or  the  unbounded  indulgence  of  any 
one  appetite  or  desire  ; but  it  is  to  be  found  in  mode- 
rate posse.«sions,  with  a heart  tempered  by  religion  and 
virtue,  for  the  enjoyment  of  that  which  God  has  be 
stowed  upon  us:  it  is,  therefore,  not  so  unequally  dis 
tributed  as  some  have  been  led  to  conclude. 

Happiness  admits  of  degrees,  since  every  individual 
is  placed  in  different  circumstances,  either  of  body  ot 
mind,  which  fit  him  to  be  more  or  less  happy ; 

Ah  ! whither  now  are  fled 
Those  dreams  of  greatness?  those  unsolid  hopes 
Of  happiness  ? — Thomson. 

Felicity  is  not  regarded  in  the  same  light;  it  is  th-il 
which  is  positive  andindependentof  all  circumstances: 
domestick  felicity,  and  conjugal /eZ/ertj,  are  regarded 
as  moral  enjoyments,  abstracted  from  every  thing 
whicn  can  serve  as  an  alloy ; ‘ No  grenlcr  felicity  can 
genius  attain  than  that  of  having  purified  intellectual 
pleasure,  separated  mirth  from  indecency,  and  wil 
from  licentiousness.’ — Johnson.  Bliss  is  that  which 
is  purely  spiritu.al ; it  has  its  source  in  the  imagination, 
and  rises  above  the  ordinary  level  of  human  enjoy 
rnents : of  earthly  bliss  little  is  known  but  in  poetry  ; 
of  heavenly  bliss  we  form  but  an  imperfect  conception 
from  the  utmost  stretch  of  our  powers; 

The  fond  soul. 

Wrapp’d  in  gay  visions  of  unreal  bliss. 

Still  paints  th’  illusive  form. — Thomson. 

‘ In  the  description  of  heaven  and  hell  we  are  surely 
interested,  as  we  are  all  to  reside  hereafter  either  in  the 
regions  of  horrour  or  of  bliss.' — Johnson.  Blessedness 
is  a term  of  spiritual  import  which  refers  to  the  happy 
condition  of  those  who  enjoy  the  Divine  favour,  and 
are  permitted  to  have  a foretaste  of  iieavenly  bliss,  by 
the  exaltation  of  their  minds  above  earthly  happiness ; 
‘ So  solid  a comfort  to  men,  under  all  the  troubles  and 
afflictions  of  this  world,  is  that  firm  assurance  which 
the  Christian  religion  gives  us  of  a future  happiness, 
as  to  bring  even  the  greatest  miseries  which  in  this  life 
we  are  liable  to,  in  some  sense,  under  the  notion  of 
blessedness.' — Tillotson.  Beatitude  denotes  that 
quality  or  degree  of  happiness  only  which  is  most  ex- 
alted ; namely,  heavenly  happiness;  ‘As  in  the  next 
world,  so  in  this,  the  only  solid  blessings  are  owing  to 
the  goodness  of  the  mind,  not  the  extent  of  the  capa- 
city ; friendship  here  is  an  emanation  from  the  same 
source  as  beatitude  there.’ — Pope. 


HAPPY,  FORTUNATE, 

Happy  and  fortunate  are  both  applied  to  the  exter- 
nal circumstances  of  a man  ; but  the  former  conveys 
the  idea  of  that  which  is  abstractedly  good,  the  latter 
implies  rather  what  is  agreeable  to  one’s  wishes.  A 
man  is  happy  in  his  marriage,  in  his  children,  in  hi 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


39^ 


connexliynsi  and  the  like ; he  is  fortunate  in  his  trading 
concerns.  Happy  excludes  the  idea  of  chance ; /or- 
tartate  excludes  the  idea  of  personal  eflbrt:  a man  is 
happy  in  the  possession  of  what  he  gets ; he  is  fortu- 
nate in  getting  it. 

In  tne  improper  sense  they  bear  a similar  analogy. 
A happy  thought,  a happy  expression,  a happy  turn, 
happy  event,  and  the  like,  denote  a degree  of  i)Osi- 
live  excellence  ; 

O happy,  if  he  knew  his  happy  state. 

The  swain,  who,  free  from  business  and  debate. 
Receives  his  easy  food  from  nature’s  hand. 

And  just  returns  of  cultivated  land.— Dryden. 

A fortunate  idea,  a fortunate  circumstance,  a ftrtu- 
nate  event,  are  all  relatively  considered,  with  regard 
to  the  wishes  and  views  of  the  individual;  ‘Visit 
the  gayest  and  most  fortunate  on  earth  oidy  with 
sleepless  nights,  disorder  any  single  organ  of  the 
senses,  and  you  shall  (will)  presently  see  his  gayety 
vanish.’— Blair 

TO  FELICITATE,  CONGRATULATE. 
Felicitate,  from  the  Latin  felix  happy,  signifies  to 
make  happy,  and  is  applicable  only  to  ourselves  ; con- 
gratulate, from  gratus,  pleasant  or  agreeable,  is  to 
make  agreeable,  and  is  applicable  either  to  ourselves 
or  others:  we  felicitate  ourselves  on  having  escaped 
the  danger;  we  congratulate  others  on  (heir  good  for- 
tune ; ‘ The  astronomers,  indeed,  expect  her  (night) 
with  impatience,  and  felicitate  themselves  upon  her 
arrival.’— Johnson.  ‘The  fierce  young  hero  who  had 
overcome  the  Curlatii,  instead  of  being  congratulated 
by  his  sister  for  his  victory,  was  upbraided  by  her  for 
having  slain  her  lover.’ — Addison. 


FORTUNATE,  LUCKY,  FORTUITOUS, 
PROSPEROUS,  SUCCESSFUL. 

Fortunate  signifies  having  fortune  {v.  Chance,  for- 
tune) ; lucky,  having  luck,  which  is  in  German  gluck, 
and  in  all  probability  comes  ivom  gelingen  or  lingen  to 
succeed ; fortuitous,  after  the  manner  of  fortune ; pros- 
perous, haviwg  prosperity ; smcccss/mZ,  i.e.  full  of  suc- 
cess, enabled  to  succeed. 

The  fortunate  and  lucky  are  both  applied  to  that 
which  happens  without  the  control  of  man ; but  lucky, 
which  is  a collateral  term,  describes  the  capricious 
goddess  Fortune  in  her  most  freakish  humours,  and 
fortunate  represents  her  in  her  most  sober  mood  : in 
other  words,  the  fortunate  is  more  according  to  the 
ordinary  course  of  things;  the  lucky  is  something 
sudden,  unaccountable,  and  singular  : a circumstance 
is  said  to  be  fortunate  which  turns  up  suitably  to  our 
purpose  ; it  is  said  to  be  lucky  when  it  comes  upon  us 
unexpectedly  at  the  moment  that  it  is  wanted  ; 

This  lucky  moment  the  sly  traitor  chose. 

Then  starting  from  his  ambush  up  he  rose. 

Dryden. 

Hence  we  speak  of  a man  as  fortunate  in  his  business, 
and  the  ordinary  concerns  of  life;  ‘Several  of  the 
Roman  emperours,  as  is  still  to  be  seen  upon  their 
medals,  among  their  other  titles,  gave  themselves  that 
of  Felix  or  fortunate.' — Addison.  A man  is  lucky  in 
the  lottery  or  in  games  of  chance : a fortunate  year 
will  make  up  for  the  losses  of  the  past  year ; 

O fortunate  old  man,  whose  farm  remains 
For  you  sudicient,  and  requites  your  pains. 

Dryden. 

A lucky  hit  ma}'  repair  the  ruined  spendthrift’s  for- 
tune, only  to  tempt  him  to  still  greater  extravagances ; 
Riches  are  oft  by  guilt  or  baseness  earn’d. 

Or  dealt  by  chance  to  shield  a lucky  knave. 

Armstrong. 

Fortunate  and  lucky  are  applied  to  particular  circum- 
stances of  fortune  atid  luck;  but  fortuitous  is  em- 
ployed only  in  matters  of  chance  generally;  ‘A  wonder 
it  must  be,  that  there  should  be  any  man  found  so 
stupid  as  to  persuade  himself  that  this  most  beau- 
tiful world  could  be  produced  by  the  fortuitous  con- 
course of  atoms.’ — Ray. 

Prosperous  and  successful  seem  to  exclude  the  idea 
of  what  \s  fortuitous , although  prosperity  and  success 
tie  both  greatly  aided  by  good  fortune.  Fortunate 


and  lucky  are  applied  as  muen  to  the  removal  cf  evil 
as  to  the  attainment  of  good  ; prosperous  and  success 
ful  are  concerned  only  in  what  is  good,  or  esteemed  as 
such:  we  may  be  fortunate  in  making  our  escape; 
we  are  prosperous  in  the  acquirement  of  wealth 
Fortunate  is  employed  for  single  circumstances;  pros- 
perous oidy  for  a train  of  circumstances;  a man  may 
be  fortunate  in  meeting  with  the  approbation  of  a 
superiour;  he  is  prosperous  in  his  business;  '•Pros 
perous  people  (for  happy  there  are  none)  are  hurried 
away  with  a fond  sense  of  their  present  condition,  and 
thoughtless  of , the  mutability  of  fortune.’ — Steel* 
Prosperity  is  extended  to  whatever  is  the  object  of  our 
wishes  in  this  world ; success  is  that  degree  of  pros- 
perity which  immediately  attends  our  endeavours ; 
wealth,  honours,  children,  and  all  outward  circum- 
stances, constitute;?rospmty;  whence  the  epithet ;»ros- 
perous  may  be  applied  to  the  winds  as  I'ar  as  they 
favour  our  designs; 

Ye  gods,  presiding  over  lands  and  seas. 

And  you  who  raging  winds  and  waves  appease. 

Breathe  on  our  swelling  sails  a prosperous  wind. 

Dryden. 

The  attainment  of  any  object  constitutes  the  success; 
‘ The  Count  d’Olivares  was  disgraced  at  the  court  of 
Madrid,  because  it  was  alleged  against  him  that  he 
had  never  success  in  his  undertakings.’ — Addison. 
The  fortunate  and  lucky  man  can  lay  no  claim  to 
merit,  because  they  preclude  the  idea  of  exertion , 
prosperous  and  successf  ul  may  claim  a share  of  merit 
proportioned  to  the  exertion. 


TO  FLOURISH,  THRIVE,  PROSPER. 

Flourish,  in  French  jleurir,  florissant,  Latin  floresc* 
or  florco,  from  flos  a flower,  signifies  to  have  the  vigour 
and  health  of  a flower  in  bloom;  thrive  signifies  pro- 
perly to  drive  on ; prosper,  in  Latin  prosper,  pros- 
perus,  compounded  of  pro  and  spe7-o  and  spes  hope, 
signifies  to  be  agreeable  to  the  hopes. 

To  flourish  expresses  tlie  state  of  being  that  which 
is  desirable;  to  thrive,  the  process  of  becoming  so. 

In  the  proper  sev\s,e,  flourish  and  thrive  are  applied 
to  the  vegetation : the  former  to  that  which  is  full 
grown;  the  latter  to  that  which  is  in  the  act  of  grow- 
ing : the  oldest  trees  are  said  to  flourish,  which  put 
forth  their  leaves  and  fruits  in  full  vigour;  young  trees 
thrive  when  they  increase  rapidly  towards  their  full 
growth. 

Floia-ish  and  thrive  are  taken  likewise  in  the  moral 
sense ; prosper  is  employed  only  in  this  sense  : flourish 
is  said  either  of  individuals  or  communities  of  men; 
thrive  and  prosper  only  of  individuals.  eTo  flourish 
is  to  be  in  full  possession  of  one’s  powers,  physical, 
intellectual,  and  incidental ; an  author  flourishes  at  a 
certain  period;  an  instilution^oitWsAes;  literature  or 
trade  flourishes ; a nation  flourishes.  To  thrive  is  to 
carry  on  one’s  concerns  to  the  adv'antage  of  one’s  cir- 
cumstances; it  is  a term  of  familiar  use  for  those  who 
gain  by  positive  labour:  the  industrious  tradesman 
thrives.  To  prosper  is  to  be  already  in  advantageous 
circumstances  : men  prosper  who  accumulate  wealth 
agreeably  to  their  wishes,  and  beyond  their  expecta 
tions. 

Flourish  and  thrive  are  always  taken  in  the  good 
sense:  nothing  ^0M»-isAes  but  what  ought  to 
the  word  bespeaks  the  possession  of  that  whicli  ought 
to  be  possessed : when  a flourishes  he  is  the  orna- 
ment of  his  country,  the  pride  of  human  nature,  the 
boast  of  literature : when  a city  flourishes  it  attains  all 
the  ends  of  civil  association  ; itis  advantageous  not  only 
to  its  own  members,  but  to  the  world  at  large ; ‘ There 
have  been  times  in  which  no  power  has  been  brought 
so  low  as  France.  Few  have  ever  flourished  in  greater 
glory.’ — Burke.  No  one  thrives  without  merit : what 
is  gained  by  the  thriving  man  is  gained  by  tho.se 
qualities  which  entitle  liim  to  all  he  has;  ‘Every 
thriving  grazier  can  think  himself  but  ill  dealt  with, 
if  within  his  own  country  he  is  not  courted.’ — South 
To  prosper  admits  of  a different  view  : one  may  pros- 
per  by  that  which  is  bad,  or  prosper  in  that  which  is 
bad,  or  become  bad  by  prospering ; the  attainment  of 
one’s  ends,  be  they  what  "they  may  constitutes  the 
prosperity ; a man  may  prosper  by  means  of  fraud 
and  injustice;  he  may  prosper  in  the  attainment  of 
inordinate  wealth  or  power;  and  he  may  become 


396 


ENGLISH  SYNON’yMES. 


proud,  unfeeling,  and  selfish,  by  his  prosperity:  so 
great  an  enemy  has  / rosperity  been  considered  to  the 
virtue  of  man,  that  every  ^ood  man  has  trembled  to 
be  in  that  condition ; ‘ Betimes  inure  yourself  to  ex- 
amine how  your  estate  — Wentworth. 


WELL-BEING,  WELFARE,  PROSPERITY, 
HAPPINESS. 

TVcll-being  may  be  said  of  one  or  many,  but  more 
generally  of  a body;  the  well-being  oi  society  depends 
upon  a due  subordination  of  the  different  ranks  of 
which  it  is  composed ; ‘ Have  free-thinkers  been  au- 
thors of  any  inventions  that  conduce  to  the  well-being 
of  mankind"?’ — Berkeley.  TVelf are,  or  faring  well^ 
from  the  German  /a/irew  to  go,  respects  the  good  con- 
dition of  an  individual ; a parent  is  naturally  anxious 
'or  the  welfare  of  his  child  ; 

For  his  own  sake  no  duty  he  can  ask. 

The  common  welfare  is  our  only  task. — Jenyns. 

Well-being  and  welfare  consist  of  such  things  as 
more  immediately  affect  our  existence : prosperity, 
which  comprehends  both  well  being  and  welfare,  in- 
cludes likewise  all  that  can  add  to  the  enjoyments  of 
man.  The  prosperity  of  a state,  or  of  an  individual, 
therefore,  consists  in  the  increase  of  wealth,  power, 
honours,  and  the  like;  ‘Religion  affords  to  good  men 
peculiar  security  in  the  enjoyment  of  \he\r  prosperity.' 
— Blair.  As  outward  circumstances  more  or  less 
affect  the  happiness  of  man,  happiness  is,  tlierefore, 
often  substituted  for  prosperity;  but  it  must  never 
be  forgotten  that  happiness  properly  lies  only  in  the 
mind,  and  that  consequently  may  exist  with- 

out happiness  : but  happiness,  at  least  as  far  as  respects 
a body  of  men,  cannot  exist  without  some  portion  of 
prosperity. 

TO  ACaUIRE,  OBTAIN,  GAIN,  WIN,  EARN. 

Acnuire,  in  French  acquirer,  Latin  acquire,  is  com- 
pountied  of  ac  or  ad  and  qucero  to  seek,  signifying  to 
seek  or  get  to  one’s  self;  obtain,  in  French  obtenir, 
Latin  obtineo,  is  compounded  of  ob  and  teneo  to  hold, 
signifying  to  lay  hold  or  secure  within  one’s  reach  ; 
gain  and  win  are  derived  from  the  same  source ; 
namely,  the  French  gagner,  German  gewinnen,  Saxon 
winnen,  from  the  Latin  vinco,  Greek  Kaivvpai  or  vIko) 
to  conquer,  signifying  to  get  the  mastery  over,  to  get 
into  one’s  possession ; earn  comes  from  the  Saxon 
lharnan,  German  crndten,  Frieslandish  arnan  to  reap, 
which  is  connected  with  the  Greek  apw/xai  to  take  or 
get. 

The  idea  of  getting  is  common  to  these  terms,  but 
the  circumstances  of  the  action  vary.  We  acquire  by 
our  own  efforts ; we  obtain  by  the  efforts  of  others,  as 
well  as  of  ourselves  ; we  gain  or  win  by  striving  ; we 
«arn  by  labour.  Talents  and  industry  are  requisite 
for  acquiring;  what  we  acyraVc  comes  gradually  to  us 
in  consequence  of  the  regtilar  exercise  of  our  abilities; 
in  this  manner,  knowledge,  honour,  and  reputation 
are  acquired;  ‘It  is  Sallust’s  remark  upon  Cato,  that 
the  less  be  coveted  dory,  the  more  he  acquired  it.’ — 
Addison.  Things  are  obtained  by  all  means,  honest 
or  dishonest;  whatever  comes  into  our  possession 
agreeable  to  our  wishes  is  obtained:  favours  and  re- 
■luests  are  always  obtained  ; ‘ Were  net  this  desire  of 
fame  very  strong,  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  it,  and  the 
danger  of  losing  it  when  obtained,  would  be  sufficient 
to  deter  a man  from  so  vain  a pursuit.’— Addison. 
Fortune  assists  in  both  gaining  and  winning,  but  par- 
ticularly in  the  latter  case : a subsistence,  a superiority, 
a victory  or  battle,  an  advantage,  or  a pleasure,  is 
gained  ; ‘ He  whose  mind  is  engaged  by  the  acquisi- 
tion or  improvement  of  a fortune,  not  only  escapes  the 
insipidity  of  indifference  and  the  tediousness  of  in- 
activity, but  gains  enjoyments  wholly  unknown  to 
those  who  live  lazily  on  the  toils  of  others.’ — Johnson. 
A game  or  a prize  in  the  lottery  is  literally  won; 

An  honest  man  may  freely  take  his  own  ; 

'File  goat  was  mine,  by  singing  fairly  won. 

Drvden. 

But  we  may  icin  many  things,  in  the  gaining  of  which 
fortune  is  more  concerned  than  one’s  own  exertions  ; 
‘Where  the  danger  ends,  the  hero  ceases:  when  he 
has  icon  an  empire,  or  gained  his  mistress,  the  rest  of 


his  story  is  not  worth  relating.’— Steele.  A good 
constitution  and  full  employment  are  all  that  is  neces- 
sary for  earning  a livelihood  ; ‘They  who  have  earned 
their  fortune  by  a laborious  and  industrious  life  are 
naturally  tenacious  of  what  they  have  painfully  ac- 
quired.'— Blair.  Fortunes  are  acquired  after  a course 
of  years  ; they  are  obtained  by  inheritance,  or  gained 
in  trade  ; they  are  sometimes  won  at  the  gaming  table, 
but  seldom  earned. 

What  is  acquired  is  solid,  and  produces  lasting  ben* 
fit  ; what  is  obtained  may  often  be  injurious  to  one’s 
health,  one’s  interest,  or  one’s  morals;  what  is  ^airted 
or  won  is  often  only  a partial  advantage,  and  transi- 
tory in  its  nature  ; it  is  gained  or  won  only  to  be  lost: 
what  is  earned  serves  only  to  supply  the  necessity  of 
the  moment ; it  is  hardly  got  and  quickly  spent.  Scho- 
lars aequire  learning,  obtain  rewards,  gain  applause, 
and  win  prizes,  which  are  often  hardly  earned  by  the 
loss  of  health. 


TO  ACQUIRE,  TO  ATTAIN 
To  acquire  {v.  To  acquire)  is  a progressive  ana 
permanent  action  ; to  attain,  from  the  Latin  attineo, 
compounded  of  ac  or  ad  and  teneo  to  hold,  signifying 
to  rest  at  a thing,  is  a perfect  and  finished  action  ; we 
always  go  on  acquiring;  but  we  stop  when  we  have 
attained.  What  is  acquired  is  something  got  into  the 
{lossession  ; what  is  attained  is  the  point  arrived  at. 
W e acquire  a language ; we  attain  to  a certain  degree 
of  perfection. 

By  abilities  and  perseverance  we  may  acquire  a con 
siderable  fluency  in  speaking  several  languages  ; but 
we  can  scarcely  expect  to  attain  to  the  perfection  of  a 
native  in  any  foreign  language.  Ordinary  powers, 
coupled  with  diligence,  will  enable  a person  to  acquire 
whatever  is  useful ; ‘ A genius  is  never  to  be  acquired 
by  art,  but  is  the  gift  of  nature.’ — Gay.  We  cannot 
attain  to  superiority  without  extraordinary  talents  and 
determined  perseverance  ; ‘ Inquiries  after  happiness, 
and  rules  for  attaining  it,  are  not  so  necessary  and 
useful  to  mankind  as  the  arts  of  consolation,  and  sup- 
porting one’s  self  under  affliction.’ — Shephard.  Ac- 
quirements are  always  serviceable  ; attainments  al- 
ways creditable. 

ACQUIREMENT,  ACQUISITION, 

Are  two  abstract  nouns  from  the  same  verb,  denot 
ingthe  thing  acquired. 

Acquirement  implies  the  tiling  acquired  for  and  by 
ourselves;  acquisition  that  which  is  acquired  for  an- 
other, or  to  the  advantage  of  another. 

People  can  expect  to  make  but  slender  acquirements 
without  a considerable  share  of  industry  ; ‘ Men  of 
the  greatest  a[)[)lication  and  acquirements  can  look 
back  upon  many  vacant  spaces  and  neglected  parts  of 
time.’ — Hughes.  Men  of  slender  acquirements  will 
be  no  acquisition  to  the  community  to  which  they  have 
attached  themselves  ; ‘ To  me,  who  have  taken  pains 
to  look  at  beauty,  abstracted  from  tlie  consideration  of 
its  being  an  object  of  desire  ; at  power  only  as  it  sits 
upon  another,  without  any  hopes  of  partaking  any 
share  of  it ; at  wisdom  and  capacity  without  any  pre- 
tension to  rival  or  envy  its  acquisitions  ; the  world  is 
not  only  a mere  scene,  but  a pleasant  one.’ — Steele. 

Acquirement  respects  rather  the  exertions  employed  ; 
acquisition,  the  benefit  or  gain  accruing.  To  learn  a 
language  is  ni\  acquirement ; to  gain  a cla.ss  or  a de- 
gree, an  acquisition.  The  acquirements  of  literature 
far  exceed  in  value  the  acquisitions  of  fortune. 

TO  GET,  GAIN,  OBTAIN,  PROCURE. 

To  signifies  simply  to  cause  to  have  or  possess 
it  is  generick,  and  the  rest  specifick  ; to  gain  (a.  To 
acquire)  isto^et  the  thing  one  wishes,  or  that  is  foi 
one’s  advantage : to  obtain  is  to  get  the  thing  aimed 
at  or  striven  after:  to  procure,  from  pro  and  euro  to 
care  for,  is  to  get  the  thing  wanted  or  sought  for. 

Get  is  not  only  the  most  general  in  its  sense,  but  in 
its  application  : it  may  be  substituted  in  almost  every 
case  for  the  other  terms,  for  we  may  say  to  get  or  gain 
a prize,  to  get  or  obtain  a reward,  to  get  or  procure  a 
book  ; and  it  is  also  employed  in  numberless  familial 
cases,  where  the  other  terms  would  be  less  suitablo, 
for  what  this  word  gains  in  familiarity  it  lones  in  dig 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


39^ 


nity  ; Ii«nce  wo  may  witli  propriety  talk  of  a servant’s 
<Tettmg  water,  or  a \)Gxsnn  gcuing  a Imok  olfa 

shelf  ox  gelling  meat  from  the  hotelier,  with  mimher- 
iess  similar  cases  in  which  the  other  terms  could  not 
be  employed  without  losin>;  their  dignity.  Moreover, 
get  is  nromiscnonsly  used  for  whatever  comes  to  the 
hand,  whether  good  or  had,  desirable  or  not  dcsirahle, 
sought  for  or  not;  ‘The  miser  is  more  irdnstrious 
than  the  saint:  the  pains  o( gelling,  the  fears  oflosing, 
and  the  inability  of  enjoying  Ins  wealth,  have  been  the 
mark  of  satire  in  all  ages.’ — Spectator.  Gain,  obtain, 
9.m\  jirocnre  always  include  cither  the  wishes,  or  tlie 
instrumentality  of  the  agent,  or  both  together.  Thus 
a person  is  said  to  a cold,  or  a fever,  a good  or  an 
ill  name,  without  specifying  any  of  the  circumstances 
of  the  action  : but  he  is  said  to  gain  that  approbation 
which  is  gratifying  to  his  feelings;  to  oZ»^am  a recom- 
pense which  is  the  object  of  his  2.\ertions  ; to  procure 
a situation  which  is  the  end  of  his  endeavours. 

The  word  gain  is  peculiarly  applicable  to  whatever 
comes  to  us  fortuitously;  what  we  gain,  constitutes  our 
good  fortune  ; we  gain  a victory,  or  we  gain  a cause ; 
the  result  in  both  cases  may  be  independent  of  our 
exertions  ; ‘ Neither  Virgil  nor  Horace  would  have 
gained  so  great  reputation  in  the  world,  had  t-hey  not 
been  the  friends  and  admirers  of  each  other.’— Addi- 
son. To  obtain  and  procure  e.vciude  the  idea  of 
chance,  and  suppose  e.vertions  directed  to  a specifick 
end  : but  the  former  may  include  the  exertions  of 
others  ; the  latter  is  particularly  employed  for  one’s 
own  personal  exertions.  A person  obtains  a situation 
through  the  recommendation  of  a friend  ; he  7;7-ocj<j-es 
a situation  by  applying  for  it.  Obtain  is  likewise 
employed  otdy  in  that  which  requires  particular  ef- 
forts, that  which  is  not  immediately  within  our  reach  ; 

.AH  things  are  blended,  changeable,  and  vain  ! 

No  hope,  no  wish,  we  perfectly  obtain. — Jenyns. 
Procure  is  applicable  to  that  which  is  to  begot  with 
ease,  by  the  simple  exertion  of  a walk,  or  of  asking 
for;  ‘ Ambition  pushes  the  soul  to  such  actions  as  are 
apt  to  procure  honour  and  reputation  to  the  actor’. — 
Addison. 

GAIN,  PROFIT,  EMOLUMENT,  LUCRE. 

Gain  signifies  in  general  what  is  gained  (u.  To  ac- 
quire) ; profit,  in  French  iMin  profiectus,  par- 

ticiple of  proficio,  i.  e.  pro  and  facio,  signifies  that 
which  makes  for  one’s  good ; emolument,  from  emolior, 
signifies  to  work  out  or  get  by  working  ; lucre  is  in 
Latin  lucrum  gain,  which  probably  comes  from  luo  to 
pay,  signifying  that  which  comes  to  a man’s  purse. 

Gain  is  here  a general  term,  the  other  terms  are 
specifick  ; the  gain  is  that  which  comes  to  a man  : it  is 
the  fruit  of  his  exertions,  or  agreeable  to  his  wish  : the 
profit  is  that  which  accrues  from  the  thing.  Thus 
wlien  applied  to  riches  that  w hich  increases  a man’s 
estate  are  his  gains  ; ‘ The  gains  of  ordinary  trades 
and  vocations  are  honest  and  furthered  by  two  things, 
chiefly  by  diligence  and  by  a good  name.’ — Bacon. 
That  which  flows  out  of  his  trade  are  liis  profits  ; that 
is,  they  are  his  gains  upon  dealing  ; ‘ Why  may  not  a 
whole  estate,  thrown  into  a kind  of  garden,  turn  as 
much  to  the  profit  as  the  pleasure  of  the  owner  V — Ad- 
dison. Emolument  is  a species  of  gain  from  labour, 
or  a collateral  gam  ; of  this  description  are  a man’s 
emoluments  from  an  office  ; ‘ Except  the  salary  of  the 
Laureate,  to  which  King  James  added  the  office  of 
Ilistoriosrapher,  perhaps  with  some  additional  emolu- 
ments, Dryden’s  whole  revenue  seems  to  have  been 
casual.’ — Johnson.  A man  estimates  his  gains  by 
what  he  receives  in  the  year  ; he  estimates  his  profits 
by  what  he  receives  on  every  article  ; he  estimates  his 
emoluments  according  to  the  nature  of  the  service  wliich 
he  has  to  perform;  the  merchant  talks  of  his^arws; 
the  retail  dealer  of  his  profits ; the  place-man  of  his 
emoluments. 

Gain  and  profit  a*-e  also  taken  in  an  abstract  sense  ; 
lucre  is  never  used  otherwise  ; but  the  latter  always 
conveys  a bad  meaning  ; it  is,  strictly  speaking,  un- 
hallowed ^am ; an  immoderate  thirst  fox  gain  is  the 
vice  of  men  who  are  always  calculating  profit  and 
loss  ; athirst  for  lucre  deadens  every  generous  feeling 
of  the  mind  ; 

O sacred  hunger  of  pernicious  gold  ! 

What  bands  of  faith  can  impious  lucre  hold  1 

Dryden. 


Gain  and  profit  may  be  extended  to  other  objects, 
and  sometimes  opposed  to  each  other;  for  as  that 
which  we  gain  is  what  we  wish  only,  it  is  often  the 
xiwexse  of  profitable ; hence  the  force  of  that  imi»it- 
ant  question  in  Scripture,  What  shall  it  profit  a man 
if  he  gain  the  whole  world  and  lose  his  own  soul  I 


GOOD,  GOODNESS. 

Good,  which  under  diflerent  forms  runs  through  aL 
the  northern  languages,  and  has  a great  affinity  to  the 
Greek  ayaQo^,  is  supposed  by  Adelung  to  be  derive# 
from  the  Latin  gaudeo,  Greek  yqQtia,  and  Hebrew 
mn,  signifying  to  be  joyful,  joy  or  happiness  beir-j 
derived  from  that  which  is  good. 

Good  and  goodness  are  abstract  terms,  drawn  from 
the  same  word  ; the  former  to  denote  the  thing  that  is 
good,  the  latter  the  inherent  good  property  of  a thing. 
AW  good  comes  from  God,  whose  goodness  towards 
his  creatures  is  unbounded. 

The  good  we  do  is  determined  by  the  tendency  of 
the  action  ; but  oux  goodness  in  doing  it  is  determined 
by  the  motives  of  our  actions.  Good  is  of  a two-fold 
nature,  jiliysical  and  -moral,  and  is  ojiposed  to  evil ; 
Goodness  is  applicable  either  to  the  disposition  of  mo- 
ral agents  or  the  qualities  of  inanimate  objects  ; it  is 
opposed  to  badness.  By  the  order  of  Providence  the 
most  horrible  convulsions  are  made  to  bring  about 
good  ; 

Each  form’d  for  all,  promotes  through  private  care 

The  publick  good,  and  justly  takes  its  share. 

Jenyns. 

Tti"  y^odness  or  badness  of  any  fruit  depends  upon 
its  fitness  to  be  enjoyed;  ‘The  reigning  errour  of  his  life 
was,  that  Savage  mistook  the  love  for  the  practice  of 
virtue,  and  was  indeed  not  so  much  a good  man  as  the 
friend  of  goodness.' — Johnson. 


GOOD,  BENEFIT,  ADVANTAGE. 

Good  is  an  abstract  universal  term,  which  in  its  un 
limited  sense  comprehends  every  thing  that  can  be 
conceived  of,  as  suited  in  all  its  parts  to  the  end  pro 
posed.  In  this  sense  benefit  and  advantage,  as  well 
as  utility,  service,  profit,  &c.  are  all  modifications  of 
good;  but  the  term  has  likewise  a limited  ap 
plication,  which  brings  it  to  a just  point  of  comparison 
with  the  other  terms  here  chosen  ; the  common  idea 
which  allies  these  words  to  each  other  is  that  of  good 
as  it  respects  a particular  object.  Good  is  here  em- 
ployed indefinitely ; benefit  and  advantage  are  sped- 
fied  by  some  collateral  circum.stances.  Good  is  done 
without  regard  to  the  person  who  does  it,  or  liim  to 
whom  it  is  done  ; but  benefit  has  always  respect  to  the 
relative  condition  of  the  giver  and  receiver,  who  must 
be  both  specified.  Hence  we  say  of  a charitable  man, 
that  he  does  much  good,  or  that  he  bestows  benefiti 
upon  this  or  that  individual.  In  like  manner,  when 
speaking  of  particular  communities  or  society  at  large, 
we  may  say  that  it  is  for  the  good  of  society  or  for  the 
goodof  mankind  that  every  one  submits  to  the  sacri- 
fice of  some  portion  of  his  natural  liberty  ; but  it  is 
intended  for  the  benefit  of  the  poorer  orders  that  the 
charitably  disposed  employ  so  much  time  and  money 
in  giving  them  instruction. 

Good  is  limited  to  no  mode  or  manner,  no  condition 
of  the  person  or  the  thing;  it  is  applied  indiscrimi- 
nately ; 

Our  present  good  the  easy  task  is  made, 

To  earn  superiour  bliss  when  this  shall  fade 

Jen\ns. 

Benefit  is  more  particularly  applicable  to  the  external 
circumstances  of  a person,  as  to  his  heaith,  his  im 
provement,  his  pecuniary  condition,  and  the  like  : it  is 
likewise  confined  in  its  application  to  persons  only  ; wo 
may  counsel  another  for  his  good,  although  we  do  not 
counsel  him  for  his  benefit ; but  we  labour  for  the 
benefit  of  another  when  we  set  apart  for  him  the  fruits 
of  our  labour:  exercise  is  always  attended  with  some 
good  to  all  persons ; it  is  of  particular  benefit  to  those 
who  are  of  a lethargick  habit ; an  Indiscreet  zeal  does 
more  harm  than  good  to  the  cause  of  religion  ; a pa- 
tient cannot  expect  to  derive  benefit  from  a medicine 
when  he  counteracts  its  effects;  ‘Unless  men  were 
endowed  by  nature  witli  .some  sense  of  duty  or  moral 


398 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES 


obHgation,  tlicy  could  reap  no  benefit  from  revelation.’ 
— Blair. 

Geod  js  mostly  employed  for  some  positive  and  direct 
good;  advantage  for  an  adventitious  and  indirect 
good ; the  good  is  that  which  would  be  good  to  all ; the 
advantage  is  that  which  is  partially  good,  or  good  only 
in  particular  cases;  it  is  good  for  a man  to  exert  his 
talents;  it  is  an  advantage  to  him  if  in  addition  to  his 
own  efforts  he  has  the  support  of  friends;  it  may  how- 
ever frequently  happen  that  he  who  has  the  most  ad- 
vantages derives  the  least  good:  talents,  person,  voice, 
powerful  interest,  a pleasing  address,  are  all  advan- 
tages; but  they  may  produce  evil  instead  of  good  if 
they  are  not  directed  to  the  right  purpose ; ‘ Tlie  true 
art  of  memory  is  the  art  of  attention.  No  man  will 
read  with  much  advantage  who  is  not  able  at  pleasure 
to  evacuate  his  mind.’ — Johnson. 


ADVANTAGE,  PROFIT. 

Advantage,  in  French  avantage,  probably  comes 
from  the  Latin  advcntum,  participle  of  advenio,  com- 
pounded of  ad  and  venio  to  come  to,  signifying  to  come 
to  any  one  according  to  his  desire,  or  agreeable  to  his 
purpose;  profit,  in  French  profite,  Latin  profectus, 
participle  of  proficio,  signifies  that  which  makes  for 
one’s  good. 

The  idea  common  to  these  terms  is  of  some  good 
received  by  a person.  Advantage  is  general;  it  re- 
spects every  thing  which  can  contribute  to  the  wishes, 
wants,  and  comforts  of  life;  profit  in  its  proper  sense 
is  specifick;  it  regards  only  pecuniary  advantage. 
Situations  have  their  advantages ; trade  has  its  promts. 

Whatever  we  estimate  as  an  advantage  is  so  to  the 
individual ; but  profits  are  something  real ; the  former 
is  a relative  term,  it  depends  on  the  sentiments  of  the 
person ; wJiat  is  an  advantage  to  one  may  be  a dis- 
advantage to  another; 

For  he  in  all  his  am’rous  battles 
N’  advantage  finds  like  goods  and  chattels. 

Butler. 

The  latter  is  an  absolute  term ; profit  is  alike  to  all 
under  all  circumstances ; ‘ He  does  the  office  of  a 
counsellor,  a judge,  an  executor,  and  a friend,  to  all  his 
acquaintance,  without  the  profits  which  attend  such 
offices.’ — Steele. 


ADVANTAGE,  BENEFIT,  UTILITY,  SERVICE. 

AVAIL,  USE. 

Advantage  has  the  same  signification  as  in  the  pre- 
ceding article;  benefit,  in  French  bienfait,  Latin  bene- 
f actum,  compounded  of  bene  well,  and  factum  done, 
signifies  done  or  made  to  one’s  wishes;  utility,  in 
French  utilitd,  Latin  utilitas  and  utilis  useful,  from 
utor  to  use,  signifies  the  quality  of  being  able  to  be 
used,  which  is  also  the  meaning  of  use;  service,  in 
French  service,  Latin  servitium,  from  servio  to  serve, 
signifies  the  quality  of  serving  one’s  purpose;  avail 
compounded  of  a or  ad  and  valeo  to  be  strong,  signi- 
lies  to  be  strong  for  a purpose. 

Advantage  respects  external  or  cxtrinsick  circum- 
stances of  profit,  honour,  and  convenience ; benefit 
respects  the  consequences  of  actions  and  events ; 
utility  and  service  respect  the  good  which  can  be  drawn 
from  the  use  of  any  object.  implies  the  intrin- 

sick  good  quality  which  renders  a thing  fit  for  use ; 
service  the  actual  state  of  a thing  which  may  fit  it  for 
immediate  use;  a thing  has  its  utility  and  is  made  of 
service. 

A large  house  has  its  advantages ; suitable  exercise 
is  attended  with  benefit:  sun-dials  have  their  utility  in 
ascertaining  the  hour  precisely  by  the  sun;  and  may 
be  made  serviceable  at  times  in  lieu  of  watches. 
Things  are  sold  to  advantage,  or  advantages  are  de- 
rived from  buying  and  selling;  ‘It  is  the  great  advan- 
tage of  a trading  nation,  that  there  are  very  few  in  it 
so  dull  and  heavy,  who  may  not  be  placed  in  stations 
of  life  which  may  ^ive  them  an  opportunity  of  making 
their  fortunes.’ — Addison.  Persons  ride  or  walk  for 
the  benefit  of  their  health ; ‘ For  the  benefit  of  the  gentle 
reader,  I will  show  what  to  turn  ever  unread,  and  what 
to  peruse.’ — Steele.  Things  a/e  purchased  for  their 
utility;  ‘ If  the  gibbet  does  not  produce  virtue,  it  is  yet 
of  such  incoiuestible  utility,  that  I believe  those  gen- 
tlemen would  be  very  unwilling  that  should  be  re- 


moved, who  are  notwithstanding  so  zealous  to  sted. 
every  breast  against  damnation.’ — Hawkeswoith. 
Things  are  retained  when  tney  are  found  serviceable, 
‘His  wisdom  and  knowledge  are  serviceable  to  all  who 
think  fit  to  make  use  of  them.’— -Steele. 

A good  education  has  always  its  advantages,  al 
though  every  one  cannot  derive  the  same  benefit  from 
the  cultivation  of  his  talents,  as  all  have  not  the  happy 
art  of  employing  their  acquirements  to  the  right  oh 
jects;  riches  are  of  no  utility  unless  rightly  employed ; 
and  edge-tools  are  of  no  service  which  are  not  pro- 
perly sharpened.  It  is  of  great  advantage  to  young 
people  to  form  good  connexions  on  their  entrance  into 
life;  it  is  no  less  beneficial  to  their  morals  to  be  under 
the  guidance  of  the  aged  and  experienced,  from  whom 
they  may  draw  many  useful  directions  for  their  future 
conduct,  and  many  serviceable  hints  by  way  of  admo- 
nition. 

Utility,  use,  service,  and  avail,  all  express  the  idea 
of  fitness  to  be  employed  to  advantage.  Utility  is  ap- 
plied mostly  in  a general  sense  for  that  which  may  be 
used,  and  use  for  that  which  actually  is  used  ; thus 
things  may  be  said  to  be  of  general  utility,  or  of  par- 
ticular use;  ‘Those  things  which  have  long  gone 
together  are  confederate;  whereas  new  things  piece 
not  so  well ; but,  though  they  help  by  their  utility,  yet 
they  trouble  by  their  inconformity.’— Bacon.  ‘ VVhen 
will  my  friendship  be  of  use  to  youT — Phillips 
Use  comprehends  in  it  whatever  is  €l:'vived  from  the 
Mse  of  a thing;  service  may  imply  that  to-iich  serves 
for  a particular  purpose;  avail  implies  that  kind  of 
service  '^Aich  may  possibly  be  procured  from  any  ob- 
ject, but.  which  also  may  not  be  procured ; it  is  there- 
fore used  in  problematical  cases,  or  in  a negative  sense 
Prudence  forbids  us  to  destroy  any  thing  that  can  be 
turned  to  a use ; ‘ A man  with  great  talents,  but  void  of 
discretion,  is  like  Polyphemus  in  the  fable,  strong  and 
blind,  endued  with  an  irresistible  force,  which  for  want 
of  sight  is  of  no  use  to  him.’ — Addison.  Economy 
enjoins  that  we  should  not  throw  aside  a thing  so  long 
as  it  is  fit  for  service;  ‘ The  Greeks  in  the  heroick  age 
seem  to  have  been  unacquainted  with  the  use  of  iron, 
the  most  serviceable  of  all  the  metals.’ — Robertson 
When  entreaties  are  found  to  be  of  no  avail,  females 
sometimes  try  the  force  of  tears ; ‘ What  does  it  avail, 
though  Seneca  had  taught  as  good  morality  as  Christ 
himself  from  the  mount?’ — Cumberland. 

The  intercession  of  a friend  may  be  available  to 
avert  the  resentment  of  one  who  is  offended ; useful 
lessons  of  experience  may  be  drawn  from  all  the  events 
of  life;  .whatever  is  of  the  best  quality  will  be  found 
most  serviceable. 

TO  EMPLOY,  USE. 

Employ,  from  the  Latin  implico,  signifies  to  impli 
cate,  or  apply  for  any  special  purpose ; use,  from  the 
Latin  usus  and  utor,  signifies  to  enjoy  or  derive 
benefit  from. 

Employ  expresses  less  than  use;  it  is  in  fact  a spe- 
cies of  partial  using : we  always  employ  when  we  use  ; 
but  we  do  not  always  use  when  we  employ.  We  em- 
ploy whatever  we  take  into  our  service,  or  make  sub- 
servient to  our  convenience  for  a time ; we  use  what- 
ever we  entirely  devote  to  our  purpose.  Whatever  is 
employed  by  one  person  may,  in  its  turn,  be  employed 
by  another,  or  at  different  times  be  employed  by  the 
same  person;  but  what  is  used  is  frequently  consumed 
or  rendered  unfit  for  a similar  use.  What  we  employ 
may  frequently  belong  to  another;  but  what  ono  uses 
is  supposed  to  be  his  exclusive  property.  On  this 
ground  we  may  speak  of  employing  persons  as  well  as 
things;  but  we  speak  of  using  things  only,  and  not 
persons,  except  in  the  most  degrading  sense.  Persons, 
time,  strength,  and  power  are  employed; 

Thou  godlike  Hector!  all  thy  force  employ  ; 

Assemble  all  th’  united  band  of  Troy. — Pope 
Houses,  furniture,  and  all  materials  of  which  eithei 
necessities  or  conveniences  are  composed,  are  used; 
Straight  the  broad  belt,  with  gay  embroid’ry  grac’d, 

He  loos’d,  the  corslet  from  his  breast  unbrac’d, 

Then  suck’d  the  blood,  and  sov’reign  balm  infus’d, 
Which  Chiron  gave,  and  .^Esculapins  us'd. — Pope. 

It  is  a part  of  wisdom  to  employ  well  the  short  portion 
of  time  which  is  allotted  to  us  in  this  sublunary  state 
and  to  use  the  things  of  this  world  so  as  not  to  abu.'e 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


3y$ 


(110111  Wo  one  is  exculpated  from  the  guilt  of  an  im- 
moral action,  by  sufl'ering  himself  to  be  employed  as 
an  instrument  to  serve  the  purposes  of  another:  we 
ought  to  use  our  utmost  endeavours  to  abstain  from  all 
connexion  with  such  as  wish  to  implicate  us  in  their 
guilty  practices. 

INSTRUMFNT,  TOOL. 

Instrumenl,  in  liatin  ii,itrumentum,  from  mstruo, 
signifies  the  thing  by  which  an  efiect  is  produced  ; tool 
comes  probably  from  toil,  signifying  the  thing  with 
which  one  toils.  These  terms  are  both  employed  to 
express  the  means  of  producing  an  end;  they  dili'er 
^jiincipally  in  this,  that  the  former  is  used  in  a good  or 
an  indifferent  sense,  the  latter  only  in  a bad  sense,  for 
persons.  Individuals  in  high  stations  are  often  the 
instruments  in  bringing  about  great  changes  in  nations; 
Devotion  has  often  been  found  a powerful  instrument 
'n  humanizing  the  manners  of  men  ’ — Blair.  Spies 
and  informers  are  the  worthless  tools  of  government; 
Poor  York ! the  harmless  tool  of  others’  hate. 

He  sues  for  pardon,  and  repents  loo  late. — Swift. 

TO  ABUSE,  MISUSE. 

Abuse,  in  Latin  ahusus,  participle  of  abutor,  com 
pounded  of  ab  from  and  utor  to  use,  signifies  to  use 
away  or  wear  away  with  using;  in  distinction  from 
misuse,  which  signifies  to  use  amiss.  Every  thing  is 
abused  which  receives  any  sort  of  injury ; it  is  misused, 
if  not  used  at  all,  or  turned  to  a wrong  use. 

Young  people  are  too  prone  to  abuse  books  for  want 
of  setting  a proper  value  on  their  contents ; ‘ I know  no 
evil  so  great  as  the  abuse  of  the  understanding,  and  yet 
there  is  no  one  vice  more  common.’ — Steele.  People 
misuse  books  when  they  read  for  amusement  only 
instead  of  improvement ; 

You  misuse  the  reverence  of  your  place. 

As  a false  favourite  doth  his  prince’s  name, 

In  deeds  dishon’rable. — Shakspe.vre. 

Money  is  abused  when  it  is  clipped,  or  its  value  any 
rt  ay  lessened ; it  is  7nisused  when  it  is  spent  in  excess 
and  debauchery. 

TREATMENT,  USAGE. 

Treatment  implies  the  act  of  treating,  and  usage  that 
of  using : treatment  may  be  partial  or  temporary ; but 
usage  is  properly  employed  for  that  which  is  permanent 
or  continued ; a passer-by  may  meet  with  ill  treatment ; 
but  children  or  domesticks  are  liable  to  meet  with  ill 
usage.  All  persons  may  meet  with  treatment  from  others 
with  whom  they  casually  come  in  connexion  : ‘ By  pro- 
mises of  more  indulgent  treatmcnt,it'  they  would  unite 
with  him  (Cortez)  against  their  oppressors,  he  prevailed 
on  the  peo])le  to  supply  the  Spanish  camp  with  provi- 
sions.’— Robertson.  Usage  is  applied  more  properly 
to  those  who  are  more  or  less  in  the  power  of  others: 
children  may  receive  good  or  ill  iisage  from  those  who 
have  the  charge  of  them,  servants  from  their  masters, 
or  wives  from  their  husbands ; ‘If  we  look  further  into 
the  ivorld.  we  shall  find  this  usage  (of  our  Saviour 
from  his  own)  not  so  very  strange;  for  kindred  is  not 
friendship.’ — South. 

TO  PROVIDE,  PROCURE,  FURNISH,  SUPPLY. 

Prourde,  in  Latin  prourdjo,  signifies  literally  to  see  be- 
fore, but  figuratively  to  get  in  readiness  for  some  future 
purpose;  procure,  v. To  get;  furnish,  in  French /owr- 
nir,  may  possibly  be  connected  with  the  Latin /erro  to 
bring;  supply,  in  French  suppleer,  Latin  suppleo,  from 
sub  and  pleo,  signifies  to  fill  up  a deficiency,  or  make  up 
what  is  wanting. 

Provide  and  procure  are  both  actions  that  have  a 
special  reference  to  the  future ; furnish  and  supply  are 
employed  for  that  which  is  of  immediate  concern  : one 
provides  a dinner  in  the  contemplation  that  some  per- 
sons are  coming  to  partake  of  it;  one  procures  help  in 
the  contemplation  that  it  may  be  wanted  ; one  furnishes 
a room,  as  we  find  it  necessary  for  the  present  purpose ; 
one  supplies  a family  with  any  article  of  domestick 
use.  Calcination  is  necessary  in  providing ; one  does 
not  wish  to  provide  too  much  or  too  little;  ‘A  rude 
hand  may  build  walls,  form  roofs,  and  lay  floors,  and 
provide  n\\  that  warmth  and  secafily  require.’ — John- 


son. Labour  and  management  are  requisite  inprocur 
ing;  when  the  thing  is  not  always  at  hand,  or  not  easily 
come  at,  one  must  exercise  one’s  strength  or  ingenuity 
to  procure  it ; ‘ Such  dress  as  may  enable  the  body  tc 
endure  theditferent  seasons,  the  most  unenlightened  na- 
tions have  been  able  to  procure.' — Johnson.  Judge- 
ment is  requisite  \n  furnishing ; what  one  furnishes 
ought  to  be  selected  with  due  regard  to  the  circum- 
stances of  the  individual  who  furnishes,  or  for  whom 
\i  \s  furnished;  ‘ Auria  having  driven  the  Turks  from 
Corone,  both  by  sea  and  \anA,  furnished  the  city  with 
corn,  wine,  victual,  and  powder.’ — Knolles.  Cere 
and  attention  are  wanted  in  supplying;  we  must  be 
careful  to  know  what  a person  really  wants,  in  order  to 
supply  him  to  his  satisfaction  ; 

Although  I neither  lend  nor  borrow. 

Yet,  to  supply  the  ripe  wants  of  my  friend, 

I ’ll  break  a custom. — Shakspeare. 

One  provides  against  all  contingencies ; one  procures  al 
necessaries;  one  furnishes  nW  comforts;  one  supplies 
all  deficiencies.  Provide  and  procure  are  the  acts  of 
persons  only ; furnish  and  supply  ore  the  actsof  uncon- 
scious agents.  A person’s  garden  and  orchard  may  be 
said  to  furnish  him  with  delicacies ; the  earth  supplies 
us  with  food.  So  in  the  improper  application : the  daily 
occurrences  of  a great  city  furnish  materials  for  a 
newspaper;  a newspaper,  to  an  Englishman, 
almost  every  other  want;  ‘Your  ideas  are  new,  and 
borrowed  from  a mountainous  country,  the  only  one 
that  can  furnish  truly  picturesque  scenery.’— Gray. 

And  clouds,  dissolv’d,  the  thirsty  ground  supply. 

Dryden 


PROVIDENCE,  PRUDENCE, 

Providence  and  prudence  are  both  derived  from  the 
verb  to  provide  ; but  the  former  expresses  the  particular 
act  of  providing;  the  latter  the  habit  of  providing. 
The  former  is  applied  both  to  animals  and  men  ; the 
latter  is  employed  only  as  a characteristick  of  men. 
We  may  admire  the  providence  of  the  ant  in  laying  up 
a store  for  the  winter ; 

In  Albion’s  isle,  when  glorious  Edgar  reign’d, 

He,  w\se\y  provident,  from  her  white  cliffs 
Launch’d  half  Her  forests.— Somerville. 

The  prudence  of  a parent  is  displayed  in  his  conoes-^ 
for  the  future  settlement  of  his  child;  ^Prudence 
operates  on  life,  in  the  same  manner  as  rules  on  com 
position  ; it  produces  vigilance  rather  than  elevation.’ — 
Johnson.  It  is  provident  in  a person  to  adopt  measures 
of  escape  for  himself,  in  certain  situations  of  peculiar 
danger;  it  \e  prudent  to  be  always  prepared  for  all  con- 
tingencies 

PRUDENT,  PRUDENTIAL. 

Prudent  {v.  Judgement)  characterizes  the  person  oi 
the  thing;  prudential  characterizes  only  the  thing 
Prudent  signifies  having  prudence;  prudential,  ac- 
cording to  the  rules  of  prudence,  or  as  respects  pru- 
dence. The  prudent  is  opposed  to  the  imprudent  and 
inconsiderate;  the  providential  is  opposed  to  the  volun- 
tary; the  counsel  is  prudent  which  accords  with  the 
principles  of  prudence ; 

Ulysses  first  in  publick  care  she  found. 

For  prudent  counsel  like  the  gods  renown’d. 

Pope 

The  reason  or  motive  is  prudential,  as  flowing  out  cl 
circumstances  of  prudence  or  necessity;  ‘Those  who 
possess  elevated  understandings,  are  naturally  apt  to 
consider  aXi  prudential  maxims  as  below  their  regard. 
— Johnson.  Every  one  is  called  upon  at  certain  times 
to  adopt  prudent  measures ; those  who  are  obliged  tc 
consult  their  means  in  the  management  of  their  f,i 
penses,  must  act  upon  prudential  motives 

FORESIGHT,  FORETHOUGHT,  FORECAST, 
PREMEDITATION. 

Foresight,Uom  seeing  before,  anA  forethought,  from 
thinking  beforehand,  denote  the  simple  act  ol  the  mind 
in  seeing  a thing  before  it  happens:  forecast,  from 
casting  the  thoughts  onward,  signifies  coming  at  the 
knowledge  of  a thing  beforehand  by  means  of  calcnlo 
tion  : premeditation  from  pre  before,  and  viedit'Hi 


400 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


signifies  obuinfna  the  same  knowledge  by  force  of 
meditating,  or  refle<;ting  deeply  on  a thing  beforehand. 
Foresight  and  forethought  are  general  and  indefinite  j 
terms;  we  employ  them  either  on  ordinary  or  extraor-  j 
iinary  occasions ; but  forethought  is  of  the  two  the 
most  familiar  term  ; forecast  O-wA  premeditation  mostly 
in  the  latter  case:  all  business  ree\\x\xQs,  foresight ; state 
concerns  require  forecast : foresight  and  forecast 
respect  what  is  to  happen;  they  are  the  operations 
of  the  mind  in  calculating  futurity:  premeditation 
respects  what  is  to  be  said  or  done;  it  is  a preparation 
of  the  thoughts  and  designs  for  action:  hy  foresight 
and  forecast  we  guard  against  evils  and  provide  for 
contingencies ; by  premeditation  we  guard  against 
errours  of  conduct.  A man  betrays  his  want  of /ore- 
sight  who  does  not  provide  against  losses  in  trade; 

The  wary  crane  foresees  it  first,  and  sails 
Above  the  storm,  and  leaves  the  lowly  vales. 

Dryden. 

A person  shows  his  want  of  forecast  who  does  not 
provide  against  old  age  ; 

Let  him  forecast  his  work  with  timely  care. 

Which  else  is  huddled,  when  the  skies  are  fair. 

Dryden. 

A man  shows  his  want  of  premeditation  who  acts  or 
speaks  on  the  impulse  of  the  moment ; the  man  there- 
fore who  does  a wicked  act  without  premeditation 
lessens  his  guilt;  ‘The tongue  may  fail  and  falter  in 
her  sudden  e.xleinporal  expressions,  but  the  pen  having 
a greater  advantage  of  premeditation  is  not  so  subject 
to  errour.’ — Howell. 


JUDGEMENT,  DISCRETION,  PRUDENCE. 

These  terms  are  all  employed  to  express  the  various 
modes  of  practical  wisdom,  which  serve  to  regulate  the 
conduct  of  men  in  ordinary  life.  The  judgement  is 
that  faculty  which  enables  a person  to  distinguish  right 
and  wrong  in  general ; discretion  and  prudence  serve 
the  same  purpose  in  particnlar  cases.  The  judgement 
is  conclusive;  it  decides  by  positive  inference;  it  en- 
ables a person  to  discover  the  truth ; discretion  is  in- 
tuitive (r.  Discernment)-,  it  discerns  or  perceives  what 
is  in  all  probability  right.  The  judgement  acts  by  a 
fixed  rule;  it  admits  of  no  question  or  variation:  the 
discretion  acts  according  to  circumstances,  and  is  its 
own  rule.  The  judgement  determines  in  the  choice 
of  what  is  good  : the  r/iscretma  sometimes  onlyguards 
against  errour  or  direct  mistakes  ; it  chooses  what  is 
tiearest  to  the  truth.  The  judgement  requires  know- 
ledge and  actual  experience;  the  discretion  requires 
refieclion  and  consideration : a general  exercises  his 
judgement  in  the  disposition  of  his  army,  and  in  the 
mode  of  attack;  while  he  is  following  the  rules  of 
military  art  he  exercises  his  discretion  in  the  choice  of 
officers  for  different  posts,  in  the  treatment  of  his  men, 
in  his  negotiations  with  the  enemy,  and  various  »ther 
measures  which  depend  upon  contingencies ; ‘ If  a man 
have  that  penetration  of  as  he  can  discern 

what  things  are  to  be  laid  open,  and  what  to  be  secreted, 
to  him  a habit  of  dissimulation  is  a hindrance  and  a 
ooorness.’—  Bacon. 

Let  your  own 

Discretion  be  your  tutor.  Suit  the  action 

To  the  words.-  Shakspeare. 

Discretion  looks  to  the  present;  prudence,  which  is 
the  p'lnie  as  providence  or  forethought  calculates  on 
the  future:  discretion  takes  a wide  survey  of  the  case 
that  offers;  it  looks  to  the  moral  filne.ss  of  the  thing, 
as  well  as  the  consequences  which  may  follow  from  it; 
It  determines  according  to  the  real  propriety  of  the 
thing,  as  well  as  the  ultimate  advantages  which  it  may 
produce;  jcrirdence  looks  only  to  the  good  or  evil 
which  may  result  from  the  thing;  it  is,  therefore,  but 
a mode  or  accompaniment  of  discretion ; we  must 
have  -trudence  when  we  have  discretion,  but  we  may 
have  7 ntdence  where  there  is  no  occasion  ior  discre- 
tion. Those  who  have  the  conduct  or  direction  of 
.others  require  discretion;  those  who  have  the  manage- 
ment of  their  own  concerns  require  prudence.  For 
want  of  oiscrction  the  master  of  a school,  or  the 
general  of  an  army,  may  lose  Ids  authority:  for  want 
of  prudence  the  merchant  may  involve  himself  in 
ruin ; or  the  man  of  fortune  may  be  brought  to  beg- 
gary • ‘ The  ignorance  in  which  w'e  arc  left  concerning 


j good  and  evil,  is  not  such  as  to  supersede  pruience  is 
I conduct.’ — Blair. 

I As  epithets,  judicious  is  applied  to  tldngs  oftene 
I than  to  persons;  discreet  is  applied  to  persons  rathe 
than  to  things  ; prudent  is  applied  to  both  : a remai  K 
or  a military  movement  \s  judicious ; it  displays  the 
judgement  of  the  individual  from  whom  they  emanate ; 
So  bold,  yet  so  judiciously  you  dare, 

That-your  least  praise  is  to  be  regular. — Dryden 
A matron  is  discreet,  who,  by  dint  of  years,  experience, 
and  long  reflection,  is  enabled  to  determine  on  what  is 
befitting  the  case ; 

To  elder  years  to  be  discreet  and  grave. 

Then  to  old  age  maturity  she  gave. — Denman. 

A person  \s  prudent  who  does  not  inconsiderately  ex- 
pose himself  to  danger;  a measure  is  prudent  that 
guards  against  the  chances  of  evil ; 

The  monarch  rose,  preventing  all  reply. 

Prudent  lest,  from  his  resolution  rais’d. 

Others  among  the  chiefs  might  offer. — Milton. 
Counsels  will  be  injudicious  which  are  given  by  those 
who  are  ignorant  of  the  subject:  it  is  dangerous  to 
intrust  a secret  to  one  who  is  indiscreet:  the  impe- 
tuosity of  youth  naturally  impels  them  to  be  impru 
dent;  an  imprudent  marriage  is  seldom  followed  by 
prudent  conduct  in  the  parties  that  have  involved 
themselves  in  it. 


WISDOM,  PRUDENCE. 

Wisdom  (v.  Wit)  consists  in  speculative  knowledge ; 
prudence  {v.  Prudent)  in  that  which  is  practical : the 
former  knows  what  is  past;  the  latter  by  foresight 
knows  what  is  to  come;  many  wise  men  are  remark- 
able for  their  want  of  prudence  ; and  those  who  are 
remarkable  for  prudence  have  frequently  no  other 
knowledge  of  which  they  can  boast ; ‘ Two  things 
speak  much  the  wisdom  of  a nation : good  'aws,  and 
a prudent  management  of  them.’ — Stillingfieet. 


FOLLY,  FOOLERY. 

Folly  is  the  abstract  of  foolish,  and  characterizes 
the  thing;  foolery  the  abstract  of  fool,  and  character- 
izes the  person : we  may  commit  an  act  of  folly  with- 
out being  chargeable  with  weakness  or  folly;  but 
none  are  guilty  of  fooleries  who  are  not  themselves 
fools,  either  habitually  or  temporarily:  young  people 
are  perpetually  committing  follies  if  not  under  proper 
control ; ‘ This  peculiar  ill  property  has  folly,  that  it 
enlarges  men’s  desires  while  it  lessens  their  capacities.’ 
—South.  Fashionable  people  only  lay  aside  one/eo/e?-^ 
to  take  up  another;  ‘ If  yon  are  so  much  transported 
with  the  sight  of  beautiful  persons,  to  what  ecstasy 
would  it  raise  you  to  behold  the  original  beauty,  not 
filled  up  with  flesh  and  blood,  or  varnished  with  a 
fading  mixture  of  colours,  and  the  rest  of  mortal 
trifles  SluA  fooleries.' — Walsh. 

FOOL,  IDIOT,  BUFFOON. 

Fool  is  doubtless  connected  W’ith  our  word  joul,  In 
German  foul,  which  is  either  nasty  or  lazy,  and  the 
Greek  <pav\og  wfiicli  signifies  w'orthless  or  good  for 
nothing;  idiot  comes  from  the  Greek  Wtcirijf,  signify- 
ing either  a private  person  or  one  that  is  rude  and  un- 
skilled in  the  w'ays  of  the  world;  buffoon,  in  French 
bouffon,  is  in  all  probability  connected  wdth  our  word 
beef,  buffalo,  and  bull,  signifying  a senseless  fellow'. 

The/ooZ  is  either  naturally  or  artifcially  nfool ; 

Thought ’s  the  slave  of  life,  and  life’s  time’s /ool 
Shakspeare 

The  idiot  is  a natural  fool;  ‘ Idiots  are  still  in  request 
in  most  of  the  courts  of  Germany,  where  there  is  not 
a prince  of  any  great  magnificence  who  has  not  tw'o 
or  three  dressed,  distinguished,  undisputed /ooL-  in  his 
retinue.’— Addison.  The  buffoon  is  an  artificial/oa.'; 
‘Homer  has  described  a Vulcan  that  is  a buffoon 
among  his  gods,  and  a Thersites  among  his  mortals.’ — 
Addison.  Whoever  violates  common  sense  in  ffis 
actions  is  a /ooZ ; whoever  is  unable  to  act  according 
to  common  sense  is  an  idiot ; whoever  intentionally 
violates  common  ser.se  is  a buffoon. 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


401 


SlAIPLE,  SILLY,  FOOLISH. 

,>i)inple,  V.  Simple ; silly  is  but  a variation  of  simple  ; 
ftolis/i  signifies  like  a fool  {v.  Fool). 

The  simple,  when  applied  to  the  understanding,  im- 
lies  such  a contracted  power  as  is  incapable  of  coin- 
ination  ; silly  and  foolish  rise  in  sense  upon  the 
former,  signifying  either  the  perversion  or  the  total 
deficiency  of  understanding ; the  behaviour  of  a per- 
son may  be  silly,  who  from  any  excess  of  feeling  loses 
his  sense  of  propriety;  theconductof  a person  will  be 
foolish  who  has  not  judgement  to  direct  himself. 
Country  people  may  be  simple  owing  to  their  want  of 
knowledge  ; 

And  had  the  simple  natives 
Observ’d  his  sage  advice. 

Their  wealth  and  fame  some  years  ago 
Had  reach’d  above  tjie  skies.— Swift. 

Children  will  be  sHly  in  company  if  they  have  too 
much  liberty  given  to  them  ; 

Two  gods  a silly  woman  have  undone. — Dryden. 
There  are  some  persons  who  never  acquire  wisdom 
enough  to  prevent  them  from  committing  foolish  er- 
rours;  ‘Virgil  justly  thought  it  a /oohsA  figure  for  a 
grave  man  to  be  overtaken  by  death,  while  he  was 
weighing  the  cadence  of  words  and  measuring  verses.’ 
-VValsh. 


STUPID,  DULL. 

Stupid,  in  Latin  stupidus,  from  stupeo  to  be  amazed 
or  bewildered,  expresses  an  amazement  which  is 
equivalent  to  a deprivation  of  understanding  ; dull, 
through  the  medium  of  the  German  toll,  and  Swedish 
stoZh'gf,  comes  from  the  Latin  stultus  simple  or  foolish, 
and  denotes  a simple  deficiency.  Stupidity  in  its  pro- 
per sense  is  natural  to  a man,  although  a pailicular 
circumstance  may  have  a similar  elfect  upon  the  under- 
standing; he  who  is  questioned  in  the  presence  of 
others  may  appear  very  stupid  in  that  which  is  other- 
wise very  familiar  to  him  ; ‘ A stupid  butt  is  only  fit 
for  the  conversation  of  ordinary  people.’— Addison. 
Dull  is  an  incidental  quality,  arising  principally  from 
the  state  of  the  animal  spirits.  A writer  may  some- 
times be  dull  who  is  otherwise  vivacious  and  pointed  ; 
a person  may  be  dull  in  a large  circle  while  he  is  very 
lively  in  private  intercourse;  ‘It  is  the  great  advan- 
tage of  a trading  nation  that  there  are  very  few  in  it 
so  dull  and  heavy  who  may  not  be  placed  in  stations 
of  life  which  may  give  them  an  opportunity  of  making 
their  fortunes.’ — Addison. 


YOUTHFUL,  JUVENILE,  PUERILE. 
Youthful  signifies  full  of  youth,  or  in  the  complete 
state  of  youth  : juvenile,  from  the  Latin  juvenis,  sig- 
nifies the  same ; but  puerile,  from  puer  a boy,  signifies 
literally  boyish.  Hence  the  first  two  terms  are  taken 
in  an  indiflerent  sense  ; but  the  latter  in  a bad  sense, 
or  at  least  always  in  the  sense  of  what  is  suitable  to  a 
boy  only : thus  we  speak  of  youthful  vigour,  youthful 
employments,  jureniZe  performances,  juvenile  years, 
and  the  like  : but  puerile  objections,  puerile  conduct, 
and  the  like.  Sometimes  juvenile  is  taken  in  the  bad 
sense  when  speaking  of  youth  in  contrast  with  men,  as 
juvenile  tricks;  hntpuerile  is  a much  stronger  term  of 
reproach,  and  marks  the  absence  of  manhood  in  those 
who  ought  to  be  men.  We  expect  nothing  from  a 
youth  but  what  is  juvenile  ; we  are  surprised  and  dis- 
satisfied to  see  v.’hat  is  puerile  in  a man ; 

Choroebus  then,  with  youthful  hopes  beguil’d, 

Swoln  with  success,  and  of  a daring  mind. 

This  new  invention  fatally  design’d. — Dryden. 

"RaiW  juvenile  writers  imagine  that,  by  pouring  forth 
figures  often,  they  render  their  compositions  warm  and 
animated.’ — Blair.  ‘ After  the  common  course  of 
puerile  studies,  he  was  put  an  apprentice  to  a brewer.’ 
—Johnson. 


CHILDISH,  INFANTINE. 

Childish  is  in  the  manner  of  a child;  infantine  is  in 
the  manner  of  an  infant. 

What  children  do  is  frequently  simple  or  foolish; 
v'uat  infants  do  is  commonly  pretty  and  engaging; 


therefore  childish  is  taken  iu  the  bad,  and  infantine  in 
the  good  or  indifferent  sense.  Childish  manners  are 
very  ofiensive  in  those  who  have  ceased  according  to 
their  years  to  be  children;  ‘It  may  frequently  be  re- 
marked of  the  studious  and  speculative,  that  they  are 
proud  of  trifles,  and  that  their  amusements  seem  frivo- 
lous and  childish.' — Johnson.  The  infantine  actions 
of  some  children  evince  a simplicity  of  character, 
‘ The  sole  comfort  of  his  declining  years,  almost  ir 
infantine  imbecility.’ — Burke. 


PENETRATION,  ACUTENESS,  SAGACITY 

As  characteristicks  of  mind,  these  terms  have  much 
more  in  them  in  which  they  differ  than  in  what  they 
agree  ; penetration  is  a necessary  property  of  mind  ; 
it  exists  to  a greater  or  less  degree  in  every  rational 
being  that  has  the  due  exercise  of  its  rational  powers: 
acuteness  is  an  accidental '{)roperty  that  belongs  to  the 
mind  only,  under  certain  circninstances.  As  penetra- 
tion {v.  Discernment)  denotes  the  process  of  entering 
into  substances  physically  or  morally,  so  acuteness 
which  is  the  same  as  sharpness,  denotes  the  fitness  of 
the  thing  that  pertbrms  this  process;  and  as  the  mind 
is  in  both  cases  the  thing  that  is  spoken  of,  the  terms 
penetration  and  acuteness  are  in  this  particular  closely 
allied.  It  is  clear,  however,  that  the  mind  may  have 
penetration  without  having  acuteness,  although  one 
cannot  have  acuteness  .without  penetration.  If  by 
penetration  we  are  commonly  enabled  to  get  at  the 
truth  which  lies  concealed,  by  acuteness  we  succeed 
in  piercing  the  veil  that  hides  it  from  our  view  ; the 
former  is,  therefore,  an  ordinary,  and  the  latter  an  ex- 
traordinary gift  ‘ Fairfax,  having  neither  talents  him- 
self for  cabal,  nor  penetration  to  discover  the  cabals 
of  others,  had  given  his  entire  confidence  to  Crom- 
well.’—Hume.  ‘ Chillingworth  was  an  acute  disputant 
against  the  papists.’ — Hume. 

Sagacity,  in  Latin  sagacitas  and  sagio  to  perceive 
quickly,  comes  in  all  probability  from  the  Persian  sag 
a dog,  whence  the  term  has  been  peculiarly  applied  to 
dogs,  and  from  thence  extended  to  all  brutes  which 
discover  an  intuitive  wisdom,  and  also  to  children,  or 
uneducated  persons,  in  whom  there  is  move  penetration 
than  may  be  expected  from  the  narrow  compass  of 
their  knowledge;  hence,  properly  speaking,  sag-acj'Zy 
is  natural  or  uncultivated  acuteness;  ‘Activity  to 
seize,  not  sagacity  to  discern,  is  the  requisite  which 
youth  value.’— Blair. 


SAGE,  SAGACIOUS,  SAPIENT. 

Sage  and  sagacious  are  variations  from  the  Latin 
sagax  and  sagio  (v.  Penetration) ; sapient  is  in  Latin 
sapiens,  from  sapio,  which  comes  probably  from  the 
Greek  coipbi  wise. 

The  first  of  these  terms  has  a good  sense,  in  appli 
cation  to  men,  to  denote  the  faculty  of  discerning  im- 
mediately, which  is  the  fruit  of  experience,  and  very 
similar  to  that  sagacity  in  brutes  Avhich  instinctively 
perceives  the  trutli  of  a thing  without  the  deductions 
of  reason ; ♦ 

So  strange  they  will  appear,  but  so  it  happen’d, 

That  these  most  sage  academicians  sate 
In  solemn  consultation — on  a cabbage. 

Cumberland 

Sagacious  all  to  trace  the  smallest  game, 

And  bold  to  seize  the  great^it. — Young. 

Sapient,  which  has  very  different  meanings,  in  the 
original,  is  now  employed  only  with  regard  to  animals 
which  are  trained  up  to  particular  arts ; its  use  is 
therefore  mostly  burlesque. 


ACUTE,  KEEN,  SHREWD. 

Jlcute,  in  French  acute,  Latin  acutus,  from  acus  a 
needle,  signifies  the  quality  of  sharpness  and  pointed 
ness  peculiar  to  a needle;  keen,  in  Saxon  cene,  pro- 
bably comes  from  snidan  to  cut ; signifying  the  quality 
of  being  able  to  cut ; shrewd,  probably  from  the 
Teutonick  besekreyen  to  enchant,  signifies  inspired  or 
endowed  with  a strong  portion  of  intuitive  intellect 
In  the  natural  sense,  a fitness  to  pierce  is  predoml 
nant  in  the  word  ; and  that  of  cutting,  or  a fitness 


402 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


for  cuttiii",  in  the  word  keex..  The  same  difference  is  ’ 
observable  in  their  figurative  acceptation. 

An  acute  understanding  is  quick  at  discoveriiig  truth 
In  the  midst  of  falsehood  ; it  fixes  itself  on  a single  point 
with  wonderful  celerity;  ‘His  acuteness  was  most 
eminently  signalized  at  the  masquerade,  where  lie 
discovered  his  acquaintance  through  their  disguises 
with  such  wonderful  facility.’ — Johnson.  A keen 
understanding  outs  or  removes  away  the  artificial  veil 
under  which  the  truth  lies  hidden  from  the  view  ; 
‘The  village  songs  and  festivities  of  Bacchus  gave  a 
scope  to  the  wildest  e.xtravagancies  of  mummery  and 
grimace,  mixed  with  coarse  but  keen  raillery.’ — Cum- 
berland. A shrewd  understanding  is  rather  quick  at 
discovering  new  truths,  than  at  distinguishing  truth 
from  falsehood ; 

You  statesmen  are  so  shrewd  in  forming  schemes ! 

Jeffrey. 

Acuteness  is  requisite  in  speculative  and  abstruse 
discussions;  keenness  in  penetrating  characters  and 
springs  of  action;  shrewdness  in  eliciting  remarks  and 
new  ideas.  The  acute  man  detects  errours,  and  the 
keen  man  falsehoods.  The  shrewd  man  exposes  follies. 
Arguments  may  be  acute^  reproaclies  keen^  and  replies 
or  retorts  shrewd.  A polemick,  or  a lawyer,  must  be 
acute,  a satirist  keen.,  and  a wit  shrewd. 


SHARP,  ACUTE,  KEEN. 

The  general  property  expressed  by  these  epithets  is 
that  of  sharpness  or  an  ability  to  cut.  The  term 
sharp,  from  the  German  scharf  and  scheren  to  cut, 
is  generick  and  indefinite  ; the  tw'o  others  are  modes 
of  sharpness  differing  in  the  circumstance  or  the  de- 
gree: the  acute  (v.  Acute)  is  not  only  more  than  sharp 
in  the  common  sense,  but  signifies  also  sharp  pointed  : 
a knife  may  be  sharp  ; but  a needle  is  properly  acute. 
Things  are  sharp  that  have  either  a long  or  a pointed 
edge ; but  the  keen  is  applicable  only  to  the  long  edge  ; 
and  that  iit  the  highest  degree  of  sharpness : a common 
knife  may  be  sharp ; but  a razor  or  a lancet  are  pro- 
perly said  to  be  keen.  These  terms  preserve  the  same 
distinction  in  their  figurative  use.  Every  pain  is  sharp 
which  may  resemble  that  which  is  produced  by  cutting; 
‘ Be  sure  you  avoid  as  much  as  you  can  to  inquire  after 
those  that  have  been  sharp  in  their  judgements  towards 
me.’ — Earl  of  Strafford.  A pain  is  acute  when  it 
resembles  that  produced  by  piercing  deep; 

Wisdom’s  eye 

Acute  for  whaf?  To  spy  more  miseries. — Young. 
Words  are  keen  when  they  cut  deep  and  wide ; 

To  this  great  end  keen  instinct  stings  him  on. 

Young. 

TO  PENETRATE,  PIERCE,  PERFORATE, 
BORE. 

Penetrate,  v.  Discernment ; pierce,  in  French  percer, 
comes  probably  from  the  Hebrew  p*^£)  to  break  or 
rend ; perforate,  from  the  Latin  foris  a door,  signifies 
to  make  a door  through  ; bore,  in  Saxon  borian,  is  pro- 
bably changed  from  fore  or  foris  a door,  signifying  to 
make  a door  or  passage. 

To  penetrate  is  simply  to  make  an  entrance  into  any 
substance ; to  pierce  is  to  go  still  deeper ; to  perforate 
and  to  bore  are  to  go  through,  or  at  all  events  to  make 
a considerable  hollow.  To  penetrate  is  a natural  and 
gradual  process  ; in  this  manner  rust  penetrates  iron, 
water  penetrates  wood  : to  pierce  is  a violent,  and 
commonly  artificial,  process ; thus  an  arrow  or  a bullet 
pierces  through  wood.  The  instrument  by  which  the 
act  of  penetration  is  performed  is  in  no  case  defined ; 
but  that  of  piercing  commonly  proceeds  by  some 
pointed  instrument:  w'e  mny  penetrate  the  earth  by 
means  of  a spade,  a plough,  a knife,  or  various  other 
instruments  ; but  one  pierces  the  flesh  by  means  of  a 
needle,  or  one  pierces  the  ground  or  a wall  by  means 
of  a mattock. 

To  perforate  and  bore  are  modes  of  piercing  that 
vary  in  the  circumstances  of  the  action,  and  the  objects 
actied  upon  ; to  pierce,  in  its  peculiar  use,  is  a sudden 
action  by  which  a hollow  is  produced  in  any  substance ; 
but  to  perforate  and  bore  are  commonly  the  effect  of 
mechanical  art.  The  body  of  an  animal  is  pierced  by 
a dart;  kut  cannon  is  made  by  perfe rating  ox  borirnt 


the  iron : channels  are  formed  under  ground  by  per 
foraling  the  earth  ; lioles  are  made  in  the  ear  by 
perforation ; ‘Mountains  were  perforated,  and  bold 
arches  thrown  over  the  broadest  and  most  rapid 
streams  (by  the  Romans).’ — Gibbon.  Holes  are  made 
in  leather,  or  in  wood,  by  boring ; 

But  Capys,  and  the  graver  sort,  thought  fit, 

'J'he  Greeks’  suspected  present  to  commit 
To  seas  or  flames,  at  least  to  search  or  bore 
The  sides,  and  what  that  space  contains  t’  explore. 

Denham. 

These  last  two  words  do  not  differ  in  sense,  but  in  ap 
plication  ; the  latter  being  a term  of  vulgar  use. 

To  penetrate  and  pierce  are  likewise  employed  in  aa 
improper  sense;  to  perforate  and  bore  are  employed 
only  in  the  proper  sense.  The  first  two  bear  the  same 
relation  to  each  other  as  in  the  former:  penetrate  is, 
however,  only  employed  as  the  act  of  persons;  pierce 
is  used  in  regard  to  tilings.  There  is  a power  in  the 
mind  to  penetrate  the  looks  and  actions,  so  as  justly  to 
interpret  their  meaning ; 

For  if  when  dead  we  are  but  dust  or  clay. 

Why  think  of  what  posterity  shall  say  7 
Their  praise  or  censure  cannot  us  concern. 

Nor  o\ex  penetrate  the  silent  urn. — Jenyns. 

The  eye  of  the  Almighty  is  said  to  pierce  the  thickest 
veil  of  darkness ; 

Subtle  as  lightning,  bright,  and  quick,  and  fierce. 
Gold  through  doors  and  walls  did  pierce 

Cowley. 

Alfairs  are  sometimes  involved  in  such  mystery,  that 
the  most  enlightened  mind  is  unable  to  penetrate  either 
the  end  or  the  beginning;  the  shrieks  of  distress  are 
sometimes  so  loud  as  to  seem  io  pierce  the  ear. 

ORIFICE,  TERFORATION. 

Orifice,  in  Latin  orificium  or  orifacium,  from  os  and 
factum,  signifies  a made  mouth,  that  is,  an  opening 
made,  as  it  were;  perforation,  in  Latin  perfiratio, 
from  perforo,  signifies  a piercing  through. 

These  terms  are  both  scientifically  employed  by 
medical  men,  to  designate  certain  cavities  in  the  hu- 
man body;  but  the  former  respects  that  which  i( 
natural,  the  latter  that  which  is  artificial  • all  the 
vessels  of  the  human  body  have  their  orifices,  which 
are  so  constructed  as  to  open  or  close  of  themselves 
Surgeons  are  frequently  obliged  to  make  perforations 
into  the  bones.  Sometimes  the  term  perforation  may 
describe  what  comes  from  a natural  process,  but  it 
denotes  a cavity  made  through  a solid  substance  ; but 
the  orifice  is  particularly  applicable  to  such  openings 
as  most  resemble  the  mouth  in  form  and  use.  In  this 
manner  the  words  may  be  extended  in  their  ap[)lica- 
tion  to  other  bodies  beside.s  animal  substances,  and  in 
other  sciences  besides  anatomy : hence  we  speak  of 
the  orifice  of  atube,  the  orifice  of  any  flower,  and  the 
like  ; or  the  perforation  of  a tree,  by  means  of  a 
cannon  ball  or  an  iron  instrument. 


OPENING,  APERTURE,  CAVITY. 

Opening  signifies  in  general  any  place  left  open, 
without  defining  any  circumstances;  the  aperture  is 
generally  a specifick  kind  of  opening  which  is  consi- 
dered scientifically:  there  are  openings  in  a wood  when 
the  trees  are  partly  cut  away ; openings  in  streets  by 
the  removal  of  houses;  or  openings  in  a fence  that 
has  been  broken  down  ; 

The  scented  dew 

Betrays  her  early  labyrinth,  and  deep 
In  scattered  sullen  openings  far  behind, 

With  every  breeze  she  hears  the  coming  storm 
Thomson. 

Anatomists  speak  of  apertures  in  the  skull  or  in  the 
heart,  and  the  naturalist  describes  the  apertures  in  the 
nests  of  bees,  ants,  beavers,  and  the  like;  ‘ In  less  than 
a minute  he  had  thrust  his  little  person  through  the 
aperture,  and  again  and  again  perches  upon  his  neigh 
hour’s  cage.’ — Cowper.  The  opening  or  aperture  is 
the  commencement  of  an  enclosure : the  cavity  is  the 
whole  enclosure : hence  the  first  two  are  frequently  as 
a part  to  the  whole : many  animals  make  a cavity  ip 
the  earth  for  their  nest  with  only  a small  aperture  for 
their  cfcress  and  ingress ; ‘ In  the  centre  of  every  flo&i^ 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  . 403 


from  top  to  bottom  ts  I he  chief  room,  of  no  great 
extent,  round  which  there  are  narrow  cavities  or 
recesses  ’ — Johnson. 

GULF,  ABYSS. 

Qulf,  in  Greek  kJAttoj  from  koTAoj  hollow,  is  applied 
literally  in  the  sense  of  a deep  concave  receptacle  for 
water,  as  the  gulf  of  Venice ; abyss,  in  Greek  dPvaaos, 
compounded  of  a privative  and  (Svavoi  a bottom,  sig- 
nifies literally  a bottomless  pit. 

One  is  overwhemed  in  a gulf;  it  carries  with  it  the 
idea  of  liquidity  and  profundity,  into  which  one  in- 
evitably sinks  never  to  rise  : one  is  lost  in  an  abyss ; it 
carries  with  it  the  idea  of  immense  profundity,  into 
which  he  who  is  cast  never  reaches  a bottom,  nor  is 
able  to  return  to  the  top : an  insatiable  voracity  is  the 
characteristick  idea  in  the  signification  of  this  term. 

A gulf  is  a capacious  bosom,  which  holds  within 
itself  and  hurries  all  objects  that  suffer  themselves  to 
sink  into  it,  without  allowing  them  the  possibility  of 
escape  ; hell  is  represented  as  a fiery  ^ul/,  into  which 
evil  spirits  are  plunged,  and  remain  perpetually  over- 
whelmed : a guilty  mind  may  be  said,  figuratively,  to 
be  plunged  into  a gulf  of  wo  or  despair,  when  filled 
with  the  horrid  sense  of  its  enormities; 

Sin  and  death  amain 

Following  his  track,  such  was  the  will  of  heav’n. 
Pav’d  after  him  a broad  and  beaten  way 
Over  the  dark  abyss,  whose  boiling  gulf 
Tamely  endur’d  a bridge  of  wondrous  length. 

From  hell  continued. — Milton. 

An  abyss  presents  nothing  but  an  interminable  space, 
which  has  neither  beginning  nor  end ; he  does  wisely 
who  does  not  venture  in,  or  who  retreats  before  he  has 
plunged  too  deep  to  retrace  his  footsteps : as  the  ocean, 
in  the  natural  sense,  is  a great  abyss,  so  are  metaphy- 
sicks  an  immense  abyss,  into  which  the  human  mind 
precipitates  itself  only  to  be  bewildered ; 

His  broad  wing’d  vessel  drinks  the  whelming  tide. 
Hid  in  the  bosom  of  the  black  abyss.— Tnoyisos. 

LABYRINTH,  MAZE. 

Intricacy  is  common  to  both  the  objects  expressed  by 
these  terms;  but  the  term  labyrinth,  has  it  to  a much 
greater  extent  than  maze;  the  labyrinth,  from  the 
Greek  \a(3vpiv9oi,  was  a work  of  antiquity  which  sur- 
passed the  maze  in  the  same  proportion  as  the  ancients 
surpassed  the  moderns  in  all  other  works  of  art:  it 
was  constructed  on  so  prodigious  a scale,  and  with  so 
many  windings,  that  when  a person  was  once  entered, 
be  could  not  find  his  way  out  without  the  assistance  of 
a clue  or  thread.  Maze,  probably  from  the  Saxon 
mase  a gulf,  is  a modern  term  for  a similar  structure 
on  a smaller  scale,  which  is  frequently  made  by  way 
of  ornanH'nt  in  large  gardens.  From  the  proper  mean- 
ing of  he  words  we  may  easily  see  the  ground  of 
their  met  spherical  application  : political  and  polemical 
discussions  are  comj.aicd  to  a labyrinth;  because  the 
mind  that  is  once  entangled  in  them  is  unable  to  extri- 
rate itself  by  any  efforts  of  its  own  ; 

From  the  slow  mistress  of  this  school.  Experience, 
And  her  assistant,  pausir.g,  pale  Distrust, 

Purchase  a dear-bought  clue  to  lead  his  youth 
Through  serpentine  obliquities  of  human  life, 

And  the  dark  labyrinth  of  human  hearts.— Young. 
On  the  other  hand,  that  perplexity  and  confusion  into 
which  the  mind  is  thrown  by  unexpected  or  inexpli- 
cable events,  is  termed  a maze;  because,  for  the  time, 
it  is  bereft  of  its  power  to  |)ursue  its  ordinary  func- 
tions of  recollection  and  combination  ; 

To  measur’d  notes,  while  they  advance. 

He  in  wild  maze  shall  lead  the  dance. 

Cumberland. 

WONDER,  ADMIRATION,  SURPRISE,  ASTO- 
NISHMENT, AMAZEMENT. 

Wonder,  in  German  rounder,  is  in  all  probability  a 
'iiariation  of  rounder,  because  roonder  throws  the  mind 
jff  its  bias  ; admiration,  from  the  Latin  miror,  and  the 
Hebrew  HN'lD  vision,  or  looking  at,  signifies  looking 
at  attentively:  surprise,  compounded  of  sur  nnd  prize, 
or  the  Latin  prehendo,  signifies  to  take  on  .^sudden  ; 


astonish,  from  the  Latin  attonitus,  and  tonitru  thun 
der,  signifies  to  strike,  as  it  were,  with  the  overpow 
ering  noise  of  thunder  ; amaze  signifies  to  be  in  amaze 
so  as  not  to  be  able  to  collect  one’s  self. 

That  particular  feeling  which  any  thing  unusua 
produces  on  our  minds  is  expressed  by  all  these  terms 
but  under  various  modifications.  Wonder  is  1 he  most 
indefinite  in  its  signification  or  application,  hut  it  is 
still  the  least  vivid  sentiment  of  all ; it  amounts  to  lit- 
tle more  than  a pausing  of  the  mind,  a suspension  of 
the  thinking  faculty,  an  incapacity  to  fix  on  a discern- 
ible point  in  an  object  that  rouses  our  curiosity  : it  is 
that  state  which  all  must  experience  at  times,  but  none 
so  much  as  those  who  are  ignorant ; they  roonder  at 
every  thing  because  they  know  nothing  ; ‘ The  reader 
of  the  “ Seasons”  roonders  that  he  never  saw  before 
what  Thomson  shows  him.’ — Johnson,  .ddmiration 
is  roonder  mixed  with  esteem  or  veneration ; the  ad- 
mirer suspends  his  thoughts,  not  from  the  vacancy  but 
the  fulness  of  his  mind  : he  is  riveted  to  an  object 
which  for  a time  absorbs  his  faculties : nothing  but 
what  is  great  and  good  excites  admiration,  and  none 
but  cultivated  minds  are  susceptible  of  it ; an  ignorant 
person  cannot  admire,  because  he  cannot  appreciate 
the  value  of  any  thing  ; 

With  eyes  insatiate,  and  tumultuous  joy. 

Beholds  the  presents,  and  admires  the  boy. 

. Dryden. 

Surprise  and  astonishment  both  arise  from  that  which 
happens  unexpectedly;  they  are  a species  roonder 
differing  in  degree,  and  produced  only  by  the  events  of 
life : the  surprise,  as  its  derivation  implies,  takes  us 
unawares  ; vve  are  surprised  if  that  does  not  happen 
which  we  calculate  upon,  as  the  absence  of  a friend 
whom  we  looked  for;  or  we  are  surprised  if  that  hap- 
pens which  we  did  not  calculate  upon  ; thus  we  are 
surprised  to  see  a friend  returned  whom  we  supposed 
was  on  his  journey  : astonishment  may  be  awakened 
by  similar  events  which  are  more  unexpected  and  more 
unaccountable  ; thus  we  are  astonished  to  find  a friend 
at  our  house  whom  we  had  every  reason  to  suppose 
was  many  hundred  miles  off ; or  we  are  astonished  to 
hear  that  a person  has  got  safely  through  a road  which 
we  conceived  to  be  absolutely  impassable;  ‘ So  little 
do  we  accustom  ourselves  to  consider  the  effects  of 
time,  that  things  necessary  and  certain  often  surprise 
us  like  unexpected  contingencies.’ — Johnson.  ‘ I have 
often  been  astonished,  considering  that  the  mutual  in- 
tercourse between  the  two  countries  (France  and  Eng- 
land) has  lately  been  very  great,  to  find  how  little  you 
seem  to  know  of  us.’ — Burke. 

Surprise  may  for  a moment  startle  ; astonishment 
may  stupify  and  cause  an  entire  suspension  of  the  fa 
culties  ; but  amazement  has  also  a mixture  of  pertur 
bation.  We  may  be  surprised  and  astonished  at  things 
in  which  we  have  no  particular  interest : we  are  mostly 
amazed  at  that  which  immediately  concerns  us.  We 
may  be  surprised  agreeably  or  otherwise  ; we  may 
be  astonished  at  that  which  is  agreeable,  although  as- 
tonishment is  not  itself  a pleasure  ; but  we  are  amazed 
at  that  which  happens  contrary  to  our  inclination. 
We  are  agreeably  surprised  to  see  our  friends:  we 
are  astonished  how  we  ever  got  through  the  difficulty : 
we  are  amazed  at  the  sudden  and  unexpected  events 
which  have  come  upon  us  to  our  ruin.  A man  of 
experience  will  not  have  much  to  roonder  at,  for  his 
observations  will  supply  him  with  corresponding  ex- 
amples of  whatever  passes  : a wise  man  will  have  but 
momentary  surprises ; as  hetlias  estimated  the  uncer- 
tainty of  human  life,  few  things  of  importance  will 
happen  contrary  to  his  expectations : a generous  mind 
will  be  astonished  at  gross  instances  of  perfidy  in 
others : there  is  no  mind  that  may  not  sometimes  be 
thrown  into  amazement  at  the  awful  dispensations  of 
Providence; 

.Amazement  seizes  all ; the  general  cry 

Proclaims  Laocoon  justly  doom’d  to  die. — Dryden. 


WONDER,  MIRACLE,  MARVEL,  PRODIG\ 
MONSTER. 

Wonder  is  that  which  causes  roonder  (v.  Wonder; , 
miracle,  in  Latin  miraculum,  from  mirror  to  roonder, 
has  the  same  signification,  signifying  that  which  .strikes 
the  sense ; marvel  is  a variation  of  miracle ; prodigy 
in  Latin  prodigium,  from  prodigo,  or  procul  and  ag^ 


404 


ExXGLISH  SYNONYMES 


to  launch  forth,  signifies  tlie  diing  launcliing  forth; 
monster,  in  Latin  monstrum,  comes  from  monstro  to 
point  out,  and  moneo  to  advise  or  give  notice ; because 
among  the  Romans  any  unaccountable  appearance  was 
considered  as  an  indication  of  some  future  event. 

Wonders  are  natural ; miracles  are  supernatural. 
The  whole  creation  is  full  of  wonders ; the  Bible  con- 
tains an  account  of  the  miracles  which  happened  in 
those  days.  Sometimes  the  term  miracle  or  miracu- 
lous may  be  employed  hyperbolically  for  what  is  ex- 
ceedingly wonderful; 

Murder,  though  it  have  no  tongue,  will  speak 
With  most  mirac'lous  organ. — Sh.vkspeare. 
Wonders  are  real ; marvels  are  often  fictitious ; pro- 
dipries  are  extravagant  and  imaginary.  Natural  history 
is  full  of  wonders  ; 

His  wisdom  such  as  once  it  did  appear 

Three  kingdoms  wonder,  and  three  kingdoms  fear. 

Denham. 

Travels  abound  in  marvels  or  in  marvellous  stories, 
which  are  the  inventions  either  of  the  artful  or  the 
ignorant  and  credulous:  ancient  history  contains  num- 
berless accounts  of  ■prodigies.  Wonders  are  agree- 
able to  the  laws  of  nature  ; they  are  wonderful  only 
as  respects  ourselves;  monsters  are  violations  of  the 
laws  of  nature.  The  production  of  a tree  from  a grain 
of  seed  is  a wonder;  but  the, production  of  a calf  with 
two  heads  is  a monster  ; 

111  omens  may  the  guilty  tremble  at, 

Make  every  accident  a prodig-y, 

And  monsters  frame  where  nature  never  err’d. — Lee. 


DISADVANTAGE,  INJURY,  HURT,  DETRI- 
MENT,  PREJUDICE. 

Disadvantage  implies  the  absence  of  an  advantage 
(v.  Advantage) ; injury,  in  Latin  injuria,  from  jus, 
properly  signifies  what  is  contrary  to  right  or  justice, 
but  extends  in  its  sense  to  every  loss  or  deficiency 
which  is  occasioned;  hurt  signifies  in  the  northern 
languages  beaten  or  wounded;  detriment,  in  Latin 
detrimentum,  from  detritum  and  deterrere  to  wear 
away,  signifies  the  elfect  of  being  worn  out ; prejudice, 
in  the  improper  sense  of  the  word  (u.  Bias),  implies 
the  ill  which  is  supposed  to  result  from  prejudice. 

The  disadvantage  is  rather  the  absence  of  a good  ; 
the  injury  is  a positive  evil : the  want  of  education 
may  frequently  be  a disadvantage  to  a person  by  re- 
tarding his  advancement ; ‘ Even  the  greatest  actions 
of  a celebrated  person  labour  under  this  disadvantage, 
that  however  surprising  and  extraordinary  they  may 
be,  they  are  no  more  than  what  are  expected  from  him.’ 
— Addison.  The  ill  word  of  another  may  be  an  in- 
jury by  depriving  us  of  friends;  ‘The  places  were 
acquired  by  just  title  of  victory,  and  therefore  in  keep- 
ing of  them  no  injury  was  offered.’ — Hayward.  The 
disadvantage,  therefore,  is  applied  to  such  things  as 
are  of  an  adventitious  nature  : the  wy'/try  to  that  which 
is  of  essential  importance.  The  hurt,  detriment,  and 
prejudice  are  all  species  of  injuries.  Injury,  in  general, 
implies  whatever  ill  befalls  an  object  by  the  external 
action  of  other  objects,  whether  taken  in  relation  to 
physical  or  moral  evil  to  persons  or  to  things;  hurt  is 
that  species  of  injury  which  is  produced  by  more  di- 
rect violence;  too  close  application  to  study  is  inju- 
rious to  the  health;  reading  by  an  improper  light  is 
hurtful  to  the  eyes ; so  in  a moral  sense,  the  light  read- 
ing wl'.icli  a circulating/ library  supplies  is  often  inju- 
rious to  the  morals  of*  young  people ; ‘ Our  repentance 
s not  real,  because  we  have  not  done  what  we  can  to 
undo  our  faults,  or  at  least  to  hinder  the  injurious  con- 
sequences of  them  from  proceeding.’ — Tillotson. 
All  violent  affections  are  hurtful  to  the  mind;  ‘The 
number  of  those  who  by  abstracted  thoughts  become 
useless  is  inconsiderable,  in  respect  of  them  who  are 
hurtful  to  mankind  by  an  active  and  restless  dispo- 
sition.’— Bartlett.  The  detriment  and  prejudice  are 
species  of  injury  which  affect  only  the  outward  cir- 
cumstances of  a person ; the  former  implying  what  may 
lessen  the  value  of  an  object,  the  latter  what  tnay 
lower  it  in  the  esteem  of  others.  Whatever  affects 
the  stability  of  a merchant’s  credit  is  highly  detri- 
mental to  his  interests ; ‘ In  many  instances  we  clearly 
perceive  that  more  or  less  ktiowledge  dispensed  toman 
would  have  proved  d.etrimental  to  his  state  ’—Blair. 


Whatever  }s  prejudicial  to  the  character  nt  a maa 
should  not  be  made  the  subject  of  indiscriminate  con 
versation : ‘ That  the  heathen  have  spoken  things  to 
the  same  sense  of  this  saying  of  our  Saviour  is  so  far 
from  being  any  prejudice  to  this  saying,  that  it  is  a 
great  commendation  of  it.’ — Tillotson. 

It  is  prudent  to  conceal  that  which  will  be  to  our 
disadvantage  unless  we  are  called  upon  to  make  the 
acknowledgment.  There  is  nothing  material  that  ia 
not  exposed  to  the  injuries  of  time,  if  not  to  those  of 
actual  violence.  Excesses  of  every  kind  carry  theii 
own  punishment  with  them,  for  they  are  always  hurt 
ful  to  the  body.  The  price  of  a book  is  often  detri 
mental  to  its  sale.  'J'he  intemperate  zeal,  or  the  in 
consistent  conduct  of  religious  ptofessors  is  highly 
prejudicial  to  the  spread  of  religion. 

TO  LOSE,  MISS. 

Lose,  in  all  probability,  is  but  a variation  of  loose, 
because  what  gets  loose  or  away  from  a person  is  lost 
to  him ; to  miss,  probably  from  the  particle  mis,  im- 
plying a defect,  signifies  to  lose  by  mistake. 

What  is  lost  is  not  at  hand ; what  is  missing  is  not 
to  be  seen;  it  does  not  depend  upon  ourselves  to  re 
cover  what  is  lost;  it  is  supposed  to  be  irrevocably 
gone ; what  we  miss  at  one  time  we  may  by  diligence 
and  care  recover  at  another  time.  A person  loses  his 
health  and  strength  by  a decay  of  nature,  and  must 
submit  patiently  to  the  loss  wliich  cannot  be  repaired  ; 
‘ Some  ants  are  so  unfortunate  as  to  fall  down  with 
their  load  when  they  almost  come  home;  when  this 
happens  they  seldom  lose  their  corn,  but  carry  it  uf 
again.’ — Addison.  •If  a person  misses  the  opportu- 
nity of  improvement  in  his  youth,  he  will  never  ha\B 
another  opportunity  that  is  equally  good ; 

For  a time  caught  up  to  God,  as  once 

Moses  was  in  the  mount,  and  missing  long 

Milton 


LOSS,  DAMAGE,  DETRIMENT. 

Loss  signifies  the  act  of  losing  or  the  thing  lo&t , 
damage,  in  French  dommage,  Latin  damnum,  from 
demo  to  take  away,  signifies  the  thing  taken  away 
detriment,  v.  Disadvantageous. 

Loss  is  here  the  generlck  term ; damage  and  detri- 
ment are  species  or  modes  of  loss.  The  person  sus 
tains  the  lass,  the  thing  sufiers  the  damage  or  deU  i- 
ment.  Whatever  is  gone  from  us  which  we  wish  tc 
retain  is  a loss ; hence  we  may  sustain  a loss  in  oui 
property,  in  our  reputation,  in  our  influence,  in  oui 
intellect,  and  every  other  object  of  possession;  ‘What 
trader  would  purchase  such  airy  satisfaction  (as  thf 
charms  of  conversation)  by  the  loss  of  solid  gain.’~ 
JoHNSON.  Whatever  renders  an  object  less  service 
able  or  valuable,  by  any  external  violence,  is  a damage  -, 
as  a vessel  suffers  a damage  in  a storm;  ‘The  ants 
were  still  troubled  with  the  rain,  and  the  next  day  they 
took  a world  of  pains  to  repair  the  damage.' — Addison. 
Whatever  is  calculated  to  cross  a man’s  purpose  is  a 
detriment;  the  bare  want  of  a good  name  may  be  a 
detriment  to  a young  tradesman;  the  want  of  pru- 
dence is  always  a grewt  detriment  to  the  prosperity  of 
a family  ; ‘ The  expenditure  should  be  with  the  least 
possible  detriment  to  the  morals  of  those  who  expend  ’ 
— Burks. 

INJURY,  DAMAGE,  HURT,  HARM,  MISOHIEF. 

The  idea  of  making  a thing  otln-jwise  than  it  ought 
is  common  to  these  terms,  injur'y  {v.  Disadvantage) 
is  the  most  general  term,  simply  implying  what  hap- 
pens contrary  to  right ; the  res",  are  but  modes  of  /re- 
jury : damage,  from  the  Latin  damnum  loss,  is  thf, 
which  takes  away  from  the  value  of  a thing- 
hurt  {v.  Disadvantage)  is  the  injury  which  destroyi 
the  soundness  or  wholeness  of  a thing;  harm  [v.  Evil, 
is  the  injury  which  is  attend'd  with  trouble  and  incon 
venience:  mischief  is  the  ^-^jury  which  interrupts  the 
order  and  consistency  of  ‘Sings.  The  injury  is  appli 
cable  to  all  bodies  physi"Ki  and  moral ; damage  is  ap- 
plicable only  to  physic'^  <;odies.  Trade  may  suffer  an 
injury ; a building  n“'f  suffer  an  injury : but  a build 
ing,  a vessel,  a m‘‘''Miandise,  suffers  damage.  When 
applied  both  to  p*»ysical  bodies,  the  injury  compre* 
hends  every  thiiw  which  makes  an  object  otherwise 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES, 


-lO.'i 


Ihan  it  ought  to  be  that  is  to  say,  all  collateral  cir- 
Buinstances  which  ai  e coniaected  with  the  end  and  pur- 
pose of  things ; but  damage  implies  that  actual  injury 
which  affects  the  structure  and  materials  of  the  object ; 
the  situation  of  some  buildings  is  an  ivjury  to  them ; 
the  falling  of  a chimney,  or  the  breaking  of  a roof,  is 
a damage : the  injury  may  not  be  easily  removed ; the 
damage  may  be  easily  repaired. 

Injury  and  hurt  are  both  applied  to  persons;  but  the 
injury  may  either  affect  their  bodies,  their  circum- 
stances, or  their  minds ; the  hurt  in  its  proper  sense 
affects  only  their  bodies.  We  may  receive  an  injury 
or  a.  hurt  by  a fall  ; but  the  former  is  employed  when 
the  health  or  spirits  of  a person  suffer,  the  latter  when 
any  fracture  or  wound  is  produced.  A person  some- 
times sustains  an  injury  from  a fall,  either  by  losing  the 
use  of  a limb,  or  by  the  deprivation  of  his  senses ; 
‘Great  injuries  mice  and  rats  do  in  a field.’ — Morti- 
mer. A sprain,  a cut,  and  a bruise  are  little  hurts 
which  are  easily  cured ; 

No  plough  shall  hurt  the  glebe,  no  pruning  hook  the 
vine.— Drydkn. 

The  hurt  is  sometimes  figuratively  employed  as  it  re- 
spects the  circumstances  of  a man,  where  the  idea  of 
inflicting  a wound  or  a pain  is  implied;  as  in  hurting  a 
man’s  good  name,  hurting  his  reputation,  hurting  his 
morals,  and  other  such  cases,  in  which  the  specifick  term 
hurt  may  be  substituted  for  the  general  term  injury  ; 

In  arms  and  science ’t  is  the  same, 

Our  rival’s  hurt  creates  our  fame. — Prior. 

Theinjury^  harm,  and  mischief  are  all  employed  for 
the  circumstances  of  either  things  or  men ; but  the 
injury  comprehends  cause  and  effect;  the  harm  and 
mischief  respect  the  evil  as  it  is.  If  we  say  that  the 
injury  is  done,  we  always  think  of  either  the  agent  by 
which  it  is  done,  or  the  object  to  which  it  is  done,  or 
both ; ‘ Many  times  we  do  injury  to  a cause  by  dwell- 
ing upon  trifling  arguments.’ — Watts.  When  we 
speak  of  the  harm  and  mischief,  we  only  think  of  the 
nature  and  measure  of  the  one  or  the  other.  It  is  an 
injury  to  society  to  let  publick  offenders  go  free  ; young 
people  do  not  always  consider  the  harm  which  there 
may  be  in  some  of  their  most  imprudent  actions ; 
‘ After  their  young  are  hatched,  they  brood  them  under 
their  wings,  lest  the  cold,  and  sometimes  the  heat, 
should  harm  them.’ — Ray.  The  mischief  of  dissemi- 
nating free  principles  among  the  young  and  the  igno- 
rant has  now  been  found  to  exceed  all  the  good  which 
might  result  from  the  superiour  cultivation  of  the 
numan  mind,  and  the  more  extended  diffusion  of 
Knowledge ; 

But  furious  Dido,  with  dark  thoughts  involv’d. 

Shook  at  the  mighty  mischief  she  resolv’d. — Dryden. 

TO  IMPAIR,  INJURE. 

Impair  comes  from  the  Latin  im  and  pcjoro  or  pejor 
worse,  signifying  to  make  worse  ; injure,  from  in  and 
jus  against  right,  signifies  to  make  otherwise  than  it 
ought  to  be. 

Impair  seems  to  be  in  regard  to  injure  as  the  species 
to  the  genus;  what  is  impaired  is  injured,  but  wliat  is 
injured  is  not  nece.ssarily  impaired.  To  impair  is  a 
progressive  mode  of  injuring : an  injury  may  take 
place  either  by  degrees,  or  by  an  instantaneous  act : 
straining  of  the  eyes  impairs  the  sight,  but  a blow  in- 
jures rather  than  impairs  the  eye.  A man’s  health 
may  be  impaired  or  injured  by  his  vices,  but  his  limbs 
are  injured  rather  than  impaired  by  a fall.  A person’s 
circumstances  are  impaired  by  a succession  of  misfor- 
tunes ; they  are  injured  by  a sudden  turn  of  fortune. 
The  same  distinction  is  preserved  in  their  figurative 
application;  ‘ It  is  painful  to  consider  that  this  sublime 
enjoyment  of  friendship  may  be  impaired  by  innu- 
merable causes.’ — Johnson. 

Who  lives  to  nature  rarely  can  be  poor. 

O what  a patrimony  this ! a being 

Of  such  inherent  strength  and  majesty. 

Not  worlds  possess’d  can  raise  it ; worlds  destroy’d 

Can’t  injure. — Young. 

IMMINENT,  IMPENDING,  THREATENING. 

Imminent,  in  Latin  imminens,  from  in  and  mane.o  to 
remain,  signifies  resting  or  coming  upon  ; impending. 


from  the  Latin  pendeo  to  hang,  signifies  hanging 
threatening  is  used  in  the  sense  of  the  verb  tc 
threaten. 

All  these  terms  are  used  in  regard  to  some  evil  that 
is  exceedingly  near:  imminent  conveys  no  idea  of 
duration  ; impending  excludes  the  idea  of  what  is  mo- 
mentary. A person  may  be  in  imminent  danger  of 
losing  his  life  in  one  instant,  and  the  danger  may  bt- 
over  the  next  instant ; but  an  impending  danger  is  tha» 
which  has  been  long  in  existence,  and  gradually  ap- 
proaching ; ‘ There  was  an  opinion,  if  we  may  believe 
the  Spanish  historians,  almost  universal  among  the 
Americans,  that  some  dreadful  calamity  was  imper.d- 
ing  over  their  heads.’ — Robertson.  We  can  seldom 
escape  imminent  danger  by  any  efforts  of  one’s  own  ; 
but  we  may  be  successfully  W'arned  to  escape  from  an 
impending  danger.  Imminent  and  impending  are  said 
of  dangers  that  are  not  discoverable  ; but  a threatening 
evil  gives  intimations  of  its  own  approach  ; we  per- 
ceive the  threatening  tempest  in  the  blackness  of  the 
sky  ; we  hear  the  threatening  sounds  of  the  enemy’s 
clashing  swords;  ‘The  threatening  voice  and  fierce 
gestures  with  which  these  words  were  uttered,  struck 
Montezuma.  He  saw  his  own  danger  was  imminent, 
the  necessity  unavoidable.’ — Robertson. 


THREAT,  MENACE. 

Threat  is  of  Saxon  origin;  menace  is  of  Latin  ex 
traction.  They  do  not  differ  in  signification  ; but,  as  is 
frequently  the  case,  the  Saxon  is  the  familiar  term, 
and  the  Latin  word  is  employed  only  in  the  higher 
style.  We  may  be  threatened  with  either  small  or 
great  evils;  but  we  are  menaced  only  with  great  evils 
One  individual  threatens  to  strike  another:  a general 
menaces  the  enemy  with  an  attack.  We  are  threatened 
by  things  as  well  as  persons  : we  are  menaced  by  per- 
sons only;  a person  is- threatened  w\th  a look;  he  is 
menaced  with  a prosecution  by  his  adversary ; 

By  turns  put  on  the  suppliant  and  the  lord ; 

Threaten'd  this  moment,  and  the  next  implor’d. 

Prior 

Of  the  sharp  axe 

Regardless,  that  o’er  his  devoted  head 

Hangs  menacing. — Somerville. 


EVIL  OR  ILL,  MISFORTUNE,  HARM, 
MISCHIEF. 

Evil  in  its  full  sense  comprehends  every  quality 
which  is  not  good,  and  consequently  the  other  terms 
express  only  modifications  of  evil. 

The  word  is  however  more  limited  in  its  application 
than  its  meaning,  and  admits  therefore  of  a just  com- 
parison with  the  other  words  here  mentioned.  They 
are  all  taken  in  the  sense  of  evils  produced  by  some 
external  cause,  or  evils  inherent  in  the  object  and  aris- 
ing out  of  it.  The  evil,  or,  in  its  contracted  form,  the 
ill,  befalls  a person  ; the  misfortune  comes  upon  him ; 
the  harm  is  taken,  or  he  receives  the  harm;  the  mis- 
chief is  done  him.  Evil  in  its  limited  application  is 
taken  for  evils  of  the  greatest  magnitude ; it  is  that 
which  is  evil  without  any  mitigation  or  qualification  of 
circumstances.  The  misfortune  is  a minor  evil;  it 
depends  upon  the  opinion  and  circumstances  of  the 
individual;  what  is  a misfortune  in  one  respect  may 
be  the  contrary  in  another  respect.  An  untimely  death, 
the  fracture  or  loss  of  a limb,  are  denominated  evils ; 
the  loss  of  a vessel,  the  overturning  of  a carriage,  and 
the  like,  are  misfortunes,  inasmuch  as  they  tend  to  the 
diminution  of  property ; but  as  all  the  casualties  of 
life  may  produce  various  consequences,  it  may  some- 
times happen  that  that  which  seems  to  have  come  upon 
us  by  oar  ill  fortune  turns  out  ultimately  of  the  greatest 
benefit ; in  this  respect,  therefore,  the  misfortune  is 
but  a partial  evil : of  evil  it  is  likewise  observable, 
that  it  has  no  respect  to  the  sufferer  as  a moral  agent 
but  misfortune  is  used  in  regard  to  such  things  as  are 
controllable  or  otherwise  by  human  foresight; 
Misfortune  stands  with  her  bow  ever  bent 
Over  the  world ; and  he  who  wounds  another. 
Directs  the  goddess  by  that  part  where  he  wounds 
There  to  strike  deep  her  arrows  in  himself. 

Young. 

The  evil  which  befalls  a man  is  opposed  only  to  th 


406 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


good  which  ho  in  geneial  experiences ; but  the  misfor- 
tune is  opposed  to  the  good  fortune  or  the  prudence  of 
the  individual.  Sickness  is  an  eviU  let  it  be  endured 
or  caused  by  whatever  circumstances  it  may  ; it  is  a 
misfortune  for  an  individual  to  come  in  the  way  of 
having  this  evil  brought  on  himself ; his  own  relative 
condition  in  the  scale  of  being  is  here  referred  to. 

The  harm  and  7?jiscAic/ are  species  of  minor  erz'Zs; 
the  former  of  which  is  much  less  specifick  than  the 
latter,  both  in  the  nature  and  cause  of  the  evil.  A 
person  takes  harm  from  circumstances  that  are  not 
known;  the  mfscAie/ is  done  to  him  from  some  posi- 
tive and  immediate  circumstance.  He  who  takes  cold 
takes  Aarm;  the  cause  of  which,  however,  may  not  be 
known  or  suspected : a fall  from  a horse  is  attended 
with  mischief,  if  it  occasion  a fracture  or  any  evil  to 
the  body.  Evil  and  misfortune  respect  persons  only 
as  the  objects ; harm  and  mischief  are  said  of  inanimate 
things  as  the  object.  A tender  plant  takes  Aarm  from 
being  exposed  to  the  cold  air:  mischief  is  done  to  it 
when  its  branches  are  violently  broken  off  or  its  roots 
are  laid  bare. 

Misfortune  is  the  incidental  property  of  persons 
who  are  its  involuntary  subjects ; but  evil,  harm,  and 
mischief  are  the  inherent  and  active  properties  of 
things  that  flow  out  of  them  as  effects  from  their 
causes:  evil  is  said  either  to  lie  in  a thing  or  attend 
it  as  a companion  or  follower ; ‘A  misery  is  not  to 
be  measured  from  the  nature  of  the  evil,  but  from  the 
temper  of  the  sufferer.’ — Addison.  Harm  properly 
lies  in  the  thing ; 

To  me  the  labours  of  the  field  resign  ; 

Me  Paris  injured : all  the  war  be  mine. 

Fall  he  that  must  beneath  his  rival’s  arms. 

And  leave  the  rest  secure  of  future  harms. 

Pope. 

Mischief  properly  attends  the  thing  as  a consequence ; 
To  mourn  a mischief  that  is  past  and  gone, 

Is  the  next  way  to  draw  new  mischief  on. 

Shakspeare. 

In  political  revolutions  there  is  evil  in  the  thing  and 
evil  from  the  thing ; evil  when  it  begins,  evil  when  it 
ends,  and  evil  long  after  it  has  ceased ; 

Yet  think  not  thus,  when  freedom’s  ills  I state, 

1 mean  to  flatter  kings  or  court  the  great. 

Goldsmith. 

It  is  a dangerous  question  for  any  young  person  to  put 
to  himself— what  harm  is  there  in  this  or  that  indul- 
gence 1 He  who  is  disposed  to  put  this  question  to 
himself  will  not  hesitate  to  answer  it  according  to  his 
own  wishes.  The  mischiefs  which  arise  from  the 
unskilfulness  of  those  who  undertake  to  be  their  own 
coachmen  are  of  so  serious  a nature,  that  in  course  of 
time  they  will  probably  deter  men  from  performing 
such  unsuitable  offices. 


HURTFUL,  PERNICIOUS,  NOXIOUS, 
NOISOME. 

Hurtful  signifies  full  of  hurt,  or  causing  much  hurt ; 
pernicious,  v.  Destructive ; noxious  and  noisome,  from 
the  Latin  noxius  and  noceo  to  hurt,  signifies  the  same 
originally  as  hurtful. 

Between  hurtful  and  pernicious  there  is  the  same 
distinction  as  between  hurting  and  destroying:  that 
which  is  hurtful  may  hurt  in  various  ways ; 

The  hurtful  hazel  in  thy  viney  ard  shun. 

Dryden. 

That  which  is  pernicious  necessarily  tends  to  destruc- 
tion : confinement  is  hurtful  to  the  health : bad  com- 
pany \s pernicious  to  the  morals;  or  the  doctrines  of 
freethinkers  are  pernicious  to  the  well-being  of  so- 
iety ; 

Of  strength,  pernicious  to  myself,  I boast. 

The  powers  I have  were  given  me  to  my  cost. 

Lewis. 

Moxious  and  noisome  are  species  of  the  hurtful: 
things  may  be  hurtful  both  to  body  and  mind ; noxious 
and  noisome  only  to  the  body : that  which  is  noxious 
inflicts  a direct  injury ; 

The  serpent,  subtlest  beast  of  all  the  field. 

Of  huge  extent  sometimes,  with  brazen  eyes, 


And  hairy  mane,  terrifick,  though  to  thee 
Not  noxious,  but  obedient  at  thy  call. 

Milton. 

That  which  is  noisome  inflicts  the  injury  indirectly ; 
noxious  insects  are  such  as  wound  ; noisome  vapouit 
are  such  as  tend  to  create  disorders ; 

The  only  prison  that  enslaves  the  soul 
Is  tlie  dark  habitation,  where  she  dwells 
As  in  a noisome  dungeon. — Bellingham. 

Ireland  is  said  to  be  free  from  every  noxious  weed  of 
animal ; where  filth  is  brought  together,  there  will 
always  be  noisome  smells. 


CALAMITY,  DISASTER,  MISFORTUNE 
MISCHANCE,  MISHAP. 

Calamity,  in  French  calamity,  Latin  calamitas,  from 
calamus  a stalk ; because  hail  or  whatever  injured  the 
stalks  of  corn  was  termed  a calamity;  disaster,  in 
French  ddsastre,  is  compounded  of  the  privative  des  or 
dis  and  astre,  in  Latin  astrum  a star,  signifying  what 
came  from  the  adverse  influence  of  the  stars;  misfor- 
tune, mischance,  and  mishap  naturally  express  what 
conies  amiss. 

The  idea  of  a painful  event  is  common  to  all  these 
terms,  but  they  diller  in  the  degree  of  importance. 

A calamity  is  a great  disaster  or  misfortune;  a mis 
fortune  a great  mischance  or  mishap:  whatever  is 
attended  with  destruction  is  a calamity;  whatever 
occasions  mischief  to  the  per.son,  defeats  or  interrupts 
{dans,  is  a disaster;  whatever  is  accompanied  with  a 
loss  of  propeity,  or  the  deprivation  of  health,  is  a mis 
fortune;  whatever  diminishes  the  beauty  or  utility  of 
objects  is  a mischance  or  mishap  : the  devastation  of 
a country  by  hurricanes  or  earthquakes,  or  the  desola 
tion  of  its  inhabitants  by  famine  or  plague,  are  great 
calamities ; the  overturning  of  a carriage,  and  the  frac- 
ture of  a limb,  are  disasters ; losses  in  trade  are  mis 
fortunes ; the  s()oiling  of  a book  is,  to  a greater  ci  less 
extent,  a mischance  or  mishap. 

A calamity  seldom  arises  from  the  direct  agency  ol 
man;  the  elements,  or  the  natural  course  of  things 
are  mostly  concerned  in  producing  this  source  of 
misery  to  men ; the  rest  may  be  ascribed  to  chanc« 
as  distinguished  from  design;  ‘They  observed  th?< 
several  blessings  had  degenerated  into  calamities,  ant 
that  several  calamities  had  improved  into  blessings, 
according  as  they  fell  into  the  possession  of  wise  m 
foolish  men.’ — Addison.  Disasters  mostlyarise  fro»t 
some  s{)ecifick  known  cause,  either  the  carelessness  of 
persons,  or  the  unfitness  of  things  for  their  use;  a« 
they  generally  serve  to  derange  some  preconcetted 
scheme  or  undertaking,  they  seem  as  if  they  viere 
produced  by  some  secret  influence ; 

There  in  his  noisy  mansion,  skill’d  to  rule. 

The  village  master  taught  his  little  school; 

A man  severe  he  was,  and  stern  to  view, 

I knew  him  well,  and  every  truant  knew. 

Well  had  the  boding  tremblers  learn’d  to  trace 
The  day’s  disasters  in  his  morning  face. 

Goldsmith. 

Misfortune  is  frequently  assignable  to  no  specifick 
cause,  it  is  the  bad  fortune  of  an  individual;  a link 
in  the  chain  of  his  destiny;  an  evil  independent  of 
himself,  as  distinguished  from  a fault;  ‘She  daily 
exercises  her  benevolence  by  pitying  every  misfor- 
tune that  happens  to  every  family  within  her  circle 
of  notice.’ — Johnson.  Mischance  and  mishap  are 
misfortunes  of  comparatively  so  trivial  a nature,  that 
it  would  not  be  worth  while  to  inquire  into  their  cause, 
or  to  dwell  upon  their  consequences; 

Permit  thy  daughter,  gracious  Jove,  to  tell. 

How  this  mischance  the  Cyprian  queen  befell. 

Pope 

For  pity’s  sake  tells  undeserv’d  mishaps. 

And  their  applause  to  gain,  recounts  his  claps. 

Thurchill. 

A calamity  \s  dreadful;  a disaster  melancholy;  a 
misfortune  grievous  or  heavy;  a mischance  or  mishaf 
slight  or  trivial. 

A calamity  is  either  publick  or  private,  but  more  fre 
quently  the  former : a disaster  is  rather  particular  than 
private ; it  affects  things  rather  than  persons ; journeys 
expeditions-,  and  military  movements  arc  coimnoni} 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


40’3 


attended  willi  *ta aster s : misfvrtuvcs  are  altogetlier 
personal;  they  immediately  aflect  the  interesis  of  the 
individual : viiscliances  and  mishaps  are  altogether 
domestick.  We  speak  of  a calamitous  period,  a 
msastrous  expedition,  an  unfortunate  person,  little 
mischances  or  mishaps. 


ADVERSITY,  DISTRESS. 

Adversity,  v.  Adverse]  distress,  from  tlie  Latin  dis- 
tringo,  cotnpounded  of  dis  twice,  and  striugo  to  bind, 
iignilies  that  which  binds  very  tight,  or  brings  into  a 
great  strait. 

Adversity  respects  e.xternal  circumstances ; distress 
regards  either  external  circumstances  or  inward  feel- 
ings. Adversity  is  opposed  to  prosperity ; distress  to 
ease. 

Adversity  is  a general  condition,  distress  a parti- 
cular state.  Distress  is  properly  the  highest  degree 
of  adversity.  When  a man’s  affairs  go  altogether 
adverse  to  his  wishes  and  liopes,  when  accidents  de- 
prive him  of  his  possessions  or  blast  his  prospects,  he 
is  said  to  be  in  adversity ; ‘ The  other  extreme  which 
these  considerations  should  arm  the  heart  of  a man 
against,  is  utter  despondency  of  mind  in  a time  of 
pressing  adversity.' — South.  When  a man  is  reduced 
to  a state  of  want,  deprived  of  friends  and  all  prospect 
of  relief,  his  situation  is  that  of  real  distress;  ‘Most 
men,  who  are  at  length  delivered  from  any  great  dis- 
tress, indeed,  find  that  they  are  so  by  ways  they  never 
thought  of.’ — South. 

Adversity  is  trying,  distress  is  overwhelming. 
Every  man  is  liable  to  adversity,  although  few  are  re- 
duced to  distress  but  by  their  own  fault. 


DISTRESS,  ANXIETY,  ANGUISH,  AGONY. 
Distress,  V.  Adversity ; anxiety,  \n  French  anxiety, 
and  anguish,  in  French  angoisse,  both  come  from  the 
Latin  an  go,  anxi  to  strangle ; agony,  in  French  agonie, 
Latin  agonia,  Greek  dyo)via,  from  dywvi^w  to  contend 
or  strive,  signifies  a severe  struggle  with  pain  and  suf- 
fering. 

Distress  is  the  pain  felt  when  in  a strait  from  which 
we  see  no  means  of  extricating  ourselves;  anxiety  is  | 
that  pain  which  one  feels  on  the  prospect  of  an  evil. 
The  distress  always  depends  upon  some  outward 
cause;  the  anxiety  often  lies  in  tlie  imagination. 
The  distress  is  produced  by  the  present,  but  not 
always  immediate,  evil ; 

How  many,  rack’d  with  honest  passions,  droop 
In  deep  retir’d  distress!  How  many  .stand 
Around  the  death-bed  of  their  dearest  friends. 

And  point  the  parting  anguish. — Thomson. 

The  anxiety  respects  that  which  is  future;  ‘If  you 
have  any  affection  for  me,  let  not  your  anxiety,  on  my 
account,  injure  your  health.’ — Melmoth  {Letters  of 
Cicero).  Anguish  arises  from  the  reflection  on  the 
evil  that  is  past;  ‘ In  the  anguish  of  his  heart,  Adam 
expostulates  with  his  Creator  for  having  given  him  an 
unasked  existence.’ — Addison.  Agony  springs  from 
witnessing  that  which  is  immediate  or  before  the  eye; 
These  are  the  charming  agonies  of  love. 

Whose  misery  delights.  But  through  the  heart 
Should  jealousy  its  venom  once  diffuse, 

’T  is  then  delightful  misery  no  more. 

But  agony  unmixed. — Thomson. 

Distress  is  not  peculiar  to  any  age,  where  there  is  a 
consciousness  of  good  and  evil,  pain  and  pleasure;  it 
will  inevitably  arise  from  some  circumstance  or  an- 
other. Anxiety,  anguish,  and  agony  belong  to  riper 
years;  infancy  and  childhood  are  deemed  the  happy 
periods  of  human  existence;  because  they  are  exempt 
from  the  anxieties  attendant  on  every  one  who  has  a 
station  to  fill,  and  duties  to  discharge.  Anguish  and 
agony  are  species  of  distress,  of  the  severer  kind, 
which  spring  altogether  from  the  maturity  of  reflec- 
tion, and  the  full  consciousness  of  evil.  A child  is  in 
distress  when  it  loses  its  mother,  and  the  mother  is 
also  in  distress  when  she  misses  her  child.  The  sta- 
tion of  a parent  is,  indeed,  that  which  is  most  pro- 
ductive, not  ordy  of  distress,  but  anxiety,  anguish,  and 
agony:  the  mother  has  her  peculiar  U7?zzet?es  for  the 
child,  while  rearing  it  in  its  infant  state;  the  father 
bas  his  anxiety  for  its  welfare  on  its  entrance  into  the 


world ; tliey  both  suffer  the  deepest  anguish  when  the 
child  disappoints  their  dearest  hopes,  by  running  a 
career  of  vice,  and  finishing  its  wicked  course  by  an 
untimely, and  sometitties  ignominious,  end:  not  unfre- 
quently  they  are  doomed  to  sorter  the  agony  of  seeing 
a child  encircled  in  flames  from  which  he  cannot  be 
snatched,  or  sinking  into  a watery  grave  from  which 
he  cannot  be  rescued. 


TO  DISTRESS,  HARASS,  PERPLEX. 
Distress,  v.  Distress ; harass,  in  French  harasset 
probably  from  the  Greek  apdacw  to  beat;  perplex,  in 
Latin  perplexus,  [larticiple  of compounded 
of  per  and  plector,  signifies  to  wind  round  and  en 
tangle. 

A person  is  distressed  either  in  his  outward  cireum 
stances  or  ids  feelings;  he  is  harassed  mentally  or 
corporeally;  he  is  perplexed  in  liis  understanding, 
more  than  in  his  feelings:  a deprivation  distresses ; 
provocations  and  hostile  measures  harass  ; stratagems 
and  ambiguous  measures  perplex:  a besieged  town  is 
distressed  by  the  cutting  off’  its  resources  of  water  and 
provisions; 

O friend!  Ulysses’  shouts  invade  my  ear; 

Distress'd  he  seems,  and  no  assistance  near. 

Pope 

Tlie  besieged  in  a town  are  harassed  by  perpetual 
attacks;  ‘Persons  who  have  been  long  /rarassed  with 
business  and  care,  sometimes  imagine  that  when  life 
declines,  they  cannot  make  their  retirement  from  the 
world  too  complete.^— Blair.  The  besiegers  of  a town 
are  sometimes /lerjiZexed  in  all  their  manmuvres  and 
plans,  by  the  counter-manceuvres  and  contrivances  of 
their  opponents ; or  a person  is  perplexed  by  the  con 
tradiclory  points  of  view  in  which  an  afl'air  appears  to 
him;  a tale  of  wo  distresses:  continual  alarms  ant? 
incessant  labour  harass  ■ unexpected  obstacles  and 
inextricable  difficulties  perplex ; 

Would  being  end  with  our  expiring  breath. 

How  soon  misfortunes  would  be  puff’d  away! 

A trifling  shock  can  shiver  us  to  the  dust. 

But  th’  existence  of  the  immortal  soul, 

Futurity’s  dark  road  perplexes  still. — Gentleman 
We  are  distressed  and  perplexed  by  circumstances, 
we  are  harassed  altogether  by  persons,  or  tlie  inten- 
tional efforts  of  others:  we  may  relieve  anotlier  in 
distress,  or  may  remove  a perplexity ; but  the  harass- 
ing ceases  only  with  the  cause  wliich  gave  rise  to  it. 


PAIN,  PANG,  AGONY,  ANGUISH. 

Pain  is  to  be  traced,  through  the  French  and 
northern  languages,  to  the  Latin  and  Greek  noivft 
punishment,  ndvos  labour,  and  nivcpai  to  be  poor  or  in 
trouble.  Pang  is  but  a variation  of  pain,  contracted 
from  theTeutonick  peinigen  to  torment;  agony  comes 
from  the  Greek  dywvC^u)  to  struggle  or  comend,  signi- 
fying the  labour  or  jsam  of  a struggle;  anguish  comes 
from  the  Latin  ango,  contracted  from  ante  and  ago,  to 
act  against,  or  in  direct  opposition  to,  and  signifies  tlie 
pain  arising  from  severe  pressure. 

Pain,  which  expresses  the  feeling  that  is  most  re- 
pugnant to  the  nature  of  all  sensible  beings,  is  here  the 
generick,  and  the  restspecifick  terms:  pain  and  agony 
are  applied  indiscriminately  to  what  is  physical  and 
mental ; pang  and  anguish  mostly  respect  that  which 
is  mental : pain  sii  tiifies  either  an  individual  feeling  or 
a permanent  state;  pang  is  only  a particular  feeling; 
agony  is  sometimes  employed  for  the  individual  feeling, 
but  more  commonly  for  the  state;  anguish  is  always 
employed  for  the  state.  Pain  is  indefinite  with  regard 
to  the  degree;  it  may  rise  to  the  highest,  or  sink  to  the 
lowest  possible  degree;  the  rest  are  positively  high  de- 
grees of  pain : the  pang  is  a sharp  pain ; the  agony  is 
a severe  and  permanent  pam;  the  anguish  is  an  over- 
whelming 

The  causes  of  pain  are  as  various  as  the  modes  of 
pain,  or  as  the  circumstances  of  sensible  beings ; it 
attends  disease,  want,  and  sin,  in  an  infinite  variety 
of  forms;  ‘We  should  passion  from  crime  to  crime 
heedles-s  and  remorseless,  if  misery  did  not  stand  in 
our  way,  and  our  own  pains  admonish  us  of  our  folly.’ 
— Johnson.  'J’he  pangs  of  conscience  frequently 
trouble  the  man  wlio  is  not  yet  hardened  in  guilt:  the 


103 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


pangs  4 f disappointed  love  are  among  the  severest  to 
he  borne ; 

Wliatpano-s  the  tender  breast  of  Dido  tore ! 

Dryden. 

Agony  and  anguish  are  produced  by  violent  causest 
and  disease  in  its  most  terrible  shape:  wounds  and 
torments  naturally  produce  corporeal  agony ; a guilty 
conscience  that  is  awakened  to  a sense  of  guilt  will 
suffer  mental  agony ; 

Thou  shalt  behold  him  stretch’d  in  all  the  agonies 
Of  a tormenting  and  a shameful  death. — Otway. 
Anguish  arises  altogether  from  moral  causes;  the 
miseries  and  distresses  of  others,  particularly  of  those 
who  are  nearly  related,  are  most  calculated  to  excite 
anguish;  a mother  suffers  anguish  when  she  sees  her 
child  labouring  under  severe  pain.,  or  in  danger  of 
losing  its  life,  without  having  the  power  to  relieve  it; 
Are  these  the  parting  which  nature  feels. 

When  anguish  rends  the  heart-strings'? — Rowe. 

TORMENT,  TORTURE. 

Ferment  {v.  To  tease)  and  torture  both  come  from 
terqueo  to  twist,  and  express  the  agony  which  arises 
from  a violent  twisting  or  griping  of  any  part;  but  the 
latter,  which  is  more  immediately  derived  from  the 
verb,  expresses  much  greater  violence  and  consequent 
pain  than  the  former.  Torture  is  an  excess  of  torment. 
We  may  be  tormented  by  a variety  of  indirect  means ; 
but  w'e  are  tortured  only  by  the  direct  means  of  the 
rack,  or  similar  instruments.  Torment  may  be  perma- 
nent : torture  is  only  for  a time,  or  on  certain  occasions. 
It  is  related  in  history  that  a person  was  once  tormented 
to  death,  by  a violent  and  incessant  beating  of  drums 
in  his  prison:  the  Indians  practise  every  species  of  tor- 
ture upon  their  prisoners.  A guilty  conscience  may 
torment  a man  all  his  life ; 

Yet  in  his  empire  o’er  thy  abject  breast. 

His  flames  and  torments  only  are  express’d.— Prior. 
The  horrours  of  an  awakened  conscience  are  a torture 
10  one  who  is  on  his  death-bed ; 

To  a wild  sonnet  or  a wanton  air. 

Offence  and  torture  to  a sober  ear.— Prior. 


TO  AFFLICT,  DISTRESS,  TROUBLE. 
Afflict,  in  Latin  afflictus,  participle  of  affligo,  com- 
pounded of  af  or  ad  and  fligo,  in  Greek  to  press 

hard,  signifies  to  bear  upon  any  one  ; distress,  v.  Ad- 
versity ; trouble  signifies  to  cause  a tumult,  frotn  the 
Latin  turha,  Greek  Tvp(ir}  or  d6pv(3oi  a.  tumult. 

When  these  terms  relate  to  outward  circumstances, 
the  first  expresses  more  than  the  second,  and  the  second 
more  than  the  third. 

People  are  afflicted  with  grievous  maladies ; 

A melancholy  tear  afflicts  my  eye, 

And  my  heart  labours  with  a sudden  sigh.— Prior. 
The  mariner  is  distressed  for  want  of  water  in  the 
midst  of  the  wide  ocean,  or  an  embarrassed  tradesman 
is  distressed  for  money  to  maintain  his  credit; 

I often  did  beguile  her  of  her  tears. 

When  I did  speak  of  some  distressful  stroke. 

That  my  youth  suffered.— Shakspeark. 

The  mechanick  is  troubled  for  want  of  proper  tools,  or 
the  head  of  a family  for  want  of  good  domesticks ; 

The  boy  so  troubles  me, 

’T  is  past  enduring. — Shakspeare.  . 

When  they  respect  the  inward  feelings,  afflict  con- 
veys the  idea  of  deep  sorrow:  distress  that  of  sorrow 
mixed  with  anxiety;  trouble  that  of  pain  in  a smaller 
degree.  The  death  of  a parent  afflicts;  ‘We  last 
night  received  a piece  of  ill  news  at  our  club  which 
very  sensibly  afflicted  every  one  of  us.  I question  not 
but  my  readers  themselves  will  be  troubled  at  the 
hearing  of  it.  To  keep  them  no  longer  in  suspense. 
Sir  Roger  de  Coverly  is  dead.’ — Addison.  The  mis- 
fortunes of  our  family  and  friends  distress;  ‘While 
the  mind  contemplates  distress,  it  is  acted  upon  and 
never  acts,  and  by  indulging  in  this  contemplation  it 
becomes  more  and  more  unfit  for  action.’ — Craig. 
Crosses  in  trade  and  domestick  inconveniences  trouble. 
In  the  season  of  affliction  prayer  afford?  the  best 


consolation  and  surest  suppoits.  The  assistance  c;r.c 
sympathy  of  friends  serve  to  relieve  distress.  We 
may  often  help  ourselves  out  of  our  troubles,  and  re 
move  the  evil  by  patience  and  perseverance. 

Afflictions  may  be  turned  to  benefits  if  they  lead  a 
man  to  turn  inwardly  into  liimself,  and  examine  the 
state  of  his  heart  and  conscience  in  the  sight  of  his 
Maker.  The  distresses  oi  human  l ife  often  serve  f)niy 
to  enhance  the  value  of  our  pleasures  when  we  regain 
them.  Among  the  troubles  with  which  we  are  daily 
assailed,  many  of  them  are  too  trifling  for  us  to  b< 
troubled  by  them. 

AFFLICTION,  GRIEF,  SORROW 

Affliction,  v.  To  afflict ; grief,  from  grieve,  in  German 
grdinen,  Swedish  grarnga,  &c. ; sorrow,  in  German 
sorge,  (Sec.  signifies  care,  as  well  as  sorrow. 

All  these  words  mark  a state  of  suffering  which 
differs  either  in  the  degree  or  the  cause,  or  in  both. 

Affliction  is  much  stronger  than  grief,  it  lies  deeper 
in  the  soul,  and  arises  from  a more  powerful  cause ; 
the  lo.ss  of  what  is  most  dear,  the  continued  sickness 
of  our  friends,  or  a reverse  of  fortune,  will  all  cause 
affliction;  ‘Some  virtues  are  only  seen  in  affliction, 
and  some  in  prosperity.’- Addison.  The  misfortunoa 
of  others,  the  failure  of  our  favourite  schemes,  the 
troubles  of  our  country,  will  occasion  us  grief;  ‘The 
melancholy  silence  that  follows  hereupon,  and  con- 
tinues until  he  has  recovered  himself  enough  to  reveal 
his  mind  to  his  friend,  raises  in  the  spectators  a grief 
that  is  inexpressible.’ — Addison. 

Sorrow  is  less  than  grief;  it  arises  from  the  unto- 
ward circumstances  which  perpetually  arise  in  life.  A 
disappointment,  the  loss  of  a game,  our  own  mistake, 
or  the  negligences  of  others,  cause  sorrow.  If  more 
serious  objects  awaken  sorrow,  the  feeling  is  lesa 
poignant  than  that  of  grief;  ‘The  most  agreeable 
objects  recall  the  sorrow  for  her  with  whom  he  used 
to  enjoy  them.’ — Addison. 

Affliction  lies  too  deep  to  be  vehement ; it  discovers 
itself  by  no  striking  marks  in  the  exteriour : it  is  lasting 
and  does  not  cease  when  the  external  cause  ceases  to 
act;  grief  may  be  violent,  and  discover  itself  by  loud 
and  indecorous  signs;  it  is  transitory,  and  ceases  even 
before  the  cause  which  gave  birth  to  it;  sorrow  dis- 
covers itself  by  a simple  expression;  it  is  still  more 
transient  than  grief,  not  existing  beyond  the  moinen 
in  which  it  is  produced. 

A person  of  a tender  mind  is  afflicted  at  the  remem- 
brance of  his  sins  ; he  is  grieved  at  the  consciousness 
of  his  fallibility  and  proneness  to  errour;  he  is  sorry 
for  the  faults  which  he  has  committed. 

Affliction  is  allayed;  grief  subsides;  sorrow  is 
soothed. 


TO  GRIEVE,  MOURN,  LAMENT. 

Grieve, V.  Affliction;  mourn,\ikemoan  and  murmur, 
is  probably  but  an  imitation  of  the  sound  which  is  pro- 
duced by  pain. 

To  grieve  is  the  general  term  ; mourn  the  particulai 
term.  To  grieve,  in  its  limited  sense,  is  an  inward 
act;  to  mourn  is  an  outward  act:  the  grief  \ies  alto- 
gether in  the  mind;  the  mourning  displays  itself  by 
some  outward  mark.  A man  ^/rcues  for  Jiis  sins;  he 
mourns  for  the  loss  of  liis  friends.  One  grieves  for  that 
which  immediately  concerns  one’s  self ; 

Achates,  the  companion  of  his  breast. 

Goes  grieving  by  his  side,  with  equal  cares  oppress’d 

Dryden 

One  mourris  for  that  which  concerns  others  ; 

My  brother’s  friends  and  daughters  left  behind, 

False  to  them  all,  to  Paris  only  kind  ; 

For  this  I mourn  till  grief  or  dire  disease 

Shall  waste  the  form  whose  crime  it  was  to  please 

Pope. 

One  grieves  over  the  loss  of  property ; one  mourns  the 
fate  of  a deceased  relative. 

Grieve  is  the  act  of  an  individual ; mourn  may  be 
the  common  act  of  many;  a nation  mourns,  though  it 
does  not  for  a puiilick  calamity.  To  grieve  is 

applicable  to  domestick  troubles;  mourn  may  refer  to 
publick  or  private  ills.  Every  good  Frenchman  has 
iiad  occasion  to  grieve  for  the  loss  of  that  which  is 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


i09 


ImiTieaiat.^Iy  dear  to  liiinsclf.  and  to  mourn  over  the 
uiisforuiiies  wliicli  liave  overwlieliued  Ids  country. 

Grieve  and  mourn  are  permanent  sentiments ; la- 
ment (v.  To  bewail)  is  a transitory  feeling:  the  former 
proditced  by  substantial  causes,  whicli  come  home  to 
the  feelings;  tlie  latter  respects  things  of  a more  par- 
tial, oftentimes  of  a more  remote  and  inditferent,  na- 
ture. A real  widow  mourns  all  the  remainder  of  her 
days  for  the  loss  of  her  husband ; we  lament  a thing 
to-day  wiiicli  we  may  forget  to-morrow.  jMourn  and 
lament  are  both  expressed  by  some  outward  sign  : but 
the  former  is  composed  and  free  from  all  noise  ; the 
latter  displays  itself  either  in  cries  or  simple  words; 

So  close  in  poplar  shades,  her  children  gone. 

The  mother  nightingale  laments  alone. — Dryden. 

In  the  moment  of  trouble,  when  the  distress  of  the 
mind  is  at  its  height,  it  may  break  out  into  loud  lamentor 
tion ; but  commonly  grieving  and  mourning  commence 
when  lamentation  ceases. 

As  epithets,  grievous,  mournful,  and  lamentable 
have  a similar  "distinction.  What  presses  hard  on 
persons,  their  property,  connexions,  and  circumstances, 
IS  grievous;  what  touches  the  tender  feelings,  and 
tears  asunder  the  ties  of  kindred  and  friendship,  is 
mournful;  whatever  excites  a painful  sensation  in  our 
minds  is  Famine  is  a grievous  calamity 

for  a nation  ; the  violent  separation  of  friends  by  death 
is  a mournful  event  at  all  times,  but  particularly  so 
for  those  who  are  in  the  prime  of  life  and  the  fulness 
of  expectation ; the  ignorance  which  some  persons 
discover  even  in  the  present  cultivated  state  of  society 
is  truly  lamentable.  Grievous  misfortunes  come  but 
seldom,  although  they  sometimes  fall  thickly  on  an 
individual ; a mournful  tale  excites  our  pity  from  the 
persuasion  of  its  veracity;  but  lamentable  stories  are 
often  fabricated  for  sinister  purposes. 

GRIEVANCE,  HARDSHIP. 

Grievance,  from  the  Latin  gravis,  heavy  or  burden- 
some, implies  that  which  lies  heavy  at  heart ; hard- 
ship, from  the  adjective  hard,  denotes  that  w'hich 
presses  or  bears  violently  on  the  person. 

Grievanee  is  in  general  taken  for  that  which  is  done 
by  another  to  grieve  or  distress;  hardship  is  a par- 
ticular kind  of  grievance,  that  presses  upon  indivi- 
duals. There  are  national  grievances,  though  not 
national  hardships. 

An  infraction  of  one’s  rights,  an  act  of  violence  or 
oppression,  are  grievances  to  those  who  are  exposed 
to  them,  whether  as  individuals  or  bodies  of  men;  an 
unequal  distribution  of  labour,  a partial  indulgence  of 
one  to  the  detriment  of  another,  constitute  the  hard- 
ship. A weight  of  taxes  levied  by  an  unthinking  go- 
vernment, will  be  esteemed  v.  grievance ; the  partiality 
and  caprice  of  tax-gatherers  or  subordinates  in  office 
in  making  it  fall  with  unequal  weight  upon  particular 
persons  will  be  regarded  as  a peculiar  hardship.  Men 
seek  a redreus  of  their  grievances  from  some  higher 
power  than  that  by  which  they  are  afflicted ; they 
endure  their  hardships  until  an  opportunity  offers  of 
getting  them  removed  ; ‘ It  is  better  private  men  should 
have  some  injustice  done  them,  than  a imblick  griev- 
ance should  not  be  redressed.  This  is  usually  pleaded 
in  defence  of  all  tho-se  hardships  which  fall  on  par- 
ticular persons,  in  particular  occasions  which  could  not 
be  foreseen  when  the  law  was  made.’— Spectator. 

TO  COMPLAIN,  LAMENT,  REGRET. 

Complain,  in  French  complaindre  or  plaindre,  Latin 
plango  to  beat  the  breast  as  a sign  of  grief,  in  Greek 
irX//yw  to  beat,  lament,  v.  To  bewail;^  regret,  com- 
pounded of  re  privative  and  gratus  grateful,  signifies 
to  have  a feermii  the  reverse  of  pleasant. 

Complaint  marks  most  of  dissatisfaction;  lamenta- 
tion most  of  regret;  regret  most  of  pain.  Complaint 
is  exiiressed  verbally  ; lamentation  either  by  words  or 
signs;  regret  may  be  felt  without  being  expressed. 
Cimplaint\s  made  of  personal  grievances;  lamenta- 
tion and  regret  may  be  made  on  account  of  others  as 
well  as  oiiiselves.  We  complain  of  o\ir  ill  health,  of 
our  inconveniences,  or  of  troublesome  circumstances; 
we  lament  our  inability  to  serve  another ; we  regret 
the  absence  of  one  whom  we  love.  Selfish  people 
have  the  most  lo  compiain  of,  as  ihey  demand  the  most 
ijf  others,  and  are  most  liable  to  be  disappointed; 


anxious  people  are  the  most  liable  to  lament,  as  they 
feel  every  thing  strongly ; the  best  regulated  mind  may 
have  occasion  ioregret  some  circumstances  which  give 
pain  to  the  tender  affections  of  the  heart. 

The  folly  of  complaint  has  ever  been  the  theme  of 
moralists  in  all  ages;  it  has  always  been  regarded 
as  the  author  and  magnifier  of  evils;  it  dwells  on 
little  things  until  they  become  great ; ‘We  all  of  us  com- 
plain of  the  shortness  of  time,  saiih  Seneca,  and  yet 
have  much  more  than  we  know  what  to  do  with.’ — 
Addison.  J.,amentations  are  not  wiser  though  more 
excusable,  es[)ecially  if  we  lament  over  the  misfortunes 
of  others;  ‘ Surely  to  dread  the  future  is  more  rea- 
sonable than  to  lament  the  past.’ — Johnson.  Regret 
is  frequently  lender,  and  always  moderate;  hence  it  i 
allowable  to  mortals  who  are  encompassed  with  trou- 
bles to  indulge  in  regret;  '■Regret  is  useful  and  vir- 
tuous when  it  tends  to  the  amendment  of  life.’ — John- 
son. We  may  complain  without  any  cause,  and  lament 
beyond  what  the  cause  requires ; but  regret  will 
always  be  founded  on  some  real  cause,  and  not  exceed 
the  cause  in  degree.  It  would  be  idle  for  a man  to 
complain  of  his  want  of  education,  or  lament  over  the 
errouis  and  misfortunes  of  his  youth  ; but  he  can  never 
look  back  upon  misiient  time  w'ithoul  sincere  regret. 


TO  COMPLAIN,  MURMUR,  REPINE. 

Complain,  v.  To  complain ; murmur,  in  German 
murmeln,  conveys  both  in  sound  and  in  sense  the  idea 
of  dissatisfaction  ; repine  is  compounded  of  re  and  pine, 
from  the  English  pain,  Latin  pana  punishment,  and 
the  Greek  ntiva  hunger,  signifying  to  convert  into  pain. 

The  idea  of  expressing  displeasure  or  dissatisfaction 
is  common  to  these  terms.  Complaint  is  not  go  loud 
as  murmuring,  hut  more  so  than  repining. 

W e comjjlain  or  murmur  by  some  audible  metliod  ; 
we  may  repine  secretly.  Complaints  are  always  ad- 
dressed to  some  one;  murmurs  and  repinings  are 
often  addressed  only  to  one’s  self.  Complaints  are 
made  of  whatever  creates  uneasiness,  without  regard 
to  the  source  from  which  they  flow  ; murmurings  are 
a species  of  complaints  made  only  of  that  which  is 
done  by  others  for  our  inconvenience;  when  used  in 
relation  to  persons,  complaint  is  the  act  of  a superiour; 
nrw?-m«rm,g- that  of  an  inferiour;  repining  \s  always 
used  in  reialion  to  the  general  disposition  of  things 
When  the  conduct  of  another  offends,  it  calls  foi 
complaint;  when  a superiour  aggrieves  by  the  impo 
sition  of  what  is  burdensome,  it  occasions  murmuring 
on  the  part  of  the  aggrieved;  when  disappointments 
arrive,  or  ambition  is  thwarted,  men  repine  at  Iheii 
destiny. 

Complaints  and  murmurs  may  be  made  uiiou  every 
trivial  occasion  ; only  on  matters  of  moment. 

Complaints,  especially  such  as  respect  one’s  sdf,  are 
at  best  but  the  offspring  of  an  uneasy  mind , they 
betray  great  weakness,  and  ought  to  be  suppressed; 
murmurs  are  culpable ; they  violate  the  respect  and 
obedience  due  to  superiours;  those  who  murmur  have 
seldom  substantial  grounds  for  murmuring  ; repinings 
are  sinful,  they  arraign  the  wisdom  and  the  goodness 
of  an  infinitely  wise  and  good  Being.  It  will  he  difficult, 
by  the  aid  of  philosophy,  lo  endure  much  pain  without 
eomplaining ; religion  only  can  arm  the  soul  against 
all  the  ills  of  life ; 

I ’ll  not  complain  ; 

Children  and  cowards  rail  at  their  misfortunes. 

Trapp. 

The  rebellious  Israelites  were  freqttently  guilty  of 
murmurings,  not  only  against  Moses,  but  even  against 
their  Almighty  Deliverer,  notwithstanding  the  repeated 
manifestations  of  his  goodness  and  power  ; 

Yet,  O my  soul ! thy  rising  tntirinttrs  slay, 

Nordare  th’  ALLWISE  DISPOSER  to  arraign; 

Or  against  his  supreme  decree, 

With  imirious  grief  complain. — Lvttleton. 

A want  of  confidence  in  God  is  the  only  cause  of 
repinings;  he  who  sees  the  I.and  of  God  in  all  thinj"? 
cannot  repine; 

Would  all  the  deities  of  Greece  combine. 

In  vain  the  gloomy  thunderer  might  repine; 

Sole  should  he  sit,  with  scarce  a god  to  frirmd, 

And  see  lis  'Projans  to  the  shades  descend. — Pope 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


/If/ 


TO  BEWAIL,  BEMOAN,  LAMENT,  DEPLORE. 

Bewail  is  compounded  of  he  and  wail,  which  is 
probably  connected  with  the  word  wo,  sigtiifying  to 
express  sorrow;  ie/noarr, compounded  of  be  and  moan, 
signifies  to  indicate  grief  with  moans;  lament,  in 
French  lamenter,  Latin  lamentor  or  lameutum,  comes 
probably  from  the  Greek  icAaiJ/xa  and  /cAafw  to  cry  out 
with  grief;  deplore,  in  Latin  deploro,  i.  e.  de  and 
ploro  or  plaiigo,  signifies  to  give  signs  of  distress  with 
the  face  oi  mouth. 

All  tnese  terms  mark  an  expression  of  pain  by  some 
e.xternal  sign.  Bewail  is  not  so  strong  as  bemoan,  but 
stronger  than  lament;  beioail  and  bemoan  are  expres- 
sions of  unrestrained  grief  or  anguish : a wretclied 
mother  bewails  the  loss  of  her  child;  a person  in  deep 
distress  bemoans  his  hard  fate:  lamentation  may  arise 
from  simple  sorrow  or  even  imaginary  grievances;  a 
sensualist  laments  the  disappointment  of  some  ex- 
pected gratification. 

Bewail  and  bemoan  are  always  indecorous,  if  not 
sinful,  expressions  of  grief,  which  are  inconsistent  with 
the  profession  of  a Christian;  they  are  common  among 
the  uncultivated,  who  have  not  a proper  principle  to 
restrain  the  intemperance  of  their  feelings.  There  is 
nothing  temporal  which  is  so  dear  to  any  one  that  he 
ought  to  bewail  its  loss:  nor  any  condition  of  things  so 
distressing  or  desperate  as  to  make  a man  bemoan  Ids 
lot.  Lamentations  are  sometimes  allowable;  the  mi- 
series of  others,  or  our  own  infirmities  and  sins,  may 
justly  be  lamented. 

Deplore  is  a much  stronger  expression  than  lament; 
the  former  calls  forth  tears  from  bitterness  of  the 
heart ; 

The  wounds  they  washed,  their  pious  tears  they  slied. 
And  laid  along  their  oars  deplor'd  the  dead. — Pope. 

The  latter  excites  a cry  from  the  warmth  of  feeling ; 
But  let  not  chief  the  nightingale  lament 
Her  ruin'd  care,  too  delicately  fram’d 
To  brook  the  harsh  confinement  of  the  cage. 

Thomson. 

The  deplorable  indicates  despair ; the  lamentable  marks 
®nly  pain  or  distress. 

Among  the  poor  we  have  deplorable  instances  of 
poverty,  ignorance,  vice,  and  wretchedness  combined. 
Among  the  higher  classes  we  have  often  lamentable 
Instances  of  people  involving  tliemselves  in  trouble  by 
their  own  imprudence.  A field  of  battle  or  a city 
overthrown  by  an  earthquake  is  a spectacle  truly  de- 
plorable. It  is  lamentable  to  see  beggars  putting  on 
all  the  disguises  of  wretchedness  in  order  to  obtain 
what  they  might  earn  by  honest  industry.  The  con- 
dition of  a dying  man  suffering  under  the  agonies  of 
an  awakened  conscience  is  deplorable;  the  situation 
of  the  relative  or  friend  who  witnesses  the  agony,  with- 
out being  able  to  afford  consolation  to  the  sufferer,  is 
truly  lamentable. 

TO  GROAN,  MOAN. 

Groan  and  moan  are  both  an  oimmatopela,  from  the 
sounds  which  they  ex|)ress.  Groan  is  a deep  sound 
produced  by  hard  breathing  . moan  is  a plaintive,  long- 
drawn  sound  produced  by  the  organs  of  utterance. 
The  groan  proceeds  involuntarily  as  an  expression  of 
severe  pain,  either  of  body  or  mind  : the  moan  proceeds 
often  from  the  desire  of  awakening  attention  or  ex- 
citing compassion.  Dying  ,o-7-aa?(s  are  uttered  in  the 
agonies  of  death  : the  moans  of  a wounded  sufferer  are 
sometimes  the  only  resource  he  has  left  to  make  his 
destitute  case  known  ; 

The  i)lain  ox,  whose  toil. 

Patient  and  ever  ready,  clothes  tlie  land 
With  all  the  pomp  of  harvest,  shall  he  bleed. 

And  struggling  ^g^roaa  beneath  the  cruel  hands 
E’en  of  the  clown  he  feeds  ? — Thomson. 

The  fair  Alexis  lov’d,  but  lov'd  in  vain. 

And  underneath  the  beechen  shade,  alone. 

Thus  to  the  woods  and  mountains  made  his  moan 

Dryden. 


MOURNFUL,  SAD. 

Mournful  signifies  full  of  what  causes  mourning; 
uii  {v.  Dull)  signifie.s  either  a painful  seniimenti  or 


what  causes  this  painful  sentiment.  The  difference  ir, 
the  sentiment  is  what  constitutes  the  difference  between 
these  epithets ; the  mournful  awakens  tender  and  syn. 
pathetick  feelings:  the  sad  oppresses  the  spirits  ann 
makes  one  heavy  at  heart;  a mournful  tale  contains 
an  account  of  others’  distresses ; 

Upon  his  tomb 

Shall  be  engrav’d  the  sack  of  Orleans  ; 

The  treacherous  manner  of  his  mournful  death. 

Shakspk.iiik, 

A sad  story  contains  an  account  of  one’s  own  distress 
How  sad  a sight  is  human  happiness 
To  those  whose  thoughts  can  pierce  beyond  an  houi 

Young 

A mournful  event  befalls  our  friends  and  relatives ; u 
sad  misfortune  befalls  ourselves.  Selfish  peojile  find 
nothing  mournful,  but  many  things  sad:  tender-hearted 
people  are  always  affected  by  what  is  mournful,  and 
are  less  troubled  about  what  is  sad. 


DULL,  GLOOMY,  SAD,  DISMAL. 

Dull  may  probably  come  from  the  Latin  dolor, 
nifying  generally  that  which  takes  off"  from  the  bright 
ness,  vivacity,  or  perfection  of  any  thing;  gloomy. 
from  the  German  glumm  muddy,  signifies  the  same  as 
tarnished  ; sad  is  probably  connected  with  shade,  tc 
imply  obscurity,  which  is  most  suitable  to  sorrow  • 
dismal,  compounded  of  dis  and  mal  or  rnalus,  signifies 
very  evil. 

When  applied  to  natural  objects  they  denote  the 
want  of  necessary  light:  in  this  sense  metals  are  more 
or  less  dull  according  as  they  are  stained  with  dirt: 
the  weather  is  either  dull  or  gloomy  in  different  de 
grees;  that  is,  dull  when  the  sun  is  obscured  by 
clouds,  and  gloomy  when  the  atmosphere  is  darkened 
by  fogs  or  thick  clouds.  A room  is  dull,  gloomy,  or 
dismal,  according  to  circumstances : it  is  dull  if  tiie 
usual  quantity  of  light  and  sound  be  wanting;  it  is 
gloomy  if  the  darkness  and  stillness  be  very  consider- 
able ; it  is  dismal  if  it  be  deprived  of  every  conveni- 
ence that  fits  it  for  a habitation;  in  this  sense  a dun 
geon  is  a dismal  abode;  ‘ While  man  is  a retainer  to 
the  elements  and  a sojourner  in  the  body,  it  (the  soul) 
must  be  content  to  submit  its  own  quickness  and  spi 
rituality  to  the  dulness  of  its  vehicle.’ — Souriu 
Achilles’  wrath,  to  Greece  the  direful  spring 
Of  woes  unnumber’d,  heav’niy  goddess,  sing  .' 

That  wrath  which  hurl’d  to  Pinto’s  gloomy  reign 
The  souls  of  mighty  chiefs  untimely  slain.— Pope 
For  nine  long  niulits,  through  all  the  dusky  air 
The  pyres  thick  flaming  shot  a dismal  glare.— Pope. 
Sad  is  not  applied  so  much  to  sensible  as  moral  oh 
jects,  in  which  sense  the  distre.ssing  events  of  huinaii 
life,  as  the  loss  of  a parent  or  a child,  is  justly  deno- 
minated sad;  ‘ Henry  H.  of  France,  by  a splinter  un- 
haiipily  thrust  into  his  eye  at  a solemn  justing,  was  sent 
out  of  the  world  by  a sad  but  very  accidental  deatii.’ 
— South. 

In  regard  to  the  frame  of  mind  which  is  designated 
by  these  terms,  it  will  be  easily  perceived  from  the 
above  explanation.  As  slight  circumstances  produce 
dulness,  any  change,  however  small,  in  the  usual  flow 
of  spirits  may  be  termed  dull; 

A man 

So  dull,  so  dead  in  look,  so  wo-begone. 

Shakspe,.re. 

Gloom  weighs  heavy  on  the  mind,  and  gives  a turn  to  the 
reflections  and  the  imagination:  desponding  thoughts 
of  futurity  will  spread  a gloom  over  every  other  cb 
ject ; ‘ Neglect  sjireads  gloominess  upon  their  humour 
and  makes  them  grow  sullen  and  unconver.sable.’— 
CoLMER.  The  word  dismal  is  seldom  used  except  at 
an  epithet  to  external  objects.  Sadness  indicates  a 
wounded  state  of  the  heart ; feelings  of  umnixed  pain 
Six  brave  companions  from  each  ship  we  lost ; 

With  sails  outspread  we  fly  the  unequal  strife. 

Sad  for  their  loss,  but  joyful  of  our  life.— Pope. 

GLOOM,  HEAVINESS. 

Gloom  has  its  source  internally,  and  is  often  in 
dependent  of  outward  circumstances ; heaviness  is  a 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  4x1 


weight  lifion  the  spirits,  produced  by  a foreign  cause  : 
the  former  belongs  to  the  constitution  ; tiie  latter  is 
occasional.  People  of  a melancholy  habit  have  a par- 
ticular gloom  hanging  over  their  minds  which  pervades 
all  their  thoughts ; those  who  suffer  under  severe  disap- 
pointments for  the  present,  and  have  gloomy  prospects 
for  the  future,  may  be  expected  to  be  heavy  at  heart ; 
wc  may  sometimes  dispel  the  gloom  of  the  mind  by 
the  force  of  reflection,  particularly  by  the  force  of  reli- 
gious contemplation : heaviness  of  spirits  is  itself  a 
temporary  thing,  and  may  be  succeeded  by  vivacity  or 
lightness  of  mind  when  the  pressure  of  the  moment 
has  subsided  ; ‘ If  we  consider  the  frequent  reliefs  we 
receive  from  laughter,  and  how  often  it  breaks  the 
gloom  which  is  apt  to  depress  the  mind,  one  would 
take  care  not  to  grow  too  wise  for  so  great  a pleasure 
of  life.’ — Addison.  ‘Worldly  prosperity  flattens  as  life 
descends.  He  who  lately  overflowed  with  cheerful 
spirits  and  high  hopes,  begins  to  look  back  with  heavi- 
ness on  the  days  of  former  years.’ — Blair. 

GLOOMY,  SULLEN,  MOROSE,  SPLENETICK. 

All  these  terms  denote  a temper  of  mind  the  reverse 
of  easy  or  happy:  gloomy  lies  either  in  the  general 
constitution  or  the  particular  frame  of  the  mind  ; sul- 
len lies  in  the  temper : a man  of  a gloomy  disposition 
is  an  involuntary  agent;  it  is  his  misfortune,  and 
renders  him  in  some  measure  pitiable : the  sullen  man 
yields  to  his  evil  humours  ; sullenness  is  his  fault,  and 
renders  him  offensive.  The  gloomy  man  distresses 
himself  most ; his  pains  are  all  his  own : the  sullen 
man  has  a great  share  of  discontent  in  his  composition ; 
he  charges  his  sufferings  upon  others,  and  makes  them 
suffer  in  common  with  himself.  A man  may  be  ren- 
dered gloomy  for  a time  by  the  influence  of  particular 
circumstances;  but  sw/fe/mess  creates  pains  for  itself 
when  all  external  circumstances  of  a painful  nature 
are  wanting ; 

Th’  unwilling  heralds  act  their  lord’s  commands, 

Pensive  they  walk  along  the  barren  sands; 

Arriv’d,  the  hero  in  his  tent  they  find. 

With  gloomy  aspect,  on  his  arm  reclin’d.— Pope. 

At  this  they  ceased  ; the  stern  debate  expir’d; 

The  chiefs  in  sullen  majesty  retir’d. — Pope. 

Sullenness  and  moroseness  are  both  the  inherent 
properties  of  the  temper ; but  the  former  discovers 
itself  in  those  who  have  to  submit,  and  the  latter  in 
those  who  have  to  command  : sullenness  therefore  be- 
trays itself  mostly  in  early  life ; moroseness  is  the 
peculiar  characteristick  of  age  ; ‘ The  morose  philoso- 
pher is  so  much  affected  by  these  and  some  other  au- 
thorities, that  he  becomes  a convert  to  his  friend,  and 
desires  he  would  take  him  with  him  when  he  went  to 
his  next  ball.’ — Bijdgell.  The  sullen  person  has 
many  fancied  hardships  to  endure  from  the  control  of 
others ; the  morose  person  causes  others  to  endure 
many  real  hardships,  by  keeping  them  under  too  severe 
a control.  Sullenness  shows  itself  mostly  by  an  un- 
seemly reserve  ; moroseness  shows  itself  by  the  hard- 
ness of  the  speech,  and  the  roughness  of  the  voice. 
Sullenness  is  altogether  a sluggish  principle,  that  leads 
more  or  less  to  inaction  ; moroseness  is  a harsh  feeling, 
that  is  not  contented  with  exacting  obedience  unless  it 
Inflicts  pain. 

Moroseness  is  a defect  of  the  temper ; but  spleen, 
from  splen,  is  a defect  in  the  heart;  the  one  betrays 
itself  in  behaviour,  the  other  more  in  conduct.  A 
morose  man  is  an  unpleasant  companion  ; a splenctick 
man  is  a bad  member  of  society : the  former  is  ill- 
natured  to  those  about  him,  the  latter  is  ill-humoured 
with  all  the  world.  Moroseness  vents  itself  in  tem- 
porary expressions:  spleen  indulges  itself  in  perpetual 
bitterness  of  expression  : ‘ While  in  that  splenetick 
mood,  we  amused  ourselves  in  a sour  critical  specula- 
tion of  which  we  ourselves  were  the  objects,  a few 
months  effected  a total  change  in  our  variable  minds.’ 
■Burke. 

PITEOUS,  DOLEFUL,  WOFUL,  RUEFUL. 

Piteous  signifies  moving  pity  {o.  Pity);  doleful,  or 
full  of  dole,  in  Latin  dolor  pain,  signifies  indicative  of 
much  pain  ; wojul,  or  full  of  wo,  signifies  likewise  in- 
dicative of  wo,  which  from  the  German  weh  implies 
train  ; rueful,  or  full  of  rue,  from  the  German  reuen  to 
epent  signifies  indicative  of  much  sorrow 


The  close  alliance  in  sense  of  these  words  one  to  an 
other  is  obvious  from  the  above  explanation  ; piteous 
is  applicable  to  one’s  external  expression  of  bodily  or 
mental  pain  ; a child  makes  piteous  lamentations  when 
it  suffers  for  hunger,  or  has  lost  its  way  ; 

With  pond’rous  clubs 

As  weak  against  the  mountain  heaps  they  push 
Their  beating  breast  in  vain  and  piteous  bray. 

He  lays  them  quivering  on  th’  ensanguin’d  plain 
Thomson. 

Dolef  ul  applies  to  those  sounds  which  convey  the  ide* 
of  pain  ; there  is  something  doleful  in  the  tolling  of  t, 
funeral  bell,  or  in  the  sound  of  a muffled  drum  ; 

Entreat,  pray,  beg,  and  raise  a doleful  cry. — Dryden 
Woful  applies  to  the  circumstances  and  situations  of 
men  ; a scene  is  woful  in  which  we  witness  a largi 
family  of  young  children  suffering  under  the  compli 
cated  horrours  of  sickness  and  want;  ‘A  brutish 
temptation  made  Samson,  from  a judge  of  Israel,  a 
woful  judgement  upon  it.’— South.  Rueful  a[)plies  to 
the  outward  indications  of  inward  sorrow  depicted 
in  the  looks  or  countenance.  The  term  is  commonly 
applied  to  the  sorrows  which  spring  from  a gloomy  or 
distorted  imagination,  and  has  therefore  acquired  a 
somewhat  ludicrous  acceptation  ; lienee  we  find  in 
Don  Quixote,  the  knight  of  the  rueful  countenance 
introduced.  The  term  is  however  used  in  poetry  in  a 
serious  sense ; 

Cocytus  nam’d,  of  lamentation  loud. 

Heard  on  the  rueful  stream.— Milton. 

MEAN,  PITIFUL,  SORDID. 

The  moral  application  of  these  terms  to  the  charac- 
ters of  men,  in  their  transactions  with  each  other,  is 
what  constitutes  their  common  signification.  What 
ever  a man  does  in  common  with  those  below  him  is 
mean;  it  evinces  a temper  that  is  prone  to  sink  rather 
than  to  rise  in  the  scale  of  society ; whatever  makes 
him  an  object  of  pity,  and  consequently  of  contempt 
for  his  sunken  character,  makes  him  pitiful:  what 
ever  makes  him  grovel  and  crawl  in  the  dust,  licking 
up  the  dross  and  filth  of  the  earth,  is  sordid,  from  the 
Latin  sordeo  to  be  filthy  and  nasty.  Meanness  is  in 
many  cases  only  relatively  bad  as  it  respects  the  dis- 
posal of  our  property:  for  instance,  what  is  meanness 
in  one,  might  be  generosity  or  prudence  in  another: 
the  due  estimate  of  circumstances  is  allowable  in  all, 
but  it  is  meanness  for  atiy  one  to  attempt  to  save,  at  the 
expense  of  others,  that  which  he  can  conveniently 
afford  either  to  give  or  pay : hence  an  undue  spirit  of 
seeking  gain  or  advantage  for  one’s  self  to  the  detri- 
ment of  others,  is  denominated  a mean  temper:  of 
this  temper  the  world  affords  such  abundant  examples, 
that  it  may  almost  seem  unnecessary  to  specify  any 
particulars,  or  else  I would  say  it  is  mean  in  those  who 
keep  servants,  to  want  to  deprive  them  of  any  fair 
sources  of  emolument;  it  is  mean  for  ladies  in  their 
carriages,  and  attended  by  their  livery  servants,  to 
take  up  the  time  of  a tradesman  by  bartering  with  him 
about  sixpences  or  shillings  in  the  price  of  his  articles, 
it  is  mean  for  a gentleman  to  do  that  for  himself  which, 
according  to  his  circumstances,  he  might  get  another  to 
do  for  him ; 

Can  you  imagine  I so  mean  could  pi  five. 

To  save  my  life  by  changing  of  my  K' ve  1 

I RYDEN. 

Pitif  ulness  goes  farther  than  meanness ' it  is  not 
merely  that  which  degrades,  but  unmans  1 peison; 
it  is  that  which  is  bad  as  well  as  low : when  the  fear 
of  evil  or  the  love  of  gain  prompts  a man  to  sacrifice 
his  character  and  forfeit  his  veracity  he  becomes  truly 
pitiful : Blifield  in  Tom  Jones  is  the  character  whom 
all  pronounce  to  be  pitiful;  ‘The  Jews  tell  us  of  a 
two  fold  Messiah,  a vile  and  most  pitiful  fetch,  in 
vented  only  to  evade  what  they  cannot  answei  ’ — 
Prideaux.  Sordidness  is  peculiarly  applical  te  to 
one’s  love  of  gain ; although  of  a more  corrupt,  yet 
it  is  not  of  so  degrading  a nature  as  the  two  former: 
the  sordid  man  does  not  deal  in  trifles  like  the  mean 
man ; and  has  nothing  so  low  and  vicious  in  him  as 
the  pitiful  man.  A continual  habit  of  getting  money 
will  engender  a sordid  love  of  it  in  the  human  mind" 
but  nothing  short  of  a radically  contemptible  character 
leads  a man  to  be  pitiful.  A mean  man  is  thought 


412 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


lightly  of:  a pitiful  man  is  held  in  profound  contempt: 
a sordid  rn an  is  hated.  Meanness  descends  to  that 
which  is  insignihcant  and  worthless ; 

Nature,  I thought,  perform’d  too  mean  a part, 
Forming  her  movements  to  the  rules  of  art. 

Swift. 

Pitifulness  sinks  into  that  which  is  despicable ; 

Those  men  who  give  themselves  airs  of  bravery  on 
refleeting  upon  the  last  scenes  of  others,  may  behave 
the  most  pitifully  in  their  own.’ — Richardson.  Sor- 
didness contariMiiates  the  mind  with  what  is  flml ; ‘ It 
is  strange,  since  the  priest’s  office  heretofore  was  always 
splendid,  that  it  is  now  looked  upon  as  a piece  of  reli- 
gion, and  to  make  it  low  and  sordid' — South. 

This  my  assertion  proves,  he  may  be  old. 

And  yet  not  sordid,  who  refuses  gold. 

Denham. 


SORRY,  GRIEVED,  HURT. 

Sorry  tind  grieved  are  epithets  somewhat  differing 
from  their  primitives  sorrow  and  grief  {v.  ^dffliction), 
Inasmuch  as  they  are  applied  to  ordinary  subjects. 
We  speak  ol  being  sorry  for  any  thing,  however 
trivial,  which  concerns  ourselves ; 

The  ass,  approaching  next,  confess’d 
That  in  his  heart  he  lov’d  a Jest; 

One  fault  he  hath,  is  sorry  for ’t. 

His  ears  are  half  a foot  too  short — Swift. 

We  are  commonly  ^-rieued  for  that  which  concerns 
others ; 

The  mimick  ape  began  to  chatter. 

How  evil  tongues  his  name  bespatter; 

He  saw,  and  he  was  griev'd  to  see’t. 

His  zeal  was  sometimes  indiscreet. — Swift. 

[ am  sorry  that  I was  not  at  home  when  a person 
called  upon  me;  I am  grieved  that  it  is  not  in  my 
power  to  serve  a friend  who  stands  in  need.  Both 
these  terms  respect  only  that  which  we  do  ourselves: 
hurt  {v.  To  displease  and  To  injure)  respects  that 
which  is  done  to  us,  denoting  a painful  feeling  from 
hurt  cr  wounded  feelings  ; we  are  hurt  at  being  treated 
with  disrespect;  ‘No  man  is  hurt,  at  least  few  are  so, 
by  hearing  his  neighbour  esteemed  a worthy  man.’ — 
Bla.r. 


UNHAPPY,  MISERABLE,  WRETCHED. 

Unhappy  is  literally  not  to  be  happy;  this  is  the 
negative  condition  of  many  who  might  be  happy  if 
they  pleased.  Miserable,  from  misereor,  to  pity,  sig- 
nifies to  deserve  pity,  which  is  to  be  positively  and 
extremely  unhappy:  this  is  the  lot  only  of  a com- 
paratively few.  fVretched,  from  our  word  wreck,  the 
Saxon  wrecca  an  exile,  and  the  like,  sigtiifies  cast 
away  or  abandoned ; that  is,  particularly  miserable, 
which  is  the  lot  of  still  fewer.  As  happiness  lies  pro- 
perly in  the  mind,  unhappy  is  taken  in  the  proper 
sense,  with  regard  to  the  state  of  the  feelings,  but 
is  figuratively  extended  to  the  outward  circumstances 
which  occasion  the  painful  feelings;  we  iead  an  un- 
happy life,  or  are  in  an  unhappy  condition:  as  that 
which  excites  the  compassion  of  others  must  be  ex- 
ternal, and  the  state  of  abandonment  must  of  itself  be 
an  outward  state,  miserable  and  wretched  are  properly 
applied  to  the  outward  circumstances  which  cause  the 
pain,  and  improperly  to  the  pain  which  is  occasioned. 
We  can  measure  the  force  of  these  words,  that  is  to 
say,  the  degree  of  unhappiness  which  they  express, 
only  by  the  circumstance  which  causes  the  unhappi- 
ness. Unhappy  is  an  indefinite  term  ; as  we  may  be 
unhappy  from  slight  circumstances,  or  from  those 
which  are  important;  a child  may  be  said  to  be  un- 
happy at  the  loss  of  a plaything;  a man  is  unhappy 
who  leads  a vicious  life ; miserable  and  wretched  are 
more  limited  in  their  application;  a child  cannot  be 
either  miserable  or  wretched;  and  he  who  is  so,  has 
some  serious  cause  either  in  his  own  mind  or  in  his 
circumstances  to  make  him  so:  a man  is  miserable 
who  is  tormented  by  his  conscience ; a mother  will  be 
wretched  who  sees  her  child  violently  torn  from  her. 

The  same  distinction  holds  good  when  taken  to  de- 
lignate  the  outward  circumstances  themse'ves;  he  is 


an  unhappy  man  whom  nobody  likes,  and  who  likes 
nobody;  every  criminal  suffering  the  punishment  of 
his  offences  is  an  unhappy  man  ; 

Such  is  the  fate  unhappy  women  find. 

And  such  the  curse  entail’d  upon  our  kind. 

Rowe. 

The  condition  of  the  poor  is  particularly  miserable  in 
countries  which  are  not  blessed  witli  tlie  abundance 
that  England  enjoys ; 

These  miseries  are  more  than  may  be  borne. 

Shaespeare. 

Philoctetes,  abandoned  by  the  Greeks  in  the  island  of 
Lemnos,  a prey  to  the  most  poignant  grief  and  the 
horrours  of  indigence  and  solitude,  was  a wretched 
man ; 

’T  is  murmur,  discontent,  distrust. 

That  makes  you  wretched. — Gav. 

Unhappy  is  only  applicable  to  that  which  respects 
the  happiness  of  man ; but  miserable  and  wretched 
may  be  said  of  that  which  is  mean  and  worthless  in  its 
nature;  a writer  may  be  either  miserable  or  wretched 
according  to  the  lowness  of  the  measure  at  which'  he  is 
rated;  so  likewise  any  performance  may  be 
or  wretched,  a house  may  be  miserable,  or  wretched, 
and  the  like. 


TO  EMBARRASS,  PERPLEX,  ENTANGLE 

Embarrass  {v.  Difficult)  respects  a person’s  manners 
or  circumstances;  perplex  {v.  To  distress)  his  views 
and  conduct ; entangle  (v.  To  disengage)  is  said  of  par- 
ticular circumstances.  Embarrassments  depend  alto 
gether  on  ourselves ; the  want  of  prudence  and  pre- 
sence of  mind  are  the  common  causes  ; perplexities 
depend  on  extraneous  circumstances  as  well  as  our 
selves;  extensive  dealings  with  others  are  mostly  at- 
tended with  perplexities ; entanglements  arise  mostly 
from  the  evil  designs  of  others. 

That  embarrasses  which  interrupts  the  even  course 
or  progress  of  one’s  actions;  ‘Cervantes  had  so  much 
kindness  for  Don  Ciuixote,  that  however  he  cm 
barrasscs  him  with  absurd  distresses,  he  gives  him 
so  mucii  sense  and  virtue  as  may  preserve  our  es 
teem.’ — Johnson.  That  perplexes  which  interferes 
with  one’s  opinions ; ‘ It  is  scarcely  possible,  in  the 
regularity  and  composure  of  the  present  time,  to  image 
the  tumult  of  absurdity  and  clamour  of  contradiction 
which  perplexed  doctrine,  disordered  jn  actice,  and  dis- 
turbed both  publick  ami  private  quiet  in  the  time 
of  the  rebellion.’ — Johnson.  That  entangles  which 
binds  a person  in  his  decisions;  ‘I  presume  you  do  not 
entangle  yourself  in  the  particular  controversies  be- 
tween the  Romanists  and  us.’— Clarendon.  Pecu- 
niary difficulties  embarrass,  or  contending  feelings  pro- 
duce embarrassment : contrary  counsels  or  interests 
perplex:  law  suits  ewtawjg/e.  Steadiness  of  mind  pre 
vents  embarrassment  in  the  outward  behaviour 
Firmness  of  character  is  requisite  in  the  midst  of 
perplexities:  caution  must  be  employed  to  gi’trd 
against  entanglements. 


TO  TROUBLE,  DISTURB,  MOLEST. 

Whatever  uneasiness  or  painful  sentiment  is  pro 
duced  in  the  mind  by  outward  circumstances  is  effected 
either  by  trouble  (v.  .Affliction),  by  disturbance  (v.  Com- 
motion), or  by  molestation  {v.  To  inconvenience) 
Trouble  is  the  most  general  in  its  application  ; we  may 
be  troubled  by  the  want  of  a thing,  or  troubled  by  that 
which  is  unsuitable;  we  are  disturbed  and  molested 
only  by  that  which  actively  troubles.  Pecuniarj 
wants  are  the  greatest  troubles  in  life;  the  perverse- 
ness of  servants,  the  indisposition  or  ill  behaviour  of 
children,  are  domestick  troubles;  ‘Ulysses  was  ex  j 
ceedingly  troubled  at  the  sight  of  his  mother  (in  the 
Elysian  fields).’ — Addison.  The  noise  of  children 
is  a disturbance,  and  the  prospect  of  want  disturbs 
the  mind.  Trouble  may  be  permanent;  disturbance 
and  molestation  are  temporary,  and  both  refer  to  the 
peace  which  is  destroyed:  a disturbance  ruffles  or 
throws  out  of  a tranquil  state;  a burden* 

or  bears  hard  either  on  the  body  or  the  mind  noise  is 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  . 4t3 


aiWays  a disturbance  to  one  who  wishes  to  think  or 
to  remain  in  quiet; 

No  buzzing  sounds  disturb  their  golden  sleep. 

Dryden. 

Talking,  or  any  noise,  is  a molestation  to  one  who  is 
in  an  irritable  frame  of  body  or  mind ; 

Both  are  doom’d  to  death ; 

And  the  dead  wake  not  to  molest  the  living. 

Rowe. 

TROUBLESOME,  IRKSOME,  VEXATIOUS. 

These  epithets  are  applied  to  the  objects  which  create 
trouble  or  vexation. 

Irksome  is  compounded  of  irk  and  some,  from  the 
German  ar^er  vexation,  which  probably  comes  from 
the  Greek  apyh? ; troublesome  (v.  To  afflict)  is  liere,  as 
before,  the  generick  term ; irksome  and  vexatious  are 
species  of  the  troublesome  : what  is  troublesome  creates 
either  bodily  or  mental  pain  ; what  is  irksome  creates  a 
mixture  of  bodily  and  mental  pain ; and  what  is  vexa- 
tious creates  purely  mental  pain.  What  requires  great 
exertion,  or  a too  long  continued  exertion  or  exertions, 
coupled  with  difficulties,  is  troublesome ; in  this  sense 
the  laying  in  stores  for  the  winter  is  a troublesome 
work  for  the  ants,  and  compiling  a dictionary  is  a 
troublesome  labour  to  some  writers ; ‘ The  incursions  of 
troublesome  thoughts  are  often  violent  and  importu- 
nate.’—Johnson.  What  requires  any  exertion  which 
we  are  unwilling  to  make,  or  interrupts  the  quiet 
v/hich  we  particularly  long  for,  is  irksotie ; in  this 
sense  giving  and  receiving  of  visits  is  irksome  to  some 
persons;  travelling  is  irksome  to  others ; 

For  not  to  irksome  toil,  but  to  delight  he  made  us. 

Milton. 

What  comes  across  our  particular  wishes,  or  disap- 
points us  in  a particular  manner,  is  vexatious ; in  this 
sense  the  loss  of  a prize  which  we  had  hoped  to  gain 
may  be  vexatious ; 

The  pensive  goddess  has  already  taught 

How  vain  is  hope,  and  how  vexatious  thought. 

Prior. 

DIFFICULTIES,  EMBARRASSMENTS, 
TROUBLES. 

These  terms  are  all  applicable  to  a person’s  concerns 
In  life ; but  difflculties  relate  to  the  difflculty  {v.  Diffi- 
culty) of  conducting  a business;  embarrassments  re- 
late to  the  confusion  attending  a state  of  debt;  and 
trouble  to  the  pain  which  is  the  natural  consequence 
of  not  Ailfilling  engagements  or  answering  demands. 
Of  the  three,  difficulties  expresses  the  least,  and  trou- 
bles the  most.  A young  man  on  his  entrance  into  the 
world  will  unavoidably  experience  difficulties.,  if  not 
provided  with  ample  means  in  the  outset;  ‘Young 
Cunningham  was  recalled  to  Dublin,  where  he  con- 
tinued ffir  four  or  five  years,  and  of  course  experienced 
all  the  difficulties  that  attend  distressed  situations.’ — 
Johnson.  Let  a man’s  means  be  ever  so  ample,  if  he 
have  not  prudence  and  talents  fitted  for  business,  he 
will  hardly  keep  himself  free  from  embarrassments; 

‘ Few  men  would  have  had  resolution  fo  write  books 
with  such  embarrassments  (as  Milton  laboured  under).’ 
—Johnson.  There  are  no  troubles  so  great  as  those 
which  are  produced  by  pecuniary  difficulties,  which  are 
the  greatest  troubles  that  can  arise  to  disturb  the  peace 
of  a man’s  mind;  ‘Virgil’s  sickliness,  studies,  and  the 
troubles  he  met  with,  turned  liis  hair  gray  before  the 
usual  time  ’ — Walsh. 


DEJECTION,  DEPRESSION,  MELANCHOLY. 

Dejection,  from  dejicio  to  cast  down,  and  depression, 
from  deprimo  to  press  or  sink  down,  have  both  regard 
to  the  state  of  the  animal  spirits;  melancholy,  from  the 
Greek  pcXayxo^ia  biack  bite,  regards  the  state  of  the 
humours  in  general,  or  of  the  particular  humour  called 
tiie  bile. 

Dejection  and  depression  are  occasional,  and  depend 
on  oCitward  circumstances;  melancholy  is  permanent, 
and  lies  in  the  constitution.  Depression  is  but  a de- 
gree of  dejection:  slight  circumstances  may  occasion 
a depression;  distressing  events  occasion  a dejection: 
the  death  of  a near  and  dear  relative  may  be  expected 


to  produce  dejection  in  persons  of  the  greatest  equa 
nimity ; 

So  bursting  frequent  from  Atrides’  breast. 

Sighs  following  sighs  his  inward  fears  confess  d: 

Now  o’er  the  fields  dejected  he  surveys. 

From  thousand  Trojan  fires  the  mountain  blaze. 

PorK 

Lively  tempers  are  most  liable  to  depressions  ; ‘I  will 
only  desire  you  to  allow  me  that  Hector  was  in  an  ab- 
solute certainty  of  death,  and  depressed  over  and  above 
with  the  conscience  of  being  in  an  ill  cause.’— Pope 
Melancholy  is  a disease  which  nothing  but  clear  viewf 
of  religion  can  possibly  correct;  ‘I  have  read  some- 
where in  the  history  of  ancient  Greece,  that  the  womer 
of  the  country  were  seized  with  an  unaccountable 
melancholy,  wliich  disposed  several  of  them  to  mak* 
away  with  themselves.'— Addison. 

DESPAIR,  DESPERATION,  DESPONDENCY. 

Despair  and  desperation,  from  the  French  desespoir, 
compounded  of  the  privative  de  and  the  Latin  spes 
hope,  signifies  the  absence  or  the  annihilation  of  all 
hope;  despondency,  from  despond,  in  Latin  despondeo, 
compounded  of  the  privative  de  and  spondeo  to  promise, 
signifies  literally  to  deprive  in  a solemn  manner,  or  cut 
off  from  every  gleam  of  hope. 

Despair  is  a state  of  mind  produced  by  the  view  of 
external  circumstances;  desperation  unA  despondency 
may  be  the  fruit  of  the  imagination  ; the  former  there- 
fore always  rests  on  some  ground,  the  latter  are  some- 
times ideal : despair  lies  mostly  in  reflection ; despera 
tion  and  despondency  \n  the  feelings;  the  former  marks 
a state  of  vehement  and  impatient  feeling,  the  latter 
that  of  fallen  and  mournful  feeling.  Despair  is  often 
the  forerunner  of  desperation  and  despondency,  but  it 
is  not  necessarily  accompanied  with  effects  so  power- 
ful ; the  strongest  mind  may  have  occasion  to  despair 
when  circumstances  warrant  the  sentiment;  men  of 
an  impetuous  character  are  apt  to  run  into  a state  uf 
desperation ; a weak  mind  full  of  morbid  sensibility  it 
most  liable  to  fall  into  despondency. 

Despair  interrupts  or  checks  exertion 

Despair  and  grief  distract  my  lab’ring  mind  ; 

Gods!  what  a crime  my  impious  heart  design’d 

Pope 

Desperation  impels  to  greater  exertions;  ‘ It  may  be 
generally  remarked  of  those  who  squander  what  they 
know  their  fortune  is  not  sufficient  to  allow,  that  in 
their  most  jovial  moments  there  always  breaks  out 
some  proof  of  discontent  and  impatience ; they  cither 
scatter  with  a wild  desperation,  or  pay  their  money 
with  a peevish  anxiety.’ — Johnson.  Despondency 
unfits  for  exertion  ; ‘Thomson  submitting  his  produc- 
tions to  .some  who  thought  themselves  qualified  to 
criticise,  he  heard  of  nothing  but  faults;  but  finding 
other  judges  more  favourable,  he  did  not  suffer  himself 
to  sink  into  despondence.' — Johnson.  When  a phy- 
sician despairs  of  making  a cure,  he  lays  aside  the  ap- 
plication of  remedies;  when  a soldier  sees  nothing  but 
death  or  disgrace  before  him,  he  is  driven  to  despera 
tion,  and  redoubles  his  efforts;  when  a tradesman 
sees  before  him  nothing  but  failure  for  the  present,  and 
want  for  the  future,  he  may  sink  into  despondency . 
despair  is  justifiable  as  far  as  it  is  a rational  calcula 
tion  into  futurity  from  the  present  appearances:  des 
peration  may  arise  from  extraordinary  circumstances 
or  the  action  of  strong  passions;  in  the  former  case  it 
is  unavoidable,  and  may  serve  to  rescue  from  great 
distress;  in  the  latter  case  it  is  moslly  attended  witj* 
fatal  consequences:  despondency  is  a disease  of  thfc 
mind,  which  nothing  but  a firm  trust  in  the  goodness 
of  Providence  can  obviate. 


DESPERATE,  HOPELESS. 

Desperate  (v.  Despair)  is  applicable  to  persona  o- 
things;  hopeless  to  things  only:  a person  makes  : 
desperate  effort ; he  undertakes  a hopeless  task. 

Desperate,  wlien  applied  to  thimrs,  expresses  mort 
than  hopeless ; the  latter  marks  the  absence  of  hope  at 
to  the  attainment  of  good,  the  former  marks  the  absence 
of  hope  as  to  the  removal  of  an  evil : a person  who  ia 
in  a desperate  condition  is  overwhelmed  with  actual 
trouble  for  the  present,  and  the  prospect  of  its  son- 


4L4 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


tinuance  for  the  future;  he  whose  case  is  hopeless  is 
without  the  prospect  of  effecting  the  end  he  has  in 
view:  gamesters  are  frequently  brought  into  desperate 
situations  when  bereft  of  every  thing  that  might  pos- 
sibly serve  to  lighten  the  burdens  of  their  misfortunes; 
Before  the  ships  a desperate  stand  they  made, 

And  fir’d  the  troops,  and  call’d  the  gods  to  aid. 

Pope. 

It  is  a hopeless  undertaking  to  endeavour  to  reclaim 
men  who  have  plunged  themselves  deep  into  the  laby- 
“inths  of  vice ; 

Th’  Eneans  wish  in  vain  their  wanted  chief, 
Hopeless  of  flight,  more  hopeless  of  relief. 

Dryden. 


HOPE,  EXPECTATION,  TRUST,  CONFIDENCE. 

Anticipation  of  futurity  is  the  common  idea  ex- 
pressed by  all  these  words.  Hope^  in  German  hojfen, 
probably  from  the  Greek  dmirevoj  to  look  at  with  plea- 
sure, is  welcome ; expectation  {v.  To  await)  is  either 
welcome  or  unwelcome  : we  hope  only  for  that  which 
is  good ; we  expect  the  bad  as  well  as  the  good.  In 
bad  weather  we  hope  it  will  soon  be  better ; but  in  a 
bad  season  we  expect  a bad  harvest,  and  in  a good 
season  a good  harvest.  Hope  is  simply  a presentiment; 
it  may  vary  in  degree,  more  according  to  the  temper 
of  the  mind  than  the  nature  of  the  circumstances, 
Bome  hope  where  there  is  no  ground  for  hope,  and  others 
despair  where  they  might  hope : expectation  is  a con- 
viction that  excludes  doubt  ;*  we  expect  \n  proportion 
as  that  conviction  is  positive:  we  Aope  that  which  may 
be  or  can  possibly  be  ; we  expect  that  which  must  be 
Of  which  ought  to  be.  The  young  man  hopes  to  live 
many  years ; the  old  man  expects  to  die  in  a few  years. 
Hope  is  a precious  gift  to  man ; it  is  denied  to  no  one 
under  any  circumstances;  it  is  a solace  in  affliction, 
and  a support  under  adversity;  it  throws  a ray  of  light 
over  the  darkest  scene:  expectation  is  an  evil  rather 
than  a good;  whether  we  expect  the  thing  that  is 
agreeable  or  otherwise,  it  is  seldom  attended  with  any 
thing  but  pain.  Hope  is  justified  by  the  nature  of  our 
condition  ; since  every  thing  is  changing,  we  have  also 
reason  to  hope  that  a present  evil,  however  great,  may 
be  succeeded  by  something  less  severe ; 

Regions  of  sorrow,  doleful  shades,  where  peace 

And  rest  can  never  dwell ; hope  never  comes. 

That  comes  to  all.— Milton. 

Expectation  is  often  an  act  of  presumption,  in  which 
the  mind  outsteps  its  own  powers,  and  estimates  the 
future  as  if  it  were  present;  since  every  thing  future 
is  uncertain,  but  death,  there  is  but  that  one  legitimate 
subject  of  expectation; 

All  these  within  the  dungeon’s  depth  remain, 

Despairing  pardon,  and  expecting  pain. — Dryden. 

Hope  may  be  deferred,  but  never  dies;  it  is  a pleasure 
as  lasting  as  it  is  great ; expectation  is  swallowed  up  in 
certainty;  it  seldom  leaves  anything  but  disappoint- 
ment. 

Trust  (v.  Belief)  and  confidence  (v.  To  confide) 
agree  with  hope  in  regard  to  the  objects  anticipated  ; 
they  agree  with  expectation  in  regard  to  the  certainty 
of  the  anticipation  : expectation,  trust,  and  confidence, 
when  applied  to  some  future  good,  differ  principally  in 
the  grounds  on  which  this  certainty  or  positive  convic- 
tion rests.  Expectation  springs  either  from  the  cha- 
racter of  the  individual  or  the  nature  of  the  event 
which  is  the  subject  of  anticipation  : in  the  former  it 
is  a decision  ; in  the  latter  a rational  conclusion : trust 
springs  altogether  from  a view  of  the  circumstances 
connected  with  the  event,  and  is  an  inference  or  con- 
clusion of  the  mind  drawn  from  the  whole  ; 

Our  country’s  gods,  in  whom  our  trust  we  place. 

Dryden. 

Confidence  arises  more  from  the  temper  of  the  mind, 
than  from  the  nature  of  the  object ; it  is  rather  an  in- 
stantaneous decision  than  a rational  conclusion  ; 

His  pride 

Humbled  by  such  rebuke,  so  far  beneath 

His  confidence  to  equal  God  in  pow’r.— Milton. 

* See  Eberhardt:  “Hoffnung,  Ei-wartung,  Vertrauen, 
Zuvprslcht. 


Expectation  and  confidence  therefore  are  often  errone 
ous,  and  mostly  unwarrantable ; the  latter  still  more 
frequently  than  the  former : trust,  like  hope,  is  always 
warrantable,  even  though  it  may  sometimes  be  de- 
ceived. 

If  we  expect  our  friends  to  assist  us  in  time  of  need, 
it  may  be  a reasonable  expectation  founded  upon  their 
tried  regard  for  us  and  promises  of  assistance;  or  it 
may  be  an  extravagant  expectation  founded  upon  our 
self-love  and  selfishness : if  we  trust  that  an  eminent 
physician  will  cure  us,  it  is  founded  upon  our  know- 
ledge of  his  skill,  and  of  the  nature  of  our  case  ; if  we 
indulge  a confident  expectation  that  our  performances 
will  meet  with  universal  approbation,  it  is  founded 
upon  our  vanity  and  ignorance  of  ourselves.  The 
most  modest  man  is  permitted  to  hope  that  his  endea 
vours  to  please  will  not  fail  of  success  ; and  to  trust  so 
far  in  his  own  powers  as  to  be  encouraged  to  proceed  : 
a prudent  man  will  never  think  himself  authorized  to 
expect  success,  and  still  less  to  be  confident  of  it,  when 
a thousand  contingencies  may  intervene  to  defeat  the 
proposed  end. 


TO  CONFIDE,  TRUST. 

Both  these  verbs  express  a reliance  on  the  fidelity 
of  another,  but  confide,  in  Latin  confido,  compounded 
of  con  and  fido,  sipifying  to  place  a trust  in  a person, 
is  to  trust  (w.  Belief)  as  the  species  to  the  genus;  we 
always  trust  when  we  confide,  but  not  vice  versd. 
We  confide  to  a person  that  which  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  to  ourselves ; we  trust  to  him  whenever 
we  rest  on  his  word  for  any  thing.  We  need  rely  only 
on  a person’s  integrity  when  we  trust  to  him,  but  we 
rely  also  on  his  abilities  and  mental  qualifications 
when  we  place  confidence ; it  is  an  extraordinary  trust, 
founded  on  a powerful  conviction  in  a person’s  favour 

Confidence  frequently  supposes  something  secret  as 
well  as  personal ; trust  resuects  only  the  personal  in- 
terest. A king  confides  in  his  ministers  and  generals 
for  the  due  execution  of  his  plans,  and  the  administra- 
tion of  the  laws ; one  friend  confides  in  another  when 
he  discloses  tc  him  all  his  private  concerns:  a mer- 
chant trusts  to  his  clerks  when  he  employs  them  in 
his  business ; individuals  trust  each  other  with  por- 
tions of  their  property ; 

Men  live  and  prosper  but  in  mutual  trust, 

A confidence  of  one  another’s  truth. — Southern 
Hence,  credit 

And  publick  trust  ’twixt  man  and  man  are  broken. 

Rowe. 

A breach  of  io-ust  evinces  a want  of  that  common 
principle  which  keeps  human  society  together;  but  a 
breach  of  confidence  betrays  a more  than  ordinary  share 
of  baseness  and  depravity. 

CONFIDENT,  DOGMATICAL,  POSITIVE. 

Confident,  from  confide  (v.  To  confide),  marks  the 
temper  of  confiding  in  one’s  self ; dogmatical,  from 
dogma  a maxim  or  assertion,  signifies  the  temper  of 
dealing  in  unqualified  assertions ; /les/true,  in  Latin 
positivus,  from  positus,  signifies  fixed  to  a point. 

The  first  two  of  these  words  denote  an  habitual  or 
permanent  state  of  mind  ; the  latter  cither  a partial  or 
an  habitual  temper.  There  is  much  of  confidence  in 
dogmatism  and  positivity,  but  it  expresses  more  than 
either.  Confidence  implies  a general  reliance  on  one’s 
abilities  in  whatever  we  undertake;  dogmatism  im- 
plies a reliance  on  the  truth  of  our  opinions  ; positivity 
a reliance  on  the  truth  of  our  assertions.  A confident 
man  is  always  ready  to  act,  as  he  is  sure  of  succeeding  , 
a dogmatical  man  is  always  ready  to  speak,  as  he  is 
sure  of  being  heard  ; a positive  man  is  determined  tc 
maintain  what  he  has  asserted,  as  he  is  convinced  tha* 
he  has  made  no  mistake. 

Confidence  is  opposed  to  diffidence ; dogmatism  tc 
skepticism  ; positivity  to  hesitation.  A confident  man 
mostly  fails  for  want  of  using  the  necessary  means  to 
ensure  success;  ‘People  forget  how  little  it  is  that 
they  know  and  how  much  less  it  is  that  they  can  do, 
when  they  grow  confident  upon  any  present  state  of 
things.’ — South.  A dogmatical  man  is  mostly  in 
errour,  because  he  substitutes  his  own  partial  opinions 
for  such  as  are  established  ; ‘If  you  are  neither  dogma- 
tical, nor  show  either  by  your  words  or  your  actions 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  . 415 


lliat  you  are  full  of  yourself,  all  will  the  more  heartily 
rejoice  at  your  victory.’ — Budgell.  A positive  man 
is  mostly  deceived,  because  lie  trusts  more  to  his  own 
senses  and  memory  than  he  ought ; ‘ Positive  as  you 
now  aue  in  your  opinions,  and  confident  in  your  asser- 
tions, be  assured  that  the  time  approaches  when  both 
men  and  things  will  appear  to  you  in  a different  light.’ 
— Blair.  Self-knowledge  is  the  most  effectual  cure 
for  self-confidence ; an  acquaintance  with  men  and 
things  tends  to  lessen  dogmatism.  The  experience  of 
having  been  deceived  one’s  self,  and  the  observation 
that  others  are  perpetually  liable  to  be  deceived,  ought 
to  check  the  folly  of  being  positive  as  to  any  event  or 
circumstance  that  is  past. 


ASSURANCE,  CONFIDENCE. 

.Assurance  implies  either  the  act  of  making  another 
sure  {v.  To  affirm),  or  of  being  sure  one’s  self ; confi- 
dence implies  simply  the  act  of  the  mind  in  confiding, 
which  is  equivalent  to  a feeling. 

Assurance,  as  an  action,  is  to  confidence  as  the  means 
to  the  end.  We  give  a jrerson  an  assurance  in  order 
to  inspire  him  with  confidence. 

Assurance  and  confidence,  as  a sentiment  in  our- 
selves, may  respect  either  that  which  is  external  of  us, 
or  that  which  belongs  to  ourselves ; in  the  first  case 
they  are  both  taken  in  an  indifferent  sense;  but  the 
feeling  of  assurance  is  much  stronger  than  that  of  con- 
fidence, and  applies  to  objects  that  interest  the  feel- 
ings ; ‘ I appeal  to  posterity,  says  ^Eschylus ; to  pos- 
terity I consecrated  my  works,  in  the  assurance  that 
they  will  meet  that  reward  from  time  which  the  par- 
tiality of  my  contemporaries  refuses  to  bestow.’ — Cum- 
berland. Confidence,  on  the  other  hand,  applies  only 
to  such  objects  as  exercise  the  understanding  ; ‘ All  the 
arguments  upon  which  a man,  who  is  telling  the  pri- 
vate affairs  of  another,  may  ground  his  confidence  of 
security,  he  must,  upon  reflection,  know  to  be  uncer- 
tain, because  he  finds  them  without  effect  upon  him- 
self.’— Johnson.  Thus  we  have  an  assurance  of  a 
life  to  come  ; an  assurance  of  a blessed  immortality ; 
we  have  a confidence  in  a person’s  integrity.  As  re- 
rpects  ourselves  exclusively,  assurance  is  employed  to 
designate  either  an  occasional  feeling,  or  a habit  of 
the  mind;  confidence  is  for  the  most  part  an  occa- 
sional feeling;  assurance,  therefore,  in  this  sense, 
may  be  used  indifferently,  but  in  general  it  has  a bad 
acceptation  ; but  confidence  has  an  ind  fferent  or  a good 
sense. 

Assurance  is  a self  possession  of  the  mind,  arising 
from  the  conviction  that  all  in  ourselves  is  right;  ‘I 
never  sit  silent  tn  company  when  secret  history  is 
talking,  but  I am  reproached  for  want  of  assurance.' — 
Johnson.  Confidence  is  self  possession  only  in  parti- 
cular cases,  grounded  on  the  reliance  we  have  in  our 
abilities  or  our  character ; ‘ The  hope  of  fame  is  neces- 
sarily connected  with  such  considerations  as  must 
abate  the  ardour  of  confidence,  and  repress  the  vigour 
of  pursuit.’ — Johnson. 

The  man  of  assurance  never  loses  himself  under  any 
circumstances,  however  trying ; he  is  calm  and  easy 
when  another  is  abashed  and  confounded  ; the  man 
who  has  confidence  will  generally  have  it  in  cases  that 
warrant  him  to  trust  to  himself. 

A liar  utters  his  falsehoods  with  an  air  of  assurance, 
in  order  the  more  etfectually  to  gain  belief ; conscious 
innocence  enables  a person  to  speak  with  confidence 
when  interrogated. 

Assurance  shows  itself  in  the  behaviour,  confidence 
in  the  conduct.  Young  people  are  apt  to  assert  every 
thing  with  a tone  of  assurance;  ‘ Modesty,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Knowledge,  and  Assurance,  the  offspring  of 
Ignorance,  met  accidentally  upon  the  road ; and  as 
both  had  a long  way  to  go,  and  had  experienced  from 
former  hardships  that  they  W'ere  alike  unqualified  to 
pursue  their  journey  alone,  they  agreed,  for  their  mu- 
tual advantage,  to  travel  together.’ — Moore.  No  man 
should  undertake  any  thing  without  a certain  degree 
of  confidence  in  himself;  ‘I  must  observe  that  there 
is  a vicious  modesty  which  justly  deserves  to  be  ridi- 
culed, and  which  those  very  persons  often  discover, 
who  value  themselves  most  upon  a well-bred  confi- 
dence This  happens  when  a man  is  ashamed  to  act 
’ up  to  his  reason,  and  would  not,  upon  any  considera- 
lon.  he  surprised  in  tlie  practice  of  those  duties  for 


the  performance  of  which  he  was  sent  into  the  worW  ’ 
— Addison. 


ASSURANCE,  IMPUDENCE. 

Assurance  (u.  Assurance),  and  impudence,  which 
literally  implies  shamelessness,  are  so  closely  allied  to 
each  other,  that  assurance  is  distinguished  from  impu- 
dence more  \u  ihe  manner  than  the  spirit;  for  impu 
dence  has  a grossness  attached  to  it  which  does  not  be- 
long to  assurance. 

Vulgar  people  are  impudent  because  they  have  assu- 
rance to  break  through  all  the  forms  of  society  ; but 
those  who  are  more  cultivated  will  have  their  assu- 
rance conlxoWed  by  its  decencies  and  refinements;  ‘A 
man  of  assurance,  though  at  first  it  only  denoted  a 
person  of  a free  and  open  carriage,  is  now  very  usually 
applied  to  a profligate  wretch,  who  can  break  through 
all  the  rules  of  decency  and  morality  without  a blusli. 
I shall  endeavour,  therefore,  in  this  essay,  to  restore 
these  words  to  their  true  meaning,  to  prevent  the  idea 
of  modesty  from  being  confounded  with  that  of  sheep- 
ishness, and  to  hinder  impudence  from  passing  foi 
assurance.' — Budgell. 


TO  AWAIT,  WAIT  FOR,  LOOK  FOR, 
EXPECT. 

Await  and  wait,  in  German, war-den,  comes  from 
wahren  to  see  or  look  after ; expect,  in  I^atin  expecto 
or  cxspecto,  compounded  of  ex  and  specto,  signifies  to 
look  out  after. 

All  these  terms  have  a reference  to  futurity,  and  our 
actions  with  regard  to  it. 

Await,  wait  for,  and  look  for  mark  a calculation 
of  consequences  and  a preparation  for  them  ; and 
expect  simply  a calculation  ; we  often  expect  with- 
out awaiting,  waiting,  or  looking  for,  but  never  the 
reverse. 

Await  is  said  of  serious  things ; wait  and  look  foi 
are  terms  in  familiar  use ; expect  is  employed  either 
seriously  or  otherwise. 

A person  expects  to  die,  or  awaits  the  hour  of  his 
dissolution;  he  expects  a letter,  waits /or  its  coming, 
and  looks  for  it  when  the  post  is  arrived. 

Await  indicates  the  disposition  of  the  mind;  waii 
for  the  regulation  of  the  outward  conduct  as  well  a« 
that  of  the  mind  ; look  for  is  a species  of  waiting 
drawn  fi  om  the  physical  action  of  the  eye,  and  may  be 
figuratively  applied  to  the  mind’s  eye,  in  which  latter 
sense  it  is  the  same  as  expect. 

It  is  our  duty,  as  well  as  our  interest,  to  await  the 
severest  trials  without  a murmur  ; 

This  said,  he  sat,  and  expectation  held 

His  looks  suspense,  awaiting  w’ho  appeared 

To  second,  or  oppose,  or  undertake 

The  perilous  attempt. — Milton. 

Not  less  resolv’d,  Antenor’s  valiant  heir 

Confronts  Achilles,  and  awaits  the  war. — Pope. 
Prudence  requires  us  to  wart  patiently  for  a suitable 
opportunity,  lather  than  be  premature  in  our  attempts 
to  obtain  any  objects;  ‘ Wait  till  thy  being  shall  be 
unfolded.’ — Blair.  When  children  are  too  much  in 
diilged  and  caressed,  they  are  apt  to  look  for  a repe- 
tition of  caresses  at  inconvenient  seasons;  ‘If  you 
ZooA: /or  a friend,  in  whose  temper  there  is  not  to  be 
found  the  least  inequality,  you  look  for  a pleasing 
phantom.’ — Blair.  It  is  in  vain  to  look  for  or  expect 
happiness  from  the  conjugal  state,  wdiicli  is  not  founded 
on  a cordial  and  mutual  regard  ; ‘ We  are  not  to  expect, 
from  our  intercourse  with  others,  all  that  satisfaction 
which  we  fondly  w'ish.’ — Blair. 


TO  CONSIGN,  COMMIT,  INTRUST. 

Consign,  in  French  consr^rrer,  Latin  consigno,  com 
pounded  of  con  and  sro-no,  signifies  to  seal  for  a sped 
fick  purpose,  also  to  deposite  ; commit,  in  French  com- 
mettre,  Latin  committo,  compounded  of  com  and  mitto 
to  put  together,  signifies  to  put  into  a person’s  hands; 
intrust,  compounded  of  in  and  trust,  signifies  to  put 
in  trust. 

The  idea  of  transferring  from  one’s  self  to  the  care 
of  another  is  common  to  these  terms.  What  is  con- 
signed is  either  given  absolutely  away  from  one’s  self 
or  only  conditionally  for  one’s  own  purpose  . 


116 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


And  oft  T wish,  amid  the  scene,  to  find 

Some  spot  to  real  happiness  consign'd. — Goldsmith. 
What  is  committed  or  intrusted  is  given  conditionally. 
A person  consigns  his  property  over  to  another  by  a 
deed  in  law;  a merchant  consigns  his  goods  to  an- 
other, to  dispose  of  them  for  his  advantage ; he  com- 
mits the  management  of  his  business  to  his  clerks,  and 
intrusts  them  with  the  care  of  his  property. 

Consign  expresses  a more  positive  measure  than 
commit.,  but  intrusting  is  more  or  less  positive  or  im- 
portant, according  to  the  nature  of  the  thing  intrusted. 
When  a child  is  consigned  to  the  care  of  another,  it  is 
an  unconditional  surrender  of  ones  trust  into  the 
hands  of  another; 

Atrides,  parting  for  the  Trojan  war. 

Consign'd  the  youthful  consort  to  his  care. — Pope. 
Any  person  may  be  committed  to  the  care  of  another 
with  various  limitations  ; ‘ In  a very  short  time  Lady 
Macclesfield  removed  her  son  from  her  sight,  by  com- 
mitting him  to  the  care  of  a poor  woman.’ — Johnson 
{Life  of  Savage).  When  a person  is  zratrirsfed  to  the 
care  of  another,  it  is  both  a partial  and  temporary  mat- 
ter, referring  mostly'  to  his  personal  safety,  and  that 
only  for  a limited  time.  A parent  does  most  wisely 
to  consign  the  whole  management  of  his  child’s  edu- 
cation to  one  individual,  in  whom  he  can  confide  ; if 
he  commit  it  in  part  only  to  any  one’s  care,  the  defi- 
ciency in  the  charge  is  likely  to  remain  unsupplied;  in 
infancy  children  must  be  more  or  less  intrusted  to  the 
care  of  servants,  but  prudent  parents  will  diminish  the 
frequency  of  these  occasions  as  much  as  possible. 

In  this  sense  the  word  intrust  may  be  applied  to 
other  minor  objects.  In  an  extended  application  of 
the  terms,  papers  are  said  to  be  consigned  to  an  editor 
of  a work  for  his  selection  and  arrangement.  The  in- 
spection of  any  publick  work  is  committed  to  proper 
officers.  A person  is  intrusted  with  a secret,  but  he 
may  also  be  intrusted  with  the  lives  of  others,  and 
every  tuing  else  which  they  hold ; on  the  same  ground 
power  is  intrusted  by  the  Almighty  to  kings,  or,  ac- 
cording to  republican  phraseology,  it  is  intrusted  by  the 
commonwealth  to  the  magistrate;  ‘Supposing  both 
equal  in  their  natural  integrity,  I ought  in  common 
prudence  to  fear  foul  play  from  an  indigent  person 
rather  tiian  from  one  whose  circumstances  seem  to 
have  placed  him  above  the  base  temptation  of  money. 
This  reason  makes  the  commonwealth  regard  her 
richest  subjects  as  the  fittest  to  be  intrusted  with  her 
highest  employments.’ — Addison. 

Consign  and  commit  are  used  in  the  figurative  sense. 
A thing  is  consigned  to  destruction,  or  committed  to 
ihe  flames.  Death  consigns  many  to  an  untimely 
grave:  a writer  commits  his  thoughts  to  the  press; 
‘ At  the  day  of  general  account,  good  men  are  then  to 
be  consigned  over  to  another  state,  a state  of  everlast- 
ing love  and  charity.’ — Atterbury. 

Is  my  muse  controll’d 

By  servile  awe  ? Born  free,  and  not  be  bold  ! 

At  least  I ’ll  dig  a hole  within  the  ground. 

And  to  the  trusty  earth  commit  the  sound. — Dryden. 


DEPENDENCE,  RELIANCE. 

Dependence.,  from  the  Latin  dependo,  de  and  pendo 
to  hang  from,  signifies  literally  to  rest  one’s  weight  by 
hanging  from  that  which  is  held ; rely,  compounded  of 
re  and  or  lie,  signifies  likewise  to  rest  one’s  weight 
by  lying  or  hanging  back  from  the  object  held. 

Dependence  is  the  general  term ; reliance  is  a spe- 
cies of  dependence : we  depend  either  on  persons  or 
things;  we  rely  on  persons  only:  dependence  serves 
for  that  which  is  immediate  or  remote ; reliance  serves 
for  the  future  only.  We  depend  upon  a person  for  that 
which  we  are  obliged  to  receive  or  led  to  expect  from 
him:  we  rely  upon  a person  for  that  which  he  has 
given  us  reason  to  expect  from  him. 

Dependence  is  an  outward  condition,  or  the  state  of 
ext</rnal  circumstances  ; reliance  is  a state  of  the  feel- 
ings with  regard  to  others.  We  depend  upon  God  for 
all  that  we  have  or  shall  have;  ‘ A man  who  uses  his 
b€st  endeavours  to  live  according  to  the  dictates  of 
virtue  and  right  reason  has  two  perpetual  sources  of 
cheerfulness,  in  the  consideration  of  his  own  nature, 
and  of  that  Being  on  whom  he  has  a dependence.' — 
Addison.  We  rely  upon  the  word  of  man  for  that 


which  he  has  promised  to  perform ; ‘ They  afforded  a 
sufficient  conviction  of  this  truth,  and  a firm  reliance 
on  the  promises  contained  in  it.’ — Rogers.  We  may 
depend  upon  a jierson’s  coming  from  a variety  of 
causes;  but  we  rely  upon  it  only  in  refcience  to  ins 
avowed  intention.  This  latter  term  may  also  denote 
the  act  of  things  in  the  same  sense ; 

The  tender  twig  shoots  upward  to  the  skies, 

And  on  the  faith  of  the  new  sun  relies. — Dryde.n 


FAITHFUL,  TRUSTY. 

Faithful  signifies  full  of  faith  or  fidelity  {v.  Fait.l, 
fidelity) ; trusty  signifies  fit  or  worthy  to  be  trusted 
{v.  Belief). 

Faithful  respects  the  principle  altogether  ; it  is  suited 
to  all  relations  and  stations,  publick  and  private: 
trusty  includes  not  only  the  principle,  but  the  nieiiial 
qualifications  in  general ; it  applies  to  those  in  whom 
particular  trust  is  to  be  placed.  It  is  the  part  of  a 
Christian  to  he  faithful  to  all  his  engagements;  it  is  ^ 
particular  excellence  in  a servant  to  be  trusty; 

The  steeds  they  left  their  trusty  servants  hold. 

Pope. 

Faithful  is  applied  in  the  improper  sense  to  an  uncon 
scions  agent ; trusty  may  be  applied  with  equal  pro 
priety  to  things  as  to  persons.  We  may  speak  of  a 
faithful  saying,  or  a faithful  picture;  a trusty  sword 
or  a trusty  weapon  ; 

What  we  hear 

With  weaker  passion  will  affect  the  heart. 

Than  when  the  faithful  eye  behold.s  the  part. 

Frances 

He  took  the  quiver  from  the  trusty  bow 

Achates  used  to  bear. — Dryden. 


FAITH,  FIDELITY. 

Though  derived  from  the  same  source  {v.  Belief)^ 
Uiey  differ  widely  in  meaning : /ait%  here  denotes  a 
mode  of  action,  namely,  an  acting  true  to  the  faith 
which  others  repose  in  us ; fidelity,  a disposition  of  the 
mind  to  adhere  to  th-xt  faith  which  others  repose  in  us. 
We  keep  om  faith,  we  sliow  our  fidelity. 

Faith  is  a publick  concern,  it  depends  on  promises; 
fidelity  is  a private  or  peisonal  concern,  it  depends  upoi 
relationships  and  connexions.  A breach  ot  faith  is  a 
crime  that  brings  a stain  on  a nation  ; ior  faith  ougln 
to  be  kejit  even  with  an  enemy.  A breach  oi  fidelity 
attaches  disgrace  to  the  individual ; ior  fidelity  is  due 
from  a subject  to  a prince,  or  from  a servant  to  his 
master,  or  from  married  people  one  to  another.  No 
treaty  can  be  made  with  him  who  will  keep  uo  faith; 
no  confidence  can  be  placed  in  him  who  discovers  no 
fidelity.  The  Danes  kept  no  faith  with  the  English ; 

The  pit  resounds  with  shrieks,  a war  succeeds. 

For  breach  of  publick  faith  and  unexampled  deeds. 

' Dryden. 

Fashionable  husbands  and  wives  in  the  present  day 
seem  to  think  there  is  no  fidelity  due  to  each  other; 

‘ When  one  hears  of  negroes  who  upon  the  death  of 
their  masters  hang  themselves  upon  the  next  tree,  who 
can  forbear  admiring  their  fidelity,  though  it  expresses 
itself  in  so  dreadfui  a manner  V — Addison. 


DISTRUSTFUL,  SUSPICIOUS,  DIFFIDENT. 

Distrustful  signifies  full  of  distrust,  or  not  puttinj 
trust  in  {v- Belief);  suspicious  signifies  having  sus 
picion,  from  the  Latin  suspicio,  or  sub  and  specio  te 
look  at  askance,  or  with  a wry  mind ; diffident,  from 
the  Latin  diffido  or  disfido,  signifies  having  no  faith. 

Distrustful  is  said  either  of  ourselves  or  others; 
suspiciotis  is  said  only  of  others  ; diffident  only  of  our 
selves;  to  he  distrustf ul  of  a person,  is  to  impute  no 
good  to  him ; to  be  suspicious  of  a person,  is  to  impute 
positive  evil  to  him  : he  wlio  is  distrustful  of  another’s 
honour  or  prudence,  will  abstain  from  giving  him  his 
confidence  ; he  who  is  susoicious  of  another’s  honesty, 
will  be  cautious  to  have  no  dealings  witii  him  Dis- 
trustful is  a particular  state  of  feeling  ; suspicious  an 
habitual  state  of  feeling;  a person  is  distrustf  ul  of  an- 
other, owing  to  particular  circumstances;  he  may  b^ 
suspicious  from  his  natural  temper 


ENGLISH  S\NONYMES.  , 41*? 


As  api)hed  to  himself,  a person  is  distrustful  of  his  i 
awn  [towers  to  execute  an  office  assigned,  or  he  is 
generally  of  a diffident  disjiosition  : it  is  faulty  to  dts-  \ 
trust  that  in  which  we  ought  to  trust;  there  is  nothing 
more  criminal  than  a distrust  in  Providence,  and  no- 
thing better  than  a distrust  in  our  own  powers  to  with- 
stand temptation  ; ‘ Before  strangers,  Pitt  had  some- 
thing of  the  scholar’s  timidity  and  distrust.'— ioi\n- 
soN.  Suspicion  is  justified  more  or  iess  according  to 
circumstances ; but  a too  great  proneness  to  suspicion 
is  liable  to  lead  us  into  many  acts  of  injustice  towards 
others;  ‘Nature  itself,  after  it  has  d’otie  an  injury, 
will  for  ever  be  suspicious,  and  no  man  can  love  Uie 
person  he  Sooth.  Diffidence  is  becoming 

in  youth,  so  long  as  it  does  not  check  their  laudable 
exertions ; ‘ As  an  actor,  Mr.  Cunningham  obtained 
little  reputation,  for  his  diffidence  was  too  great  to  be 
overcome.’ — Johnson. 

TO  DISTURB,,  INTERRUPT. 

Disturb,  V.  Commotion;  interrupt,  from  the  Latin 
inter  and  rumpo,  signifies  to  break  in  between  so  as  to 
stop  the  progress. 

We  may  be  disturbed  either  inwardly  or  outwardly ; 
we  are  interrupted  only  outwardly  ; our  minds  may  be 
disturbed  by  disquieting  reflections,  or  we  may  be  dis- 
turbed in  our  rest  or  in  our  business  by  unseemly  noises ; 
but  we  can  be  interrupted  only  in  our  business  or  pur- 
suits; the  disturbance  ther  efore  depends  upon  the  cha- 
racter of  the  persoit ; what  disturbs  one  titan  will  not 
disturb  another  : an  interruption  is  however  something 
positive ; what  interrupts  one  [lerson  will  interrupt 
another:  the  smallest  noises  may  disturb  one  who  is 
in  bad  health  ; illness  or  the  visits  of  friends  will  inter- 
rupt a person  in  any  of  his  business. 

The  same  distinction  exists  between  these  words 
when  applied  to  things  as  to  persons  ; whatever  is  [rut 
out  of  its  order  or  proper  condition  is  disturbed;  thus 
water  which  is  put  into  motion  from  a state  of  rest  is 
disturbed ; 

If  aught  disturb  the  tenour  of  his  breast, 

’T  is  but  the  wish  to  strike  before  the  rest.— Pope. 
Whatever  is  stopped  in  the  evenness  or  regularity  of 
its  course  is  interrupted;  thus  water  which  is  turned 
out  of  its  ordinary  channel  is  interrupted;  ‘The 
foresight  of  the  hour  of  death  wotildcontfnually  inter- 
rupt the  course  of  human  affairs.’ — Blair. 

COMMOTION,  DISTURBANCE. 

Commotion,  compounded  of  com  or  cum  and  motion. 
expresses  naturally  a motion  of  several  together;  dis 
turbance  signifies  the  slate  of  disturbing  or  beini; 
disturbed  {p.  To  trouble). 

There  is  mostly  a commotion  where  there  is  a dis 
turbance ; but  there  is  frequently  no  disturbance  where 
there  is  a commotion ; commotion  respects  the  physical 
movement;  disturbance  the  mental  agitation.  Com- 
TBotrorr  is  said  only  of  large  bodies  of  men,  and  is  occa- 
sioned only  by  something  extraordinary  ; disturbance 
may  be  said  of  a few,  or  even  of  ? single  individual  ; 
whatever  occasions  a bustle,  awakens  general  inquiry, 
and  sets  people  or  things  in  motion,  excites  a commo- 
tion ; 

Ocean,  unequally  press’d,  with  broken  tide 

And  blind  commotion  heaves. — Thomson. 

Whatever  interrupts  the  peace  and  quiet  of  one  oi 
many  produces  a disturbance;  ‘A  species  of  men  to 
whom  a state  of  order  would  become  a sentence  of 
obscurity , are  nourished  into  a dangerous  magnitude 
by  the  heat  of  intestine  disturbances.' — Burke.  Any 
wonderful  phenomenon,  or  unusually  interesting  intel- 
ligence, may  throw  the  pnblick  into  a commotion; 
‘Nothing  can  be  more  absurd  than  that  perpetual  con- 
test for  wealth  which  keeps  the  world  in  commotion.' 
— Johnson.  Drunkenness  is  a common  cause  of  dis- 
turbances in  the  streets  or  in  families:  civil  commo- 
tions are  above  all  others  the  most  to  be  dreaded ; 
they  are  attended  with  disturbances  general  and 
partial. 

TO  INCONVENIENCE,  ANNOY,  MOLEST. 

To  inconvenience  is  to  make  not  convenient;  to 
nnou,  from  the  Latin  noceo  to  hurt,  is  to  do  some 

27 


I hurl  to  ; to  molest,  from  the  Latin  moles  a mass  o 
weight,  signifies  to  press  with  a weight. 

We  inconvenience  in  small  matters,  or  by  omitting 
such  things  as  might  be  convenient ; we  annoy  or 
molest  by  doing  that  which  is  positively  painful , we 
are  inconvenienced  by  a [lei son’s  absence  ; we  are  an 
noyed  by  his  presence  if  he  renders  himself  off’ensive 
we  are  inconvenienced  by  what  is  temporary  ; we  are 
annoyed  by  that  which  is  either  temporary  or  durable 
we  are  molested  by  that  which  is  weighty  and  op 
pressive : we  are  inconvenienced  simply  in  regard  tc 
our  circumstances ; we  are  annoyed  mostly  in  regard 
to  our  corporeal  feelings ; we  are  molested  mostly  in 
regard  to  our  minds : the  removal  of  a seat  or  a book 
mny  '^convenience  one  who  is  engaged  in  business; 
‘ I have  often  been  tempted  to  inquire  what  happiness 
is  to  be  gained,  or  what  inconvenience  to  be  avoided, 
by  this  stated  recession  frojn  the  town  in  the  summe? 
season.’ — Johnson.  The  buzzing  of  a fly,  or  the 
stinging  of  a gnat  may  annoy ; 

Against  the  Ca})itol  I met  a lion. 

Who  glar’d  upon  me  and  went  surly  by, 

Without  annoying  me. — Shakspeare. 

The  impertinent  freedom,  or  the  rude  insults  of  ili 
disposed  persons  may  molest ; 

See  all  with  skill  acquire  their  daily  food. 

Produce  their  tender  progeny  and  feed. 

With  care  parental,  wliile  that  care  they  need. 

In  these  lov’d  offices  com|)letely  blest. 

No  hopes  beyond  them,  nor  vain  {auxs  molest. 

Jknynn 

COMMODIOUS,  CONVENIENT,  SUITABLE 
Commodious,  from  the  Latin  commodus,  or  con  ana 
modus,  according  to  the  measure  and  degree  required , 
convenient,  from  the  Latin  conveniens,  participle  of 
con  and  venio  to  come  together,  signifies  that  which 
comes  together  with  something  el.se  as  it  ought. 

Both  these  terms  convey  the  idea  of  what  is  cal 
culated  for  the  pleasure  of  a person.  Commodioua 
regards  the  physical  condition,  and  convenience  tin 
circumstances  or  mental  feelings ; 

V7ithin  an  ancient  forest’s  ample  verge. 

There  stands  a lonely  but  a healthful  dwelling. 

Built  for  convenience  and  the  use  of  life. — Rowe. 
That  is  commodious  which  suits  one’s  bodily  ease 
that  is  con  venient  which  suits  one’s  purpose.  A house 
or  a chair  is  commodious;  ‘Such  a pltice  cannot  be 
commodious  to  live  in  ; for  being  so  near  the  moon,  it 
lifld  been  too  near  the  sun.’ — Raleigh.  A time,  an 
opportunity,  a season,  or  the  arrival  of  any  person,  is 
convenient.  A noise  incommodes;  the  staying  or 
going  of  a person  may  inconvenience.  A person 
wishes  to  sit  commodiously,  and  to  be  conveniently 
situated  for  witnessing  any  spectacle. 

Convenient  regards  the  circumstances  of  the  indi 
vidual ; suitable  (v.  Conformable)  respects  the  esta 
Wished  opinions  of  mankind,  and  is  closely  connected 
with  moral  propriety:  nothing  is  convenient  which 
does  not  favour  one’s  pur^se ; nothing  is  suitable 
which  does  not  suit  the  person,  place,  and  thing 
whoever  has  any  thing  to  ask  of  anoilier  must  take  a 
convenient  opportunity  in  order  to  ensure  success ; ‘ If 
any  man  think  it  convenient  to  seem  good,  let  him  be 
so  indeed,  and  then  his  goodness  will  appear  to  every 
body’s  satisfaction.’ — Tillotson.  The  address  of  a 
suitor  on  such  an  occasion  would  be  very  unsuitable, 
if  he  affected  to  claim  as  a right  what  he  ought  to  so 
licit  as  a favour ; ‘ Pleasure  in  general  is  the  consequent 
apprehension  of  a suitable  object,  suitably  applied  to 
a rightly  disposed  faculty.’ — South. 

NECESSARY,  EXPEDIENT,  ESSENTIAL, 
REQUISITE. 

JVecessary,  (v.  JVcccssiiij),  from  the  Latin  necesse 
and  ne  cedo,  signifies  not  to  be  departed  from  ; expe 
dient  signifies  belonging  to,  or  forming  a part  of,  ex- 
pedition ; essential,  containing  that  essence  or  property 
which  cannot  be  omitted ; requisite,  i.  e.  literally  re- 
quired {v.  To  demand). 

J^ecessary  is  a general  and  indefinite  term ; things 
may  be  necessary  in  the  course  of  nature;  it  is  neces- 
sary fbr  all  men  once  to  die ; they  may  be  necessary 
according  to  the  circumstances  of  the  case,  or  our  view* 


418 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


necessity;  in  this  maimer  we  conceive  it  necessary 
to  call  upon  a persor 

Expedient^  essential^  and  requisite  are  inodes  of 
relative  necessity ; the  expedience  of  a tliiim  is  a matter 
ef  discretion  and  calculation,  and,  therefore,  not  so 
Seif  evidently  necessary  as  many  things  which  we  so 
denominate;  ‘One  tells  me  he  thinks  it  absolutely  ne- 
cessary  for  women  to  have  true  notions  of  right  and 
equity.’ — Audison.  It  may  be  expedient  for  a person 
to  consult  another,  or  it  may  not,  according  as  circum- 
stances may  present  themselves;  ‘It  is  highly  expe- 
dient that  men  should,  by  some  settled  scheme  of  duties, 
be  rescued  from  the  tyranny  of  caprice.’ — Johnson. 
The  requisite  and  the  essential  are  more  obviously 
necessary  than  the  expedient;  but  the  former  is  less  so 
than  the  latter : what  is  requisite  may  be  requisite  only 
in  part  or  entirely;  it  may  be  requisite  to  complete  a 
thing  when  begun,  hut  not  to  begin  it;  the  essential^ 
on  the  contrary,  is  that  which  constitutes  the  essence, 
and  witiiout  vvhicli  a thing  cannot  exist.  It  is  requi- 
site for  one  who  will  have  a good  library  to  select  only 
the  best  authors ; exercise  is  essential  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  good  health.  In  all  matters  of  dispute  it  is  ex- 
pedient to  be  guided  by  some  impartial  judge ; it  is 
requisite  for  every  member  of  the  community  to  con- 
tribute his  share  to  the  publick  ex[)enditure  as  far  as  he 
is  able ; ‘ It  is  not  enough  to  say  that  faith  and  piety. 
Joined  with  active  virtue,  constitute  the  requisite  [ire- 
paration  for  heaven ; they  in  truth  begin  the  enjoyment 
of  heaven.’ — IIlair.  It  is  essential  to  a teacher,  par- 
ticularly a spiritual  teacher,  to  know  mote  than  those 
he  leaches ; ‘ The  English  do  not  consider  their  church 
establishment  as  convenient,  but  as  essential  to  their 
state.’ — lluKKE. 


EXPEDIENT,  FIT. 

Expedient,  from  the  Latin  expedio  to  get  in  readiness 
for  a given  occasion,  supposes  a certain  degree  of  ne- 
cessity from  circuihstances;  fit  (v.  Fit),  i.  e.  made  for 
the  purpose,  signifies  simply  an  agreement  with,  or 
suitability  to,  the  circumstances ; what  is  expedient 
must  be /t,  because  it  is  called  for  ; what  is  need 
be  expedieTit,  for  it  may  not  be  required.  7’he  expe- 
diency of  a tiling  depends  altogether  upon  the  outward 
circumstances;  the  fitness  is  determined  by  a moral 
rule;  it  is  imprudent  not  to  do  that  which  is  expedient ; 
it  is  disgraceful  to  do  that  which  isunfit;  it  is  expe- 
dient for  him  who  wishes  to  prepare  for  death,  occa- 
sionally to  take  an  account  of  his  life;  ‘To  far  the 
greater  number  it  is  highly  expedient  that  they  should 
by  some  settled  scheme  of  duties  be  rescued  from  the 
tyranny  of  cafirice.’ — Johnson.  It  is  not  for  him 
who  is  about  to  die  to  dwell  with  anxiety  on  the  things 
of  this  life; 

Salt  earth  and  bitter  are  not^£  to  sow. 

Nor  will  be  tam’d  and  mended  by  the  plough. 

Dryden. 

OCCASION,  OPPORTUNITY. 

Occasion,  in  Lalin  occasio,  from  oc  or  ob  and  cado 
to  fall,  signifies  that  whif  h falls  in  the  way  so  as  to 
produce  some  change  ; opportunity,  in  Latin  opportu- 
nitas,  from  opportunis  fit,  signifies  the  thing  that  hap- 
pens fit  for  the  purpose. 

These  terms  are  applied  to  the  events  of  life;  but 
the  occasion  is  that  which  determines  our  conduct,  and 
leaves  us  no  choice;  it  amounts  to  a degree  of  neces- 
sity : the  opportunity  is  that  which  invites  to  action  ; 
it  tempts  us  to  embrace  the  moment  for  taking  the 
step.  W e do  things,  therefore,  as  the  occasion  requires, 
or  as  the  opportunity  offers.  There  are  many  occa- 
sions on  which  a man  is  called  ufion  to  uphold  his 
opinions.  There  are  but  few  opportunities  fi-f  men 
in  general  to  distinguish  them^lves.  The  occasion 
obtrudes  upon  us  ; tiie  opportunity  is  what  we  seek  or 
desire.  On  particular  occasions  it  is  necessary  for  a 
commander  to  be  severe ; ‘ Waller  preserved  and  won 
his  life  from  those  who  were  most  resolved  to  take  it, 
and  in  an  occasion  in  which  he  ought  to  have  been 
ambitious  to  have  lost  it  (to  lose  it).’ — Clarpndon. 
A man  of  a humane  disposition  will  profit  by  every 
spportunity  to  show  his  lenity  to  offenders ; ‘ Every 
man  is  obliged  by  the  Supreme  Maker  of  the  universe 
to  improve  all  the  opportunities  of  good  which  are 
afforded  him.’ — Johnson. 


OCCASION,  NECESSITY. 

Occasion  {v.  Occasion)  includes,  necessity  (v.  JVeces 
sity)  excludes,  the  idea  of  choice  or  alternative.  We 
are  regulated  by  the  occasion,  and  can  exercise  our  own 
discretion ; we  yield  or  submit  to  thertecessitw,  without 
even  the  exercise  of  the  will.  On  the  death  jf  a rc 
lative  we  have  occasion  to  go  into  mourning,  if  we  will 
not  offer  an  affront  to  the  family,  but  there  is  no  express 
necessity  ; 

A merrier  man 

Within  the  limit  of  becoming  mirth, 

I never  spent  an  hour’s  talk  withal ; 

His  eye  begets  occasion  for  his  wit. 

Shakspeare. 

In  case  of  an  attack  on  our  persons,  there  is  a necessity 
of  self-defence  for  the  preservation  of  life;  ‘Where 
necessity  ends  curiosity  begins.’ — Johnson. 

OCCASIONAL,  CASUAIi. 

These  are  both  opposed  to  what  is  fi.xed  or  stated ; 
but  occasional  carries  with  it  more  the  idea  of  unfre 
quency,  and  casual  that  of  unfixedness,  or  the  absence 
of  all  design 

A minister  is  termed  an  occasional  preacher,  who 
preaches  only  on  certain  occasions:  his  preaching  at  a 
particular  place,  or  a certain  day  may  be  casual.  Our 
acts  of  charity  may  be  occasional ; but  they  ought  not 
lube  casual;  ‘The  beneficence  of  the  Roman  empe 
roLirs  and  consuls  was  merely  occasional.' — Johnson 
What  wonder  if  so  near 
Looks  intervene,  and  smiles,  or  object  new, 
Casual  discourse  draw's  on. — Milton. 


TO  ADD,  JOIN,  UNITE,  COALESCE. 

Jidd,  in  Latin  odi/o,  compounded  of  ad  and  do,  signi 
fies  to  put  to  an  object;  join,  in  French  joindre,  Latin 
juvffo,  comes  from  jug  urn  a yoke,  and  the  Greek 
to  yoke,  signilying  to  bring  into  close  contact; 
unite,  in  Latin  unitus,  participle  of  unio,  from  unus 
one,  implies  to  make  into  one:  coalesce,  in  Latin 
coalesce,  compounded  of  co  or  con,  and  alesco  for 
cresco,  signifies  to  grow  or  form  one’s  self  together. 

We  add  by  affixing  a part  of  one  thing  to  another 
so  as  to  make  one  w'hole;  we  join  by  attaching  one 
w'hole  to  another,  so  that  they  may  adhere  in  part; 
we  unite  by  putting  one  thing  to  another,  so  that  all 
their  parts  may  adhere  to  each  other;  things  coalesce 
by  coming  into  an  entire  cohesion  of  all  their  parts. 

Adding  is  either  a corporeal  or  spiritual  action; 
joining  is  mostly  said  of  corporeal  objects;  uniting 
and  coalescing  of  spiritual  objects.  We  add  a wing 
to  a house  by  a mechanical  process,  or  we  add  quant' 
ties  together  by  calculation , 

Now,  best  of  kings,  since  you  propose  to  send 
Such  bounteous  presents  to  your  Trojan  friend. 

Add  yet  a greater  at  our  joint  request. 

One  which  he  values  more  than  all  the  rest; 

Give  him  the  fair  Lavinia  for  his  bride. — Dryden. 
We  join  tw'o  houses  together,  or  two  armies,  by  placing 
them  on  the  same  spot;  ‘The  several  great  bodies 
which  compose  th.e  solar  system  are  kept  from  joining 
together  at  the  common  centre  of  gravity  by  the  recti 
linear  motions  the  Author  of  nature  has  impressed  on 
each  of  them.’ — Berkeley.  People  are  united  who 
are  bound  to  each  other  by  similarity  of  opinion,  senti- 
ment, condition,  or  circumstances;  ‘ Two  Englishmen 
meeting  at  Rome  or  Constantinople  soon  run  into  fami- 
liarity. And  in  China  or  Japan,  Europeans  w'ould 
think  their  being  so  a sufficient  reason  for  their  uniting 
in  particular  converse.’ — Berkeley.  Parties  coalesce 
when  they  agree  to  lay  aside  their  leading  distinctions 
of  opinior  so  as  to  co-operate ; ‘ The  Danes  had  been 
established  during  a longer  period  in  England  than  in 
France;  and  though  the  similarity  of  their  original  lan- 
guage to  that  of  the  Saxons  invited  them  to  a more 
early  icoalition  w ith  the  natives,  they  had  found  as  3’et 
so  little  example  of  civilized  manners  among  the 
English,  that  they  retained  all  their  ancient  ferocity.’ — 
Home. 

Nothing  can  be  added  without  some  agent  to  perforiE 
the  act  of  adding;  but  things  may  be  joined  by  casually 
coming  in  contact ; and  things  will  wnide  of  ihemselvef 
which  have  an  aptitude  to  accordance , coalition  is  that 


E\GL1SH  SYNONYMES. 


419 


ipecics  of  union  which  arises  mostly  from  external 
agency  The  addition  of  quantities  produces  vast 
suras ; the  junction  of  streams  forms  great  rivers ; the 
union  of  families  or  states  constitutes  the>r  principal 
strength;  by  tiie  coalition  of  sounds,  diphthongs  are 
formed.  Bodies  are  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  other 
bodies;  people  are  sometimes  joined  in  matrimony 
who  are  not  united  in  affection ; no  two  things  can 
cca/esce,  between  which  there  is  an  essential  difference, 
cr  the  slightest  discordance. 

Addition  is  opposed  to  subtraction;  junction  and 
union,  to  division;  coalition,  to  distinction. 

TO  CONNECT,  COMBINE,  UNITE. 

The  idea  of  being  put  together  is  common  to  these 
terms,  but  with  different  degrees  of  proximity.  To 
connect,  from  the  Latin  connecto,  compounded  of  con 
and  necto,  signifying  to  knit  together,  is  more  remote 
than  to  combine  'v.  Association),  and  this  than  to  unite 
[v.  To  add) 

What  is  connected  and  combined  remains  distinct, 
but  vhat  is  united  loses  all  individuality. 

Things  the  most  dissimilar  may  be  connected  or 
combined;  things  of  the  same  kind  only  can  be  united. 

Things  or  persons  are  connected  more  or  less  re- 
motely by  some  common  property  or  circumstance  that 
serves  as  a tie  ; ‘A  right  opinion  is  that  which  connects 
distant  truths  by  the  shortest  train  of  intermediate  pro- 
positions.’— Johnson.  Things  or  persons  are  combined 
by  a species  of  juncture ; ‘ Fancy  can  combine  the  ideas 
which  memory  has  treasured.’ — Hawkksworth. 
Things  or  persons  are  united  by  a coalition ; ‘ A friend 
is  he  with  whom  our  interest  is  united.’’ — Hawkks- 
tvoRTH.  Houses  are  connected  by  means  of  a common 
passage:  the  armies  of  two  nations  are  cominned;  two 
armies  of  the  same  nation  are  united. 

Trade,  marriage,  and  general  intercourse  create  a 
fonnexion  between  individuals ; co-operation  andsimi- 
iati’y  of  tendency  are  grounds  for  combination:  entire 
accordance  leads  to  a union.  It  is  dangerous  to  be 
connected  with  the  wicked  in  any  way ; our  reputation, 
if  not  our  morals,  must  be  the  sufferers  fhereby.  The 
most  obnc.’ious  ir'embers  of  society  are  those  in  whom 
wealth,  talents,  intiiience,  and  a lawless  ambition  are 
combined.  United  is  an  epithet  that  sltculd  apply 
equally  to  nations  and  families;  the  same  obedience 
to  laws  should  regulate  every  man  who  lives  under  the 
eame  government;  the  same  heart  should  animate 
every  breast;  the  same  spirit  should  dictate  every 
action  of  every  member  in  the  community,  who  has  a 
common  interest  in  the  preservation  of  the  whole. 

CONNECTED,  RELATED. 

Connected,  v.  To  connect;  related,  from  relate,  in 
Latin  rclatus,  participle  of  refero  to  -bring  back,  sig- 
nifies brought  back  to  the  same  point. 

These  terms  are  employed  in  the  moral  sense,  to 
express  an  affinity  between  subjects  or  matters  of 
thought. 

Connexion  marks  affinity  in  an  indefinite  manner; 

‘ It  is  odd  to  consider  the  connexion  between  despotism 
and  barbarity,  and  liow  the  making  one  person  more 
than  man,  makes  the  restless.’ — Addison.  Relation 
denotes  affinity  in  a specifick  manner:  ‘All  mankind 
are  so  related,  that  care  is  to  be  taken,  in  things  to 
which  all  are  liable,  you  do  not  mention  what  concerns 
one  in  terms  which  shall  disgust  another.’— Steele. 
A coTtweziOrt  may  be  either  close  or  remote;  relation 
direct  or  indirect.  What  is  connected  has  some  com- 
mon principle  on  which  it  depends;  what  is  related 
has  some  likeness  with  the  object  to  which  it  ’I'srelaied: 
R is  a part  of  some  whole. 

TO  AFFIX,  SUBJOIN,  ATTACH,  ANNEX, 
in  Latin  o^xms,  participle  of  aj^o-o,  compounded 
of  af  or  ad  and  jigo  to  fix,  signifies  to  fix  to  a thing ; 
subjoin  is  compounded  of  sub  and  join,  signifying  to 
join  to  the  lower  or  farther  extremity  of  a body  ; 
attach,  V.  To  adhere;  annex,  in  Latin  annexus,  parti- 
ciple of  annecto,  compounded  of  an  or  ad  and  necto  to 
knit,  signifies  to  knit  or  tie  to  a thing. 

To  affix  \s  in  put  anything  as  an  essential  to  any 
whole ; to  sul/join  is  to  put  any  thing  as  a subordinate 
oari  to  a whole ; in  the  former  case  the  part  to  which 

07* 


it  is  put  is  not  specified  ; in  the  latter  the  syllable  sub 
specifies  the  extremity  as  the  part : to  attach  is  to  make 
one  thing  adAere  to  another  as  an  accompaniment ; to 
annex  is  to  bring  things  into  a general  connexion  with 
each  other. 

A title  is  affixed  to  a book;  a few  lines  are  sub 
joined  to  a letter  by  way  of  postscript;  we  attach 
blame  to  a person ; a certain  territory  is  annexed  to  a 
kingdom. 

Letters  are  affixed  to  words  in  order  to  modify  their 
sense,  or  names  are  affixed  to  ideas ; ‘ He  that  has  set- 
tled in  his  mind  determined  ideas,  with  names  affixea 
to  them,  will  be  able  to  discern  their  differences  one 
from  another.’ — Locke.  It  is  necessary  to  subjoin  re- 
marks to  what  requires  illustration ; ‘ In  justice  to  the 
opinion  which  I would  wish  to  impress  of  the  amiable 
character  of  Pisistratus,  I subjoin  to  this  paper  some 
explanation  of  the  word  tyrant.’ — Cumberland.  We 
are  apt  from  prejudice  or  particular  circumstances  to 
attach  disgrace  to  certain  professions,  which  are  not 
only  useful  but  important;  ‘ As  our  nature  is  at  pre- 
sent constituted,  attached  by  so  many  strong  con 
nexions  to  the  world  of  sense,  and  enjoying  a commu- 
nication so  feeble  and  distant  with  the  world  of  spirits, 
we  need  fear  no  danger  from  cultivating  intercourse 
with  the  latter  as  much  as  possible.’ — Blair.  Papers 
are  annexed  by  way  of  appendix  to  some  important 
transaction. 

It  is  improper  to  a#x  opprobrious  epithets  to  any  com 
munity  of  persons  on  account  of  their  calling  in  life 
Men  are  not  always  scrupulous  about  the  means  o 
attaching  others  to  their  interest,  when  their  ambition 
views  are  to  be  forwarded.  Every  station  in  life,  above 
that  of  extreme  indigence,  has  certain  privileges  an- 
nexed to  it,  but  none  greater  than  those  which  are  en- 
joyed by  the  middling  classes;  ‘The  evils  inseparably 
annexed  to  the  present  condition  are  numerous  and 
afflictive.’— Johnson. 

TO  STICK,  CLEAVE,  ADHERE. 

Stick,  in  Saxon  stican.  Low  German  steken,  is 
connected  with  the  Latin  stigo,  Greek  to  prick ; 
cleave,  in  Saxon  cleofen,  Low  German  kliven,  Danish 
klaeve,  is  connected  with  our  words  glue  and  lime, 
in  Latin  gluten,  Greek  xdAAa  lime;  adhere,  v.  To 
attack. 

To  stick  expresses  more  than  to  cleave,  and  cleave 
than  adhere:  things  are  made  to  stick  either  by  inci- 
sion into  the  substance,  or  through  the  intervention  of 
some  glutinous  matter;  they  are  made  to  cleave  and 
adhere  by  the  intervention  of  some  foreign  body;  what 
sticks,  therefore,  becomes  so  fast  joined  as  to  render 
the  bodies  inseparable;  what  cleaves  and  adheres  is 
’less  tightly  bound,  and  more  easily  separable. 

Two  pieces  of  clay  will  stick  together  by  the  in 
corporation  of  the  substance  in  the  two  parts;  paper 
is  made  to  stick  to  paper  by  means  of  glue : the 
tongue  in  a certain  state  will  cleave  to  the  roof  of 
the  mouth;  paste,  or  even  occasional  moisture,  will 
make  soft  substances  adhere  to  each  other,  or  to  hard 
bodies.  Animals  stick  to  bodies  by  means  of  their 
claws ; persons  in  the  moral  sense  cleave  to  each  other 
by  never  parting  company:  a'-'d  they  adhere  to  each 
other  by  uniting  their  interests. 

Stick  is  employed  for  the  most  part  on  familiar  sub- 
jects, but  is  sometimes  applied  to  moral  objects 
Adieu,  then,  O my  soul’s  far  better  part, 

'Thy  image  sticks  so  close 

That  the  blood  follows  from  my  rending  heart. 

Dryden 

Cleave  and  adhere  are  peculiarly  proper  in  the  mora 
acceptation ; 

Gold  and  his  gains  no  more  employ  his  mind, 

But,  driving  o’er  the  billows  with  the  wind. 
Cleaves  to  one  faithful  plank,  and  leaves  the  rest 
behind. — Rowe. 

That  there’s  a God  from  nature’s  voice  is  clear; 
And  yet,  what  errours  to  this  truth  adhere! 

Jknyns 

FOLLOWER,  ADHERENT,  PARTISAN. 

A follower  is  one  who  follows  a person  generally . 
an  adherent  is  one  who  adheres  to  his  cause ; a partisan 
is  the  follower  of  a party;  the  follower  follows  eitha- 


420 


ENGLISH  SYNONmES. 


the  person,  the  interests,  or  the  principles  of  any  one; 
thus,  the  retinue  of  a nobleman,  or  the  friends  of  a 
statesman,  or  the  friends  of  any  man’s  opinions  may 
be  styled  his  followers ; 

The  mournful  followers,  with  assistant  care. 

The  groaning  hero  to  his  chariot  bear. — Popk. 
The  adherent  is  that  kind  of  follower  who  espouses 
the  interests  of  another,  as  the  adherents  of  Charles  I. ; 
‘With  Addison,  the  wits,  his  adherents  and  followers, 
were  certain  to  concur.’ — Johnson.  A follower  fol- 
lows near  or  at  a distance ; but  the  adherent  is  always 
near  at  hand  ; the  partisan  hangs  on  or  keeps  at  a cer- 
tain distance:  the  follower  follows  from  various  mo- 
tives; the  adherent  adheres  from  a personal  motive; 
the  partisan,  from  a partial  motive ; ‘ They  (the  Ja- 
cobins) then  proceed  in  argument,  as  if  all  those  who 
disapprove  of  their  new  abuses  must  of  course  bepar- 
tisans  of  the  old.’ — Burke.  Charles  1.  had  as  many 
adherents  as  he  huA  followers ; the  rebels  had  as  many 
oartisans  as  they  had  adherents. 


TO  ADDUCE,  ALLEGE,  ASSIGN,  ADVANCE. 

Adduce,  in  Latin  adduco,  compounded  of  ad  and 
duco  to  lead,  signifies  to  bring  forwards,  or  for  a thing; 
allege,  in  French  alleguer,  in  Latin  allego,  com- 
pounded of  al  or  ad  and  lego,  in  Greek  Afyw  to  speak, 
signifies  to  speak  for  a thing;  assign,  in  French  as- 
signor, Latin  assigno,  compounded  of  as  or  ad  and 
signo  to  sign  or  mark  out,  signifies  to  set  apart  for  a 
purpose;  advance  comes  from  the  Latin  ndvenio,  com- 
pounded of  ad  and  venio  to  come,  or  cause  to  come, 
signifying  to  bring  forward  a thing. 

An  argument  is  adduced;  a fact  or  a charge  is 
alleged;  a reason  is  assigned;  a position  or  an 
opinion  is  advanced.  What  is  adduced  tends  to  cor- 
roborate or  invalidate;  ‘I  have  said  that  Celsus  ad- 
duces neither  oral  nor  written  authority  against  Christ’s 
miracles.’ — Cumberland.  What  is  alleged  tends  to 
criminate  or  exculpate;  ‘The  criminal  alleged  in  his 
defence,  that  what  he  had  done  was  to  raise  mirth, 
and  to  avoid  ceremony.’ — Addison.  What  is  assigned 
tends  to  justify ; ‘ If  we  consider  what  providential 
reasons  may  be  assigned  for  these  three  particulars, 
we  shall  find  that  the  numbers  of  the  Jews,  their  dis- 
persion and  adherence  to  their  religion,  have  furnished 
every  age,  and  every  nation  of  the  world,  with  the 
strongest  arguments  for  the  Christian  faith.’ — Addi- 
son. What  is  advanced  tends  to  explain  and  illus- 
trate; ‘I  have  heard  of  one  that,  having  advanced 
some  erroneous  doctrines  of  philosophy,  refused  to  see 
the  experiments  by  which  they  were  confuted.’ — John- 
son. Whoever  discusses  disputed  points  must  have 
arguments  to  adduce  in  favour  of  his  principles  ; cen- 
sures should  not  be  passed  where  nothing  improper 
can  be  alleged:  a conduct  is  absurd  for  which  no 
reason  can  be  assigned : those  who  advance  what 
they  cannot  maintain  expose  their  ignorance  as  much 
as  their  folly. 

The  reasoner  adduces  facts  in  proof  of  what  he  has 
advanced.  The  accuser  alleges  circumstances  in 
support  of  his  charge.  The  philosophical  investigator 
assigns  causes  for  particular  phenomena. 

We  may  controvert  what  is  adduced  or  advanced; 
we  may  deny  what  is  alleged,  and  question  what  is 
assigned. 


TO  ADHERE,  ATTACH. 

Adhere,  from  the  French  adherer,  Latin  adhaereo,  is 
compounded  of  ad  and  hcereo  to  stick  close  to ; attach, 
in  French  attacher,  is  compounded  of  at  or  ad  and 
tach  or  touch,  both  which  come  from  the  Latin  tango 
to  touch,  signifying  to  come  so  near  as  to  touch. 

A thing  is  adherent  by  the  union  which  nature  pro- 
duces; it  is  attached  by  arbitrary  ties  which  keep  it 
close  to  another  thing.  Glutinous  bodies  are  apt  to 
adhere  to  everything  they  touch:  a smaller  building 
is  sometimes  attached  to  a larger  by  a passage,  or  some 
other  mode  of  communication. 

What  adheres  to  a thing  is  closely  joined  to  its  out- 
ward surface  ; but  what  is  attached  may  be  fastened 
Jb  it  by  the  intervention  of  a third  body.  There  is  a 
universal  adhesion  in  all  the  particles  of  matter  one  to 
a^iothor:  the  sails  of  a vessel  are  attached  to  a mast 
by  means  of  ropes;  ‘The  play  which  this  pathetick 


prologue  was  attached  to,  was  a comedy,  in  whicB 
Laberius  took  the  character  of  a slave.’ — Cumber- 
land. 

In  a figurative  sense,  the  analogy  is  kej't  up  in  the 
use  of  these  two  words.  Adherence  is  a mode  of 
conduct;  attachment  a state  of  feeling.  We  adhera 
to  opinions  which  we  arc  determined  not  to  renounce; 
‘ The  firm  adherence  of  the  Jews  to  their  religion  is  no 
less  remarkable  than  their  numbers  and  dispersion.’— 
Addison.  We  are  attached  to  opinions  for  which  our 
feelings  are  strongly  prepossessed.  It  is  the  character 
of  obstinacy  to  adhere  to  a line  of  conduct  after  it  i> 
proved  to  be  injurious:  some  persons  are  not  to  be 
attached  by  the  ordinary  ties  of  relationship  or  friend- 
ship; ‘The  conqueror  seems  to  have  been  fully  ap- 
prized of  the  strength  which  the  new  government 
might  derive  from  a clergy  more  closely  attached  to 
himself.’ — Tyrwhitt. 


ADHESION,  ADHERENCE. 

These  terms  are  both  derived  from  the  verb  adhere, 
one  expressing  the  proper  or  figurative  sense,  and  the 
other  the  moral  sense  or  acceptation. 

There  is  a power  of  adhesion  in  all  glutinous  bodies ; 
‘ We  suffer  equal  pain  from  the  pertinacious  adhesion 
of  unwelcome  images,  as  from  the  evanescence  of 
those  which  are  pleasing  and  useful.’ — Johnson. 
There  is  a disposition  for  adherence  in  steady  minds 
‘ Shakspeare’s  adherence  to  general  nature  has  exposet 
him  to  the  cei.sure  of  criticks,  who  form  their  judge- 
ments upon  narrower  principles.’— Johnson. 


ADJACENT,  ADJOINING,  CONTIGUOUS 

Adjacent,  in  Latin  adjacens,  participle  of  adjacec,  is 
compounded  of  ad  andjareo  to  lie  near ; adjoining,  as 
the  words  imply,  signifies  being  joined  together:  con 
tiguous,  in  French  coutigu,  Ijaiin  contiguus,  cornea 
from  contingo  or  con  and  tango,  signifying  to  touch 
close. 

What  is  adjacent  may  be  separated  altogether  by  the 
intervention  of  some  third  object;  ‘They  have  beera 
beating  up  for  volunteers  at  York,  and  the  towns  ad- 
jacent; but  nobody  will  list.’ — Granville.  What  is 
adjoining  must  touch  in  some  part;  ‘As  he  happens  to 
have  no  estute  adjoining  equal  to  his  own,  his  oppres- 
sions are  ollen  borne  without  resistance.’ — Johnson. 
What  is  conixguous  must  be  fitted  to  touch  entirely  on 
one  side ; ‘ We  arrived  at  the  utmost  boundaries  of  a 
wood  which  iay  contiguous  to  a plain.’ — Steele. 
Lands  are  ad.>\.tent  to  a house  or  a town;  fields  are 
adjoining  to'cRcli  other;  houses  contiguous  to  each 
other. 

EPITHET,  ADJECTIVE. 

Epithet  is  the  technical  term  of  the  rhetorician ; ad 
jective  that  of  the  g’l-ammarian.  The  same  word  is  an 
epithet  as  it  qualif'ts  the  sense;  it  is  an  adjective  as  it 
is  a part  of  speech:  thus  in  the  phrase  ‘Alexander  the 
Great,’  great  is  an  epithet,  inasmuch  as  it  designates 
Alexander  in  distinctiovi  from  all  other  persons  : it  is 
an  adjective  as  it  exp'ei'sos  a quality  in  distinction 
from  the  noun  Alexander,  Wi.'ich  denotes  a thing.  The 
epithet  iiriderov  is  the  word  tfdded  by-way  of  ornament 
to  the  diction;  the  adjective,  fiom  adjectivum,  is  the 
word  added  to  the  noun  as  ita  appendage,  and  made 
subservient  to  it  in  all  its  inlJections.  When  we  are 
estimating  the  merits  of  any  one’s  style  or  composi- 
tion, we  should  speak  of  the  epithets  he  uses;  when 
we  are  talking  of  words,  their  dependencies,  and  rela- 
tions, we  should  speak  of  adjectives:  an  epithet  is 
cither  gentle  or  harsh,  an  adjective  is  either  a noun  or 
a pronoun  adjective. 

All  adjectives  are  epithets,  but  all  epithi<s  are  not 
adjectives;  thus  in  Virgil’s  Pater  ^neas,  the  pater  ii 
an  epithet,  but  not  an  adjective. 

TO  ABSTRACT,  SEPARATE,  DISTINGUISH 

Abstract,  V. Absent;  separate,  in  Latin  sep*>ratus 
participle  of  separo,  is  compounded  of  se  ano  paro  tc 
dispose  apart,  signifying  to  put  things  asunder,  o.  at  t 
distance  from  each  other;  distinguish,  in  French  du 
tinguer,  Latin  distinguo,  is  compounded  of  the  sey'C 
rative  preposition  dis  and  tingo  to  tinge  or  colour,  si,* 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  421 


nifying  to  give  different  marks  by  which  they  may  be 
known  from  each  other. 

Abstract  is  used  in  the  moral  sense  only  ; separate 
mostly  in  a physical  sense ; distinguish  either  in  a 
moral  or  physical  sense : we  abstract  what  we  wish  to 
regard  particularly  and  individually;  we  separate  what 
we  wish  not  to  be  united;  we  distinguish  what  we 
wish  not  to  confound.  The  mind  performs  the  office 
of  abstraction  for  itself ; separating  and  distinguish- 
ire  rare  e.xerted  on  external  objects.*  Arrangement, 
plice,  time,  and  circumstances  serve  to  separate;  the 
Ideas  formed  of  things,  the  outward  marks  attached 
to  them,  the  qualities  attributed  to  them,  serve  to  dis- 
tinguish. 

By  the  operation  of  abstraction  the  mind  creates  for 
Itself  a multitude  of  new  ideas:  in  the  act  of  separa- 
tion bodies  are  removed  from  each  other  by  distance 
of  place:  in  the  act  of  distinguishing  objects  are  dis- 
covered to  be  similar  or  dissimilar.  Uualities  are  ab- 
stracted from  the  subjects  in  which  they  are  inherent: 
countries  are  separated  by  mountains  or  seas;  their 
inhabitants  are  distinguished  by  their  dress,  language, 
or  manners.  The  mind  is  never  less  abstracted  from 
one’s  friends  than  when  separated  from  them  by  im- 
mense oceans ; it  requires  a keen  eye  to  distinguish 
objects  that  bear  a great  resemblance  to  each  other. 
Volatile  persons  easily  abstract  their  minds  from  the 
most  solemn  scenes  to  fix  them  on  trifling  objects  that 
pass  before  them ; ‘ We  ought  to  abstract  our  minds 
from  the  observation  of  an  excellence  in  those  we  con- 
verse with,  till  we  have  received  some  good  informa- 
tion of  the  disposition  of  their  minds.’— Steele.  An 
unsocial  temper  leads  some  men  to  separate  themselves 
from  all  their  companions;  ‘It  is  an  eminent  instance 
of  Newton’s  superiority  to  the  rest  of  mankind  that 
he  was  able  to  separate  knowledge  from  those  weak- 
nesses by  which  knowledge  is  generally  disgraced.’ — 
Johnson.  An  absurd  ambition  leads  others  to  distin- 
guish themseWes  by  their  eccentricities;  ‘Fontenelle, 
in  his  panegyrick  on  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  closes  a long 
enumeration  of  that  philosopher’s  virtues  and  attain- 
ments with  an  observation  that  he  was  not  distin- 
guished from  other  men  by  any  singularity  either 
natural  or  affected.’ — Johnson. 


TO  DEDUCT,  SUBTRACT. 

Deduct.,  from  the  Latin  deductus  participle  of  de- 
duco,  and  subtract.,  irom  subtracturn  participle  of  sub- 
trako,  have  both  the  sense  of  taking  from,  but  the 
former  is  used  in  a general,  and  the  latter  in  a technical 
sense.  He  who  makes  an  estimate  is  obliged  to  deduct ; 
ha  who  makes  a calculation  is  obliged  to  subtract. 

I'he  tradesman  deducts  what  has  been  paid  from 
whi'  remains  due ; ‘ The  popish  clergy  took  to  them- 
selves the  whole  residue  of  the  intestate’s  estate,  after 
the  two-thirds  of  the  wife  and  children  were  deducted.' 
— Blackstone.  The  accountant  subtracts  small  sums 
from  the  gross  amount;  ‘A  codicil  is  a supplement  to 
a will,  being  for  its  explanation  or  alteration,  or  to 
make  some  addition  to  or  else  some  subtraction  from 
the  former  dispositions  of  the  testator.’ — Blackstone. 


TO  SEPARATE,  SEVER,  DISJOIN,  DETACH. 

Whatever  is  united  or  joined  in  any  w'ay  may  be 
separated  {v.  To  subtract),  be  the  junction  natural  or 
artificial;  ‘Can  a body  be  inflammable  from  which  it 
would  puzzle  a chymist  to  separate  an  inflammable 
ingredient  P — Boi  le.  To  sever,  which  is  but  a varia- 
tion of  the  verb  to  separate,  is  a mode  of  separating 
natural  bodies,  or  bodies  naturally  joined ; ‘To  men- 
tion only  that  species  of  shell  fish  that  grow  to  the  sur- 
face of  several  rocks,  and  immediately  die  upon  their 
being  severed  fi-otn  the  place  where  they  grow.’ — 
Addison.  We  may  separate  in  part  or  entirely;  we 
seaer  entirely : we  separate  with  or  without  violence ; 
we  sever  with  violence  only:  we  may  separate  papers 
which  have  been  pasted  together,  or  fruits  which  have 
grown  together;  but  the  head  is  severed  from  the  body, 
cr  a branch  from  the  trunk.  There  is  the  same  dis- 
tinction between  these  terms  in  their  moral  application; 
‘They  (the  French  republicans)  never  have  aban- 
ioned,  and  never  will  abandon,  their  old  steady  maxim 

* Vide  Abbe  Girard:  “ Distingtier,  separer.*' 


of  separating  the  people  from  their  government.  — 
Burke. 

Better  I were  distract; 

So  should  my  thoughts  be  sever'd  from  my  griefs. 

Shakspeark 

To  separate  may  be  said  of  things  which  are  only  re- 
motely connected ; disjoin,  whicii  signifies  to  destroy  a 
junction,  is  said  of  thitigs  which  are  so  intimately  corv 
nected  that  they  might  be  joined;  ‘In  times  and  re- 
gions, so  disjoined  from  each  other  that  there  can 
scarcely  be  imagined  any  communication  of  senti- 
ments, has  prevailed  a general  and  uniform  expectation 
of  propitiating  God  by  corpore^il  austerities.’ — John- 
son. We  separate  as  convenience  requires;  we  may 
separate  in  a right  or  a wrong  manner : we  mostly  dis- 
join things  which  ought  to  remain  joined  : we  separate 
syllables  in  order  to  distinguish  them,  but  they  are 
sometimes  disjoined  in  writing  by  an  accidental 
erasure.  To  detach,  which  signifies  to  destroy  a con 
tract,  lias  an  intermediate  sense  between  separate  and 
disjoin,  applying  to  bodies  which  are  neither  so  loosely 
connected  as  the  former,  nor  so  closely  as  the  latter : 
we  separate  things  that  directly  meet  in  no  point;  we 
disjoin  those  which  meet  in  every  point;  wc  detach 
those  things  which  meet  in  one  point  only;  ‘ The  seve- 
ral parts  of  it  are  detached  one  from  the  other,  and  yet 
join  again,  one  cannot  tell  how.’— Pope.  Sometimes 
the  word  detach  has  a moral  application,  as  to  detach 
persons,  that  is,  the  minds  of  persons,  from  their  party ; 
so  likewise  detached,  in  distinction  from  a connected 
piece  of  composition ; ‘ As  for  the  detached  rhapsodiee 
which  Lycurgus  in  more  early  times  brought  with  him 
out  of  Asia,  they  must  have  been  exceedingly  imper 
feet.’ — Cumberland. 


TO  DISJOINT,  DISMEMBER. 

Disjoint  signifies  to  separate  at  the  joint ; dismemoer 
signifies  to  separate  the  members. 

The  terms  here  spoken  of  derive  their  distinct 
meaning  and  application  from  the  signification  of  the 
words  joint  and  member.  A limb  of  the  body  may  be 
disjointed  if  it  be  so  put  out  of  the  joint  that  it  cannot 
act ; but  the  body  itself  is  dismembered  when  the  dif- 
ferent limbs  or  parts  are  separated  from  each  other 
So  in  the  metaphorical  sense  our  ideas  are  said  to  be 
disjointed  when  they  are  so  thrown  out  of  their  order 
that  they  do  not  fall  in  with  one  another ; and  king 
doms  are  said  to  be  dismembered  w’here  any  >)art  or 
parts  are  separated  from  the  rest ; 

Along  the  woods,  along  the  moorish  fens. 

Sighs  the  sad  genius  of  the  coming  storm. 

And  up  among  the  loose  disjointed  cliffs. 

Thomson. 

Where  shall  I find  his  corpse ! What  earth  sustains 
His  trunk  dismembered  and  his  cold  remains'? 

Dryden 

And  yet,  deluded  man, 

A scene  of  crude  disjointed  visions  past. 

And  broken  slumbers,  rises  still  resolv’d 
With  new  flush’d  hopes  to  run  the  giddy  round 
'Thomson 

‘ The  kingdom  of  East  Sa.xony  was  dismembered  from 
that  of  Kent.’ — Hume. 


TO  ADDICT,  DEVOTE,  APPLY. 

.Addict,  in  Latin  addictus,  participle  of  addico,  com 
pounded  of  ad  and  dico,  signifies  to  speak  or  declare  iu 
favour  of  a thing,  to  exert  one’s  self  in  its  favour, 
devote,  in  Latin  devotus,  participle  of  devoveo,  signi 
fies  to  vow  or  make  resolutions  for  a thing;  apply,  in 
French  appliquer,  Latin  applico,  is  compounded  of 
ap  or  ad  and  plico,  signifying  to  knit  or  join  one’s  self 
to  a thing. 

To  addict  is  to  indulge  one’s  self  in  any  paiticular 
practice  ; to  devote  is  to  direct  one’s  powers  and  means 
to  any  particular  pursuit;  to  apply  is  to  employ  one’s 
time  or  attention  about  any  object.  Men  are  addicted 
to  vices;  they  devote  their  talents  to  the  acquirement 
of  any  art  or  science;  they  apply  their  minds  to  the 
investigation  of  a subject. 

Children  begin  early  to  addict  themselves  to  lying 
^ when  they  have  any  thing  to  conceal.  People  whe 
i are  devoted  to  their  appetites  are  burdensome  to  them 


422 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


selves,  and  to  all  with  whom  they  are  connected. 
Whoever  applies  his  mind  to  the  c0iitem[)lation  of 
nature,  and  the  works  of  creation,  will  feel  himself 
impressed  with  sublime  and  reverential  ideas  of  the 
Creator. 

We  are  addicted  to  a thing  frotj  an  irresistible 
passion  or  propensity;  ‘As  the  pleasures  of  luxury 
are  very  expensive,  they  put  those  who  are  addicted  to 
them  upon  raising  fresh  supplies  of  money  by  all  the 
methods  of  rapaciousness  and  corruption.’ — Addison. 
We  are  devoted  to  a thing  from  a strong  but  settled 
attachment  to  it ; ‘ Persons  who  have  devoted  tliem- 
elves  to  God  are  venerable  to  all  who  fear  him.’ — 
Berkeley.  V’V^e  apply  to  a thing  from  a sense  of  its 
utility;  ‘Tully  has  observed  that  a lamb  no  sooner 
falls  from  its  mother,  but  immediately,  and  of  its  own 
accord,  it  applies  itself  to  the  teat.’ — Addison.  We 
addict  ourselves  to  study  by  yielding  to  our  passion  for 
it : we  devote  ourselves  to  the  service  of  our  king  and 
country  by  employing  all  our  powers  to  their  benefit; 
we  apply  to  business  by  giving  it  all  the  time  and 
attention  that  it  requires. 

Addict  is  seldomer  used  in  a good  than  in  a bad 
sense;  devote  is  mostly  employed  in  a good  sense; 
apply  in  an  indifTerent  sense. 

TO  ADDRESS,  APPLY. 

Address  is  compounded  of  ad  and  dress,  in  Spanish 
derecar,  Latin  direxi,  preterit  of  dirigo  to  direct,  sig- 
nifying to  direct  one’s  self  to  an  object;  apply,  v.  To 
addict. 

An  address  is  immediately  directed  from  one  party 
to  another,  either  personally  or  by  writing;  an  ap- 
plication may  be  made  through  the  medium  of  a third 
person.  An  address  may  be  made  for  an  indifferent 
purpose  or  without  any  express  object ; but  an  appli- 
cation is  always  occasioned  by  some  serious  circum- 
stance. 

We  address  those  to  whom  we  speak  or  write; 
‘Many  are  the  inconveniences  which  happen  from  the 
improper  manner  of  address,  in  common  speech,  be- 
tween persons  of  the  same  or  different  quality.’ — 
Steele.  We  apply  to  those  to  whom  we  wish  to 
communicate  some  object  of  personal  interest;  ‘Thus 
all  the  words  of  lordship,  honour,  and  grace,  are  only 
repetitions  to  a man  that  the  king  has  ordered  him  to 
be  called  so,  but  no  evidences  that  there  is  any  thing  in 
himself  that  would  give  the  man,  who  applies  to  him, 
those  ideas  without  the  creation  of  his  master.’ — 
Steele.  An  address  therefore  may  be  made  without 
an  application ; and  an  application  may  be  made  by 
means  of  an  address. 

It  is  a privilege  of  the  British  Constitution,  that  the 
subject  may  address  the  monarch,  and  apply  for  a 
redress  of  grievances.  We  cannot  pass  through  the 
streets  of  the  metropolis  without  being  continually  ad- 
dressed by  beggars,  who  apply  for  the  relief  of  arti- 
ficial more  than  for  real  wants.  Men  in  power  are 
always  exposed  to  be  publickly  addressed  by  persons 
who  wish  to  obtrude  their  opinions  upon  them,  and  to 
have  perpetual  applications  from  those  who  solicit 
favours. 

An  address  may  be  rude  or  civil,  an  application 
may  be  frequentor  urgent.  It  is  impertinent  to  address 
an;y  one  with  whom  we  are  not  acquainted,  unless  we 
have  any  reason  for  making  an  application  to  them. 

TO  ATTEND  TO,  MIND,  REGARD,  HEED, 
NOTICE. 

Attend,  in  French  attendre,  Latin  attendo,  com- 
pounded of  at  or  ad  and  tendo  to  stretch,  signifies  to 
stretch  or  bend  the  mind  to  a thing ; mind,  from  the 
noun  mind,  signifies  to  have  in  the  mind ; regard,  in 
French  rc^arrfer,  compounded  of  re  and  garder,  comes 
from  the  German  wahren  to  see  or  look  at,  signifying 
to  look  upon  again  or  with  attention  ; heed,  in  German 
hiitken,  in  all  probability  comes  from  vito,  and  the 
Latin  video  to  see  or  pay  attention  to ; notice,  from  the 
Latin  notitia  knowledge,  signifies  to  get  the  knowledge 
of  or  have  in  one’s  mind. 

The  idea  of  fixing  the  mind  on  an  object  is  common 
to  all  these  terms.  As  this  is  the  characteristick  of 
attention,  attend  is  the  generick,  the  rest  are  specifick 
terms.  We  attend  in  minding,  regarding,  heeding, 
and  noticing,  and  also  iK  many  cases  in  which  these 


words  are  not  employed.  To  mini  is  to  attend  to  a 
thing,  so  that  it  may  not  be  iorgotten  ; to  regard  is  to 
look  on  a thing  as  of  importance;  to  heed  is  to  attend 
to  a thing  from  a principle  of  caution  ; to  notice  is  Ic 
think  on  that  which  strikes  the  senses. 

We  attend  to  a speaker  when  we  hear  and  under 
stand  his  words;  ‘Conversation  will  naturally  furnish 
us  with  hints  which  we  did  not  attend  to,  and  make 
us  enjoy  other  men’s  parts  and  reflections  as  well  as 
our  own.’ — Addison.  We  mind  what  is  said  when  we 
bear  it  in  mind  ; 

Cease  to  request  me,  let  us  mind  our  way. 
Another  song  requires  another  day. — Dryden 
We  regard  what  is  said  by  dwelling  and  reflecting  on 
it ; ‘ Tlie  voice  of  reason  is  more  to  be  regarded  than 
the  bent  of  any  present  inclination.’ — Addison.  Heed 
is  given  to  whatever  awakens  a sense  of  danger ; 

Ah  ! why  was  ruin  so  attractive  made, 

Or  why  fond  man  so  easily  betray’d  1 
Why  heed  vve  not,  while  mad  we  haste  along. 

The  gentle  voice  of  peace  or  pleasure’s  song  1 
Collins 

JSTotice  is  taken  of  what  passes  outwardly  ; ‘ I believe 
that  the  knowledge  of  Dryden  was  gleaned  from  acci- 
dental intelligence  and  various  conversation,  by  vigi- 
lance that  permitted  nothing  to  j)ass  witheut  notice.' — 
Johnson.  Children  should  always  attend  when  spoken 
to,  and  mind  what  is  said  to  them  ; they  should  regard 
the  counsels  of  their  parents,  so  as  to  make  them  the 
rule  of  their  conduct,  and  heed  their  warnings  so  as  to 
avoid  the  evil ; they  should  notice  what  passes  before 
them  so  as  to  apply  it  to  some  useful  purpose.  It  is  a 
part  of  politeness  to  attend  to  every  minute  circum- 
stance which  affects  the  comfort  and  convenience  of 
those  with  whom  we  associate ; men  who  are  actuated 
by  any  passion  seldom  pay  any  regard  to  the  dictates 
of  conscience  ; nor  heed  the  unfavourable  impressions 
which  their  conduct  makes  on  others  ; for  in  fact  they 
seldom  think  what  is  said  of  them  to  be  worth  theii 
notice. 


TO  ATTEND,  HEARKEN,  LISTEN. 

Attend,  v.  To  attend  to ; hearken,  in  German  horchen 
is  an  intensive  of  hSren  to  hear ; listen  probably  cornea 
from  the  German  liisten  to  lust  after,  because  listening 
springs  from  an  eager  desire  to  hear. 

Attend  is  a mental  action  ; hearken  both  corporeal 
and  mental  ; listen  simply  corporeal.  To  attend  is  to 
have  the  mind  engaged  on  what  we  hear  ; to  hearken 
and  listen  are  to  strive  to  hear.  People  attend  when 
they  are  addressed ; 

Hush’d  winds  the  topmost  branches  scarcely  bend. 

As  if  thy  tuneful  song  they  did  attend. — Dryden 
They  hearken  to  what  is  said  by  others;  ‘What  a 
deluge  of  lust,  and  fraud,  ami  violence  would  in  a little 
time  overflow  the  whole  nation,  if  these  wise  advocates 
for  morality  (the  freethinkers)  were  universally  heark- 
ened to.’— Berkeley.  Men  listen  to  what  passes  be 
tween  others ; 

While  Chaos  hush’d  stands  listening  to  the  noise, 

And  wonders  at  confusion  not  his  own. — Dennis. 

It  is  always  proper  to  attend,  and  mostly  of  impor- 
tance to  hearken,  but  frequently  improper  to  listen. 
The  mind  that  is  occupied  with  another  object  cannot 
attend:  we  are  not  di.<posed  to  hearken  when  the  thing 
does  not  appear  interesting;  curiosity  often  impels  to 
listening  to  what  does  not  concern  the  listener. 

Listen  is  sometimes  used  figuratively  for  hearing, 
so  as  to  attend  : it  is  necessary  at  all  times  to  listen  to 
the  dictates  of  reason.  It  is  of  great  importance  for  a 
learner  to  attend  to  the  rules  that  are  laid  down  it  i? 
essential  for  young  people  in  general  to  hearken  to  the 
counsels  of  their  elders,  and  to  listen  to  the  admoni- 
tions of  conscience. 


TO  HEAR,  HEARKEN,  OVERHEAR 
To  hear  is  properly  the  act  of  the  ear ; it  is  some 
times  totally  abstracted  from  the  mind,  when  we  heai 
and  do  not  understand  ; 

I look’d,  I listen’d,  dreadful  sounds  I hear. 

And  the  dire  forms  of  hostile  gods  appear. 

Dryden. 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


422 


To  hearken  is  an  aft  of  the  ear,  ind  the  mind  in  con- 
/unction  ; it  implies  an  effort  to  \ear,  a tendency  of  the 
ear: 

But  aged  Ncreus  hearkens  to  his  love. — Drvden. 
To  overhear  is  to  hear  clandestinely,  or  unknown  to 
the  person  who  is  heard,  wliither  designedly  or  not ; 

If  he  fail  of  that 

He  will  have  other  means  to  cut  you  off; 

I overheard  him  and  his  pra/:tices. — Siiakspeare. 
We  hear  sounds  : wo  hearken  for  the  sense  ; we  over- 
hear the  woids  ; a quick  ear  hears  tiie  smallest  sound  ; 
a willing  mind  hearkens  to  what  is  said : a prying 
curiosity  leads  to  overhearing. 

ATTENTION,  APPLICATION,  STUDY. 

These  terms  indicate  a direction  of  the  thoughts  to 
an  object,  but  differing  in  the  degree  of  steadiness  and 
force. 

ALtention  {v.  To  attend  to)  marks  the  simple  bend- 
ing of  the  mind  ; application  (a.  To  address)  marks 
an  envelopment  or  engagement  of  the  powers;  a bring- 
ing them  into  a state  of  close  contact ; study.,  from  the 
Latin  studeo  to  desire  eagerly,  marks  a degree  of  ap- 
plication that  arises  from  a strong  desire  of  attaining 
the  object. 

Attention  is  the  first  requisite  for  making  a progress 
in  the  acquirement  of  knowledge  ; it  may  be  given  in 
various  degrees,  and  it  rewards  according  to  the  pro- 
portion in  which  it  is  given  ; a divided  attention  is 
however  more  hurtful  than  otherwise ; it  retards  the 
progress  of  the  learner  while  it  injures  his  mind  by 
improper  exercise ; ‘ Those  whom  sorrow  incapacitates 
to  enjoy  the  pleasures  of  contemplation,  may  properly 
apply  to  such  diversions,  provided  they  are  innocent, 
as  lay  strong  hold  on  the  attention.' — Johnson.  Ap- 
plication is  requisite  for  the  attainment  of  perfection 
in  any  pursuit ; it  cannot  be  partial  or  variable,  like 
attention;  it  must  be  the  constant  exercise  of  power 
or  the  regular  and  uniform  use  of  means  for  the  attain- 
ment of  an  end  : youth  is  the  period  for  application, 
when  the  powers  of  body  and  mind  are  in  full  vigour; 
no  degree  of  it  in  after-life  will  supply  its  deficiency 
in  younger  years;  ‘I  could  heartily  wish  there  was 
the  same  application  and  endeavours  to  cultivate  and 
improve  our  church  musick  as  have  been  lately  be- 
stowed upon  that  of  the.  stage.’ — Addison.  Study  is 
that  species  of  application  which  is  most  purely  intel- 
lectual in  its  nature  ; it  is  the  exercise  of  the  mind  for 
itself  and  in  itself,  its  native  eflort  to  arrive  at  ma- 
turity ; it  embraces  both  attention  and  application. 
The  student  attends  to  all  he  hears  and  sees  ; applies 
what  he  has  learned  to  the  acquirement  of  what  he 
wishes  to  learn,  and  digests  the  whole  by  the  exercise 
of  reflection  : as  nothing  is  thoroughly  understood  or 
properly  reduced  to  practice  without  study,  the  pro- 
fessional man  must  choose  this  road  in  order  to  reach 
the  summit  of  excellence  ; ‘ Oilier  things  may  be  seized 
with  might,  or  purchased  with  money,  but  knowledge 
is  to  be  gained  only  with  study.' — Johnson. 


TO  DISREGARD,  NEGLECT,  SLIGHT. 

To  disregard  signifies  properly  not  to  regard; 
neglect,  in  Latin  neglectus,  participle  of  negligo,  com- 
pounded of  nec  and  lego,  signifies  not  to  choose ; 
slight,  from  light,  signifies  to  make  light  of  or  set 
light  by. 

We  disregard  the  warnings,  the  words,  or  opinions 
of  another;  we  neglect  their  injunctions  or  their  pre- 
cepts. To  disregard  results  from  the  settled  purpose 
of  the  mind  ; to  neglect  from  a temporary  forgetful- 
ness or  oversight.  What  is  disregarded  is  seen  and 
passed  over;  what  is  neglected  is  generally  not  thought 
of  at  the  time  required.  What  is  disregarded  does 
not  strike  the  mind  at  af  ; what  is  neglected  enters 
the  mind  only  when  it  is  before  the  eye;  the  former  is 
an  action  employed  on  present  objects;  the  latter 
on  that  which  is  oast:  W'hat  we  disregard  is  not 
esteemed  ; ‘ The  .lew  notion  that  has  prevailed  of 
late  jears  that  the  Christian  religion  is  little  more 
than  a good  system  of  morality,  must  in  course  draw 
m a disregard  to  spiritual  exercise.’ — Gibson.  What 
we  neglect  is  often  esteemed  '’ut  not  sufficiently  to  be 
%inembered  or  oractised ; 


Beauty ’s  a charm,  but  soon  the  charm  will  pass; 

As  lilies  lie  neglected  on  the  plain, 

While  dusky  hyacinths  for  use  remain.— Drvden. 
A child  disregards  the  prudent  counsels  of  a parent; 
he  neglects  to  use  the  remedies  which  have  been  pre 
scribed  to  him. 

Disregard  and  neglect  are  frequently  net  personal 
acts ; they  respect  the  thing  more  than  the  person , 
slight  is  altogether  an  intentional  act  towards  an  indi- 
vidual. We  disregard  or  neglect  things  often  from  a 
heedlessness  of  temper ; the  consequence  either  of 
youth  or  habit : we  slight  a person  from  feelings  of 
dislike  or  contempt.  Young  people  should  disregard 
nothing  that  is  said  to  them  by  their  superioiirs ; nor 
neglect  any  thing  which  they  are  enjoined  to  do ; nor 
slight  any  one  to  whom  they  owe  personal  attention  ; 
‘ You  cannot  expect  your  son  should  have  any  regard 
for  one  whom  he  sees  you  slight.' — Locke.  Slight  is 
also  sometimes  aiiplied  to  moral  objects  in  the  same 
sense  ; ‘When  once  devotion  fancies  herself  under  the 
influence  of  a divine  impulse,  it  is  no  wonder  slie  slights 
human  ordinances.’ — Addison. 


INADVERTENCY,  INATTENTION, 
OVERSIGHT. 

Inadvertency,  from  advert  to  turn  the  mind  to.  Is 
allied  to  inattention  {v.  Attentive),  when  the  act  cf 
the  mind  is  signified  in  general  terms  ; and  to  over- 
sight when  any  particular  instance  of  inadvertency 
occurs.  Inadvertency  never  designates  a habit,  but 
inattention  does ; the  ti  nier  term,  tlierefore,  is  un- 
qualified by  the  reproachful  sense  which  attaches  to 
the  latter:  anyone  may  be  guilty  of  inadvertencies, 
since  the  mind  that  is  occiqiied  with  many  subjects 
equally  serious  may  be  turned  so  steadily  towards 
some  that  others  may  escape  riviiice ; ‘ Ignorance  or 
inadvertency  will  admit  of  some  extenuation.’— SotrsH. 
Inattenticn,  which  designales  a direct  want  of  atten- 
tion, is  always  a fault,  and  belongs  only  to  the  young, 
or  such  as  are  thoughtless,  either  by  nature  or  circum- 
stances ; ‘The  expense  of  attending  (the  Scottish 
Parliament),  the  inattention  of  the  age  to  any  legal 
or  regular  system  of  government,  but  above  all,  tlie 
exorbitant  authority  of  the  nobles,  made  this  privilege 
of  so  little  value  as  to  be  almost  neglected.’— Robert- 
son. Since  inadvertency  is  an  occasional  act,  it  mus/ 
not  be  too  often  repeated,  or  it  becomes  inattention 
An  oversight  is  properly  a species  of  inadvertency 
which  arises  from  looking  over,  or  passing  by,  a thing 
Inadvertency  seems  to  refer  rather  to  the  cause  of  the 
mistake,  namely,  the  particular  abstraction  of  the  mind 
from  tlie  object;  the  term  oversight  seems  to  refer  to 
the  mistake  itself,  namely,  the  missing  something 
which  ought  to  have  been  taken  : it  is  an  inadvertency 
in  a person  to  omit  speaking  to  one  of  the  company; 
it  is  an  oversight  in  a tradesman  who  omits  to  include 
certain  articles  in  his  reckoning  : we  pardon  an  inad 
vertency  in  another,  since  the  consequences  are  never 
serious;  we  must  be  guarded  against  oversights  in 
business,  as  their  consequences  may  be  serious  ; ‘ The 
ancient  crilicks  discover  beauties  which  escape  the  ob- 
servation of  the  vulgar,  and  very  often  find  reasons 
for  palliating  such  little  slips  and  oversights  in  the 
writings  of  eminent  authors.’— Addison. 

TO  NEGLECT,  OMIT. 

fN'eglect,  V.  To  disregard;  omit,  in  Latin  omitto,  or 
ob  and  mitto,  signifies  to  put  aside. 

The  idea  of  letting  pass  or  slip,  or  of  not  using,  is 
comprehended  in  the  signification  of  both  these 
terms;  the  former  is,  however,  a culpable,  the  latter 
an  indifferent,  action.  What  we  neglect  ought  not  tc 
be  neglected ; 

Heaven, 

Where  honour  due  and  reverence  none  neglect. 

Milton. 

What  we  omit  may  be  omitted  or  otherwise,  as  conve- 
nience requires;  ‘ These  personal  comparisons  I omit, 
because  I would  say  nothing  that  may  savour  of  a 
spirit  of  flattery.’— Bacon.  In  indifferent  matters  they 
may  sometimes  be  applied  indifferently;  'It  is  the 
great  excellence  of  learning,  tliat  it  borrows  very  little 
from  time  or  place  ; but  this  quality  which  constilutei 
much  of  its  value  is  one  occasion  of  neglect  Wha 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


42'i 

may  be  done  at  all  times  wi.h  equal  propriety  is  de- 
lerrcd  from  day  to  day,  till  the  mind  is  gradually  recon- 
ciled to  the  omission.' — Johnson.  These  terms  differ, 
however,  in  the  objects  to  which  they  are  applied : that 
is  neglected  which  is  practicable  or  serves  for  action  ; 
tiiat  is  omitted  which  serves  for  intellectual  purposes: 
we  neglect  an  opportunity,  we  neglect  the  means,  the 
time,  the  use,  and  the  like  ; we  omit  a word,  a sentence, 
a figure,  a stroke,  a circumstance,  and  the  like. 


NEGLIGENT,  REMISS,  CARELESS,  THOUGHT- 
LESS, HEEDLESS,  INATTENTIVE. 

Jfegligent  {v.  To  disregard)  and  remiss  respect  the 
outward  action : careless.,  heedless,  Ihonghtless,  and 
inattentive  respect  the  state  of  the  mind. 

JsTegligence  and  remi.9SMess  consist  in  not  doing  what 
ought  to  be  done;  carelessness  and  the  other  mental 
defects  may  show  themselves  in  doing  wrong,  as  well 
as  in  not  doing  at  all ; negligence  and  remissness  are 
therefore,  to  carelessness  and  the  others,  as  the  effect 
to  the  cause  ; for  no  one  is  so  apt  to  be  negligent  and 
remiss  as  he  who  is  careless,  although  at  the  same 
time  negligence  and  remissness  arise  from  other  causes, 
and  carelessness,  thoughtlessness,  &c.  produce  like- 
wise other  effects.  Negligent  is  a stronger  term  than 
remiss  : one  is  negligent  in  neglecting  the  thing  that  is 
expressly  before  one’s  eyes  ; one  is  remiss  in  forgetting 
that  which  was  enjoined  some  time  previously:  the 
want  of  will  renders  a person  negligent ; the  want  of 
interest  renders  a person  remi^ : owe  \s  negligent  \n 
regard  to  business,  and  the  penormance  of  bodily  la- 
bour ; one  is  remiss  in  duty,  or  in  such  things  as  re- 
spect mental  exertion.  Servants  are  commonly  negli- 
gent in  what  concerns  their  master’s  interest;  teachers 
are  remiss  in  not  correcting  the  faults  of  their  pupils. 
J^egligence  is  therefore  the  fault  of  persons  of  all  de- 
scriptions, but  particularly  those  in  low  condition; 

‘ The  two  classes  most  apt  to  be  negligent  of  this  duty 
(religious  retirement)  are  the  men  of  pleasure,  and  the 
men  of  business.’ — Blair.  Remissness  is  a fault 
peculiar  to  those  in  a more  elevated  station  ; 

• My  gen’rous  brother  is  of  gentle  kind. 

He  seems  remiss,  but  bears  a valiant  mind. — Pope. 
A clerk  in  an  office  is  negligent  in  not  making  proper 
monmrandums;  a magistrate,  or  the  head  of  an  insti- 
tution, \s,  remiss  in  the  exercise  of  his  authority  by  not 
checking  irregularities. 

Careless  denotes  the  want  of  care  (v.  Care)  in  the 
manner  of  doing  things;  denotes  the  want 

of  thought  or  reflection  about  things ; heedless  denotes 
the  want  of  heeding  {v.  To  attend)  or  regarding  things; 
inattentive  denotes  the  want  of  attention  to  things  {v. 
To  attend  to). 

One  is  careless  only  in  trivial  matters  of  behaviour ; 
one  is  thoughtless  in  matters  of  greater  moment,  in 
what  respects  the  conduct.  Carelessness  leads  chil- 
vlren  to  make  mistakes  in  their  exercises,  or  in  what- 
ever they  commit  to  memory  or  to  paper ; thoughtless- 
ness leads  many  who  are  not  children  into  serious 
errours  of  conduct,  when  they  do  not  think  of  or  bear 
in  mind  the  consequences  of  their  actions.  Careless- 
ness is  occasional,  thoughtlessness  is  permanent ; the 
former  is  inseparable  from  a state  of  childhood,  the 
latter  is  a constitutional  defect,  and  sometimes  attends 
a man  to  his  grave.  Carelessness  as  well  as  thought- 
lessness betrays  itself  not  only  in  the  thing  that  imme- 
diately employs  the  tnind,  but  thoughtlessness  re- 
spects that  which  is  past,  and  carelessness  lies  in  that 
which  regards  futurity ; ‘ If  the  parts  of  time  were  not 
variously  oeloured,  we  should  never  discern  their  de- 
parture and  succession,  but  should  live  thoughtless  of 
the  past,  and  careless  of  the  future.’ — Johnson.  We 
may  not  only  be  careless  in  not  doing  the  thing  well 
that  we  are  about,  but  we  may  be  careless  in  neglect- 
ing to  do  it  at  all,  or  careless  about  the  event,  or  care- 
less about  our  future  interest;  it  still  differs,  however, 
from  tAoM^AzZe.9s  in  this,  that  it  bespeaks  a want  of 
interest  or  desire  for  the  thing;  but  thoughtless  be- 
speaks the  want  of  thinking  or  reflecting  upon  it:  the 
careless  person  abstains  from  using  the  means,  be- 
cause he  does  not  care  about  the  end  ; the  thoughtless 
person  cannot  act,  because  he  does  not  think:  the 
careless  person  sees  the  thing,  but  does  not  try  to  ob- 
tain it ; the  thoughtless  persot  has  not  the  thought  of 
it  in  his  mind 


Careless  Is  applied  to  such  things  as  require  pei- 
manentcare  ; thoughtless  to  such  as  require  permaneni 
thought ; heedless  and  inattentive  are  applied  to  pass- 
ing objects  that  engage  the  senses  or  the  thoughts  of 
the  moment.  One  is  careless  in  business,  thoughtless 
in  conduct,  heedless  in  walking  or  running,  inattentive 
in  listening:  careless  and  thoughtless  persons  neglect 
the  necessary  use  of  their  powers;  the  heedless  and 
inattentive  neglect  the  use  of  their  senses.  Careless 
people  are  unfit  to  be  employed  in  the  management  of 
any  concerns ; thoughtless  people  are  unfit  to  have  the 
management  of  themselves  ; heedless  children  are  unfit 
to  go  by  themselves;  inattentive  children  are  unfit  to 
be  led  by  others.  One  is  careless  and  inattentive  in 
providing  for  his  good  ; one  is  thoughtless  and  heedless 
in  not  guarding  against  evil:  a careless  person  does 
not  trouble  himself  about  advancement ; an  inattentive 
person  does  not  concern  himself  about  improvement, 
a thoughtless  person  brings  himself  into  distress ; a 
heedless  person  exposes  himself  to  accidents. 

Heedless  and  inattentive  are,  for  the  most  part, 
applied  to  particular  circumstances,  and  in  that  case 
they  are  not  taken  in  a bad  sense.  We  may  be  heed- 
less of  a thing  of  which  it  is  not  needful  to  take  anv 
heed ; 

There  in  the  ruin,  heedless  of  the  dead, 

The  shelter-seeking  peasant  builds  his  shed. 

Goldsmith 

Or  inattentive  \ f the  thing  does  not  demand  attention ; 
‘ In  the  midst  of  his  glory  the  Almighty  is  not  inatten 
tive  to  the  meanest  of  his  subjects.’ — Blair. 


THOUGHTFUL,  CONSIDERATE, 
DELIBERATE. 

Thoughtful,  or  full  of  thinking  (v.  To  think,  re 
fleet),  considerate,  or  ready  to  consider  {v.  To  const 
der,  reflect),  and  deliberate,  ready  to  deliberate  (v.  To 
consult),  rise  upon  each  other  in  their  signification  : 
he  who  is  thoughtful  does  not  forget  his  duty  ; he  who 
is  considerate  pauses,  and  considers  properly  what  is 
his  duty;  he  who  deliberates  considers  deliberately. 
It  is  a recommendation  to  a subordinate  person  to  be 
thoughtful  in  doing  what  is  wished  of  him ; ‘Men’s 
minds  are  in  general  inclined  to  levity,  much  more  than 
to  thoughtful  melancholy.’ — Blair.  It  is  the  recom 
mendation  of  a confidential  person  to  be  considerate 
as  he  has  often  to  judge  according  to  his  own  discre- 
tion ; ‘Somethings  will  not  bear  much  zeal;  and  the 
more  earnest  we  are  about  them,  the  less  we  recom 
mend  ourselves  to  the  approbation  of  sober  and  con- 
siderate men.’ — Tillotson.  It  is  the  recommendation 
of  a person  who  is  acting  for  himself  in  critical  mat- 
ters to  be  tZeZZAeraZe  ; ‘There  is  a vast  difference  be- 
tween sins  of  infirmity  and  those  of  presumption,  as 
vast  as  between  inadvertency  and  deliberation.' — 
South.  There  is  this  farther  distinction  in  the  word 
deliberate,  that  it  may  be  used  in  the  bad  sense  to  mark 
a settled  intention  to  do  evil ; young  people  may  some- 
times plead  in  extenuation  of  their  guilt,  that  their 
misdeeds  do  not  arise  from  deliberate  malice. 


ATTENTIVE,  CAREFUL. 

Jiltentive  marks  a readiness  to  attend  {v.  To  attend 
to)  ; careful  signifies  full  of  care  {v.  Care,  solicitude). 

These  epithets  denote  a fixedness  of  mind : we  are 
attentive  in  order  to  understand  and  improve;  we  are 
careful  to  avoid  mistakes.  An  attentive  scholar  pro 
fits  by  what  is  told  him  in  learning  his  task  ; a careful 
scholar  performs  his  exercise  correctly. 

Mtention  respects  matters  of  judgement;  care  re 
lates  to  mechanical  or  ordinary  actions : we  listen  at- 
tentively; we  read  or  write  carefully.  A servant 
must  be  attentive  to  the  orders  that  are  given  him,  and 
careful  not  to  injure  his  master’s  property.  A trans« 
lator  must  be  attentive ; a transcriber  careful.  A 
tradesman  ought  to  be  attentive  to  the  wishes  of  his 
customers,  and  careful  in  keeping  his  accounts,  In 
an  extended  and  moral  application  of  these  terms  they 
preserve  a similar  distinction ; ‘ The  use  of  ft'e  pas- 
sions is  to  stir  up  the  soul,  to  awaken  the  under-'tanc!- 
ing,  and  to  make  the  whole  man  more  vigorous  am* 
attentive  in  the  prosecution  of  his  designs.’ — Addsion 
‘ We  should  be  as  careful  of  our  words  as  our  actions 
and*  as  far  from  speaking  as  doing  ill.’ — Steele 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


4J6 


CARE,  SOLICITUDE,  ANXIETY. 

Cffre,  in  Latin  cwra,  comes  probably  from  the  Greek 
<vj)o^  power,  because  whoever  has  power  lias  a weight 
01  care;  solicitude,  in  French  solicitude,  Latin  solli- 
citudo  from  sollicito  to  disquiet,  compounded  of  solum 
and  cito  to  |)ut  altogether  in  commotion,  sigmnes  a 
complete  state  of  restless  commotion  ; anxiety,  in 
French  anxieti,  Latin  anxietas,  from  anxius  and  ang-o, 
Greek  aVx^^i  Hebrew  pjn  to  hang,  suffocate,  torment, 
uignifies  a state  of  extreme  suffering. 

These  terms  express  mental  pain  in  different  degrees ; 
care  less  than  solicitude,  and  this  less  than  anxiety. 
Care  consists  of  thought  and  feeling;  solicitude  and 
awxiettf  of  feeling  only.  Care  respects  the  past,  pre- 
sent, and  future;  solicitude  and  anxiety  regard  the 
present  and  future.  Care  is  directed  towards  the  pre- 
sent and  absent,  near  or  at  a distance  ; solicitude  and 
anxiety  are  employed  about  that  which  is  absent  and 
at  a ceVlain  distance. 

We  are  careful  about  the  means;  solicitous  and 
anxious  about  the  end  ; we  are  solicitous  to  obtain  a 
good  ; we  are  anxious  to  avoid  an  evil.  The  cares  of 
a parent  exceed  every  other  in  their  weight.  He  has 
an  unceasing  sofrc/'tMrfe  for  the  welfare  of  his  children, 
and  experiences  many  an  anxious  thought  lest  all  his 
care  should  be  lost  upon  them. 

Care,  though  in  some  respects  an  infirmity  of  our 
nature,  is  a consequence  of  our  limited  knowledge, 
which  we  cannot  altogether  remove  ; as  it  respects  the 
present,  it  is  a bounden  duty;  but  when  it  extends  to 
futurity,  it  must  be  kept  within  the  limits  of  pious 
resignation ; 

But  his  face 

Deep  scars  of  thunder  had  intrench’d,  and  care 

Sat  on  his  faded  cheek. — Milton. 

Solicitude  and  anxiety,  as  habits  of  the  mind,  are 
irreconcilable  with  the  faith  of  a Christian,  which 
teaches  him  to  lake  no  thought  for  the  morrow  ; ‘ Can 
your  solicitude  alter  the  course,  or  unravel  the  intri- 
cacy, of  human  events'?’ — Blair.  ‘The  story  of  a 
man  who  grew  gray  in  the  space  of  one  night’s  anxiety 
is  very  famous.’ — Spectator. 

CARE,  CONCEliN,  REGARD. 

Care,  in  Latin  cur  a,  conies  probably  from  the 
Greek  Kvpos  authority,  because  the  weight  of  care  rests 
with  those  in  authority  ; concern,  from  the  Latin  con- 
eerno,  compounded  of  con  and  cerno,  signifies  the  look- 
ing thoroughly  into  a thing ; regard,\\\  French regarder, 
compounded  of  re  and  garder  to  look,  signifies  looking 
back  upon  a thing. 

Care  and  concern  consist  both  of  thought  and  feel- 
ing, but  the  latter  has  less  of  thought  than  feeling ; 
egard  consists  of  thought  only.  VVe  care  for  a thing 
which  is  the  object  of  our  exertions  and  wishes ; 

His  trust  was  equal  with  the  Deity  to  be  deem’d. 

Equal  in  strength,  and  rather  than  be  less 

Car’d  not  to  be  at  all. — Milton. 

"e  concern  ourselves  about  a thing  when  it  engages 
our  attention ; 

Our  country’s  welfare  is  our  first  concern. — Havard. 
We  have  regard  for  a thing  on  which  we  set  some 
value  and  bestow  some  reflection  ; 

Slander  meets  no  regard  from  noble  minds: 

Only  the  base  believe  what  the  base  only  utter. 

Beller. 

Care  is  altogether  an  active  principle : the  careful 
man  leaves  no  means  untried  in  the  pursuit  of  his 
object;  care  actuates  him  to  personal  endeavours;  it 
is  opposed  to  negligence.  Concern  is  not  so  active  in 
its  nature:  the  person  who  is  concerned  w\\\  be  con- 
tented to  see  exertions  made  by  others  ; it  is  opposed 
to  indiflerence.  Regard  is  only  a sentiment  of  the 
mind;  it  may  lead  to  action,  but  of  itself  extends  no 
farther  than  reflection. 

The  business  of  life  is  the  subject  of  care  ; 

Well,  on  my  terms  thou  wilt  not  be  my  heir: 

Ifthoc  car' St  little,  less  shall  be  my  care. — Dryden. 
Religion  is  the  graiid  object  of  concern.  ‘ The  more 
the  aulhority  of  any  station  in  society  is  extended,  the 
more  it  concerns  piiblick  hapi)iness  that  it  be  committed 
to  men  fearing  God  ’ — Rogers  The  esteem  of  others 


is  an  object  of  regard;  ‘He  has  rendered  himself 
worthy  of  their  most  favourable  regards.' — Smith. 

No  one  ought  to  ex[)ect  to  be  exempt  from  care  i 
the  provision  of  a family,  and  the  education  of  chil 
dren,  are  objects  for  which  we  ought  to  take  some  care, 
or  at  least  have  some  concern,  inasmuch  as  we  have  a 
regard  for  our  own  welfare,  and  the  well-being  of 
society. 

CARE,  CHARGE,  MANAGEMENT. 

Care,  v.  Care,  solicitude;  charge,  in  French  charge 
a burden,  in  Arniorick  and  Bretan  car^,  v/hich  is  pro- 
bably connected  with  cargo  and  carry,  is  figuratively 
employed  in  the  sense  of  a burden ; a management, 
in  French  management,  from  menager  and  m^ner  to 
lead,  and  the  Latin  manus  a hand,  signifies  direction. 

Care  («.  Care,  concern)  includes  generally  both 
charge  and  management;  but  in  the  strict  sense,  it 
comprehends  personal  labour:  c/ta?-o-e  involves  respon- 
sibility: management  {v.  To  conduct)  includes  regula- 
tion and  order. 

A gardener  has  the  care  of  a garden  ; a nurse  has  the 
charge  of  children;  a steward  has  the  mawao-e/went  of 
a farm : we  must  always  act  in  order  to  lake  care ; we 
must  look  in  order  to  take  charge;  we  must  always 
think  in  order  to  manage. 

Care  is  employed  in  the  ordinary  affairs  of  life- 
charge  in  matters  of  trust  and  confidence;  manage 
ment  in  matters  of  business  and  experience : the  female 
has  the  care  of  the  house,  and  the  man  that  of  pro 
viding  for  his  family  ; 

Care ’s  a father’s  right — a pleasing  right, 

In  which  he  labours  with  a home-felt  joy. — Shirley 
An  instructer  has  thec/iar^eof  youth;  ‘Icannevei 
believe  that  the  repugnance  with  which  Tiberius  took 
the  c/tar,nre  of  the  government  upon  him  was  wholly 
feigned.’ — Cumberland.  A clerk  has  the  management 
of  a business;  ‘The  woman,  to  whom  her  husband 
left  the  whole  management  of  her  lodgings,  and  whe 
persisted  in  her  purpose,  soon  found  an  opportunity  to 
put  it  into  execution.’ — Hawkesworth. 

CAREFUL,  CAUTIOUS,  PROVIDENT. 

Careful  signifies  full  of  care  («.  Care,  solicitude; ; 
cautious  is  in  Latin  cautus,  participle  of  caoeo,  whicli 
comes  from  cavus  hollow,  or  a cave,  which  was  ori 
ginally  a place  of  security  ; hence  the  epithet  cautious 
in  the  sense  of  seeking  security  ; provident,  in  Latin 
providens,  signifies  foreseeing  or  looking  to  beforehand, 
from  pro  and  video. 

We  are  careful  to  avoid  mistakes  ; cautious  to  avoid 
danger;  provident  to  avoid  straits  and  dilficulties. 
care  is  exercised  in  saving  and  retaining  what  we  have ; 
caution  must  be  used  in  guarding  against  the  evils  that 
may  be;  providence  must  he  employed  in  supjilying 
the  good,  or  guarding  against  the  contingent  evils  of 
the  future.  Providence  is  a determinate  and  extended 
kind  of  caution. 

Care  consists  in  the  use  of  means,  in  the  exercise  of 
the  faculties  for  the  attainment  of  an  end;  u careful 
person  omits  nothing ; 

To  cure  their  mad  ambition  they  were  sent 

To  rule  a distant  province,  each  alone ; 

What  could  a careful  father  have  done  more? 

Drydin. 

Caution  consists  rather  in  abstaining  from  action;  a 
cautious  person  will  not  act  where  he  ought  not; 

Flush’d  by  the  spirit  of  the  genial  year, 

Be  greatly  cautious  of  your  sliding  hearts. 

Thomson. 

Providence  respects  the  use  of  things;  it  is  both  care 
and  caution  in  the  management  of  property  ; a pro- 
vident person  acts  for  the  future  by  abstaining  for  tUe 
present ; 

Blest  above  men  if  he  perceives  and  feels 
The  blessings  he  is  heir  to : he  ! to  whom 
His  provident  forefathers  have  bequeathed 
In  this  fair  di.strictof  Iheir  r Alive  isle 
A free  inheritance. — Cumberland. 

CAUTIOUS,  WARY,  CIRCUMSPECT. 

Cautious,  V.  Careful;  wary,  from  the  same  as  aicare 
{v.  To  be  aware  of),  signifies  ready  to  look  out  - Sr, 


m 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


cumspect,  in  Latin  circumspectus,  participle  of  circum- 
spicio  to  look  about,  signifies  ready  to  look  on  all  sides. 

These  epithets  denote  a peculiar  care  to  avoid  evil ; 
but  cautious  expresses  less  than  the  other  two ; it  is 
necessary  to  be  cawt/oMs  at  all  times;  to  be  wary  in 
cases  of  peculiar  danger;  to  be  circumspect  in  matters 
of  peculiar  delicacy  and  difficulty. 

Caution  is  the  effect  of  fear;  wariness  Oi  danger; 
circumspection  of  experience  and  reflection.  'I'he 
cautious  man  reckons  on  contingencies;  he  guards 
against  the  evils  that  may  be,  by  pausing  before  he  acts ; 
The  strong  report  of  Arthur’s  death  has  worse 
Effect  on  them,  than  on  the  common  sort ; 

The  vulgar  only  shake  their  caufroits  heads, 

Or  whisper  in  the  ear  wisely  suspicious. — Cibber. 
The  wary  man  looks  for  the  danger  which  he  suspects 
to  be  impending,  and  seeks  to  avoid  it;  ‘ Let  not  that 
wary  caution,  which  is  the  fruit  of  experience,  degene- 
rate into  craft.’ — Blair.  The  circumspect  man  weighs 
and  deliberates ; he  looks  around  and  calculates  on 
possibilities  and  probabilities ; he  seeks  to  attain  his 
end  by  the  safest  means ; ‘ No  pious  man  can  be  so  cir- 
cumspect in  the  care  of  his  conscience,  as  the  covetous 
man  is  in  that  of  his  pocket.’ — Steele.  A tradesman 
must  he  cautious  in  his  dealings  with  all  men  ; he  must 
ne  wary  in  his  intercourse  with  designing  men;  he 
must  be  circumspect  when  transacting  business  of  par- 
ticular importance  and  intricacy.  The  traveller  must 
be  cautious  when  going  a road  not  familiar  to  him  ; he 
must  be  wary  when  passing  over  slippery  and  danger- 
ous places ; he  must  be  circumspect  wlien  going  through 
obscure,  uncertain,  and  winding  passages. 

A person  ought  to  be  cautious  not  to  give  offence  ; 
he  ought  to  be  wary  not  to  entangle  himself  in  ruinous 
litigations;  he  ought  to  be  circumspect  not  to  engage 
in  what  is  above  his  abilities  to  complete.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  be  cautious  not  to  disclose  our  sentiments  too 
freely  before  strangers ; to  be  wary  in  one’s  speech 
before  busy  bodies  and  calumniators;  iohe  circumspect 
whenever  we  speak  on  publick  matters,  respecting 
either  politicks  or  religion, 

MINDFUL,  REGARDFUL,  OBSERVANT. 
Mindful,  signifies  full  of  minding,  or  thinking  on 
{hat  which  is  past;  it  mostly  regards  matters  of  pru- 
dence, or  the  counsel  we  receive  from  others; 

Be  mindful,  when  thou  hast  entomb’d  the  shoot, 
With  store  of  earth  around  to  feed  the  root. — Dryden. 
Regardful  respects  that  which  in  itself  demands  re- 
gard or  serious  thought ; 

No,  there  is  none ; no  ruler  of  the  stars 
Regardful  of  my  miseries. — Hill. 

Observant  respects  that  which  has  been  imposed  upon 
us,  or  become  a matter  of  obligation ; 

Observant  of  the  right,  religious  of  his  word. 

Dryden. 

A child  should  always  be  w/ntZ/dZ  of  its  parents’  in- 
structions; they  should  never  be  forgotten:  every  one 
should  be  regardful  of  his  several  duties  and  obliga- 
tions ; they  never  ought  to  be  neglected : one  ough' 
to  be  observant  of  the  religious  duties  which  one’s 
profession  enjoi-as  upon  him  ; they  cannot  with  pro- 
priety be  passed  over.  By  being  mindful  of  what  one 
hears  from  the  wise  and  good,  one  learns  to  be  wise  and 
good ; by  being  regardful  of  what  is  due  to  one’s  self, 
and  to  society  at  large,  one  learns  to  pass  through  the 
world  with  satisfaction  to  one’s  own  mind  and  esteem 
from  others;  by  being  o&.serumiZ  of  all  rule  and  order, 
we  afford  to  others  a salutary  example  for  their  imi- 
ation. 


AWARE,  ON  ONE’S  GUARD,  APPRIZED, 
CONSCIOUS. 

Jiware,  compounded  of  a or  on  and  ware,  signifies 
to  be  on  the  look  out,  from  the  Saxon  waer,  German, 
&.C.  wahren,  Greek  6pd(t>  to  see;  guard,  in  French 
garder,  is  connected  with  ward,  in  Saxon  waerd,  Ger- 
man, &c.  gewahrt,  participle  of  wahren;  apprized,  in 
French  appris,  from  apprendre  to  apprehend,  learn,  or 
understand;  conscious,  in  Latin  conscius,oi  cowand 
zeius  knowing,  signifies  knowing  within  one’s  self. 

The  idea  f having  the  expectation  or  knowledge  of 


a thing  is  common  to  all  these  terms.  We  are  njcare 
of  a thing  when  we  calculate  upon  it;  ‘ The  first  steps 
in  the  breach  of  a man’s  integrity  are  more  important 
than  men  are  aware  of.’— Steele.  We  are  on  out 
guard  against  an  evil  when  we  are  prepaied  lor  it 
‘ What  establishment  of  religion  more  friendly  to 
publick  happiness  could  be  desired  or  framed  (thanoui 
own).  How  zealous  ought  we  to  be  for  its  preserva 
tiou  ; how  much  on  our  guard  against  every  dange: 
which  threatens  to  trouble  it.’ — Blair.  We  are  up 
prized  of  that  of  which  w’e  have  had  an  intimaiion, 
or  have  been  informed  of ; ‘ In  play  the  chance  of  loss 
and  gain  ought  always  to  be  equal,  at  least  each  party 
should  be  apprized  of  the  force  employed  against  him.’ 
— Steele.  We  are  conscious  of  that  in  which  we 
have  ourselves  been  concerned  ; ‘ I know  nothing  so 
hard  for  a generous  mind  to  get  over  as  calumny  and 
reproach,  and  cannot  find  any  method  of  quieting  the 
soul  under  them,  besides  this  single  one,  of  our  being 
conscious  to  ourselves  that  we  do  not  deserve  them.’- 
Addison. 

To  be  aware,  and  on  one's  guard,  respect  the  future , 
to  be  apprized,  either  the  past  or  present ; to  be  con- 
scious, only  the  past.  Experience  enables  a man  to  be 
aware  of  consequences  ; prudence  and  caution  dictate 
to  him  the  necessity  of  being  on  his  guard  against 
evils.  Whoever  is  fully  aware  of  the  precarious  tenure 
by  which  he  holds  all  his  goods  in  this  world,  will  be 
on  his  guard  to  prevent  any  calamities,  as  far  as  the 
use  of  means  in  his  control. 

We  are  apprized  of  events,  or  what  passes  outwardly, 
through  the  medium  of  external  circumstances ; we  are 
conscious  only  through  the  medium  of  ourselves,  of 
what  passes  within.  VVe  are  apprized  of  what  has  hap- 
pened from  indications  that  attract  our  notice ; we  are 
conscious  of  our  guilt  from  the  recollection  of  what  we 
have  done.  A commander  who  is  not  aware  of  all  the 
contingencies  that  influence  the  fate  of  a battle,  who 
is  not  on  his  guard  against  the  stratagems  of  the 
enemy,  who  is  not  fully  apprized  of  their  intentions, 
and  conscious  of  his  own  strength  to  frustrate  them, 
has  no  grounds  to  expect  a victory  ; the  chances  of  de- 
feat are  greatly  against  him. 


HEED,  CARE,  ATTENTION 

Heed,  which  through  the  medium  of  the  German 
hiithen  probably  comes  from  the  Latin  vito  to  avoid, 
and  video  to  see,  applies  to  matters  of  importance  to 
one’s  moral  conduct ; care  (v.  Care,  concern)  applies 
to  matters  of  minor  import:  a man  is  required  to  take 
heed;  a child  is  required  to  take  care:  the  former 
exercises  his  understanding  in  taking  heed ; the  lattei 
exercises  his  thoughts  and  his  senses  in  taking  care: 
the  former  looks  to  the  remote  and  probable  conse 
quences  of  his  actions,  and  endeavours  to  prevent  the 
evil  that  may  happen  ; the  latter  secs  principally  to 
the  thing  that  is  immediately  before  him.  When  a 
young  man  enters  the  world,  he  must  take  heed  lest 
he  be  not  ensnared  by  his  companions  into  vicious 
practices ; 

Next  you,  my  servants,  heed  my  strict  command. 

Without  the  walls  a ruin’d  temple  stands. 

Dryden. 

In  a slippery  path  we  must  ^ake  care  that  we  do  not 
fall ; ‘ I believe  the  hiatus  should  be  avoided  with  more 
care  in  poetry  than  in  oratory.’ — Pope. 

Heed  has  moreover  the  sense  of  thinking  on  what 
is  proposed  to  our  notice,  in  which  it  agrees  with  atten 
tion,  which  from  the  Latin  attendo,  or  at  and  tendo 
to  stretch,  siimifies  a tension  or  stretching  the  mind 
towards  an  object ; hence  we  speak  of  giving  heed  and 
paying  attention:  but  the  former  is  applied  only  to 
that  which  is  conveyed  to  us  by  another,  in  the  shape 
of  a direction,  a caution,  or  an  instruction ; but  the 
latter  is  said  of  every  thing  which  w’e  are  set  to  per 
form.  A good  child  gives  heed  to  his  parents  when 
they  caution  him  against  any  dangerous  or  false  step 
he  pays  attention  to  the  lesson  w'hich  is  set  him  tc 
learn.  He  who  gives  no  heed  to  the  counsels  of  others 
is  made  to  repent  his  folly  by  bitter  experience  ; ‘ It  is 
a way  of  calliim  a man  a fool,  when  no  heed  is  given 
to  what  he  says.’ — L’Estrange.  He  wdio  fails  in  pay- 
ing attention  to  the  instruction  of  others  cannot  expec/ 
to  grow  wiser;  He  perceived  nothii’g  but  silence, 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES  42' 


•11(1  signs  oi  attention  to  what  he  would  further  say.’ 

-Bacon. 

All  were  attentive  to  the  godlike  man.— Drydkn. 

ESTEEM,  RESPECT,  REGARD. 

Esteem,  from  the  Latin  cestimo,  signifies  literally  to 
let  a value  upon  ; respect,  from  the  Latin  respicio,  sig- 
nifies to  look  back  upon,  to  look  upon  with  attention  ; 
regard,  v.  To  attend  'to. 

A favourable  sentiment  towards  particular  .>bjects  is 
included  in  the  meaning  of  all  these  terms. 

Esteem  and  respect  flow  from  the  understanding ; 
regard  springs  from  the  heart,  as  well  as  the  head  : 
esteem  is  produced  by  intrinsick  worth ; respect  by 
extrinsick  qualities;  regard  is  afleclion  blended  with 
esteem : it  is  in  the  power  of  every  man,  independently 
of  all  collateral  circumstances,  to  acquire  the  esteem 
of  others  ; but  respect  and  regard  are  within  the  reach 
of  a limited  number  only  : the  high  and  the  low,  the 
rich  and  the  poor,  the  equal  and  the  unequal,  are 
each,  in  their  turn,  the  objects  of  esteem  ; ‘ How  great 
honour  and  esteem  will  men  declare  for  one  whom  per- 
haps they  never  saw  before.’— Tillotson.  Those 
only  are  objects  of  respect  who  have  some  mark  of 
distinction,  or  superiority  either  of  birth,  talent,  acquire- 
ments, or  the  like ; 

Then  for  what  common  good  my  thoughts  inspire. 

Attend,  and  in  the  son  respect  the  sire.— Pope. 
Regard  subsists  only  between  friends,  or  those  who 
stand  in  close  connexion  with  each  other ; industry  and 
sobriety  excite  our  esteem  for  one  man,  charity  and 
benevolence  our  esteem  for  another ; superiour  learn- 
ing or  abilities  excite  our  respect  for  another  ; a long 
acquaintance,  or  a reciprocity  of  kind  oflices,  excite  a 
mutual  regard;  ‘ He  has  rendered  himself  worthy  of 
their  most  lavourable  regards'— This  latter 
term  is  also  used  flguratively,  and  in  a moral  applica- 
tion ; ‘ Cheerfulne.ss  bears  the  same  friendly  regard  to 
the  mind  as  to  the  body.’ — Addison. 


TO  HONOUR,  REVERENCE,  RESPECT. 

Tnese  terms  agree  in  expressing  the  act  cf  an  in- 
feriour  towards  his  superiour;  but  honour  Glory) 
expresses  less  than  reverence  (v.  To  adore),  and  more 
than  respect  {v.  To  esteem). 

To  honour,  as  applied  to  persons,  is  mostly  an  out- 
ward act ; to  reverence  is  either  an  act  of  the  mind, 
or  the  outward  expression  of  a sentiment;  to  respect 
is  only  an  act  of  the  mind.  We  honour  God  by  adora- 
tion and  worship,  as  welt  as  by  the  performance  of  his 
will ; we  honour  our  parents  by  obeying  them  and 
giving  them  our  personal  service:  we  reverence  our 
Maker  by  cherishing  in  our  minds  a dread  of  offending 
him,  and  making  a fearful  use  of  his  holy  name  and 
word  ; we  reverence  our  parents  by  holding  a similar 
sentiment  in  a less  de^ee  ; ‘ This  is  a duty  in  the  fifth 
commandment  required  towards  our  prince  and  our 
parent,  a respect  which  in  the  notion  of  it  implies  a 
mixture  of  love  and  fear,  and  in  the  object  equally 
supposes  goodness  and  power.’ — Rogers.  ‘ The 
foundation  of  every  proper  disposition  towards  God 
must  be  laid  in  reverence,  that  is,  admiration  mixed 
with  awe.’ — Blair.  We  respect  the  wise  and  good  ; 
‘ Establish  your  character  on  the  respect  of  the  wise, 
not  on  the  flattery  of  dependants.’ — Blair. 

To  honour  and  respect  are  extended  to  other  objects 
Desides  our  Maker  and  our  parents ; but  reverence  is 
confined  to  objects  of  a religious  description ; “ We 
honour  the  king  and  all  that  are  put  in  authority  under 
him,”  by  rendering  to  them  the  tribute  that  is  due  to 
their  station  ; we  respect  alt  who  possess  superiour  qiia- 
liti(;s  : the  former  is  an  act  of  duty,  it  flows  out  of  the 
constitution  of  civil  society  ; the  latter  is  a voluntary 
ait  flowing  out  of  the  temper  of  the  mind  towards 
others.  To  respect,  as  I have  before  observed,  signi- 
fies merely  to  feel  respect ; but  to  show  respect,  or  a 
mark  of  respect,  supposes  an  outward  action  which 
brings  it  still  nearer  to  honour.  It  is  a mark  of  honour 
In  subjects  to  keep  the  birth-day  of  their  sovereign  ; 
it  is  a mark  of  respect  to  any  individual  to  give  him 
the  upper  seat  in  a room  nr  at  a table.  Divine  honours 
were  formerly  paid  by  the  Romans  to  some  of  their 
emperours'  respect  is  always  paid  to  age  in  all  Christian 


countries ; among  the  heathens  it  dhre'-cd  ."iccerdiiig  tc 
the  temper  of  the  people. 

To  honour  when  applied  to  things  ii  al.so  ut;ed  in  the 
sense  of  holding  in  honour,  <n  widen  case  it  expresses 
a stronger  sentiment  than  respect,  which  solely  im 
plies  regard  to  ; ‘ Of  learning,  as  of  virtue,  it  may  be 
affirmed  that  it  is  at  once  honoured  and  neglected.’— 
Johnson 

The  bless’d  gods  do  not  love 

Ungodly  actions  ; but  respect  the  right 

And  in  the  works  of  pious  men  delight. — CHArwAj* 

HONESTY,  HONOUR. 

These  terms  both  respect  the  principle  wh.ch  actuates 
men  in  the  adjustment  of  their  rights  with  each  other. 
The  words  are  both  derived  from  the  same  source, 
namely,  the  Hebrew  |in  substance  or  wealth  {v.  Ho 
nesty),  which,  being  the  primitive  source  of  esteem 
among  men,  became  at  length  put  for  the  measure  or 
standard  of  esteem,  namely,  what  is  good.  Hence 
honesty  and  honour  are  both  founded  upon  what  is 
estimable  ; with  this  difference,  that  honesty  is  confined 
to  the  first  principles  or  laws  upon  which  civil  society 
is  founded,  and  honour  is  an  independent  principle  that 
extends  to  every  thing  which  by  usage  has  been  ad 
mined  as  estimable  or  entitled  to  esteem  ; ‘ Honesty. 
in  the  language  of  the  Romans,  as  well  as  in  French^ 
rather  signifies  a composition  of  those  qualities  which 
generally  acquire  honour  and  esteem  to  those  who  pos- 
sess them.’ — Temple.  ‘ If  by  honour  be  meant  any 
thing  distinct  from  conscience,  ’t  is  no  more  than  a re- 
gard to  the  censure  and  esteem  of  the  world.’ — Rogers. 
An  honest  action,  therefore,  can  never  reflect  so  much 
credit  on  the  agent  as  an  honourable  action  ; since  in 
the  performance  of  the  one  he  may  be  guided  by  mo- 
tives comparatively  low,  whereas  in  the  other  case  he 
is  actuated  nolely  by  a fair  regard  for  the  honour  or  the 
esteem  of  others.  To  a breach  of  honesty  is  attached 
punishment  and  personal  inconvenience  in  various 
forms  ; but  to  a breach  of  honour  is  annexed  only  dis- 
grace or  the  ill  oinnion  of  others  : he,  therefore,  who 
sets  more  value  or  interest  on  the  gratification  of  his 
passions,  than  on  the  esteem  of  the  world,  may  gain 
his  petty  purpose  with  the  sacrifice  of  his  honour;  but 
he  who  strives  to  be  dishonest  is  thwarted  in  his  pur 
pose  by  the  intervention  of  the  law.s,  which  deprive 
him  of  his  unworthy  gains : consequently,  men  are 
compelled  to  be  honest  whether  they  will  or  »iot,  bu' 
they  are  entirely  free  in  the  choice  of  being  honour 
able. 

On  the  other  hand,  since  honesty  is  founded  on  thi, 
very  first  principles  of  human  society,  and  honour  o i 
the  incidental  principles  which  have  been  annexed  I > 
them  in  the  progress  of  time  rxid  culture  ; the  form<  i 
is  positive  and  definite,  and  he  srho  is  actuated  by  this 
principle  can  never  err;  but  fhj  latter  is  indefinite  ari 
variable,  and  as  it  depends  upon  opinion  it  will  easih 
mislead.  We  cannot  have  a false  honesty,  but  we  m ij 
have  false  honour.  Horesty  always  keeps  a miii 
within  the  line  of  his  duty  ; but  a mistaken  notion  ol 
what  is  honourable  may  carry  a man  very  far  from 
what  is  right,  and  may  even  lead  him  o run  couidet 
to  common  honesty, 

HONESTY  UPRIGHTNESS,  INTEGRITY. 

PROBITY. 

Honesty,  v.  Fair;  uprightness,  from  vprigll,  in 
German  aufrichtig  or  aufgerichtet,  from  aufri’ktin 
to  set  up,  signifies  in  a straight  direction,  not  deviating 
nor  turning  aside. 

Honest  is  the  most  familiar  and  universal  term,  it 
is  applied  alike  to  actions  and  principles,  to'  a mode  of 
conduct  or  a temper  of  mind;  upright  is  applied  to 
the  conduct,  but  always  with  reference  to  the  moving 
principle.  As  it  respects  the  conduct,  honesty  is  a 
much  nvore  homely  virtue  than  uprightness ; a man  is 
said  to  be  honest  who  in  his  dealings  with  others  does 
not  violate  the  laws;  thus  a servant  is  honest  who 
does  not  take  any  of  the  property  of  his  master,  or 
suffer  it  to  be  taken  ; a tradesman  is  honest  who  does 
not  sell  bad  articles  ; and  people  in  general  are  deno- 
minated honert  who  pay  what  they  owe,  and  lo  not 
adopt  any  methods  of  defrauding  others:  hs»n  sty  it 
this  sense,  therefore,  consists  in  negatives;  Hs^t 


428 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


rightness  is  positive,  and  extends  to  all  matters  which 
are  above  the  reach  of  the  law,  and  comprehends  not 
only  every  thing  which  is  known  to  be  hurtful,  but  also 
whatever  may  chance  to  be  hurtful.  To  be  honest 
requires  nothing  but  a knowledge  of  the  first  princi- 
ples of  civil  society;  it  is  learned,  and  may  be  prac- 
tised, by  the  youngest  and  most  ignorant : but  to  be 
upright  supposes  a superiority  of  understanding  or  in- 
formation, which  qualifies  a person  to  discriminate 
between  that  which  may  or  may  not  injure  another. 
An  honest  man  is  contented  with  not  overcharging  an- 
other for  that  which  he  sells  to  him ; but  an  upright 
man  seeks  to  provide  him  with  that  v.'hich  shall  fully 
answer  his  purpose:  a man  will  not  think  himself  dfs- 
honest  who  leaves  another  to  find  out  defects  which  it 
is  possible  may  escape  his  notice ; but  an  upright  man 
will  rather  suffer  a loss  himself  than  expose  another  to 
an  errour  which  may  be  detrimental  to  his  interests. 
From  this  difference  between  honesty  and  uprightness 
arises  another,  namely,  that  the  honest  man  may  be 
honest  only  for  his  own  convenience,  out  of  regard  to 
his  character,  or  a fear  of  the  laws  ; but  the  upright 
man  is  always  upright^  from  his  sense  of  what  is  right, 
and  his  concern  for  others. 

Honest,  in  its  extended  sense,  as  it  is  applied  to 
principles,  or  to  the  general  character  of  a man,  is  of 
a higher  cast  than  the  common  kind  of  honesty  above 
mentioned;  uprightness,  however,  in  this  case,  still 
preserves  its  superiority.  An  honest  principle  is  the 
first  and  most  universally  applicable  principle,  which 
the  mind  forms  of  what  is  right  and  wrong ; and  the 
honest  man,  who  is  so  denominated  on  account  of  his 
having  this  principle,  is  looked  upon  with  respect,  in- 
asmuch as  he  possesses  the  foundation  of  all  moral 
virtue  in  his  dealings  with  others.  Honest  is  here 
the  generick  and  uprightness  the  specifick  term ; the 
former  does  not  e.xclude  the  latter,  but  the  latter  in- 
cludes the  former.  There  may  be  many  honest  men 
and  honest  minds;  but  there  are  not  so  many  upright 
men  nor  upright  minds.  The  honest  man  is  rather . 
contrasted  with  the  rogue,  and  an  honest  principle  is 
opposed  to  the  selfish  or  artful  principle;  but  tha  up- 
right man  or  the  upright  mind  can  be  compared  or 
contr.asted  with  nothing  but  itself.  An  honest  man 
will  do  no  harm  if  he  know  it ; but  an  upright  man  is 
careful  not  to  do  to  another  what  he  would  not  have 
another  do  to  him. 

Honesty  is  a feeling  that  actuates  and  directs  by  a 
spontaneous  impulse  ; uprightness  is  a princijile  that 
regulated  or  puts  every  thing  into  an  even  course. 
Honesty  can  be  dispensed  with  in  no  case;  but  up- 
rightness is  called  into  exercise  oidy  in  certain  cases. 
We  characterize  a servant  or  the  lowest  person  as 
honest:  but  we  do  not  entitle  any  one  in  so  low  a 
capacity  as  upright,  since  uprightness  is  exercised  in 
matters  of  higher  moment,  and  rests  upon  the  evidence 
of  a man’s  own  mind ; a judite,  however,  may  with 
propriety  be  denominated  upright,  who  scrupulously 
adheres  to  the  dictates  of  an  unbiassed  conscience  in 
the  administration  of  justice. 

Uprightness  is  applicable  only  to  principles  and 
actions ; integrity  (from  the  Latin  integer  whole)  is  ap- 
plicable to  the  whole  man  or  his  character ; and  probity 
(from  probus  or  prohi bus  restraining,  that  is,  restrain- 
ing from  evil)  is  in  like  manner  used  only  in  the  com- 
prehensive sense.  Uprightness  is  the  straightness  of 
rule  by  which  actions  and  conduct  in  certain  cases  is 
measured;  integrity  is  the  wholeness  or  unbrokenness 
of  a man’s  character  throughout  life  in  his  various 
transactions;  probity  is  the  excellence  and  purity  of  a 
man’s  character  in  his  various  relations.  When  we 
call  a man  upright,  we  consider  him  in  the  detail ; 
we  bear  in  mind  the  uniformity  and  fixedness  of  the 
principle  by  which  he  is  actuated : when  we  call  him  a 
man  of  integrity,  we  view  him  in  the  gross,  not  in 
this  nor  that  circumstance  of  life,  but  in  every  circum- 
stance in  which  the  rights  and  interests  of  others  are 
concerned.  Uprightness  may  therefore  be  looked 
upon  in  some  measure  as  a part  of  integrity;  with 
thisdiffbrence,  that  the  acting  principle  is  in  the  one 
ease  only  kept  in  view,  whereas  in  the  other  case  the 
conduct  and  principle  are  both  included.  The  dis- 
tinction between  these  terms  is  farther  evident  by  ob- 
serving their  different  application.  We  do  not  talk  of 
a man’s  uprightness  being  shaken,  or  of  his  preserving 
his  uprightness ; but  of  his  integrity  being  shaken, 
and  his  presei  ving  his  iwfeo-rfty  We  may  however. 


ascribe  the  particular  conduct  of  any  individual  na 
properly  to  the  integrity  of  his  principles  or  mind,  as 
to  the  uprightness  of  his  principles.  A man’s  up- 
rightness displays  itself  in  his  dealings,  be  they  ever 
so  trifling ; but  the  integrity  of  his  cliararler  is  seen  in 
the  most  important  concerns  of  life.  A judge  shows 
his  uprightness  in  his  daily  administration  of  justice, 
when  he  remains  uninfluenced  by  any  partial  motive  ; 
he  shows  his  integrity  when  he  resists  the  most  power- 
ful motives  of  personal  interest  and  advantage  out  of 
respect  to  right  and  justice. 

Integrity  and  probity  are  both  general  and  abstract 
terms  ; but  the  former  is  relative,  the  latter  is  positive: 
integrity  refers  to  the  external  injuries  by  which  it  may 
be  assailed  or  destroyed ; it  is  goodness  tried  and  pre- 
served : probity  is  goodness  existing  of  itself,  without 
reference  to  any  thing  else.  There  is  no  integrity 
where  private  interest  is  not  in  question ; there  is  no 
probity  wherever  the  interests  of  others  are  injured: 
integrity  therefore  includes  probity,  but  probity  does 
not  necessarily  suppose  integrity.  Probity  is  a free 
principle,  that  acts  without  any  force;  integrity  is  a 
defensive  principle,  that  is  obliged  to  maintain  itself 
against  external  force.  Probity  excludes  all  injustice; 
integrity  e.xcludes  in  a particular  manner  that  injustice 
which  would  favour  one’s  self.  Probity  respects  the 
rights  of  every  man,  and  seeks  to  render  to  every  one 
what  is  his  due ; it  does  not  wait  to  be  asked,  it  does 
not  require  any  compulsion  ; it  voluntarily  enters  into 
all  the  circumstances  and  conditions  of  men,  and 
measures  out  to  each  his  portion:  juroifty  therefore 
forbids  a man  being  malignant,  hard,  cruel,  ungenerous, 
unfair,  or  any  thing  else  which  may  press  unequally 
and  unjustly  on  his  neighbour:  integrity  is  disin- 
terested; it  sacrifices  every  personal  consideration  to 
the  maintenance  of  what  is  right:  a man  of  m 
tegrity  will  not  be  contented  to  abstain  from  selling 
himself  for  gold;  he  will  keep  himself  aloof  from  all 
private  partialities  or  resentments,  all  party  cabals  or 
intrigue,  which  are  apt  to  violate  the  integrity  of  his 
mind.  We  look  for  honesty  and  uprightness  in 
citizens;  it  sets  every  question  at  rest  between  man 
and  man:  we  look  for  integrity  and  probity  in  states- 
men, or  such  as  have  to  adjust  the  rights  of  many; 
they  contribute  to  the  publick  as  often  as  to  the  private 
good.' 

Were  I to  take  an  estimate  of  the  comparative  value 
of  these  four  terms,  I should  denominate  honesty  a 
current  coin  which  must  be  in  every  man’s  hands ; he 
cannot  dispense  with  it  for  his  daily  use:  uprightness 
is  fine  silver:  probity  fine  gold  without  any  alloy:  and 
integrity  gold  tried  and  purified:  all  which  are  in  the 
hands  of  but  comparatively  few,  yet  carry  a value  with 
them  independently  of  tlie  use  which  is  made  of  them. 


RECTITUDE,  UPRIGHTNESS. 

Rectitude  is  properly  rightness,  which  is  expressed 
in  a stronger  manner  by  uprightness : we  speak  of  the 
rectitude  of  the  judgement ; but  of  the  uprightness  of 
the  mind,  or  of  the  moral  character,  which  must  be 
something  more  than  straight,  for  it  must  be  elevated 
above  every  thing  mean  or  devious;  ‘We  are  told  by 
Cumberland  that  rectitude  is  merely  metaphorical,  and 
that  ns  a right  line  describes  the  shortest  passage  from 
point  to  point,  so  a right  action  effects  a good  design  by 
the  fewest  means.’ — Johnson. 

Who  to  the  fraudulent  impostor  foul. 

In  his  uprightness,  answer  thus  return’d. 

M;lton. 

FAIR,  HONEST,  EQUITABLE,  REASONABLE. 

Fair,  in  Saxon  fagar,  comes  probably  from  the 
Latin  pulcher  beautiful;  honest,  in  Latin  honestus, 
comes  from  honos  honour;  equitable  signifies  having 
equity,  or  according  to  equity;  reasonable,  having 
reason,  or  according  to  reason. 

Fair  is  said  of  persons  or  things;  honest  mostly 
characterizes  the  person,  either  as  to  his  conduct  or 
his  principle.  When/ai?'  and  honest  are  both  applied 
to  the  external  conduct,  the  former  expresses  more  than 
the  latter:  a man  may  be  honest  without  being  /air; 
he  cannot  be  fair  without  being  honest.  Fairnest 
enters  into  every  minute  circumstance  connected  with 
the  interests  of  the  parties,  and  weighs  them  alike  for 
both ; honesty  is  contented  witii  a literal  conformity  tff 


LNGLISH  SYNONYMES 


429 


An  law,  it  consults  tlie  interest  of  one  party:  tire  fair  ' 
dealer  looks  to  his  neighbour  as  well  as  himself,  lie 
wishes  only  for  an  equal  share  of  advantage;  a man 
may  be  an  honest  dealer  while  he  looks  to  no  one’s  ad- 
vantage but  his  own:  the  /ai>  man  always  acts  from 
a principle  of  right;  the  honest  man  may  be  so  from  a 
motive  of  fear. 

When  these  epithets  are  employed  to  characterize 
the  man  generally,/a2rness  expresses  less  than  honesty. 
Fairness  is  employed  only  in  regard  to  commercial 
transactions  or  minor  personal  concerns;  ‘If  the 
worldling  prefer  those  means  which  are  the  fairest^  it 
is  not  because  they  are  fair,  but  because  they  seem  to 
him  most  likely  to  prove  successful.' — Blair.  Honesty 
ranks  among  the  first  moral  virtues,  and  elevates  a man 
high  above  his  fellow-creatures; 

An  honest  man ’s  the  noblest  work  of  God. — Pope. 
Should  he  at  length,  so  truly  good  and  great. 
Prevail,  and  rule  with  honest  views  the  state, 

Then  must  he  toil  for  an  ungrateful  race. 

Submit  to  clamour,  libels,  and  disgrace. 

Jenyns. 

A man  is /air  who  is  ready  to  allow  his  competitor  the 
same  advantages  as  he  enjoys  himself  in  every  matter 
however  trivial ; or  he  is  honest  in  all  his  looks,  words, 
and  actions:  neither  his  tongue  nor  his  countenance 
ever  belie  his  heart.  A fair  man  makes  himself  ac- 
ceptable. 

When  fair  is  employed  as  an  epithet  to  qualify 
things,  or  to  designate  their  nature,  it  approaches  very 
near  in  signification  to  equitable  and  reasonable ; they 
are  all  opposed  to  what  is  unjust:  fair  and  equitable 
suppose  two  objects  put  in  collision ; reasonable  is  em- 
ployed abstractedly;  what  is  fair  and  equitable  is  so 
in  relation  to  all  circumstances;  what  is  reasonable  is 
50  of  itself.  An  estimate  is  fair  in  which  profit  and 
loss,  merit,  and  demerit,  with  every  collateral  circum- 
stance, is  duly  weighed  ; a judgement  is  equitable  which 
decides  suitably  and  advantageously  for  both  parties; 
a price  is  reasonable  which  does  not  exceed  the  limits 
of  reason  or  propriety.  A decision  may  be  either  fair 
or  equitable;  but  the  former  is  said  mostly  in  regard  to 
trifling  matters,  even  in  our  games  and  amusements, 
and  the  latter  in  regard  to  the  important  rights  of  man- 
kind. It  is  the  business  of  the  umpire  to  AeciAe  fairly 
between  the  combatants  or  the  competitors  for  a prize ; 
it  is  the  business  of  the  judge  to  decide  equitably  be- 
tween men  whose  property  is  at  issue ; ‘ A man  is  very 
unlikely  to  judge  equitably  when  his  passions  are  agi- 
tated by  a sense  of  wrong.’ — Johnson. 

A demand,  a charge,  a proposition,  or  an  offer  may 
be  said  to  be  either  fair  or  reasonable:  but  the  former 
term  always  bears  a relation  to  what  is  right  between 
man  and  man;  the  latter  to  what  is  right  in  itself,  ac- 
cording to  circumstances;  ‘The  reasonableness  of  a 
test  is  not  hard  to  be  proved.’ — Johnson. 

HONOUR,  DIGNITY. 

Honour  [v.  Honour)  maybe  taken  either  for  that 
which  intrinsically  belongs  to  a person,  or  for  that 
which  is  conferred  on  him;  dignity,  from  the  Latin 
dignus  worthy,  signifying  worthiness,  may  be  equally 
applied  to  what  is  intrinsick  or  extrinsick  of  a man. 

In  the  first  case  honour  has  a reference  to  what  is 
esteemed  by  others  ; dignity  to  that  which  is  esteemed 
by  ourselves:  a sense  of  honour  impels  a man  to  do 
that  which  is  esteemed  honourable  among  men;  a 
sense  of  dignity  to  do  that  which  is  consistent  with 
the  worth  and  greatness  of  his  nature:  the  former 
strives  to  elevate  himself  as  an  individual ; the  latter 
to  raise  himself  to  the  standard  of  his  species:  the 
former  may  lead  a person  astray;  but  the  latter  is  an 
unerring  guide.  It  is  honour  which  sometimes  makes 
a man  first  insult  his  friend,  then  draw  his  sword  upon 
him  whom  he  has  insulted : it  is  dignity  which  makes 
him  despise  every  paltry  atfront  froin  others,  and  apo- 
logize for  every  afiparent  affront  on  his  own  part. 
This  distinction  between  the  terms  is  kept  up  in  their 
application  to  what  is  extraneous  of  a man:  the 
honour  is  that  which  is  conferred  on  him  by  others; 

When  a proud  aspiring  man  meets  with  honours  and 
preferments,  these  are  the  things  which  are  ready  to 
lay  hold  of  his  heart  and  affections.’ — South,  'fhe 
dignity  is  the  wortk  or  value  which  is  added  to  his 
conuition ; 


Him  Tullus  next  in  dignity  succeeds. — Dryden 
Hence  we  always  speak  of  honours  as  conferred  or 
received;  but  dignities  as  possessed  or  maintained. 
Honours  may  sometimes  be  casual ; but  dignities  are 
always  permanent  an  act  of  condescension  from  the 
sovereign  is  an  honour;  but  the  dignity  lies  in  the 
elevation  of  the  office.  Hence  it  is  that  honours  are 
mostly  civil  or  political;  dignities  ecclesiastical 


GLORY,  HONOUR. 

Glory  is  something  dazzling  and  widely  difTitsefl 
The  Latin  word  gloria,  anciently  written  glosia,  is  in 
all  probability  connected  with  our  words  gloss,  gla:e 
glitter,  glow,  through  the  medium  of  the  northern 
words  gleissen,  glotzen,  gldnzen,  gliihen,  all  which 
come  from  the  Hebrew  bw  a live.coal.  That  the 
moral  idea  of  glory  is  best  represented  by  light  is  evi- 
dent from  the  glory  which  is  painted  round  the  head 
of  our  Saviour;  honour  is  something  less  splendid, 
but  more  solid  (w.  Honour). 

Glory  impels  to  extraordinary  efforts  and  to  great 
undertakings; 

Hence  is  out  love  of  fame;  a love  so  strong, 

We  think  no  dangers  great  nor  labours  long, 

By  which  we  hope  our  beings  to  extend, 

And  to  remotest  times  in  glory  to  descend. 

Jenyns 

Honour  induces  to  a discharge  of  one’s  duty;  ‘As 
virtue  is  the  most  reasonable  and  genuine  source  of 
honour,  we  generally  find  in  titles  an  intimation  of 
some  particular  merit  that  should  recommend  men  to 
the  high  stations  which  they  possess.’ — Addison.  Ex 
cellence  in  the  attainment,  and  success  in  the  exploit, 
bring  glory ; a faithful  exercise  of  one’s  talents  reflects 
honour.  Glory  is  connected  with  every  thing  which 
has  a peculiar  publick  interest;  honour  is  more  pro- 
perly obtained  within  a private  circle.  Glory  is  not 
confined  to  the  nation  or  life  of  the  individual  by  whom 
it  is  sought;  it  spreads  over  all  the  earth,  and  descends 
to  the  latest  posterity:  honour  is  limited  to  those  who 
are  connected  with  the  subject  of  it,  and  eye-witnesses 
to  his  actions.^  Glory  is  attainable  but  by  few,  and 
may  be  an  object  of  indifference  to  any  one;  honour  is 
more  or  less  within  the  reach  of  all,  and  must  be  dis 
regarded  by  no  one.  A general  at  the  head  of  an 
army  goes  in  pursuit  of  glory ; the  humble  citizen  who 
acts  his  pan  in  society  so  as  to  obtain  the  approbation 
of  his  fellow-citizens  is  in  the  road  for  honour.  A 
nation  acquires  glory  by  the  splendour  of  its  victories, 
and  its  superiority  in  arts  as  well  as  arms;  it  obtains 
honour  by  its  strict  adherence  to  equity  and  good  faith 
in  all  its  dealings  with  other  nations.  Our  own  nation 
has  acquired  glory  by  the  help  of  its  brave  warriours; 
it  has  gained  honour  by  the  justice  and  generosity  of 
its  government.  The  military  career  of  Alexander 
was  glorious ; his  humane  treatment  of  the  Persian 
princesses  who  were  his  prisoners  was  an  honourable 
trait  in  his  character.  The  abolition  of  the  slave  trade 
by  the  English  government  was  a glorious  triumph 
of  Christianity  over  the  worst  principles  of  human 
nature;  the  national  conduct  of  England  during  the 
revolutionary  period  reflects  honour  on  the  Englislt 
name. 

Glory  is  a sentiment,  selfish  in  its  nature,  but  salu 
tary  or  pernicious  in  its  effect,  according  as  it  is  di 
rected ; 

If  glory  cannot  move  a mind  so  mean. 

Nor  future  praise  from  fading  pleasures  wean. 

Yet  why  should  he  defraud  his  son  of  fame. 

And  grudge  the  Romans  their  immortal  name  ? 

Drydem 

Honour  is  a principle  disinterested  in  its  nature,  and 
beneficial  in  its  operations;  ‘Sir  Francis  Bacon,  for 
greatness  of  genius  and  compass  of  knowledge,  d<d 
honour  to  his  age  and  country.’ — Addison.  Athirst 
for  glory  is  seldom  indulged  but  at  the  expense  of 
others,  as  it  is  not  attainable  in  the  plain  patli  of  duty  ; 
there  are  but  few  opportunities  of  acquiring  it  by  ele 
vated  acts  of  goodness,  and  still  fewer  who  have  the 
virtue  to  embrace  the  opportunities  that  offer:  a love 
of  honour  can  never  be  indulged  but  to  the  advantage 
of  others;  it  is  restricted  by  fixed  laws;  it  requires  a 


430 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


sacrifice  of  every  selfish  consideration,  and  a due  re- 
gard to  the  rights  of  others ; it  is  associated  with 
nothing  but  virtue. 

DfSHONEST,  KNAVISH. 

Dishonest  marks  the  contrary  to  honest;  knavish 
marks  the  likeness  to  a knave. 

Dishonest  characterizes  simply  the  mode  of  action ; 
knavish  characterizes  the  agent  as  well  as  the  action  ; 
what  is  dishonest  violates  the  established  laws  of  man ; 
what  is  knavish  supposes  peculiar  art  aiid  design  in 
the  accomplishment.  It  is  dishonest  to  take  any  thing 
from  another  which  does  not  belong  to  one;  it  is 
knavish  to  get  it  by  fraud  or  artifice,  or  by  imposing  on 
the  confidence  of  another.  We  may  prevent  dishonest 
practices  by  ordinary  means  of  security;  but  we  must 
not  trust  ourselves  in  the  company  of  knavish  people 
if  we  do  not  wish  to  be  overreached;  ‘ Gaming  is  too 
unreasonable  and  dishonest  for  a gentleman  to  addict 
himself  to  it.’— Lord  Lyttleton.  ‘Not  to  laugh 
when  nature  prompts  is  but  a knavish,  hypocritical 
way  of  making  a mask  of  one’s  face.’ — Pope. 


RIGHT,  JUST,  PROPER. 

Right,  in  German  recht,  Latin  rectus,  signifies  up- 
right, not  leaning  to  one  side  or  the  other,  standing  as 
it  ought;  just,  in  Latin  justus,  from  jus  law,  signifies 
according  to  a rule  of  right;  jit,  v.Fit;  proper,  in 
Latin  proprius,  signifies  belonging  to  a given  rule. 

Right  is  here  the  general  term ; the  others  express 
modes  of  right.  The  right  and  wrong  are  defined  by 
the  written  will  of  God,  or  are  written  in  our  hearts 
according  to  the  original  constitutions  of  our  nature; 
IhejMst  and  unjust  are  determined  by  the  written  laws 
of  men  ; the  jit  and  proper  are  determined  by  the  es- 
tablished principles  of  civil  society. 

Between  the  right  and  the  wrong  there  are  no  gra- 
dations : a tiling  cannot  be  more  right  or  more  wrong; 
whatever  is  right  is  not  wrong,  and  whatever  is  wrong 
is  not  rinkt:  the  just  and  unjust,  proper  and  im- 
fropcr,  jit  and  unjit,  on  the  contrary,  have  various 
Jhades  and  degrees  that  are  not  so  easily  definable  by 
any  forms  ef  speech  or  written  rules. 

The  right  and  wrong  depend  upon  no  circumstance; 
what  is  once  right  or  wrong  is  always  right  or  wrong : 
but  thejMst  or  unjust,proper  or  improper,  are  relatively 
80  according  to  the  circumstances  of  the  case;  it  is  a 
just  rule  for  every  man  to  have  that  which  is  his  own  ; 
but  what  is  just  to  the  individual  may  be  unjust  to 
society.  It  is  proper  for  every  man  to  take  charge  of 
his  own  concerns ; but  it  would  be  improper  for  a man 
in  an  unsound  state  of  mind  to  undertake  such  a 
charge. 

Tlie  right  and  the  wrong  are  often  beyond  the  reach 
of  our  faculties  to  discern  ; but  the  just,  fit,  and  proper 
are  always  to  be  distinguished  sufficiently  to  be  ob- 
served. Right  is  applicable  to  all  matters,  important 
or  otherwise;  just  is  employed  only  in  matters  of  es- 
sential interest;  proper  is  rather  applicable  to  the 
minor  concerns  of  life.  Every  thing  that  is  done  may 
be  characterized  as  right  or  wrong;  every  thing  done 
to  others  may  be  measured  by  the  rule  of  just  or  un- 
just : in  our  social  intercourse,  as  well  as  in  our  private 
transactions,  fitness  and  propriety  must  hlways  be 
consulted.  As  Christians,  we  desire  to  do  that  which 
is  right  in  the  sight  of  God  and  man ; as  members  of 
civil  society,  we  wish  to  be  jast  in  our  dealings;  as 
rational  and  intelligent  beings,  we  wish  to  do  what  is 
fit  nxiA  proper  in  every  action,  however  trivial; 

Hear  then  my  argument— confess  w'e  must 
A God  there  is  supremely  wise  and  just. 

If  so,  however  things  affect  our  sight. 

As  sings  our  bard,  whatever  is  is  right. 

Jenyns. 

There  is  a great  difference  between  good  pleading 
and  just  composition.’— Melmoth  {J.,etlcrs  of  Pliny). 
‘Visiters  are  no  proper  companions  in  the  chamber 
of  sickness.’— Johnson 


STRAIGHT,  RIGHT,  DIRECT. 
straight,  from  the  Latin  strictvs,  participle  of 
slringo  to  tighten  or  bind,  signifies  confined,  that  is, 
turning  neither  to  the  right  nor  left.  Straight 's  ap- 


plied, therefore,  in  its  proper  sense,  to  corporeal  oh 
jects ; a path  which  is  straight  is  kept  within  a shortet 
space  than  if  it  were  curved;  ‘Truth  is  the  shortest 
and  nearest  way  to  our  end,  carrying  us  thither  in  a 
straight  line.’ — Tillotson.  Right  and  direct,  from 
the  Latin  rectus,  regulated  or  made  as  it  ought,  are 
said  of  that  which  is  made  by  the  force  of  the  under 
standing,  or  by  an  actual  effort,  what  one  wishes  it  to 
be;  hence,  the  mathematician  speaks  of  a right  line, 
as  the  line  which  lies  most  justly  between  two  points 
and  has  been  made  the  basis  of  mathematical  figures, 
and  the  moralist  speaks  of  the  right  opinion,  as  tha 
which  has  been  formed  by  the  best  rule  of  the  under- 
standing’ 

Then  from  pole  to  pole 

He  views  in  breadth,  and  without  longer  pause, 
Down  right  into  the  world’s  first  region  throws 
His  flight  precipitant. — Milton. 

On  the  same  ground,  we  speak  of  a direct  answer,  as 
that  which  has  been  framed  so  as  to  bring  soonest  and 
easiest  to  the  point  desired ; ‘ There  be,  that  are  in 
nature  faithful  and  sincere,  and  plain  and  direct,  not 
crafty  and  involved.’— Bacon. 


CANDID,  OPEN,  SINCERE. 

Candid,  in  French  candide,  Latin  Candidas,  from 
candeo  to  shine,  signifies  to  be  pure  as  truth  itself; 
open  is  in  Saxon  open,  French  ouvert,  German  offen, 
from  the  preposition  up,  German  auf,  Dutch  op,  &c., 
because  erectness  is  a characterislick  of  truth  and 
openness ; sincere,  French  sincere,  Latin  sincerus, 
probably  from  the  Greek  avv  and  Kyp  the  heart,  signify 
ing  dictated  by  or  going  with  the  heart. 

Candour  arises  from  a conscious  purity  of  intention; 
openness  from  a warmth  of  feeling  and  love  of  com 
munication;  sincerity  Rom  a love  of  truth. 

Candour  obliges  us  to  acknowledge  whatever  may 
make  against  ourselves ; it  is  disinterested ; 
Self-conviction  is  the  path  to  virtue. 

An  honourable  candour  thus  adorns 
Ingenuous  minds.— C.  Johnson. 

Openness  impels  us  to  utter  whatever  passes  in  the 
mind:  it  is  unguarded;  ‘The  fondest  and  firmest 
friendships  are  dissolved  by  such  openness  and  since- 
rity as  interrupt  our  enjoyment  of  our  own  approba- 
tion.’— Johnson.  Sincerity  prevents  us  from  speaking 
what  we  do  not  think ; it  is  positive ; 

His  words  are  bonds,  his  oaths  are  oracles. 

His  love  sincere,  his  thoughts  immaculate. 

Shakspeare. 

A candid  man  will  have  no  reserve  when  openness  is 
necessary;  an  open  man  cannot  maintain  a reserve  at 
any  time  ; a sincere  man  will  maintain  a reserve  only 
as  far  as  it  is  consistent  with  truth. 

Candour  wins  much  upon  those  who  come  in  con- 
nexion with  it;  it  removes  misunderstandings  and  ob- 
viates differences;  the  want  of  it  occasions  suspicion 
and  discontent.  Openness  gains  as  many  enemies  as 
friends;  it  requires  to  be  well  regulated  not  to  be  offen- 
sive; there  is  no  mind  so  pure  and  disciplined  that  all 
the  thoughts  and  feelings  which  it  gives  birth  to,  may  or 
ought  to  be  made  publick.  Sincerity  is  an  indispensa- 
ble virtue;  the  want  of  it  is  always  mischievous  and 
frequently  fatal. 

SINCERE,  HONEST,  TRUE,  PLAIN. 
Sincere  (rr.  Candid)  is  here  the  most  comprehensive 
term;  honest  (v.  Honesty),  true,  and  plain  (v.  Even) 
are  but  modes  of  sincerity. 

Sincerity  is  a fundamental  characterislick  of  the  per- 
son ; a man  is  sincere  from  the  conviction  of  his  mind : 
honesty  is  the  expression  of  the  feeling ; it  is  the  dictate 
of  the  heart;  we  look  for  a sincere  friend,  and  ai> 
honest  companion ; 

Rustick  mirth  goes  round. 

The  simple  joke  that  takes  the  shepherd’s  heart. 
Easily  pleas’d,  the  long,  loud  laugh  sincere. 

Thomson. 

‘This  book  of  the  Sybils  was  afterward  interpolated 
by  some  Christian,  who  was  more  zealous  than  either 
honest  or  wise  therein.’ — Prideaux.  Truth  is  a cha 
racterislick  of  sincerity ; for  a sincere  friend  is  a true 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


431 


tnend:  bu  inccrity  is  a permanent  quality  in  the 
cliaracter;  and  triitk  maybe  an  occasional  one;  vve 
cannot  be  sincere  without  being  true,  but  we  may  be 
true  without  being  sineere ; ‘Poetical  ornaments  de- 
stroy that  character  of  truth  and  plainness  which 
ought  to  characterize  history.’ — Reynolds. 

Fear  not  my  truth ; the  moral  of  my  wit 

IS  plain  and  true. — Siiakspkare. 

In  like  manner  a srncere  man  must  bey  Zaire ; since 
plainness  consists  in  an  unvarnished  style,  the  sincere 
man  will  always  adoju  that  mode  of  speech  which  ex- 
presses his  sentiments  most  forcibly  ; but  it  is  possible 
for  a person  to  be  occasionally  plain  who  does  not  act 
from  any  princiide  of  sincerity. 

It  is  plain.,  therefore,  that  sincerity  is  the  habitual 
principle  of  communicating  our  real  sentiments:  and 
that  the  honest,  true,  and  plain  are  only  the  modes 
which  it  adojUs  in  making  the  communication ; shi- 
ccrity  is  therefore  altogether  a personal  quality,  but 
the  other  terms  are  applied  also  to  the  acts,  as  an 
AoreesZ  confession,  a tries  acknowledgment,  and  a plain 
speech. 

FRANK.  CANDID,  INGENUOUS,  FREE,  OPEN, 
PLAIN. 

Frank,  in  French  franc,  German,  Sec.  frank,  is  con- 
nected with  the  word  frech  bold,  and /reZ  free;  candid 
and  open,  v.  Candid ; in geimous  coittes  from  tjie  Latin 
ingenuus,  which  signifies  literally  free-born,  as  distin- 
guished fiom  the  liberti,  who  were  afterward  mtide 
free:  hence  the  term  has  been  employed  by  a figure  of 
speech  to  denote  nobleness  of  birth  or  character.  Ac- 
cording to  Girard,  ingenu  in  French  is  taken  in  a bad 
sense;  and  Dr.  Trusler,  in  translating  his  article  Sin- 
cerity, franchise,  naivetd,  ingdnuitd,  has  erroneously 
assigned  the  same  office  to  our  word  ingenuous;  but 
this,  hov/ever,  in  its  use  has  kept  true  to  the  original, 
by  being  always  an  epithet  of  commendation;  free  is 
to  be  found  in  most  of  the  northern  languages  under 
diffei  ent  forms,  and  is  supposed  by  Adelung  to  be  con- 
nected with  the  preposition  froin,  which  denotes  a 
separation  or  enlargement;  plain,  v.  .Apparent,  also 
Evident. 

All  these  terms  convey  the  idea  of  a readiness  to  | 
communicate  and  be  communicated  with;  they  are  all 
opposed  to  concealment,  but  under  different  circum- 
stances. The  frank  man  is  under  no  restraint ; ids 
thoughts  and  feeling  are  both  set  at  ease,  and  his  lips 
are  ever  ready  to  give  utterance  to  the  dictates  of  his 
heart ; he  has  no  reserve:  the  candid  man  has  nothing 
to  conceal ; he  speaks  without  regard  to  self-interest  or 
any  partial  motive;  he  speaks  nothing  but  the  truth; 
the  in^enwores  man  throws  off  all  disguise;  he  scorns 
all  artifice,  and  brings  every  thing  to  light  ; he  speaks 
the  whole  truth.  Frankness  is  acceptable  in  the 
general  transactions  of  society;  it  inspires  confidence, 
and  invites  communication  : candour  \s  of  peculiar  use 
in  matters  of  dispute ; it  serves  the  purposes  of  equity, 
and  invites  to  conciliation ; ingenuousness  is  most 
wanted  when  there  is  most  to  conceal ; it  courts  favour 
and  kindness  by  an  acknowledgment  of  that  which  is 
against  itself. 

Frankness  is  associated  with  unpolished  manners, 
and  frequently  appears  in  men  of  no  rank  or  educa- 
tion ; sailors  have  commonly  a deal  of  frankness  about 
them:  candour  is  the  companion  of  uprightness;  it 
must  be  accompanied  with  some  refinement,  as  it  acts 
in  cases  where  nice  discriminations  are  made ; ingenu- 
ousness is  the  companion  of  a noble  and  elevated 
spirit;  it  exists  most  frequently  in  the  unsophisticated 
period  of  youth. 

Frankness  displays  itself  in  the  outward  behaviour; 
we  speak  of  a frank  air  and  frank  manner ; candour 
displays  itself  in  the  language  which  we  adopt,  and  the 
sentiments  we  express;  we  speak  of  a candid  state- 
ment, a candid  reply:  ingenuousness  shows  itself  in 
all  the  words,  looks,  or  actions:  we  speak  of  an  iwo-e- 
nuous  countenance,  an  ingenuous  acknowledgment, 
an  ingenuous  answer  Frankness  and  candour  may 
be  either  habitual  or  occasional ; ingenuousness  is  a 
permanent  chafficter:  a disposition  maybe  frank,  or 
a'l  air  of  frankness  and  candour  may  be  assumed  for 
the  time ; but  an  ingenuous  character  remains  one  and 
the  same 

F ankness  is  a volunlarv  effusion  of  the  mind  be- 


tween equals;  a man  /i-areiZy  confesses  to  his  friend 
the  state  of  his  affections  or  circumstances ; ‘ My  own 
private  opinion  with  regard  to  such  recreations  (as 
poetry  and  musick)  I have  given  with  all  the  franlcncs.i 
imaginable.’ — Steele.  Candour  is  a debt  paid  to  jus 
tice  from  one  independent  being  to  another ; he  who  is 
candid  is  so  from  the  necessity  of  the  case , when  a 
candid  man  feels  himself  to  have  been  in  an  erroui 
which  affects  another,  he  is  impelied  to  make  the  only 
reparation  in  his  power  by  acknowledging  it;  ‘If  you 
have  made  any  better  remarks  of  your  own,  coniinu 
nicate  them  with  candour ; if  not,  make  use  of  those 
I present  you  with.’ — Addison.  Ingenuousness  is  the 
offering  of  an  uucorrupted  mind  at  the  shrine  of  truth  ; 
it  presupposes  an  inferiority  in  outward  circumstances, 
and  a motive,  if  not  a direct  necessity,  for  communi- 
cation ; the  lad  who  does  not  wish  to  screen  himself 
from  punishment  by  a lie  will  ingenuously  confess  his 
offeace ; he  who  does  not  wish  to  obtain  false  applause 
will  ingenuously  disclaim  his  share  in  the  performance 
which  has  obtained  the  applause  ; ‘ We  see  an  ingenu- 
ous kind  of  behaviour  not  only  make  up  for  faults 
committed,  but  in  a manner  expiate  them  in  the  very 
commission.’ — Steele. 

Free,  open,  and  plain  have  not  so  high  an  office  at 
the  first  three:  free  and  open  may  be  taken  either  in  a 
good,  bad,  or  indifferent  sense;  but  seldomerin  the  first 
than  in  the  two  last  senses. 

The  frank,  free,  and  open  man  all  speak  without 
constraint;  but  the  frank  man  is  not  impertinent  like 
the /ree  man,  nor  indiscreet  like  the  open  man.  The 
frank  man  speaks  only  of  what  concerns  himself ; the 
free  man  speaks  of  what  concerns  others  : a frank 
man  may  confess  his  own  faults  or  inadvertencies;  the 
free  man  corrects  those  which  he  sees  in  another;  the 
frank  man  opens  his  heart  from  the  warmth  of  his 
nature;  the/reeman  opens  his  mind  from  the  conceit 
of  Ids  temper;  and  the  open  man  says  all  he  knows 
and  thinks,  Rom  the  inconsiderate  levity  of  his 
temper. 

A frank  mat]  is  not  frank  to  all,  nor  on  all  occa 
sions ; he  is  frank  to  his  friends,  or  he  is  frank  in  hii 
dealings  with  others;  but  the  o/iereman  lets  himself  out 
like  a running  stream  to  all  who  choose  to  listen,  and 
communicates  trivial  or  important  matters  with  equal 
eagerness : on  the  other  hand,  it  is  sometimes  becom 
ing  in  one  to  be  free  where  counsel  can  be  given  with 
advantage  and  pleasure  to  the  receiver;  and  it  is 
pleasant  to  see  an  open  behaviour,  particularly  in 
young  persons,  when  contrasted  with  the  odious  trait 
of  cunning  and  reserve; 

We  cheer  the  youth  to  make  his  own  defence, 

AM  freely  tell  us  what  he  was  and  whence. 

Dryden. 

‘If  I have  abused  your  goodness  by  too mocYi  freedom, 
I hope  you  will  attribute  it  to  the  openness  of  my  tem- 
per.’— Pope. 

Plainness,  the  last  quality  to  be  here  noticed,  is  a 
virtue  which,  though  of  the  humbler  order,  is  not  to 
be  despised  : it  is  sometimes  employed  like  freedom 
in  the  task  of  giving  counsel ; but  it  does  not  tionvey 
the  idea  of  any  thing  unauthorized  either  in  matter  oi 
manner.  A free  counsellor  is  more  ready  to  display 
his  own  superiority,  than  to  direct  the  wanderer  in  hisr 
way  ; he  rather  aggravates  faults,  than  instructs  bow  to 
amend  them  ; he  seems  more  like  a supercilious  enemy 
than  a friendly  monitor;  the  plain  man  is  free  from 
these  faults;  he  speaks pZaireZy  but  truly ; he  gives  lu 
false  colouring  to  his  speech;  it  is  not  calculated  to 
offend,  and  it  may  serve  for  improvement:  it  is  the  part 
of  a true  friend  to  be  plain  with  another  whom  he 
sees  in  imminent  danger.  A free  speaker  is  in  danger 
of  being  hated  ; a plain  dealer  must  at  least  be  re 
spected ; ‘Pope  hardly  drank  tea  without  a stiatagem . 
if  at  the  house  of  his  friends  he  wanted  any  accommo 
dation,  he  was  not  willing  to  ask  for  it  in  plain  terms, 
but  would  mention  it  remotely  as  something  conve 
nient.’— Johnson. 


HEARTY,  WARM,  SINCERE,  CORDIAL. 

Hearty,  which  signifies  having  the  heart  in  p thing, 
and  warm  (v.  Fire),  express  a stronger  feeiinf;  than 
.sincere;  coriZZaZ,  from  «»?•,  signifying  accordui;  to  the 
lieart,  is  a mixture  of  the  %carm  and  sincere  There 
are  cases  in  which  it  may  be  pcdiliarly  propt  toht 


432 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


hearty^  as  when  we  are  supporting  the  cause  of  reli- 
gion and  virtue;  tliere  are  oilier  cases  in  which  it  is 
peculiarly  proper  to  be  warm,  as  when  the  ad'ections 
ought  to  be  roused  in  favour  of  our  friends;  in  all 
cases  we  ought  to  be  sincere,  when  we  express  either  a 
sentiment  or  a feeling;  and  it  is  peculiarly  happy  to  be 
on  terms  of  cordial  regard  with  those  wlio  stand  in 
any  close  relation  to  us.  The  man  himself  should  be 
hearty;  the  heart  should  be  warm;  the  professions 
sincere;  and  the  reception  cordial.  It  is  also  possible 
to  speak  of  a hearty  reception,  but  tliis  conveys  the 
idea  of  less  refinement  than  cordial; 

Yet  should  some  neighbour  feel  a pain 
Just  in  the  parts  where  I 'complain, 

How  many  a message  would  he  send, 

What  hearty  prayers  that  I should  mend. — Swift. 
' Youth  is  the  season  of  warm  and  generous  emotions.’ 
— Bl.ur. 

I have  not  since  we  parted  been  at  peace, 

Nor  known  one  joy  sincere. — Rowe. 

With  a gratitude  the  most  cordial,  a good  man  looks 
up  to  that  Almighty  Benefactor,  who  aims  at  no  end 
but  the  happiness  of  those  whom  he  blesses.’ — Blair. 

INGENUOUS,  INGENIOUS. 

It  would  not  have  been  necessary  to  point  out  the 
distinction  between  these  two  words,  if  they  had  not 
been  confounded  in  writing,  as  well  as  in  speaking. 
Ingenuous,  in  Latin  ingenuus,  and  ingenious,  in 
Latin  ingeniosus,  are,  either  immediately  or  remotely, 
both  derived  from  ingigno  to  be  inborn  ; but  the  former 
respects  the  freedom  of  the  station,  and  consequent 
nobleness  of  the  character  which  is  inborn  ; the  latter 
respects  the  genius  or  mental  powers  which  are  inborn. 
Truth  is  coupled  with  freedom  or  nobility  of  birth  ; 
the  ingenuous,  therefore,  bespeaks  the  inborn  freedom, 
by  asserting  the  noblest  right,  and  following  the  noblest 
impulse,  of  human  nature,  namely,  that  of  speaking 
the  truth  ; genius  is  altogether  a natural  endowment, 
that  is  born  with  us,  independent  of  external  circum- 
stances; the  ingenious  man,  therefore,  displays  his 
powers  as  occasion  may  otter.  We  love  the  in  genu- 
ms  character,  on  account  of  the  qualities  of  his  heart; 
we  admire  the  ingenious  man  on  account  of  the  en- 
dowments of  his  mind.  One  is  ingenuous  as  a man  ; 
or  ingenious  as  an  author:  a man  confesses  an  action 
ingenuously ; he  defends  it  ingeniously ; ‘Compare 
the  ingenuous  pliableness  to  virtuous  counsels  which 
is  in  youth,  to  the  confirmed  obstinacy  in  an  old  sinner.’ 

- South. 

Ingenious  to  their  ruin,  every  age 
Improves  the  arts  and  instruments  of  rage. 

Waller. 


fO  APPRAISE,  OR  APPRECIATE,  ESTIMATE, 
ESTEEM. 

.dppraise,  appreciate,  from  apprecio  and  apprecia- 
tus,  participle  of  apprecio,  compounded  of  ap  or  ad 
and  pretiuni  a price,  signify  to  set  a price  or  value  on 
a thing  ; estimate  comes  from  estimatus,  participle  of 
estimo  to  value  ; to  esteem  is  a variation  of  estimate. 

Jippraise  and  appreciate  are  used  in  precisely  the 
same  sense  for  setting  a value  on  any  thing  according 
to  relative  circumstances  ; but  the  one  is  used  in  the 
proper,  and  the  other  in  the  figurative  sense  : a sworn 
appraiser  appraises  goods  according  to  the  condition 
of  the  article  and  its  saleable  property  ; the  characters 
of  men  are  appreciated  by  others  when  their  good  and 
bad  qualities  are  justly  put  in  a balance ; ‘ To  the 
finishing  of  his  course,  let  every  one  direct  his  eye; 
and  let  him  now  appreciate  life  according  to  the  value 
It  will  be  found  to  have  when  summed  up  at  the  close.’ 
—Blair.  To  estimate  a thing  is  to  get  the  sum  of  its 
value  by  calculation  ; to  esteem  any  filing  is  to  judge 
Us  actual  and  intrinsick  value. 

Estimate  is  used  either  in  a proper  or  a figurative 
acceptation;  esteem  only  in  a moral  sense:  the  expense 
of  an  undertaking,  losses  by  fire,  gains  by  trade,  are 
estimated  at  a certain  sum  ; the  estimate  may  be  too 
.nigh  or  too  low;  ‘The  extent  of  the  tiade  of  the 
Greeks,  how  highly  soever  it  may  have  been  estimated 
in  ancient  times,  was  in  proportion  to  the  low  condi- 
'on  -d’  tfieir  umrine.’— Robertson  The  moral  worth 


of  men  is  often  estimated  above  or  below  the  calilj 
according  to  the  particular  bias  of  the  estimator;  but 
there  are  individuals  of  such  an  unquestionable  worth 
that  they  need  only  be  known  in  order  to  he  esteemed; 
‘ If  a lawyer  were  to  be  esteemed  only  as  he  uses  his 
parts  in  contending  for  justice,  and  were  immediately 
despicable  when  he  appeared  in  a cause  which  he 
could  not  but  know  was  an  unjust  one,  Imw  Jionour 
able  would  his  character  be.’ — Steele. 


TO  ESTIMATE,  COMPUTE,  RATE. 

Estimate  has  the  same  signification  as  in  the  pre- 
ceding article  ; cornpute,  in  Latin  computo,  or  con  and 
puto  to  think,  signifies  to  put  together  in  one’s  mind  , 
rate,  in  Latin  ratus,  participle  of  rear  to  think,  signi 
ties  to  weigh  in  the  mind. 

All  these  terms  mark  the  mental  operation  by  whicl. 
the  sum,  amount,  or  value  of  things  is  obtained : to 
estimate  is  to  obtain  the  aggregate  eum  in  one’s  mind, 
either  by  an  immediate  or  a progressive  act;  to  com- 
pute is  to  obtain  the  sum  by  the  gradual  process  of 
putting  together  items ; to  rate  is  to  fix  the  relative 
value  in  one’s  mind  by  deduction  and  comparison:  a 
builder  estimates  the  expense  of  building  a house  on  a 
given  plan  ; a proprietor  of  hoi:ses  computes  the  pro- 
bable diminution  in  the  value  of  his  properly  in  con- 
sequence of  wear  and  tear ; the  surveyor  rates  the  pro 
sent  value  of  lands  or  houses. 

In  the  moral  acceptatioti  they  bear  the  same  analogy 
to  each  other : some  men  are  apt  to  estimate  the  ad- 
ventitious privileges  of  birth  or  ratik  too  high  ; ‘ To 
those  who  have  skill  to  estimate  the  e.xcellence  and 
difficulty  of  this  great  work  (Pope’s  translation  of  Ho- 
mer) it  must  be  very  desirable  to  hnow  how  it  was 
performed.’ — Johnson.  It  would  be  a useful  occupa- 
tion for  men  to  compute  the  loss  tl»€y  &<istain  by  the  ' 
idle  waste  of  time  on  the  one  hand,  and  its  necessa- 
rily unprofitable  consumption  on  the  other ; ‘ From 
the  age  of  sixteen  the  life  of  Pope,  as  an  author,  may 
be  computed.' — Johnson.  He  who  rates  his  abilities 
too  high  is  in  danger  of  despising  the  means  which 
are  essential  to  secure  success ; and  he  who  rates  theni 
too  low  is  apt  to  neglect  the  means,  from  despair  H 
success ; 

Sooner  we  learn  and  seldomer  forget 

What  crilicks  scorn,  than  what  they  highly  r«/,c. 

Hughes 


TO  CALCULATE,  COMPUTE,  RECKON, 
COUNT,  OR  ACCOUNT,  NUMBER. 

Calculate,  in  Latin  calculatus,  participle  of  calculi 
comes  from  calculus,  Greek  ^ pebble ; because 

the  Greeks  gave  theii  votes,  and  the  Romans  made 
out  their  accounts,  by  little  stones  ; hence  it  denotes 
the  action  itself  of  reckoning;  compute  signifies  the 
same  as  in  the  preceding  article;  reckon,  in  Saxon 
reccan,  Dutch  rekenen,  German  rechnen,  is  not  im- 
probably derived  from  row,  in  Dutch  reck,  because 
stringing  of  things  in  a row  was  formerly,  as  it  is  now 
sometimes,  the  ordinary  mode  of  reckoning ; count,  in 
French  compter,  is  but  a contraction  of  computer,  but 
signifies  a forming  into  an  account,  or  setting  down  in 
an  account ; to  number  signifies  literally  to  put  into  a 
number. 

These  words  indicate  the  means  by  which  we  arrive 
at  a certain  result  in  regard  to  quantity. 

To  calculate  is  the  generick  term,  the  rest  are  spe- 
cifick  :*  computation  and  reckoning  are  branches  of 
calculation,  or  an  application  of  those  operations  to 
the  objects  of  which  a result  is  sought:  io  calculate 
comprehends  arithmetical  operations  in  general,  or  par- 
ticular applications  of  the  science  of  numbers,  in  order 
to  obtain  a certain  point  of  knowledge  : to  compute  is 
to  combine  certain  given  numbers  in  order  to  learn  the 
grand  result : to  reckon  is  to  enumerate  and  set  down 
things  in  the  detail : lo  count  is  to  add  up  the  indivi 
dual  items  contained  in  many  diflerent  parts,  in  ordei 
to  determine  the  quantity. 

Calculation  particularly  respects  the  operation  itself 
compute  resjiects  the  gross  sum  ; reckon  and  count  refej 
to  the  details.  To  calculate  denotes  any  numerica 
operation  in  general,  but  in  its  limited  .sense  ; it  is  the 

• Vide  Roubaud : “ Calculer,  supputer,  compter  ” 


LJNGLISH  SYNONIMES 


433 


sbitract  scienc«5  of  figures  used  by  mathematicians 
and  philosophers  ; computation  is  a numerical  esti- 
mate, a simple  species  of  calculation  used  by  histo- 
rians, chronologists,  and  financial  speculators,  in  draw 
irig  great  results  from  complex  sources:  reckon  and 
count  are  still  simpler  species  of  calculation^  applica 
ble  to  the  ordinary  business  of  life,  and  employed  by 
tradesmen,  mechanicks,  and  people  in  general ; reck- 
wfAUg  and  counting  were  the  first  efforts  made  by 
men  in  acquiring  a knowledge  of  number,  quantity, 
or  degree. 

The  astronomer  calculates  the  return  of  the  stars ; 
the  geometrician  malq^s  algebraick  calculations.  The 
Banians,  Indian  m**  fiants,  make  prodigious  calcu- 
lations in  an  instai  on  their  thumb  nails,  doubtless 
after  the  manner  of  algebra,  by  signs,  which  the  calcu- 
lator employs  as  he  pleases.  The  chronologist  com- 
putes the  times  of  particular  events,  by  comparing 
them  with  those  of  other  known  events.  Many  per- 
sons have  attempted  from  the  prophecies  to  make  a 
computation  as  to  the  probable  time  of  the  millennium: 
financiers  compute  the  produce  of  a tax  according  to 
the  measure  and  circumstances  of  its  imposition.  At 
every  new  consulate  the  Romans  used  to  drive  a nail 
into  the  wall  of  the  Capitol,  by  which  they  reckoned  the 
length  of  time  that  their  state  had  been  erected : trades- 
men reekon  their  profits  and  losses.  Children  begin  by 
counting  on  their  fingers,  one,  two,  three. 

An  almanack  is  made  by  calculation.,  computation^ 
and  reckoning.  The  rising  and  setting  of  the  heavenly 
hoAxes  axe  calculated ; from  given  astronomical  tables 
is  computed  the  moment  on  which  any  celestial  phe- 
nomenon may  return  ; and  by  reckoning  are  deter- 
mined the  days  on  which  holydays,  or  other  periodical 
events  fall.  . 

Buffon,  in  his  moral  arithmetick,  has  calculated 
tables  as  guides  to  direct  our  judgements  in  different 
situations,  where  we  have  only  vague  probability,  on 
which  to  draw  our  conclusions.  By  this  we  have  only 
to  compute  what  the  fairest  gain  may  cost  us ; how 
much  we  must  lose  in  advance  from  the  most  favour- 
able lottery ; how  much  our  hopes  impose  upon  us,  our 
cupidity  cheats  us,  and  our  habits  injure  us. 

Calculate  and  reckon  are  employed  in  a figurative 
sense ; compute  and  count  in  an  extended  apifiication 
of  the  same  sense. 

Calculate,  reckon,  and  coxint  respect  mostly  the 
future  ; compute  the  past. 

Calculate  is  rather  a conjectural  de<iuction  from 
what  is,  as  to  what  may  be;  computation  is  a rational 
estimate  of  what  has  been,  fVom  what  is ; reckoning  is 
a conclusive  conviction,  a complacent  assurance  that  a 
thing  will  happen  ; counting  indicates  an  expectation. 
We  calculate  on  a gain  ; compute  any  loss  sustained, 
or  the  amount  of  any  mischief  done  ; we  reckon  on  a 
promised  pleasure ; we  count  the  hours  and  miimtes 
until  the  time  of  enjoyment  arrives. 

A spirit  of  calculation  arises  from  the  cupidity  en- 
gendered by  trade ; it  narrows  the  mind  to  the  mere 
prospect  of  accumulation  and  self-interest;  ‘In  this 
bank  of  fame,  by  an  exact  calculation,  and  the  rules 
of  political  arithmetick,  I have  allotted  ten  hundred 
thousand  shares ; fivehundred  thousand  of  which  is  the 
due  of  the  general ; two  hundred  thousand  I assign  to 
the  general  officers  ; and  two  hundred  thousand  more 
to  all  the  commissioned  officers,  from  the  colonels  to 
ensigns  ; the  remaining  hundred  thousand  must  be  dis- 
tributed among  the  non  commissioned  officers  and  pri- 
vate men  . according  to  which  computation,  I fir  ' •ser- 
geant Hall  is  to  have  one  share  and  a fraction  o,  cwo- 
fifths.’ — Steele.  Computations  are  inaccurate  that 
are  not  founded  uimn  exact  numerical  calculations; 

‘ The  lime  we  live  ought  not  to  be  computed  ' 'Jie 
number  of  years,  but  by  the  use  that  has  beer.  „iade 
of  it.’ — Addison.  Inconsiderate  people  are  apt  to 
reckon  on  things  that  are  very  uncertain,  and  then  lay 
up  to  themselves  a store  of  disappointments ; ‘ Men 
reckon  themselves  possessed  of  what  their  genius  in- 1 
dines  them  to,  and  so  bend  all  their  ambition  to  excel 
in  what  is  out  of  their  reach.’— Spectator.  Children 
who  are  uneasy  at  school  count  the  hours,  minutes, 
and  moments  for  their  return  home  ; 

The  vicious  count  their  years,  virtuous  their  acts. 

JONSON. 

Those  who  have  experienced  the  instability  of  human 
afiairs,  will  never  calculite  on  an  hour’s  enjoyment 


beyond  the  moment  of  existence.  It  is  difficult  to 
cowpate  the  loss  which  an  army  sustains  upon  being 
defeated,  especially  if  it  be  obliged  to  make  a long 
retreat.  Those  who  know  the  human  heart  will  never 
reckon  on  the  assistance  of  professed  friends  in  liie 
hour  of  adversity.  A mind  that  is  ill  at  ease  seeks  ? 
resource  and  amusement  in  counting  the  moments  ar 
they  fly  ; but  this  is  often  an  unhappy  delusion  tha‘ 
only  adds  to  the  bitterness  of  sorrow. 

To  reckon,  count  or  account,  and  number  are  verj 
nearly  allied  to  each  other  in  the  sense  of  esteeming 
or  giving  to  any  object  a place  in  one’s  account  or  reck- 
oning; they  differ  mostly  in  the  application,  reckoning 
being  applied  to  more  familiar  objects  than  the  othei-s, 
which  are  only  empJ  ed  in  the  grave  style ; ‘ Reckon- 
ing themselves  ar  ^Ived  by  Mary’s  attachment  to 
Bothwell  from  the  engagements  wnich  they  had  come 
under  when  she  yielded  herself  a prisoner,  they  carried 
her  next  evening,  under  a strong  guard,  to  the  castle  of 
Lochleven.’ — Robertson.  ‘ A pplause  and  admiration 
are  by  no  means  to  be  counted  among  the  necessaries 
of  life.’ — Johnson.  ‘ There  is  no  bishop  of  the  Church 
of  Engl.and  but  accounts  it  his  interest,  as  well  as  his 
duty,  to  comply  with  this  precept  of  the  Apostle  Paul 
to  Titus,  “These  things  teach  and  exhort.”  ’ — South 
‘ He  whose  mind  never  pauses  from  the  remembrance 
of  his  own  sufferings,  may  justly  be  numbered  among 
the  most  miserable  of  human  beings.’ — Johnson. 


ACCOUNT,  RECKONING,  BILL. 

Account,  compounded  of  ac  or  ad  and  count,  signifies 
to  count  to  a person,  or  for  a thing ; an  account  is  the 
thing  so  counted  : reckoning,  from  the  verb  to  reckon, 
signifies  the  thing  reckoned  up:  bill,  in  Saxon  bill,  in 
all  probability  comes  from  the  Swedish  byla,  to  build, 
signifying  a written  contract  for  buildingvessels,  which 
in  German  is  still  called  a beilbrief;  hence  it  has  been 
employed  to  express  various  kinds  of  written  docu 
ments.  These  words,  which  are  very  similar  in  signi 
fication,  may  frequently  be  substituted  for  one  an 
other. 

Account  is  the  generick,  the  others  the  specifick 
terms : a reckoning  and  bill  is  an  account,  though  not 
always  vice  versd : account  expresses  the  details,  with 
the  sum  of  them  counted  up;  reckoning  implies  th« 
register  and  rotation  of  the  things  to  be  reckoned  up* 
bill  denotes  the  details,  with  their  particular  charge# 
An  account  should  be  correct,  containing  neither  more, 
nor  less  than  is  proper ; a reckoning  should  be  explicit, 
leaving  nothing  unnoticed  as  to  dates  and  names ; a 
bill  should  be  fair. 

We  speak  of  keeping  an  account,  of  coming  to  a 
reckoning,  of  sending  in  a bill.  Customers  liave  an 
accoMwt  with  their  tradespeople;  masters  havearecifc 
oiling  with  their  workpeople;  tradesmen  send  in  their 
bills  at  slated  periods. 

Account,  from  the  extensive  use  of  the  term,  is  ap- 
plicable to  every  thing  that  is  noted  down ; the  parti- 
culars of  w'hich  are  considered  worthy  of  notice  indi- 
vidually or  collectively:  merchants  keep  their  ac- 
counts ; an  account  is  taken  at  the  Custom  House  of 
all  that  goes  in  and  out  of  the  kingdom;  an  account  is 
taken  of  all  transactions,  of  the  weather,  of  natural 
phenomena,  and  whatever  is  remarkable; 

At  many  times  I brought  in  my  accounts. 

Laid  them  before  you ; you  would  throw  them  off, 

And  say  you  found  them  in  my  honesty. 

Shakspeare. 

Reckoning,  as  a particular  term,  is  more  partial  in  its 
use:  it  is  mostly  confined  to  the  dealings  of  men  with 
one  another ; in  which  sense  it  is  superseded  by  the 
preceding  term,  and  now  serves  to  express  only  an 
explanatory  enumeration,  which  may  be  either  verbal 
or  written ; ‘ Merchant  with  some  rudeness  demanded 
a room,  and  was  told  that  there  was  a good  fire  in  the 
next  parlour,  whicli  fae  company  were  about  to  leave, 
being  then  paying  their  reckoning. '—io-anson.  Bill, 
as  implying  something  charged  or  engaged,  is  used  not 
only  in  a mercantile  but  a legal  sense : hence  we  speak 
of  a 6?7Zof  lading;  a WIZ  of  parcels;  a ZifZZ  of  exchange , 
a bill  of  indictment,,  or  a bill  in  parliament;  ‘Ordinary 
expense  ought  to  be  limited  by  a man’s  estate,  and  or- 
dered to  the  best,  that  the  bills  mav  be  less  than  the 
estimation  abroad.’ — Bacon. 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


«3-4 


CALENDAR,  ALMANACK,  EPHEMERIS.  | 

Calendar  comes  from  calenda;,  llie  Roman  name  for 
llie  first  days  of  every  month ; almanack,  that  is  al  and 
mana,  signifies  properly  the  reckoning  or  thing  reck- 
oned, from  I he  Arabick  mana  and  Hebrew  HJD  to 
reckon;  ephemeris,  in  Greek  ceprjpepis,  from  em  and 
ijpepa  the  day,  implies  that  which  happens  by  the  day. 

These  terms  denote  a date-book  : but  the  calendar 
is  a book  which  registers  events  under  every  month; 
the  almanack  is  a book  which  registers  times,  or  the 
divisions  of  the  year;  and  an  ephemeris  is  a book 
whicli  registers  the  planetary  movements  every  day. 
An  almanack  may  be  a calendar,  and  an  ephemeris 
may  be  both  an  almanack  and  a calendar ; but  every 
almanack  is  not  a calendar,  nor  every  calendar  an 
almanack.  The  Gardener’s  calendar  is  not  an  alma- 
nack, and  sheet  almanacks  are  seldom  calendars: 
likewise  the  nautical  ephemeris  may  serve  as  an  alma- 
nack, although  not  as  a calendar;  ‘He  was  silting 
upon  the  ground  upon  a little  straw,  in  the  farthest 
corner  of  his  dungeon,  which  was  alternately  liis  chair 
and  bed:  a little  calendar  of  small  sticks  were  laid 
at  the  head,  notched  all  over  with  the  dismal  nights 
and  days  he  had  passed  there.’— Sterne.  ‘ When  the 
reformers  were  purging  the  calendar  of  legions  cf  vi- 
sionary saints,  they  took  due  care  to  defend  Itie  niches 
of  real  martyrs  from  profanation.  They  preserved  the 
noly  festivals  which  had  been  consecrated  for  many 
ages  to  the  great  luminaries  of  the  church,  and  at  once 
paid  proper  observance  to  the  memory  of  the  good, 
and  fell  in  with  the  proper  humour  of  the  vulgar,  which 
loves  to  rejoice  and  mourn  at  the  discretion  of  the  al- 
manack.'— Walpole.  ‘That  two  or  three  suns  or 
moons  appear  in  any  man’s  life  or  reign,  it  is  not  worth 
the  wonder ; but  that  the  same  should  fall  out  at  a 
remarkable  time  or  point  of  some  decisive  action, 
that  those  two  should  make  but  one  line  in  the  book 
of  fate,  and  stand  together  in  the  great  ephemerides  of 
God,  besides  the  philosophical  assignment  of  the  cause, 
it  may  admit  a Christian  apprehension  in  the  signality  ’ 
-Brown’s  Vulgar  Errors. 


COUPLE,  BRACE,  PAIR. 

Couple,  in  French  couple,  comes  from  the  Latin 
copulo  to  join  or  tie  together,  copula,  in  Hebrew  Sdd 
a rope  or  a shackle,  signifying  things  tied  together ; 
and  as  two  things  are  with  most  convenience  bound 
together,  it  has  by  custom  been  confined  to  this  num- 
ber; brace,  from  the  French  bras  arm,  signifies  things 
locked  together  after  the  manner  of  the  folded  arms, 
which  on  that  account  are  confined  to  the  number  of 
two:  pair,  in  French  paire,  Latin  par  equal,  signifies 
things  that  are  equal,  which  can  with  propriety  be  said 
only  of  two  things  with  regard  to  each  other. 

From  the  above  illustration  of  these  terms,  it  is 
clear  that  the  number  of  two,  which  is  included  in  all 
them,  is,  with  regard  to  the  first,  entirely  arbitrary ; 
of  that  with  regard  to  the  second,  it  arises  from  the 
nature  of  the  junction ; and  with  regard  to  the  third, 
it  arises  altogether  from  the  nature  of  the  objects  : 
couples  and  braces  are  made  by  coupling  and  bracing  ; 
pairs  are  either  so  of  themselves,  or  are  made  so  by 
others : couples  and  braces  always  require  a junction 
in  order  to  make  them  complete;  pairs  require  simi- 
larity only  to  make  them  what  they  are;  couples  are 
joined  by  a foreign  tie;  braces  are  produced  by  a pe- 
culiar mode  of  junction  with  the  objects  themselves. 

Couple  and  pair  are  said  of  persons  or  things;  brace 
in  particular  cases  only  of  animals  or  things,  except  in 
the  burlesque  style,  where  it  may  be  applied  to  per- 
sons. When  used  for  persons,  the  word  couple  has 
relation  to  the  marriage  tie ; the  word  pair  to  the  as- 
sociation or  the  moral  union;  the  former  term  is 
therefore  more  appropriate  when  speaking  of  those 
who  are  siion  to  be  married,  or  have  just  entered  that 
slate;  the  latter  when  speaking  of  those  who  are 
already  fixed  in  that  state:  most  couples  that  are 
joined  together  are  equally  happy  in  prospect,  but  not 
so  in  the  completion  of  their  wishes;  it  is  the  lot  of 
comparatively  very  few  to  claim  the  title  of  the  happy 
pair;  ‘Scarce  any  cowpZe  comes  together,  but  their 
nuptials  are  declared  in  the  newspaper  with  encomiums 
on  each  party  ' — Johnson. 

Your  fortune,  happy  pair,  already  made. 

Leaves  you  no  farther  wish. — Dryden. 


I The  term  pair  may  be  used  in  the  burlesque  style  (oi 
any  two  persons  allied  to  eaeh  other  by  similarity  of 
sentiment  or  otherwise ; 

Dear  Sheridan  I a gentle  pair 
Of  Gaulstown  lads  (for  such  they  are), 

Besides  a brace  of  grave  divines. 

Adore  the  smoothness  of  your  lines.— Swift 
When  used  for  things,  couple  is  promiscuously  em 
ployed  in  familiar  discourse  for  any  two  things  pul 
together ; ‘ In  the  midst  of  these  sorrows  which  I had 
hi  my  heart,  methought  there  passed  ly  me  a couple 
of  coaches  with  purple  liveries.’ — Aulson.  Brace  ii 
used  by  sportsmen  for  birds  which  are  shot,  and  sup- 
posed to  be  locked  together;  by  sailors  for  a part  of 
their  tackling,  which  is  folded  crosswise;  as  also  in 
common  life  for  an  article  of  convenience  crossed  in  a 
singular  way,  which  serves  to  keep  the  dress  of  men 
in  its  proper  place, 

First  hunter  fuen,  pursu’d  a gentle  brace. 

Goodliest  of  all  the  forest,  hart  and  hind. — Milton 
Pair  is  of  course  restricted  in  its  application  to  such 
objects  only  as  are  really  paired; 

Six  wings  he  wore,  to  shade 
His  lineaments  divine ; the  pair  that  clad 
Each  shoulder  broad  came  mantling  o’er  his  breast 
With  regal  ornament. — Milton. 


RATE,  PROPORTION,  RATIO. 

Rate  signifies  the  thing  rated,  or  the  measure  at 
which  it  is  rated ; ratio  has  the  same  original  meaning 
as  rate;  proportion,  v.  Proportionate. 

Rate  and  ratio  are  in  sense  species  of  proportion; 
that  is,  they  are  supposed  or  estimated  proportions,  in 
distinction  from  proportions  that  lie  in  the  nature  of 
things.  The  first  term,  rate,  is  emidoyed  in  ordinary 
concerns;  a person  receives  a certain  sum  weekly  at 
the  rate  of  a certain  sum  yearly;  ‘At  Ephesus  and 
Athens,  Anthony  lived  at  his  usual  rate  in  all  manner 
of  luxury.’ — Pride.vux.  Ratio  is  applied  only  to  num- 
bers and  calculations;  as  two  is  to  four,  so  is  four  to 
eight,  and  eight  to  sixteen ; the  ratio  in  this  case  being 
double;  ‘ The  rate  of  interest  (to  lenders)  is  generally 
in  a compound  ratio  formed  out  of  the  inconvenienc* 
and  the  hazard.’ — Blackstonk.  Proportion  is  em- 
ployed in  matters  of  science,  and  in  all  cases  where 
the  two  more  specifick  terms  are  not  admissible ; the 
beauty  of  an  edifice  depends  upon  observing  the  doc- 
trine of  proportions ; in  the  disposing  of  soldiers  a 
certain  regard  must  be  had  to  proportion  in  the  height 
and  size  of  the  men ; ‘ Repentance  cannot  be  eftectua 
but  as  it  bears  same  proportion  to  sin.’ — South. 

PROPORTIONATE,  COMMENSURATE, 
ADEOUATE. 

Proportionate,  from  the  Latin  propoWio,  compound 
ed  of  pro  and  portio,  signifies  having  a portion  suit 
able  to,  or  in  agreement  with,  some  other  object ; com 
mensurate,  from  the  Latin  commensus  or  commetior 
signifies  measuring  in  accordance  with  some  other 
thing,  being  suitable  in  measure  to  something  else; 
adequate,  in  Latin  adeequatus,  participle  of  adeequo 
signifies  made  level  with  some  other  body. 

Proportionate  is  here  a term  of  general  use ; the 
others  are  particular  terms,  employed  in  a similai 
sense,  in  regard  to  particular  objects ; that  is  propor 
tionate  which  rises  as  a thing  rises,  and  falls  as  a thing 
falls;  that  is  commensurate  which  is  made  to  rise  to 
the  same  measure  or  degree ; that  is  adequate  which 
is  made  to  come  up  to  the  height  of  another  thing 
Proportionate  is  employed  either  in  the  proper  or  im- 
proper sense ; in  all  recipes  and  prescriptions  of  every 
kind,  proportionate  quantities  must  always  be  taken; 
when  the  task  increases  in  difficulty  and  complication, 
a proportionate  degree  of  labour  and  talent  must  be 
employed  upon  it ; ‘All  envy  is  proportionate  to  de- 
sire.’— Johnson.  Commensurate  and  adequate  areem 
ployed  only  in  the  moral  sense;  the  former  in  regaro 
to  matters  of  distribution,  the  latter  in  regard  to  the 
equalizing  of  powers:  a person’s  recompense  shoulo 
in  some  measure  be  commensurate  with  his  labour  and 
deserts;  ‘Where  the  matter  is  not  commensurate  to 
the  words,  all  speaking  is  but  tautology.’ — South.  A 
Dcrson’s  resources  should  fce  adequate  to  the  work  he  is 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


43a 


jiigaced  in ; ‘ Outward  actions  are  not  adequate  ex- 
pressions of  our  virtues.’ — Addison. 

DISPARITY,  INEaUALITY. 

Disparity^  from  dis  and  par,  in  Greek  Trapa  with  or 
by,  signifies  an  unfitness  of  objects  to  be  by  one  an- 
other; inequality,  from  the  Latin  mquus  even,  sig- 
nifies having  no  regularity. 

Disparity  applies  to  two  or  more  objects  which 
should  meet  or  stand  in  coalition  with  each  other;  in- 
equality is  applicable  to  objects  that  are  compared 
with  each  other : the  disparity  of  age,  situation,  and 
circumstances,  is  to  be  considered  with  regard  to  per- 
sons entering  into  a matrimonial  connexion ; the  in- 
equality in  the  portion  of  labour  which  is  to  be  per- 
formed by  two  persons,  is  a ground  for  the  inequality 
of  their  recompense : there  is  a great  inequality  in  the 
chance  of  success,  where  there  is  a disparity  of  ac- 
quirements in  rival  candidates;  the  disparity  belween 
David  and  Goliah  was  such  as  to  render  the  success 
of  the  former  more  strikingly  miraculous ; ‘Between 
Elihu  and  the  rest  of  Job’s  familiars,  the  greatest  dis- 
parity was  but  in  years.’ — Hooker.  The  inequality 
in  the  conditions  of  men  is  not  attended  with  a corres- 
ponding inequality  in  their  happiness  ; ‘ Inequality  of 
behaviour,  either  in  prosperity  or  adversity,  are  alike 
ungraceful  in  man  that  is  born  to  die.’ — Steele. 

SYMMETRY,  PROPORTION. 

Symmetry,  in  Latin  symmetria,  Greek  avppeTpla, 
from  cvv  and  fxhpov,  signifies  a measure  that  accords ; 
proportion,  in  Latin  proportio,  compounded  of  pro  and 
portio,  signifies  every  portion  or  part  according  with  the 
other,  or  with  the  whole. 

The  signification  of  these  terms  is  obviously  the 
same,  namely,  a due  admeasurement  of  the  parts  to 
each  other  and  to  the  whole ; but  symmetry  seems  to 
convey  the  idea  of  a beautiful  adaptation  ; and  pro- 
portion is  applied  in  general  to  every  thing  which  ad- 
mits of  dimensions  and  an  adaptation  of  the  parts ; 
hence  we  speak  of  symmetry  of  feature,  or  symmetry 
abstractedly; 

She  by  whose  Wnes  proportion  should  be 

Examin’d,  measure  of  all  symmetry ; 

Whom  had  tliat  ancient  seen,  who  thought  souls 
made 

Of  harmony,  he  would  at  next  have  said 

That  harmony  was  she. — Donne. 

But  we  say  proportion  of  limbs,  the  proportion  of  the 
head  to  the  body;  ‘ The  inventors  of  siulfed  hips  had 
a better  eye  for  dnc  proportion  than  to  add  to  a redun- 
dancy, because  in  some  cases  it  was  convenient  to  fill 
up  a vacuum.’ — Cumberland. 

EaiJAL,  EVEN,  EOUABLE,  LIKE,  OR  ALIKE, 
UNIFORM. 

Equal,  in  Latin  mqualis,  comes  from  cequus,  and 
probably  the  Greek  dubg,  similis,  like;  even  is  in 
Saxon  German  eben,  Sweden  efwen,jafn,  or  aem, 
Greek  o2os  like  ; equable,  in  Latin  equabilis,  signifies 
susceptible  of  equality ; like,\n  Dutch  Z/t,  Saxon 
German  gleich,  Gothick  tholick,  Latin  talis,  Greek 
ry^iKog  such  as;  uniform,  compounded  of  unus  one 
and  forma  form,  bespeaks  its  own  meaning. 

All  these  epithets  are  opposed  to  difierence.  Equal 
Is  said  of  degree,  quantity,  number,  and  dimensions, 
as  equal  in  years,  of  an  equal  age,  an  equal  height: 
even  is  said  of  the  surface  and  position  of  bodies;  a 
board  is  made  even  with  another  board ; the  floor  or 
the  ground  is  even  : like  is  said  of  accidental  qualities 
in  things,  as  alike  in  colour  or  in  feature:  uniform  is 
said  of  things  only  as  to  their  fitness  to  correspond; 
those  which  are  unlike  in  colour,  shape,  or  make,  or 
not  uniform,  cannot  be  made  to  match  as  pairs  : 
equable  is  used  only  in  the  moral  acceptation,  in  which 
all  the  others  are  likewise  employed. 

As  moral  qualities  admit  of  degree,  they  admit  of 
equality ; justice  is  dealt  out  in  equal  portions  to  the 
rich  and  the  poor;  God  looks  with  an  equal  eye  on 
all  mankind.  Some  men  are  equal  to  others  in  exter- 
nal circumstances  ; ‘ Equality  is  the  life  of  conversa- 
tion, and  he  is  as  much  out  who  assumes  to  himself 
any  part  above  another,  as  he  who  considers  himself 
below  the  rest  of  society  ’ — Steele.  As  the  natural 

2H» 


patl)  is  rendered  uneven  by  high  and  low  ground, .so  the 
evenness  of  the  temper,  in  the  figurative  sense,  is  de- 
stroyed by  changes  of  humour,  by  elevations  and  de- 
pressions of  the  spirits;  ‘Good-nature  is  insufficient 
(in  the  marriage  state)  unless  it  be  steady  and  Mnz/orwt. 
and  accompanied  with  an  evenness  of  temper.’ — ^ 
Spectator.  The  equability  of  the  mind  is  hurt  by 
the  vicissitudes  of  life,  from  prosperous  to  adverse ; 
‘ There  is  also  moderation  in  toleration  of  fortune 
which  of  Tully  is  called  equabilitie.' —’Sia.  T.  Elvot. 
This  term  may  also  be  applied  to  motion,  as  the  equa 
ble  motion  of  the  planets  ; and  figuratively  to  the 
style  ; ‘ In  Swift’s  works  is  found  an  equable  tenourof 
easy  language,  which  rather  trickles  than  flows.’ — 
Johnson.  Even  and  equable  are  applied  to  the  same 
mind  in  relation  to  itself;  like  or  alike  is  used  to  the 
minds  of  two  or  more  ; hence  we  say  they  are  alike  in 
disposition,  in  sentiment,  in  wishes,  &;c. ; 

E’en  now  as  familiar  as  in  life  he  came; 

Alas  ! how  diff’rent,  yet  how  like  the  same  — Pope 
Uniform  is  applied  to  the  temper,  habits,  character, 
or  conduct ; hence  a man  is  said  to  preserve  a uni 
fortuity  of  behaviour  towards  those  whom  he  com 
mands.  The  term  may  also  be  applied  to  the  modes 
which  may  be  adopted  by  men  in  society  ; ‘ The  only 
doubt  is  about  the  manner  of  their  unity,  how  far 
churches  are  bound  to  be  uniform  in  their  ceremonies, 
aiPd  what  way  they  ought  to  take  for  that  purpose.’ — 
Hooker.  Friendship  requires  that  the  parlies  be 
equal  in  station,  alike  in  mind,  and  uniform  in  their 
conduct:  wisdom  points  out  to  us  an  even  tenourof 
life,  from  which  we  cannot  depart  either  to  the  right 
or  to  the  left,  without  disturbing  our  peace  ; it  is  one 
of  her  maxims  that  we  should  not  lose  the  equability 
of  our  temper  under  the  most  trying  circumstances. 

FLAT,  LEVEL. 

Flat,  in  German^acA,  is  connected  with  pZaZZ  broad, 
and  that  with  the  Latin  latus,  and  Greek  rrAarOs; 
level,  in  all  probability  from  libella  and  libraa  balance, 
signifies  the  evenness  of  a balance. 

Flat  is  said  of  a thing  with  regard  to  itself ; it  is  op- 
posed to  the  round  or  protuberant;  level  as  it  respects 
another;  the  former  is  opposed  to  the  uneven ; a coun- 
try is  flat  which  has  no  elevation  ; a wall  is  level  with 
the  roof  of  a house  when  it  rises  to  the  height  of  the 
roof ; ‘ Aflat  can  hardly  look  well  on  paper.’ — Count- 
ess OF  Hertford. 

At  that  black  hour,  which  gen’ral  honour  sheds 

On  the  low  level  of  the  inglorious  throng. — Youn« 


EVEN,  SMOOTH,  LEVEL,  PLAIN. 

Even  (v.  Equal)  and  smooth,  which  is  in  all  proba 
bility  connected  with  smear,  are  both  opposed  to 
roughness:  but  that  which  is  even  is  free  only  from 
great  roughnesses  or  irregularities;  that  which  is 
smooth  is  free  from  every  degree  of  roughness,  how- 
ever small : a board  is  even  which  has  no  knots  or 
holes;  it  is  not  smooth  unless  its  surface  be  an  entire 
plane;  the  ground  is  said  to  be  even,  but  not  smooth; 
the  sky  is  smooth,  but  not  even  ; ‘ When  we  look  at  & 
naked  wall,  from  the  evenness  of  the  object  the  eye 
runs  along  its  whole  space,  and  arrives  quickly  at  its 
termination.’ — Burke.  ‘ The  effects  of  a rugged  and 
broken  surface  seem  stronger  than  where  it  is  smooth 
and  polished.’ — Burke. 

Even  is  to  level  {o.  Flat),  when  applied  to  the  ground, 
what  swiooZA  is  to  et-ere  ; the  even  is  free  from  protu- 
berances and  depressions  on  its  exteriour  surface  ; the 
level  is  free  from  rises  or  falls : a path  is  said  to  be 
even  ; a meadow  is  level : ice  may  be  level,  though  it 
is  not  even',  a walk  up  the  side  of  a hill  may  be  even, 
although  the  hill  itself  is  the  reverse  of  a level:  the 
even  is  said  of  that  which  unites  and  forms  one  unin- 
terrupted surface;  but  the  level  is  said  of  things  which 
are  at  a distance  from  each  other,  and  are  discovered 
by  the  eye  to  be  in  a parallel  line : hence  the  floor  of  a 
room  is  even  with  regard  to  itself;  it  is  level  with  thaj 
of  another  room; 

The  top  is  level,  an  offensive  seat 
Of  war. — Dryden 

‘A  blind  man  would  never  be  able  to  imagine  how  the 
several  prominences  and  depressions  of  a human  IkhI> 


436 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


could  U ihown  on  a p/am  piece  of  canvass  that  has 
on  it  no  unevenness.' — Addison. 

Evenness  respects  the  surface  of  bodies;  plainness 
respects  the  direction  of  bodies  and  their  freedom  from 
external  obstructions ; a ^ath  is  even  which  has  no 
indentures  or  footmarks ; a path  is  plain  wliich  is  not 
stopped  up  or  interrupted  by  wood,  water,  or  any 
other  thing  intervening. 

When  applied  figuratively,  these  words  preserve 
their  analogy:  an  even  temper  is  secured  from  all  vio- 
lent changes  of  humour;  a.  smooth  speech  is  divested 
of  every  thing  which  can  ruffle  the  temper  of  others: 
but  the  former  is  always  taken  in  a good  sense ; and 
the  latter  mostly  in  a bad  sense,  as  evincing  an  illicit 
design  or  a purpose  to  deceive;  ‘ A man  who  lives  in 
a state  of  vice  and  impenitence  can  have  no  title  to 
titat  evenness  and  tranquillity  of  ihind  which  is  tJie 
health  of  the  soul.’ — Addison. 

Tills  smooth  discourse  and  mild  behaviour  oft 
Conceal  a traitor. — Addison. 

A plain  speech,  on  the  other  hand,  is  divested  of  every 
thing  obscure  or  figurative,  aiffl  is  consequently  a 
speech  free  from  disguise  and  easy  to  be  understood  ; 
Express  thyself  in  plain,  not  doubtful,  words. 

That  ground  for  quarrels  or  disputes  affords. 

Denham. 

Even  and  level  are  applied  to  conduct  or  condition ; 
the  former  as  regards  ourselves;  the  latter  as  regards 
others:  he  who  adopts  an  even  course  of  conduct  is  in 
no  danger  of  putting  himself  upon  a level  with  those 
who  are  otherwise  his  inferiours;  ‘ Falsehood  turns  all 
above  us  into  tyranny  and  barbarity;  and  all  of  tire 
same  level  with  us  into  discord.’ — South. 


ODD,  UNEVEN. 

Odd,  probably  a variation  from  add,  seems  to  be  a 
mode  of  the  uneven;  both  are  ojiposed  to  the  even, 
but  odd  is  only  said  of  that  which  has  no  fellow ; the 
uneven  is  said  of  that  which  does  not  square  or  come 
to  an  even  point:  of  numbers  we  say  that  they  are 
cither  odd  or  uneven ; but  of  gloves,  shoes,  and  every 
thing  which  is  made  to  correspond,  we  say  that  they 
are  odd,  when  they  are  single ; but  that  they  are  uneven 
when  they  are  not  exactly  alike:  in  like  manner  a 
plank  is  uneven  which  has  an  unequal  surface,  or  dis- 
proportionate dimensions  ; but  a piece  of  wood  is  odd 
which  will  not  match  nor  suit  with  any  other  piece. 

VALUE,  WORTH,  RATE,  PRICE. 

Faille,  from  the  Latin  valeo  to  be  strong,  respects 
those  essential  qualities  of  a thing  which  constitute  its 
strength;  worth,  in  German  worth,  from  wdhren  to 
perceive,  signifies  that  good  which  is  experienced  or 
felt  to  exist  in  a thing  ; rate  signifies  the  same  as  under 
the  article  Rato,  proportion ; price,  in  Latin  pretium, 
from  the  Greek  irpdatroj  to  sell,  signifies  what  a thing 
is  sold  for. 

Value  is  a general  and  indefinite  term  applied  to 
whatever  is  really  good  or  conceived  as  such  in  a 
thing:  the  worth  is  that  good  only  which  is  conceived 
or  known  as  such.  The  value  therefore  of  a thing  is 
a'S  variable  as  the  humours  and  circumstances  of  men  ; 
it  may  be  nothing  or  something  very  great  in  the  same 
object  at  the  same  lime  in  the  eyes  of  different  men ; 

Life  has  no  value  as  an  end,  but  means: 

An  end  deplorable!  A means  divine. — Young. 
The  worth  is  how'ever  that  value  which  is  acknow- 
ledged ; it  is  therefore  something  more  fixed  and  per- 
manent: we  speak  of  the  value  of  external  objects 
which  are  determined  by  taste;  but  the  zoort  A of  things 
as  determined  by  rule.  The  value  of  a book  that  is 
out  of  print  is  fluctuating  and  uncertain  ; but  its  real 
worth  may  not  be  more  than  what  it  would  fetch  for 
waste  paper; 

Pay 

No  moment,  but  in  purchase  of  its  worth; 

And  what  its  worth  ask  death-beds. — Young 

The  rate  and  price  are  the  measures  of  that  value  or 
worth;  the  former  in  a general,  the  latter  in  a particular 
application  to  mercantile  transactions.  Yv^hatever  we 
give  in  exchange  for  another  thing,  whether  according 
to  a definite  or  an  indefinite  estimation,  that  is  said  to  be 


done  at  a certain  rate ; thus  W’e  purchase  pleasure  a'  s 
dear  rate,  v/hen  it  is  at  the  expense  of  our  health  , ‘If 
you  will  take  my  humour  as  it  runs,  you  shall  liave 
hearty  thanks  into  the  bargain,  for  taking  it  off' at  such 
arate.' — Earl  of  Shaftesburv.  Price  is  the  rate  of 
exchange  estimated  by  coin  or  any  other  medium; 
hence  price  is  a fixed  rate,  and  may  be  figuratively  ap 
plied  in  that  sense  to  moral  objects;  as  when  health  ij 
expressly  sacrificed  to  pleasure,  it  may  be  termed  the 
price  of  pleasure ; 

The  soul’s  high  price 

Is  writ  in  all  the  conductof  the  skiea. — Young. 


TO  VALUE,  PRIZE,  ESTEEM. 

To  value  is  in  the  literal  sense  to  fix  the  real  value 
of  a thing;  to  prize,  signifying  to  fix  a price,  ana 
esteem  {v.  Esteem),  are  both  modes  of  valuing.  In 
the  extended  sense,  to  value  may  mean  to  ascertain  the 
relative  or  supposed  value  of  a thing:  in  this  sense 
men  value  gold  above  silver,  or  an  appraiser  values 
goods.  To  value  may  either  be  applied  to  material  or 
spiritual  subjects,  to  corporeal  or  mental  actions:  prize 
and  esteem  are  taken  only  as  mental  actions;  the 
former  in  reference  to  sensible  or  moral  objects,  the 
latter  only  to  moral  objects:  we  may  value  books  ac- 
cording to  their  market  price,  or  we  may  value  them 
according  to  their  contents ; we  prize  books  only  for 
their  contents,  in  which  sense  prize  is  a much  stronger 
term  than  value ; we  also  prize  men  for  their  usefulness 
to  society ; 

The  prize,  the  beauteous  prize,  I will  resign. 

So  dearly  valu'd,  and  so  justly  mine. — Pope. 

We  esteem  men  for  their  moral  characters;  ‘Nothing 
makes  women  esteemed  by  the  opposite  sex  more  than 
chastity;  whether  it  be  that  we  always  prize  those 
most  who  are  hardest  to  come  at,  or  that  nothing  be- 
sides chastity,  with  its  collateral  attendants,  fidelity  and 
constancy,  gives  a man  a property  in  the  penson  he 
loves.’ — Addison. 


COST,  EXPENSE,  PRICE,  CHARGE. 

Cost,  in  German  host  or  kosten,  from  the  Latin 
gustare  to  taste,  signifies  originally  support,  and  by  an 
extended  sense  what  is  given  for  support;  expense  is 
compounded  of  ex  and  pense,  in  Latin  pensus  participle 
of  pendo  to  pay,  signifying  the  tiling  paid  or  given  out; 
price,  from  the  Latin  pretium,  and  the  Greek  updaau) 
to  sell,  signifies  the  thing  given  for  what  is  bought ; 
charge,  from  to  charge,  signifies  the  thing  laid  on  as  a 
charge. 

The  cost  is  what  a thing  costs  oi  occasions  to  be  laid 
out ; the  expense  is  that  which  is  actually  laid  out ; the 
price  is  that  which  a thing  may  fetch  or  cause  to  be 
laid  out;  the  charge  is  that  which  is  required  to  be  laid 
out.  As  a cost  commonly  comprehends  an  expense,  the 
terms  are  on  various  occasions  used  indifferently  for 
each  other : we  speak  of  counting  the  cost  or  counting 
the  expense  of  doing  any  thing;  at  a great  cost  or  at  a 
great  expense:  on  the  other  hand,  of  venturing  to  do  a 
thing  to  one’s  cost,  of  growing  wdse  at  other  people’s 
expense. 

The  cost  and  the  price  have  respect  to  the  thing  and 
its  supposed  value ; the  expense  and  the  charge  depend 
on  the  option  of  the  persons.  The  cost  of  a thing  must 
precede  the  price,  and  the  expense  must  succeed  the 
charge;  we  can  never  set  a price  o\\  any  thing  until 
we  have  ascertained  what  it  has  cost  us  ; nor  can  we 
know  or  defray  the  expense  until  the  charge  be  made. 
There  may,  however,  frequently  be  a price  where  there 
is  no  cost,  and  vice  versa;  there  may  also  be  an  expense 
where  there  is  no  charge ; but  there  cannot  be  a charge 
without  an  expense  ; ‘ Would  a man  build  for  eternity, 
that  is,  in  other  words,  would  he  be  saved,  let  him 
consider  with  himself  what  charges  he  is  willing  to  be 
at  that  he  may  be  so.’ — South.  Costs  in  suit  often 
exceed  in  value  and  amount  the  thing  contended  for: 
the  price  of  things  depends  on  their  relative  value  in 
the  eyes  of  others:  what  costa  nothing  sometimes 
fetches  a high  price;  and  other  things  cannot  obtain  a 
price  equal  to  the  first  cost.  Expenses  v.ary  with 
modes  of  living  and  men’a  desires;  whoever  wants 
much,  or  wants  that  which  is  not  easily  obtained,  will 
have  many  expenses  to  defray;  when  the  charges  are 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  43^ 


exorbitant  the  expenses  must  necessarily  bear  a pro- 
portion. 

Between  the  epithets  costly  and  expensive  there  is 
the  same  distinction.  Whatever  is  costly  is  naturally 
expensive,  but  not  vice  versa.  Articles  of  furniture,  of 
luxury,  or  indulgence,  are  costly,  either  from  their 
variety  or  their  intrinsick  value ; every  thing  is  expensive 
which  is  attended  with  much  expense,  whether  of  little 
or  great  value.  Jewels  are  cosily;  travelling  is  ex- 
pensive. The  costly  treasures  of  the  East  are  imported 
into  Europe  for  the  gratification  of  those  who  cannot 
be  contented  with  the  produce  of  their  native  soil: 
those  who  indulge  themselves  in  expensive  pleasures 
often  lay  up  it  store  for  themselves  much  sorrow  and 
repentance  in  the  time  to  come, 

In  the  moral  acceptation,  the  attainment  of  an  object 
is  said  to  cost  much  pains ; 

The  real  patriot  bears  his  private  wrongs, 

Rather  than  right  them  at  the  publick  cost, 

Bkller. 

A thing  is  persisted  in  at  the  expense  of  health,  of 
honour,  or  of  life;  ‘If  ease  and  politeness  be  only 
attainable  at  the  expense  of  sincerity  in  the  men,  and 
chastity  in  the  women,  I flatter  myself  there  are  few 
of  my  readers  who  would  not  think  the  purchase  made 
at  too  high  s.  price.'-  Abercrombv. 

UNWORTHY,  WORTHLESS. 

Unworthy  is  a term  of  less  reproach  than  worthless; 
for  the  former  signifies  not  to  be  worthy  of  praise  or 
honour ; the  latter  signifies  to  be  without  any  worth, 
and  consequently  in  the  fullest  sense  bad.  It  may  be  a 
mark  of  irrodesty  or  humility  to  say  that  I am  an 
unworthy  partaker  of  your  kindness  ; but  it  would  be 
folly  and  extravagance  to  say,  that  I am  a worthless 
partaker  of  your  kindness.  There  are  many  unworthy 
members  in  every  religious  community ; but  every  so- 
ciety that  is  conducted  upon  proper  principles  will  take 
care  to  exclude  worthless  members.  In  regard  to  one 
anotlier  we  are  often  unworthy  of  the  distinctions  or 
privileges  we  enjoy;  in  regard  to  our  Maker  we  are  all 
unworthy  of  his  goodness,  for  we  are  all  worthless  in 
5is  eyes ; 

Since  in  dark  sorrow  I my  days  did  spend, 

Till  now  disdaining  his  unworthy  end. 

Denham. 

' The  school  of  Socrates  was  at  one  time  deserted  by 
svery  body,  except  iEschines  the  parasite  of  the  tyrant 
Dionysius,  and  the  most  worthless  man  living.’ — 

OraBKRLAND. 


VALUABLE,  PRECIOUS,  COSTLY. 

Valuable  signifies  fit  to  be  valued;  precious,  having 
j high  price  ; costly,  costing  much  money.  Valuable 
expresses  directly  the  idea  of  value ; precious  and 
costly  express  the  same  idea  indirectly:  on  the  other 
hand,  that  which  is  valuable  is  only  said  to  be  fit  or  de- 
serving of  value;  hni  precious  and  costZy  denote  that 
which  is  highly  valuable,  according  to  the  ordinary 
measure  of  valuing  objects,  that  is,  by  the  price  they 
bear : hence,  the  two  latter  express  the  idea  much  more 
strongly  than  the  former.  A book  is  valuable  accord- 
ing to  its  contents,  or  according  to  the  estimate  which 
men  set  upon  it,  either  individually  or  collectively; 
‘What  an  absurd  thing  it  is  to  pass  over  all  the  mi- 
luable  parts  of  a man,  and  fix  our  attention  on  his  in- 
firmities.’— Addison.  The  Bible  is  the  on]y  precious 
book  in  the  world  that  has  intrinsick  value,  that  is,  set 
above  all  price;  ‘It  is  no  improper  comparison  that  a 
lliankful  heart  is  like  a box  of  precious  ointment.’ — 
Howell.  There  are  many  costly  things,  which  are 
only  valuable  to  the  individuals  who  are  disposed  to 
expend  money  upon  them ; ‘ Christ  is  sometimes 
pleased  to  make  the  profession  of  himself  costly.' — 
Kou'J'H. 


INTRINSICK,  REAL,  GENUINE,  NATIVE. 

Intrinsick,  in  Latin  intrinsecus,  signifies  on  the 
inside,  that  is,  lying  in  the  thing  itself;  real,  from  the 
liatin  res,  signifies  belonging  to  the  very  tiling:  genuine, 
n Latin  genuinus  from  geno  or  gigno  to  bring  forth, 
signifies  actually  brought  forth,  or  springing  out  of  a 


thing;  native,  in  Latin  nativus  and  natus  born,  sig 
nifies  actually  born,  or  arising  from  a thing. 

The  value  of  a thing  is  either  intrinsick  ox  real:  bu 
the  intrinsick  value  is  said  in  regard  to  its  extrinsick 
value ; the  reai  value  in  regard  to  the  artificial : the  in- 
trinsick value  of  a book  is  that  which  it  will  fetch  whei 
sold  in  a regular  way,  in  opposition  to  the  extrinsick 
value,  as  being  the  giteof  a friend,  a particular  edition 
or  a particular  type:  the  real  value  of  a book,  in  th 
proper  sense,  lies  in  the  fineness  ol  the  paper,  and  th 
costliness  of  its  binding  ; and,  in  the  improper  sense,  .i 
lies  in  the  excellence  of  its  contents,  in  opposition  to 
the  artificial  value  which  it  acquires  in  the  minds  of 
biblionianiacks  from  being  a scarce  edition ; ‘ Men,  how 
ever  distinguished  by  external  accidents  or  intrinsick 
qualities,  have  all  the  same  wants,  the  same  pains,  and, 
as  far  as  the  senses  are  consulted,  the  same  pleasures.’ 
— Johnson.  ‘You  have  settled,  by  an  economy  as 
perverted  as  the  policy,  two  establishments  of  govern- 
ment, one  real,  the  other  fictitious.’ — Burke. 

The  worth  of  a man  is  either  genuine  or  native : the 
genuine  worth  of  a man  lies  in  the  excellence  of  his 
moral  character,  as  opposed  to  his  adventitious  worth, 
which  he  acquires  from  the  possession  of  wealth, 
power,  and  dignity  ; his  native  worth  is  that  which  is 
inborn  in  him,  and  natural,  in  opposition  to  the  mere- 
tricious and  borrowed  worth  which  he  may  derive  from 
his  situation,  his  talent,  or  his  eflTorts  to  please ; 

IWs  gemdne  and  less  guilty  wealth  t’  explore. 

Search  not  his  bottom,  but  survey  his  shore. 

Denham. 

‘ How  lovely  does  tlie  human  mind  appear  in  its  native 
purity.’ — Earl  of  Chatham. 

An  accurate  observer  will  always  discriminate  be- 
tween the  intrinsick  and  extrinsick  value  of  every 
thing;  a wise  man  will  always  appreciate  things  ac 
cording  to  their  real  value  ; the  most  depraved  man 
will  sometimes  Ite  sensible  of  genuine  worth  when  it 
displays  itself ; it  is  always  pleasant  to  meet  with 
those  unsophisticated  characters  whose  native  excel 
lence  shines  forth  in  all  their  words,  looks,  and  actions 


EXTRANEOUS,  EXTRINSICK,  FOREIGN. 

Extraneous,  compounded  of  exterraneus,  or  ex  anu 
terra,  signifies  out  of  the  land,  not  belonging  to  it ; 
extrinsick,  in  I.atin  extrinsecus,  compounded  of  extra 
and  secus,  signifies  outward,  external ; foreign,  from 
the  Latiti/cr?s  out  of  doors,  signifies  not  belonging  to 
the  family,  tribe,  or  people. 

The  extraneous  is  that  which  forms  no  necessary  or 
natural  part  of  any  thing : the  extrinsick  is  that  which 
forms  a part  or  has  a connexion,  but  only  in  an  indirect 
form;  it  is  not  an  inherent  or  component  part:  the 
foreign  is  that  wliich  forms  no  part  whatever,  and 
has  no  kind  of  connexion.  A work  is  said  to  contain 
extraneous  matter,  which  contains  much  matter  not 
necessarily  belonging  to,  or  illustrative  of  the  subject 
a work  is  said  to  have  extrinsick  merit  when  it  bor 
rows  its  value  from  local  circumstances,  in  distinction 
from  the  intrinsick  merit,  or  that  vrhich  lies  in  the  con 
tents. 

Extraneous  and  extrinsick  have  a general  and  ab- 
stract sense  ; but  foreign  has  a particular  significa 
tion  ; they  always  pass  over  to  some  object  either  ex- 
pressed or  understood  . hence  we  say  extraneous  ideas, 
or  extrinsick  worth ; but  that  a particular  inode  of 
acting  is  foreign  to  the  general  plan  pursued.  Anec 
dotes  of  private  individuals  would  be  extraneous  mat 
ter  in  a general  history  ; ‘ That  which  makes  me  be- 
lieve is  something  extraneous  to  the  thing  that  I believe  ’ 
— Locke.  The  respect  and  credit  which  men  gain 
from  their  fellow-citizens  by  an  adherence  to  rectitude 
is  the  extrinsick  advantage  of  virtue,  in  distinction 
from  the  peace  of  a good  conscience  and  the  favour  of 
God,  which  arc  its  intrinsick  advantages;  ‘Affluence 
and  power  are  advantages  extrinsick  and  adventitious. 
— Johnson.  It  is  foreign  to  the  purpose  of  one  who 
is  making  an  abridgment  of  a work,  to  enter  into  details 
in  any  particular  part ; 

For  loveliness 

Needs  not  the  aid  of  foreign  ornaments  ; 

But  is  when  unadorn’d  adorn’d  the  most. 

TnoMfcoK 


^38 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


DESERT,  MERIT,  WORTH. 

Desert^  from  deserve^  in  Latin  descj-vio,  signifies  to 
•o  service  or  be  serviceable  ; merit,  in  Latin  meritus, 
participle  of  mereor,  comes  from  the  Greek  fidou)  to 
distribute,  because  merit  serves  as  a rule  for  distri- 
buting or  apportioning ; worth,  in  German  werth,  is 
connected  with  wiirde  dignity,  ^nd  biirde  a burden, 
because  one  bears  worth  as  a thing  attached  to  the 
person. 

Desert  is  taken  for  that  which  Is  good  or  bad  ; 
merit  for  that  which  is  good  only.  We  deserve  praise 
or  blame  : we  merit  a reward.  The  desert  consists  in 
the  action,  work,  or  service  performed  ; the  merit  has 
regard  to  the  character  of  the  agent  or  the  nature  of 
the  action.  The  person  does  not  deserve  the  recom- 
pense until  lie  has  performed  the  service ; he  does  not 
merit  approbation  if  he  has  not  done  his  part  well. 

Deserve  is  a term  of  ordinary  import ; merit  applies 
to  objects  of  greater  moment ; the  former  includes  mat- 
ters of  personal  and  physical  gratification  ; the  latter 
those  altogether  of  an  intellectual  nature.  Children 
are  always  acting  so  as  to  deserve  either  reproof  or 
commendation,  reward  or  punishment ; 

The  beauteous  champion  views  with  marks  of  fear, 
Smit  with  a conscious  sense,  retires  behind. 

And  shuns  the  fate  he  well  deserv'd  to  find. — Pope. 
Candidates  for  publick  applause  or  honours  conceive 
they  have  frequent  occasion  to  complain  that  they  are 
not  treated  according  to  their  merits; 

Praise  from  a friend  or  censure  from  a foe 
Are  lost  on  hearers  that  our  merits  know. — Pope. 

Criminals  cannot  always  be  punished  according  to  their 
deserts  ; a noble  mind  is  not  contented  with  barely  ob- 
taining, it  seeks  to  merit  what  it  obtains. 

The  idea  of  value,  which  is  prominent  in  the  signi- 
fication of  the  term  merit,  renders  it  closely  allied  to 
that  of  worth.  The  man  of  merit  looks  to  the  advan- 
tages which  shall  accrue  to  himself ; the  man  oi worth 
contented  with  the  consciousness  of  what  he  pos- 
sesses in  himself ; merit  respects  the  attainments  or 
qualifications  of  a man ; worth  respects  his  moral  qua- 
lities only.  It  is  possible  therefore  for  a man  to  have 
great  merit  and  little  or  no  worth.  He  who  has  great 
powers,  and  uses  them  for  the  advantage  of  himself 
or  others,  is  a man  of  merit ; 

She  valued  nothing  less 
Than  titles,  figures,  shape,  and  dress ; 

That  merit  should  be  chiefly  plac’d 
In  judgement,  knowledge,  wit,  and  taste. — Swift. 
He  only  w'ho  does  good  from  a good  motive  is  a man 
of  worth; 

To  birth  or  office  no  respect  be  paid, 

Let  worth  determine  here. — Pope. 

We  look  for  merit  among  men  in  the  discharge  of  their 
several  offices  or  duties;  we  look  for  worth  in  their 
social  capacities. 

From  these  words  are  derived  the  epithets  deserved 
and  merited,m  relation  to  what  we  receive  from  others; 
and  deserving,  meritorious,  worthy,  and  worth,  in  re- 
gard to  what  we  possess  in  ourselves ; a treatment  is 
deserved  or  undeserved ; reproofs  are  merited  or  un- 
merited: the  harsh  treatment  of  a master  is  easier  to 
be  borne  when  it  is  undeserved  than  when  it  is  de- 
served; the  reproaches  of  a friend  are  very  severe 
when  unmerited. 

A person  is  deserving  on  account  of  his  industry  or 
perseverance;  ‘A  man  has  frequent  opportunities  of 
mitigating  the  fierceness  of  a party  ; or  doing  justice  to 
the  character  of  a deserving  man.’ — Addison.  An 
artist  is  meritorious  on  account  of  his  professional 
abilities,  or  a statesman  in  the  discharge  of  his  duties; 
‘He  carried  himself  meWtoWoMsZy  in  foreign  employ- 
ments in  time  of  the  interdict,  which  held  up  his  credit 
among  the  patriots.’— -Walton.  But  for  the  most  part 
actions,  services,  &c.  are  said  to  be  meritorious ; ‘Pil- 
grimages to  Rome  were  represented  as  the  most  meri- 
torious acts  of  devotion.’ — Hume.  A citizen  is  worthy 
an  account  of  his  benevolence  and  uprightness  ; 

Thui  the  last  worthies  of  declining  Greece, 

Fate  call’d  to  glory,  in  unequal  times. 

Pensive  appear. — Thomson. 

One  person  deserves  to  be  well  paid  and  encouraged  ; 
another  merits  the  applause  which  is  bestowed  on  him ; 


a third  is  worthy  of  confidence  and  esteom  from  al 
men.  Between  worthy  and  worth  there  is  this  differ- 
ence, that  the  former  is  said  of  the  intrinsick  and  mora 
qualities,  the  latter  of  extrinsick  qualities : a worthy 
man  possesses  that  which  calls  for  the  esteem  of  others, 
but  a man  is  worth  the  property  which  he  can  call  his 
own  ; so  in  like  manner  a subject  may  be  worthy  the 
attention  of  a writer,  or  a thing  may  not  be  worth  the 
while  to  consider. 


COMPENSATION,  SATISFACTION,  AMENDS, 
REMUNERATION,  RECOMPENSE, 
REQUITAL,  REWARD. 

The  first  three  of  these  terms  are  employed  to  ex 
press  a return  for  some  evil ; remuneration,  rccomyense- 
and  requital,  a return  for  some  good  ; reward,  a return 
for  either  good  or  evil. 

Compensation,  Latin  compensatio,  compounded  of 
com  and  pensatio,  pensus  and  pendo  to  pay,  signifies 
the  paying  what  has  become  due ; satisfaction,  from 
satisfy,  signifies  the  thing  that  satisfies,  or  makes  up  tr 
return  ; amends,  from  the  word  to  amend,  signifies  tlr 
thing  that  makes  good  what  has  been  bad  ; rcmuneri 
lion,  from  remunerate,  Latin  remuneratus  or  remunen 
compounded  of  re  and  munus  an  office  or  service,  sig 
nifies  what  is  given  in  return  for  a service ; recompense 
compounded  of  re  and  compense,  signifies  the  thing 
paid  back  as  an  equivalent ; requital,  compounded  of 
re  and  quital,  or  quittal,  from  quit,  signifies  the  making 
one’s  self  clear  by  a return  ; reward  is  probably  con- 
nected with  regard,  implying  to  take  cognizance  of  the 
deserts  of  any  one. 

A compensation  is  something  real ; it  is  made  for 
some  positive  injury  sustained  ; justice  requires  that  it 
should  be  equal  in  value,  if  not  like  in  kind,  to  that 
which  is  lost  or  injured  ; 

All  other  debts  may  compensation,  find. 

But  love  is  strict,  and  will  be  paid  in  kind. 

Drvden 

A satisfaction  may  be  imaginary,  both  is  to  the  jii- 
jury  and  the  return;  it  is  given  for  pertcnal  injuries, 
and  depends  on  the  disposition  of  the  person  to  be  satis- 
fied : amends  is  real,  but  not  always  made  so  much  for 
injuries  done  to  others,  as  for  offences  commiited  by 
ourselves.  Sufferers  ought  to  have  a compensation  for 
the  injuries  they  have  sustained  through  our  means, 
but  there  are  injuries,  particularly  those  which  wound 
the  feelings,  for  which  there  can  be  no  compensation  : 
tenacious  and  quarrelsome  people  demand  satisfac- 
tion ; their  offended  pride  is  not  satisfied  without  the 
humiliation  of  their  adversary  ; an  amends  is  honour- 
able which  serves  to  repair  a fault;  the  best  amends 
which  an  offending  person  can  make  is  to  acknowledge 
his  errour,  and  avoid  a repetition  : Christianity  enjoins 
upon  its  followers  to  do  good,  even  to  its  enemies ; but 
there  is  a thing  called  honour,  which  impels  some  men 
after  they  have  insulted  their  friends  to  give  them  the 
satisfaction  of  shedding  their  blood  ; this  is  termed  an 
honourable  amends ; but  will  the  survivors  find  any 
compensation  in  such  an  amends  for  the  loss  of  a hus- 
band, a father,  or  a brother  1 Not  to  offer  any  com- 
pensation  to  the  utmost  of  our  power,  for  any  injury 
done  to  another,  evinces  a gross  meanness  of  character, 
and  selfishness  of  disposition  : satisfaction  can  seldom 
be  demanded  with  any  propriety  for  any  personal 
affront;  although  the  true  Christian  will  refuse  no 
satisfaction  which  is  not  inconsi.stent  with  the  laws  of 
God  and  man.  As  respects  the  offence  of  man  towards 
his  Maker,  nothing  but  the  atonement  of  our  Saviour 
could  be  a satisfaction; 

Die  he  or  justice  must ; unless  for  him 

Some  other  able,  and  as  willing,  pay 

The  rigid  satisfaction,  death  for  death. — Milton. 

Compensation  often  denotes  a return  for  services 
done,  in  wliich  sense  it  approaches  still  nearer  to 
remuneration,  recompense,  and  requital : but  the  first 
two  are  obligatory  ; the  latter  are  gratuitous.  Com- 
pensation is  an  act  of  justice : the  service  performed 
involves  a debt;  the  omission  of  paying  it  becomes  an 
injury  to  the  performer;  the  labourer  is  worthy  of  his 
hire  ; the  time  and  strength  of  a poor  man  ought  not 
to  be  employed  without  his  receiving  a compensation. 
Remuneration  is  a higher  species  of  compensation ; 
it  is  a matter  of  equity  dependent  upon  a princiole  oi 


ENGLISPI  SYNONIMES. 


43£ 


fnno  jr  In  tliase  who  make  it ; k differs  from  the  ordi- 
nary compensation,  both  in  the  nature  of  the  service, 
and  of  the  return.  Compensation  is  made  for  bodily 
labour  and  menial  offices ; remuneration  for  mental 
exertions,  for  literary,  civil,  or  political  offices;  com- 
pensation is  made  to  inferiours,  or  subordinate  per- 
sons ; remuneration  to  equals,  and  even  superiours  in 
education  and  birth,  though  not  in  wealth  : a compen- 
sation is  prescribed  by  a certain  ratio  ; remuneration 
depends  on  collateral  circumstances  ; ‘ Remuneratory 
honours  are  proportioned  at  once  to  the  usefulness  and 
difficulty  of  performances.’ — Ji^nson.  A recompense 
is  voluntary,  both  as  to  the  service  and  the  return  ; it 
is  an  act  of  generosity  ; it  is  not  founded  on  the  value 
of  the  service  so  much  as  on  the  intention  of  the  server; 
it  is  not  received  as  a matter  of  right,  but  of  courtesy : 
there  are  a thousand  acts  of  civility  performed  by 
others  which  are  entitled  to  some  recompense,  though 
not  to  any  specifick  compensation ; 

Patriots  have  toiled,  and  in  their  country’s  cause 

Bled  nobly,  and  their  deeds,  as  they  deserve, 

Beceive  proud  recompense. — Cowper. 

ReyMitaZis  a return  for  a kindness;  the  making  it  is 
*n  act  of  gratitude;  the  omission  of  it  wounds  the 
feelings:  it  sometimes  happens  that  the  only  reywRaZ 
which  our  kind  action  obtains,  is  the  animosity  of  the 
person  served;  ‘As  the  world  is  unjust  in  its  judge- 
ments, so  it  is  ungrateful  in  its  requitals' — Blair. 

It  belongs  to  the  wealthy  to  make  compensation  for 
the  trouble  they  give : it  is  scarcely  possible  to  estimate 
too  high  what  is  done  for  ourselves,  nor  too  low  what 
we  do  for  others.  It  is  a hardship  not  to  obtain  the 
remuneration  which  we  expect,  but  it  is  folly  to  expect 
that  which  we  do  not  deserve.  He  who  will  not  serve 
another,  until  he  is  sure  of  a recompense,  is  not  worthy 
of  a recompense.  Those  who  befriend  the  wicked 
must  expect  to  be  ill  requited. 

Reward  conveys  no  idea  of  obligation;  whoever  re- 
tcards  acts  altogether  optionally;  the  conduct  of  the 
agent  produces  the  reward.  In  this  sense,  it  is  com- 
parable with  compensation,  amends,  and  recompense ; 
but  not  with  satisfaction,  remuneration,  or  requital: 
things,  as  well  as  persons,  may  compensate,  make 
amends,  recompense,  and  reward;  but  persons  only  can 
give  satisfaction,  remuneration,  and  requital. 

Reward  respects  the  merit  of  the  action ; but  com- 
pensate and  the  other  words  simply  refer  to  the  con- 
nexion between  the  actions  and  their  results;  what 
accrues  to  a man  as  the  just  consequence  of  his  con- 
duct, be  it  good  or  bad,  is  the  reward.  Rewards  and 
punishments  do  always  presuppose  something  will- 
ingly done,  well  or  ill;  without  which  respect,  though 
we  may  sometimes  receive  good,  yet  then  it  is  only  a 
benefit  and  not  a reward.  Compensation  and  amends 
serve  to  supply  the  loss  or  absence  of  any  thing;  re- 
compense and  reward  follow  from  particular  exertions. 
It  is  but  a poor  compensation  for  the  loss  of  peace  and 
health  to  have  one’s  coffers  filled  with  gold ; 

Now  goes  the  nightly  thief  prowling  abroad 
For  plunder,  much  solicitous  how  best 
He  may  compensate  for  a day  of  sloth. 

By  works  of  darkness  and  nocturnal  wrongs. 

COWPEB. 

A social  intercourse  by  letter  will  make  amends  for 
the  absence  of  those  who  are  dear;  ‘Nature  has  ob- 
scurely fitted  the  mole  with  eyes.  But  for  amends, 
what  she  is  capable  of  for  her  defence,  and  warning 
of  danger,  she  has  very  eminently  conferred  upon  her, 
for  she  is  very  quick  of  hearing.’ — Addison.  It  is  a 
mark  of  folly  to  do  any  thing,  however  trifling,  without 
the  prospect  of  a recompense,  and  yet  we  see  this  daily 
realized  in  persons  who  give  themselves  much  trouble 
to  no  purpose ; 

Thou  ’rt  so  far  before, 

That  swiftest  wing  of  recompense  is  slow 
To  overtake  thee. — Shakspeark. 

The  reward  of  industry  is  ease  and  content:  when  a 
deceiver  is  caught  in  his  own  snare,  he  meets  with  the 
reward  which  should  always  attend  deceit;  ‘There 
are  no  honorary  rewards  among  us  which  are  more 
esteemed  by  the  person  who  receives  them,  and  are 
cheaper  to  the  prince,  than  the  giving  of  medals.’ — 
Addison. 

What  can  compensate  for  the  loss  of  honour  7 


What  can  make  amends  to  a frivolous  mind  for  the 
want  of  company  7 What  recompenses  so  sweet  as 
the  consciousness  of  having  served  a frienul  When 
reward  equals  the  reward  of  a good  conscience? 


RESTORATION  RESTITUTION,  REPARA 
TION,  AMENDS. 

Restoration  is  employed  in  the  ordinary  applicatioB 
of  the  verb  restore : restitution,  from  the  same  verb, 
is  employed  simply  in  the  sense  of  making  good  that 
which  has  been  unjustly  taken.  Restoration  of  pro- 
perty may  be  made  by  any  one,  whether  the  person 
taking  it  or  not:  restitution  is  supposed  to  be  made 
by  him  who  has  been  guilty  of  the  injn.=tice.  The 
dethronement  of  a king  may  be  the  work  of  one  set 
of  men,  and  his  restoration  that  of  another;  ‘All  men 
(during  the  usurpation)  longed  for  the  restoration  of 
the  liberties  and  laws.’ — Hume.  But  it  is  the  bounden 
duty  of  every  individual  who  has  committed  any  sort 
of  injustice  to  another  to  make  restitution  to  the  ut 
most  of  his  power;  ‘ The  justices  may,  if  they  think 
it  reasonable,  direct  restitution  of  a ratable  share  of 
the  money  given  with  an  apprentice  (upon  his  dis 
charge).’— Blackstone. 

Restitution  and  reparation  are  both  employed  in  the 
sense  of  undoing  that  which  has  been  done  to  the 
injury  of  another;  but  the  former  respects  only  injuries 
that  affect  the  property,  and  reparation  those  which 
affect  a person  in  various  ways.  He  who  is  guilty  of 
theft,  or  fraud,  must  make  restitution  by  either  re- 
storing the  stolen  article  or  its  full  value : lie  who  robs 
another  of  his  good  name,  or  does  any  injury  to  Ids 
person,  has  it  not  in  his  power  so  easily  to  make  re- 
paration; ‘Justice  requires  that  all  injuries  should  be 
repaired.' — Johnson. 

Repai  ation  and  amends  {v.  Compensation)  are  both 
employed  in  cases  where  some  mischief  or  loss  is  sus- 
tained ; but  the  reparation  comprehends  the  idea  of 
the  act  of  repairing,  as  well  as  the  thing  by  which  we 
repair;  amends  is  employed  only  for  the  thing  that 
will  amend  or  make  better : lienee  we  speak  of  the  re 
paration  of  an  injury;  but  of  the  amends  by  itself 
The  reparation  comprehends  ail  kinds  of  injuries, 
particularly  those  of  a serious  nature ; the  amends  ir 
applied  only  to  matters  of  inferiour  importance. 

It  is  impossible  to  make  reparation  for  taking  away 
the  life  of  another ; ‘ The  king  should  be  able,  when 
he  had  cleared  himself,  to  make  him  reparation.' — 
Bacon.  It  is  easy  to  make  amends  to  any  one  for  the 
loss  of  a day’s  pleasure;  ‘ We  went  to  the  cabin  of  the 
French,  who,  to  make  amends  for  their  three  weeks’ 
silence,  were  talking  and  disputing  with  greater  ra 
pidity  and  confusion  than  I ever  heard  in  an  assemblv 
even  of  that  nation.’ — Mandkville. 


RESTORE,  RETURN,  REPAY. 

Restore,  in  Latin  restauro,  from  the  Greek  g-aupds  a 
pale,  signifies  properly  to  new  pale,  that  is,  to  rejiair 
by  a new  paling,  and,  in  an  extended  application,  to 
make  good  what  has  been  injured  or  lost;  return  sig- 
nifies properly  to  turn  again,  or  to  send  back ; and 
repay  to  pay  back. 

The  common  idea  of  all  these  terms  is  that  of  giving 
back.  What  we  restore  to  another  may  or  may  not 
be  the  same  as  what  we  have  taken ; justice  requires 
that  it  should  be  an  equivalent  in  value,  so  as  to  pre 
vent  the  individual  from  being  in  any  degree  a snf 
ferer:  what  we  return  and  repay  most  be  precisely  the 
same  as  we  have  leceived;  the  former  in  application 
to  general  objects,  the  latter  in  application  only  to  pe- 
cuniary matters.  We  restore  upon  a principle  of 
equity ; we  return  upon  a principle  of  justice  and 
honour;  we  repay  upon  a principle  of  undeniable 
right.  We  cannot  always  claim  that  which  ought  to 
be  restored;  but  we  can  not  only  claim  but  enforce  the 
claim  in  regard  to  what  is  to  be  returned  ox  repaid: 
an  honest  man  will  be  scrupulous  not  to  take  any  thing 
from  another  without  restoring  to  him  its  full  value. 
Whatever  we  have  borrowed  we  ought  to  return ; and 
when  it  is  money  which  we  have  obtained,  we  ought 
to  repay  it  with  punctuality.  We  restore  to  many  ai 
well  as  to  one,  to  communities  as  well  as  to  indivi 
duals ; we  restore  a king  to  las  crown ; or  one  natior 
restores  a territory  to  another ; 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


i4U 


When  both  tha  chiefs  are  sunder’d  from  the  fight, 

Then  to  the  lawful  king  restore  his  right. 

Drydbn 

We  return  and  repay  not  only  individually,  but  per- 
sonally and  particularly:  we  return  a book  to  its 
owner; 

The  swain 

Receives  his  easy  food  from  Nature’s  hand, 

And  just  returns  of  cultivated  land. — Dryden. 
We  repay  a sum  of  money  to  him  from  whom  it  was 
borrowed. 

Restore  and  return  may  be  employed  in  their  im- 
proper application,  as  respects  the  moral  stale  of  per- 
sons and  things ; as  a king  restores  a courtier  to  his 
favour,  or  a physician  restores  his  patient  to  health : 
we  return  a favour ; we  return  an  answer  or  a com- 
pliment ; 

When  answer  none  return'd,  I set  me  down. 

Milton. 

Repay  may  be  figu  atively  employed  in  regard  to  moral 
objects,  as  an  ungt  iteful  person  repays  kindnesses  with 
reproaches ; 

Caesar,  whom,  fraught  with  eastern  spoils, 

Our  heav’n,  the  just  reward  of  human  toils. 
Securely  shall  repay  with  rights  divine. — Drydbn. 

RETALIATION,  REPRISAL. 

Retaliation,  from  retaliate,  in  Latin  retaliatum, 
participle  of  retalio,  compounded  of  re  and  talis  such, 
signifies  such  again,  or  like  for  like ; reprisal,  in 
French  reprisal,  from  rcpris  and  reprendre,  in  Latin 
reprehendo  to  lake  again,  signifies  to  take  in  return  for 
what  has  been  taken.  The  idea  of  making  another 
suffer  in  return  for  the  suffering  he  has  occasioned  is 
common  to  these  terms ; but  the  former  is  employed  in 
ordinary  cases;  the  latter  mostly  in  regard  to  a state  of 
warfare,  or  to  sictive  hostilities.  A trick  practised  upon 
another  in  return  for  a trick  is  a retaliation ; but  a re- 
prisal always  extends  to  the  capture  of  something 
from  another,,  in  return  for  what  has  been  taken. 
When  neighbours  fall  out,  the  incivilities  and  spite  of 
the  one  are  too  often  retaliated  by  like  acts  of  incivility 
and  spite  on  the  part  of  the  other:  when  one  nation 
commences  hostilities  against  another  by  taking  any 
thing  away  violently,  it  produces  reprisals  on  the  part 
of  the  other.  Retaliation  is  very  frequently  employed 
m the  good  sense  for  what  passes  innocently  between 
friends:  reprisal  has  always  an  unfavourable  sense. 
Goldsmith’s  poem,  entitled  the  Retaliation,  was  written 
for  the  purpose  of  retaliating  on  his  friends  the  humour 
they  had  practised  upon  him;  ‘ Tlierefore,  I pray,  let 
me  enjoy  your  friendship  in  that  fair  proportion,  that 
I desire  to  return  unto  you  by  way  of  correspondence 
and  retaliation.'— HowklIj.  When  tlie  quarrels  of 
individuals  break  through  the  restraints  of  the  law, 
and  lead  to  acts  of  violence  on  each  other’s  property, 
reprisals  are  made  alternately  by  both  parlies ; 

Go  publish  o’er  the  plain. 

How  mighty  a proselyte  you  gain ! 

How  noble  a reprisal  on  the  great!— Swift 

RETRIBUTION,  REQUITAL. 

Retribution,  from  tribuo  to  bestow,  signifies  a be- 
stowing back  or  giving  in  return;  requital,  v.  Reward. 

Retribution  is  a particular  term ; requital  Is  general : 
• he  retribution  comes  from  Providence;  requital  is  the 
act  of  man:  retrifnition  is  by  way  of  punishment; 
‘ Christ  substituted  his  own  body  in  our  room,  to  receive 
the  whole  stroke  of  thoiAronAiul  retribution  inflicted  by 
the  hand  of  an  angry  Omnipotence.’ — South.  Requi- 
tal is  mostly  by  way  of  reward  ; ‘ Leander  was  indeed 
a conquest  to  boast  of,  for  he  had  long  and  obstinately 
defended  his  heart,  and  for  a time  made  as  many 
requitals  upon  the  tender  passions  of  her  sex  as  she 
had  raised  contributions  upon  his.’ — Cumberland. 
Retribution  is  not  always  dealt  out  to  every  man  ac- 
cording to  his  deeds ; it  is  a poor  requital  for  one  who 
has  done  a kindness,  to  be  abused. 

TO  RECOVER,  RETRIEVE,  REPAIR,  RECRUIT. 

Recover  is  to  get  again  under  one’s  cover  or  protec- 
tion; retrietz,  from  the  French  trouver  to  find,  is  to 


get  again  that  which  has  been  lost:  repair,  in  Frencp 
reparer,  Latin  reparo,  from  paro  to  get,  signifies  like 
wise  to  get  again,  or  make  good  as  it  was  before ; recruit 
in  French  rccru,  from  cru,  and  the  Latin  cresco  to  grow, 
signifies  to  grow  again,  or  come  fresh  again. 

Recover  is  the  most  general  term,  and  applies  to 
objects  in  general ; retrieve,  repair,  and  the  other.'S,  arc 
only  partial  applications:  we  recover  things  either  by 
our  own  means  or  by  casualties;  we  retrieve  aiid 
repair  by  our  own  efforts  only:  we  recover  that  which 
has  been  taken,  or  that  which  has  been  any  way  lost; 
wo  retrieve  that  whic^  we  have  lost;  we  repair  that 
which  has  been  injured ; we  recruit  that  which  has 
been  diminished  : we  recover  properly  from  those  who 
wish  to  deprive  us  of  it;  or  we  recover  our  principles 
&c. ; ‘The  serious  and  impartial  retrospect  of  our 
conduct  is  indisputably  necessary  to  the  confirmatior 
or  recovery  of  our  virtue.’ — Johnson.  We  retrieve 
our  misfortunes,  or  our  lost  reputation ; 

Why  may  not  the  soul  receive 

New  organs,  since  ev’u  art  can  these  retrieve  ? 

Jenyns. 

We  repair  the  mischief  which  has  been  done  to  ouj 
property ; 

Your  men  shall  be  received,  your  fleet  repaired. 

Dryden 

We  recruit  the  strength  which  has  been  exhausted  ; 

With  greens  and  flowers  recruit  their  empty  liives 

Dryden. 

We  do  not  seek  after  that  which  we  think  irrecova  ■ 
able;  we  give  that  up  which  is  irretrievable;  we  la 
ment  over  that  which  is  irreparable ; our  power  ol 
recruiting  depends  upon  circumstances ; he  who  makej 
a moderate  use  of  his  resources  may  in  general  easily 
recruit  himself  when  they  are  gone. 

RECOVERY,  RESTORATION. 

Recovery  is  one’s  own  act ; restoration  is  the  act  ot 
another;  we  recover  the  thing  we  have  lost,  when  h 
comes  again  into  our  possession  ; but  it  is  restored  to 
us  by  another;  ‘Let  us  study  to  improve  the  assistance 
which  this  revelation  affords  for  the  restoration  of  our 
nature,  and  the  recovery  of  our  felicity.’ — Blair.  A 
king  recovers  his  crown  by  force  of  arms  from  the 
hands  of  a usurper;  his  crown  is  restored  to  him  by 
the  will  of  his  people  : the  recovery  of  properly  is  good 
fortune;  the  restoration  of  property  an  act  of  justice. 

Both  are  employed  likewise  in  regard  to  one’s  health , 
but  the  former  simply  designates  the  regaining  of 
health  ; the  latter  refers  to  the  instrument  by  which  it 
is  brought  about:  the  recovery  o{  one’s  health  is  an 
object  of  the  first  importance  to  every  man ; the  re- 
storation of  one  s health  seldomer  depends  upon  the 
efficacy  of  medicine,  than  tlie  benignant  operations  of 
nature. 

TO  REDEEM,  RANSOM. 

Redeem,  in  Latin  redimo,  is  compounded  of  re  and 
emo  to  buy  olf,  or  back  to  one’s  self;  ransom  is  in  all 
probability  a variation  of  redeem. 

Redeem  is  a term  of  general  application;  ransom 
is  emp’oyed  only  on  particular  occasions:  we  redeem 
persons  as  well  as  things;  we  ransom  persons  only: 
we  may  redeem  by  labour,  or  any  thing  which  supplies 
as  an  equivalent  to  money;  we  ransom  i:)roperly  with 
money  only:  we  redeem  a watch,  or  whatever  has 
been  given  in  pawn;  we  ransom  a captive:  redeem  is 
employed  in  the  improper  application;  ransom  only 
in  the  proper  sense:  we  may  redeem  our  character, 
redeem  our  life,  or  redeem  our  honour;  and  in  this 
sense  our  Saviour  redeems  repentant  sinners ; 

Thus  in  her  crime  her  confidence  she  plac’d. 

And  with  new  treasons  would  redeem  the  past. 

Drydbn. 

But  those  who  are  ransomed  only  recover  their  bodily 
liberty;  ‘ A third  tax  was  paid  by  vassals  to  the  kinjj. 
to  ransom  him  if  he  should  happen  to  be  taken  pri 
soner.’ — Robertson. 

GRATUITY,  RECOMPENSE. 

The  distinction  between  these  terms  is  very  similai 
to  the  terms  Gratuitous,  Voluntary  They  both 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES, 


441 


mply  a gift,  and  a gift  by  way  of  return  for  some  sup- 
posed service  : but  tlie  gratuity  is  independent  of  all 
expectation  as  well  as  right ; the  recompense  is  founded 
upon  some  admissible  claim.  Those  who  wish  to 
confer  a favour  in  a delicate  manner,  will  sometimes 
do  it  under  the  shape  of  a.  gratuity ; ‘ If  there  be  one 
nr  two  scholars  more,  that  will  be  no  great  addition  to 
his  trouble,  considering  that,  perhaps,  their  parents 
may  recompense  him  by  iheh gratuities.' — Molynkux. 
Those  who  overrate  their  services  will  in  all  proba- 
bility be  disappointed  in  the  recompense  they  receive ; 
What  could  be  less  than  to  afford  him  praise, 

The  easiest  recompense. — Milton. 

GRATUITOUS,  VOLUNTARY. 

Gratuitous  is  opposed  to  that  which  is  obligatory  ; 
voluntary  is  opposed  to  that  which  is  compulsory,  or 
involuntary.  A gift  is  gratuitous  which  flow's  entirely 
from  the  free  will  of  the  giver,  independent  of  right: 
an  offer  is  voluntary  which  flows  from  the  free  will, 
independent  of  all  external  constraint.  Gratuitous  is 
therefore  to  voluntary  as  a species  to  the  genus.  What 
is  gratuitous  is  voluntary,  although  what  is  voluntary 
is  not  a\wuys  gratuitous.  gratuitous  is  properly 

the  voluntary  in  regard  to  the  disposal  of  one’s  pro- 
perty; ‘The  heroick  band  of  cashierers  of  rnonarchs 
were  in  haste  to  make  a generous  diffusion  of  the 
knowledge  which  they  had  thus  gratuitously  received.’ 
"Bitrke.  The  voluntary  is  aiiplicable  to  subjects  in 
general;  ‘Their  privileges  relative  to  contribution 
were  voluntarily  surrendered.’ — Burke. 

THANKFULNESS,  GRATITUDE. 

Thankfulness  or  a f ulness  of  thanks,  is  the  outward 
expression  of  a grateful  feeling;  gratitude,  from  the 
Latin  gratitudo,  is  the  feeling  itself.  Our  thankfulness 
is  measured  by  the  number  of  our  words ; our  gra- 
titude is  measured  by  the  nature  of  our  actions.  A 
person  appears  very  thankful  at  the  time,  w'ho  after- 
ward proves  very  ungrateful.  Thankfulness  is  the 
beginning  of  gratitude : gratitude  is  the  completion  of 
thankfulness. 

rq  AFFIRM,  ASSEVERATE,  ASSURE,  VOUCH, 
AVER,  PROTEST. 

jlffirm,  in  French  affermer,  Latin  affirmo,  com- 
pounded of  af  or  ad  and  Jirmo  to  strengthen,  signifies 
to  give  strength  to  what  has  been  said ; asseverate,  in 
Latin  asseveratus,  participle  of  assevero,  compounded 
of  as  or  ad  and  severus,  signifies  to  make  strong  and 
positive;  assure,  in  French  assurer,  is  compounded 
of  the  intensive  syllable  as  or  ad  and  sure,  signifying 
to  make  sure ; vouch  is  probably  changed  from  vow ; 
aver,  in  French  averer,  is  compounded  of  the  inten- 
sive syllable  a or  ad  and  verus  true,  signifying  to'bear 
testimony  to  the  truth ; protest,  in  French  protester, 
IjdXm  protests,  is  compounded  of  pro  and  tester  to  call 
to  witness,  signifying  to  call  others  to  witness  as  to 
what  we  think  about  a thing. 

All  these  terms  indicate  an  expression  of  a person’s 
conviction. 

In  one  sense,  to  (0rm  is  to  declare  that  a thing  is  in 
opposition  to  denying  or  declaring  that  it  is  not ; in  the 
sense  here  chosen,  it  signifies  to  declare  a thing  as  a fact 
on  our  credit.  To  asseverate  is  to  declare  it  w'ith 
confidence.  To  vouch  is  to  rest  the  truth  of  another’s 
declaration  on  our  own  responsibility.  To  aver  is  to 
express  the  truth  of  a declaration  uneqiiivocally.  To 
protest  is  to  declare  a thing  solemnly,  and  w ith  strong 
marks  of  sincerity. 

.Affirmations  are  made  of  the  past  and  present;  a 
person  affirms  what  he  has  sepn  and  what  he  sees; 

An  infidel, and  fear! 

Fear  what  ? a dream  1 a fable  I — How  thy  dread, 

Unwilling  evidence,  and  therefore  strong. 

Affords  my  cause  an  undesigned  support! 

How  disbelief  affirms  what  it  denies ! — Young. 
Asseverations  are  strong  affirmations,  made  in  cases 
of  doubt  to  remove  every  impression  disadvantageous 
to  one’s  sincerity ; ‘ I judge  in  this  case  as  Charles  the 
Second  victualled  his  navy,  with  the  bread  which  one 
of  his  dogs  chose  of  several  pieces  throw'n  before  him, 
lather  than  trust  to  the  asseverations  of  the  victual- 


lers.’ —Steele.  Assurances  arc  made  of  the  past, 
present,  and  future;  they  mark  the  conviction  cf  the 
speaker  as  to  what  has  been,  or  is,  and  his  intentions 
as  to  what  shall  be ; they  are  appeals  to  the  estimation 
which  another  has  in  one’s  word  ; ‘ My  learned  friend 
assured  me  that  the  earth  had  lately  received  a shock 
from  a comet  that  crossed  its  vortex.*— Steele. 
Vouching  is  an  act  for  another;  it  is  the  supporting 
of  another’s  assurance  by  our  own;  ‘All  the  great 
writers  of  the  Augustan  age,  for  whom  singly  we  have 
so  great  an  esteem,  stand  up  together  as  vouchers  for 
one  another’s  reputation.’— Addwon.  Averring  is 
employed  in  matters  of  fact;  we  aver  as  to  the  accu- 
racy of  details ; we  aver  on  positive  knowledge  that 
sets  aside  all  question ; ‘ Among  ladies,  he  positively 
averred  that  nonsense  was  the  most  prevailing  part  of 
eloquence,  and  had  so  little  complaisance  as  to  say,  “* a 
woman  is  never  taken  by  her  reason  but  always  by 
her  passion.”  ’ — Steele.  Protestations  are  stronger 
than  either  asseverations  or  assurances ; they  are  ac- 
companied with  every  act,  look,  or  gesture  that  can 
tend  to  impress  conviction  on  another  ; ‘ I have  long 
loved  her,  and  I protest  to  you,  bestowed  much  on 
her,  followed  her  with  a doting  observance.’— Shaks- 

PEARE. 

Affirmations  are  employed  in  giving  evidence,  whe- 
ther accompanied  with  an  oath  or  not ; liars  deal  much 
in  asseverations  and  protestations.  People  asseverate 
in  order  to  produce  a conviction  of  their  veracity ; 
they  protest  in  order  to  obtain  a belief  of  their  inno- 
cence; they  aocr  where  they  expect  to  be  believed. 
Assurances  are  altogether  personal ; they  are  always 
made  to  satisfy  some  one  of  what  they  wish  to  know 
and  believe.  We  ought  to  be  sparing  of  our  assu- 
rances of  regard  for  another,  as  we  ought  to  be  suspi- 
cious of  such  assurances  when  made  to  ourselves. 
Whenever  we  affirm  any  thing  on  the  authority  of 
another,  we  ought  to  be  particularly  cautious  not  to 
vouch  for  its  veracity,  if  It  be  not  unquestionable. 

TO  AFFIRM,  ASSERT. 

Affirm,  V.  To  affirm,  asseverate;  assert,  in  Latin 
assertus,  participle  of  assero,  compounded  of  as  or  ad 
and  sero  to  connect,  signifies  to  connect  words  into  a 
proposition. 

To  affirm  is  said  of  facts;  to  assert,  of  opinions- 
we  affirm  what  we  know ; we  assert  what  we  believe; 
whoever  affirms  what  he  does  not  know  to  be  true  is 
guilty  of  falsehood  ; ‘ That  this  man,  wise  and  virtuous 
as  he  was,  passed  always  unentangied  through  the 
snares  of  life,  it  would  be  prejudice  and  temerity  to 
affirm.'— ioimso^  {Life  of  Collins).  Whoever  asserts 
what  he  cannot  prove  to  be  true  is  guilty  of  folly;  ‘ It 
is  asserted  by  a tragick  poet,  that  “est  miser  nemo 
nisi  comparatus,”— “ no  man  is  miserable,  but  as  he  is 
compared  with  others  happier  than  himself.”  This 
position  is  not  strictly  and  philosophically  true. — 
Johnson.  We  contradict  an  affirmation;  we  confute 
an  assertion. 


TL  -ISSERT,  MAINTAIN,  VINDICATE 

To  assert,  v.  To  affirm,  assert;  maintain,  in  French 
maintenir,  from  the  Latin  manus  and  tenco,  siiinifies 
to  hold  by  the  hand,  that  is,  closely  and  firmly;  Vindi- 
cate, in  Latin  vindicatus , j)articip!e  of  vindico,  com- 
pounded of  vim  and  dico,  signifies  to  pronounce  a 
violent  or  positive  sentence. 

To  assert  is  to  declare  a thing  as  our  own;  to 
maintain  is  to  abide  by  what  W'e  have  so  declared’;  to 
vindicate  is  to  stand  up  for  that  which  concerns  our- 
selves or  others.  We  assert  any  flung  to  be  true- 
‘ Sophocles  also,  in  a fragment  of  one  of  his  tragedies’ 
asserts  the  unity  of  the  Supreme  Being.’— Cumber- 
land. We  maintain  an  opinion  bv  adducing  proofs 
facts,  or  arguments;  ‘I  am  willing  to  believe  that 
Dryden  wanted  rather  skill  to  discover  the  right,  than 
virtue  to  maintain  it.’— Johnson.  We  vindicate  our 
own  conduct  or  that  of  another  when  it  is  called  in 
question;  ‘This  is  no  vindication  of  her  conduct 
She  still  acts  a mean  part,  and  through  fear  becomea 
an  accomplice  in  endeavouring  to  betray  the  Greeks.’ 
—Broome.  We  assert  boldly  or  impudently  we 
maintain  steadily  or  obstinately;  we  vindicate  ’reso- 
lutely or  insolently.  A right  or  claim  is  asserted 
which  is  avowed  to  belong  U)  anv  one 


ENGLISH 

When  tlK  great  soul  buoys  up  to  this  high  point, 
Leaving  gross  Nature’s  sediments  below, 

Then,  and  then  only,  Adam’s  offspring  quits 
The  sage  and  hero  of  the  fields  and  woods, 

As&erts  his  rank,  and  rises  into  man— Young. 

A right  is  maintained  when  attempts  are  made  to  prove 
ts  justice,  or  regain  its  possession;  the  cause  of  the 
assertor  or  maintainer  is  vindicated  by  another ; 

’T  is  just  that  I should  vindicate  alone. 

The  broken  truce,  or  for  the  breach  atone. 

Dryden. 

Innocence  is  asserted  by  a positive  declaration ; it  is 
maintained  by  repeated  assertions  and  the  support  of 
testimony ; it  is  vindicated  through  the  interference  of 
another. 

"The  most  guilty  persons  do  not  hesitate  to  assert 
their  innocence  with  the  hope  of  inspiring  credit;  and 
some  will  persist  in  maintaining  it,  even  after  their 
guilt  has  been  pronounced;  but  the  really  innocent 
man  will  never  want  a friend  to  vindicate  him  when 
his  honour  or  his  reputation  is  at  stake.  Assertions 
which  are  made  hastily  and  inconsiderately  are  seldom 
long  maintained  without  exposing  a person  to  ridicule ; 
those  who  attempt  to  vindicate  a bad  cause  expose 
themselves  to  as  much  reproach  as  if  the  cause  were 
their  own. 

TO  ACKNOWLEDGE.  OWN,  CONFESS, 
AVOW. 

^chiotoledge,  compounded  of  ac  or  ad  and  know- 
ledge, implies  to  bring  to  knowledge,  to  make  known  ; 
own  is  a familiar  figure,  signifying  to  take  to  one’s  self, 
to  make  one’s  own : it  is  a common  substitute  for  con- 
fess; confess,  in  French  confesser,  Latin  covfessus, 
participle  of  cow^teo?-,  compounded  of  con  and  fateor, 
signifies  to  impart  to  any  one ; avow,  in  French  avouer, 
Latin  advoveo,  signifies  to  vow,  or  protest  to  any  one. 

Acknowledging  is  a simple  declaration  ; confessing 
or  owning  is  a specifick  private  communication ; avowal 
is  a publick  declaration.  We  acknowledge  facts;  con- 
fess our  own  faults;  avow  motives,  opinions,  &c. 

We  acknowledge  in  consequence  of  a question ; we 
confess  in  consequence  of  an  accusation  ; we  own  in 
consequence  of  a charge;  we  avow  voluntarily.  We 
acknowledge  having  been  concerned  in  a transaction; 
we  confess  our  guilt;  we  own  that  a thing  is  wrong; 
but  we  are  ashamed  to  avow  our  motives.  Candour 
leads  to  an  acknowledgment ; reirenlance  produces  a 
confession ; the  desire  of  forgiveness  leads  to  owning ; 
generosity  or  pride  occasions  air  avowal. 

An  acknowledgment  of  what  is  not  demanded  may 
be  either  politick  or  impolitick,  according  to  circum- 
stances ; ‘ I must  acknowledge,  for  my  own  part,  that  I 
take  greater  pleasure  in  considering  the  works  of  the 
creation  in  their  immensity,  than  in  their  minuteness.’ 
—Addison.  A confession  dictated  merely  by  fear  is 
of  avail  only  in  the  sight  of  man  ; 

Spite  of  herself  e’en  Envy  must  confess, 

That  I the  friendship  of  the  great  possess. 

Francis. 

Those  who  are  most  ready  to  own  themselves  in  an 
errour  are  not  always  the  first  to  amend;  ‘And  now, 
my  dear,  cried  she  to  me,  I will  fairly  own,  that  it  was 
I that  instructed  my  girls  to  encourage  our  landlord’s 
addresses.’ — Goldsmith.  An  avowal  of  the  principles 
which  actuate  the  conduct  is  often  the  greatest  aggra- 
vation of  guilt ; ‘ Whether  by  their  settled  and  avowed 
scorn  of  thoughtless  talkers,  the  Persians  were  able  to 
diffuse  to  any  great  extent  the  virtue  of  tacilurnity,  we 
are  hindered  by  the  distance  of  those  times  from  being 
able  to  discover.’ — Johnson. 

RECOGNISE,  ACKNOWLEDGE. 

Recognise,  in  Latin  rccognoscere,  is  to  take  the 
knowledge  of,  or  bring  to  one’s  own  knowledge; 
acknowledge,  v.  To  acknowledge. 

To  recognise  is  to  take  cognizance  of  that  which 
comes  again  before  our  notice ; to  acknowledge  is  to 
admit  to  one’s  knowledge  whatever  comes  fresh  under 
our  notice.  We  recognise  a person  whom  we  have 
known  before;  we  recognise  him  either  in  his  former 
character  or  in  some  newly  assumed  character;  we 
acknowledge  either  former  favours,  or  those  which 


have  been  just  received.  Pa  /ices  recognise  ccrtali 
principles  which  have  been  admitted  by  previous  con- 
sent ; they  acknowledge  the  justice  of  claims  which  are 
preferred  before  them;  ‘When  conscience  threatens 
punishment  to  secret  crimes,  it  manifestly  recognises  a 
Supreme  Governour  from  whom  nothing  is  hidden.’— 
Blair.  ‘ I call  it  atheism  by  establishment,  wlien  anj 
state,  as  such,  shall  not  acknowledge  the  existence  of 
God,  as  the  moral  governour  of  the  world.’ — Burke. 


TO  PROFESS,  DECLARE. 

Profess,  in  Latin  professus,  participle  of  profiteat, 
compounded  of  pro  and  fateor  to  speak,  signifies  to 
set  forth,  or  present  to  publick  view;  declare,  v.  To 
declare. 

An  exposure  of  one’s  thoughts  or  opinions  is  the 
common  idea  in  the  signification  of  these  terms;  but 
they  differ  in  the  manner  of  the  action,  as  well  as  the 
object;  one  professes  by  words  or  by  actions;  one 
declares  only  by  words:  a man  professes  to  believe 
that  on  which  he  acts ; but  he  declares  his  belief  of  it 
either  with  his  lips  or  in  his  writings.  The  profession 
may  be  general  and  partial ; it  may  amount  to  little 
more  than  an  intimation;  the  declaration  is  positive 
and  explicit;  it  leaves  no  one  in  doubt:  a profession 
may,  therefore,  sometimes  be  hypocritical ; he  who 
professes  may  wish  to  imply  that  which  is  not  real; 
‘A  naked  profession  may  have  credit,  where  no  other 
evidence  can  be  given.’ — Swift.  A declaration  must 
be  either  directly  true  or  false ; he  who  declares  ex 
pressly  commits  himself  upon  his  veracity;  ‘We  are 
a considerable  body,  who,  upon  a proper  occasion, 
would  not  fail  to  declare  ourselves.’ — Addison.  One 
professes  either  as  respects  single  actions,  or  a regu- 
lar course  of  conduct;  one  declares  either  passing 
thoughts  or  settled  principles.  A person  pro/esses  to 
have  walked  to  a certain  distance  ; to  have  taken  a 
certain  route,  and  the  like:  a Christian  professes  to 
follow  the  doctrine  and  precepts  of  Christianity;  a 
person  declares  that  the  thing  is  true  or  false,  or  he 
declares  his  firm  belief  in  a thing. 

To  profess  is  employed  only  for  what  concerns  one’s 
self ; to  declare  is  likewise  employed  for  what  concerns 
others;  one  j)rof esses  the  motives  and  principles  by 
which  one  is  guided ; one  declares  facts  an8  circum- 
stances with  which  one  is  acquainted  : cne  professes 
nothing  but  what  one  thinks  may  be  creditable  and  fit 
to  be  known,  or  what  may  be  convenient  for  one’s 
purpose ; 

Pretending  first 

Wise  to  fly  pam,  professing  next  the  spy, 

Argues  no  leader. — Milton. 

One  declares  whatever  may  have  fallen  under  one's 
notice,  or  passed  through  one’s  mind,  as  the  case  re- 
quires ; ‘ It  is  too  common  to  find  the  aged  at  declared 
enmity  with  the  whole  system  of  present  customs  and 
manners.’ — Rlair.  There  is  always  a particular  and 
private  motive  for  profession;  there  are  frequently 
publick  grounds  for  making  a declaration.  A general 
profession  of  Christianity,  according  to  established 
forms,  is  the  bounden  duty  of  every  one  born  in  the 
Christian  persuasion;  but  a particular  profession,  ac 
cording  to  a singular  and  extraordinary  form,  is  seldom 
adopted  by  any  who  do  not  deceive  themselves,  or 
wish  to  deceive  others : no  one  should  be  ashamed  of 
making  a declaration  of  his  opinions,  when  the  cause 
of  truth  is  thereby  supported ; every  one  should  be 
ready  to  declare  what  he  knows,  when  the  purposes  of 
justice  are  forwarded  by  the  declaration;  ‘There  are 
no  where  so  plain  and  full  declarations  of  mercy  and 
love  to  the  sons  of  men,  as  are  made  in  the  Gospel  ’- 
Tillotson. 

TO  DECLARE,  PUBLISH,  PROCLAIM. 

The  idea  of  making  known  is  common  to  all  these 
terms:  this  is  simply  the  signification  of  declare  {v.  To 
profess) ; but  publish  (n.  To  announce)  and  proclaim. 
In  Latin  proclamo,  compounded  of  pro  and  clamo 
signifying  to  cry  before  or  in  the  ears  of  others,  include 
accessory  ideas. 

The  word  declare  does  not  express  any  particular 
mode  or  circumstance  of  making  known,  as  is  implied 
by  the  others:  we  may  declare  publickly  or  privately; 
we  sublish  and  proclaim  only  in  a publick  manner 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


443 


we  may  declare  by  word  of  mouth,  or  by  writing ; we 
publish  or  proclaim  by  any  means  that  will  render  the 
thing  most  generally  known. 

In  declaring^  the  leading  idea  is  that  of  speaking  out 
that  which  passes  in  the  mind ; in  publishing,  the 
leading  idea  is  that  of  making  publick  or  common;  in 
proclaiming,  the  leading  idea  is  that  of  crying  aloud: 
we  may  therefore  often  declare  by  publishing  and  pro- 
claiming : a declaration  is  a personal  act ; it  concerns 
the  person  declaring,  or  him  to  whom  it  \s  declared; 
its  truth  or  falsehood  depends  upon  the  veracity  of  the 
speaker : a publication  is  of  general  interest ; the  truth 
or  falsehood  of  it  does  not  always  rest  with  the  pub- 
lisher: a proclamation  is  altogether  a publick  act,  in 
which  no  one’s  veracity  is  implicated.  Facts  and 
opinions  and  feelings  are  declared; 

The  Greeks  in  shouts  their  joint  assent  declare, 

The  priest  to  rev’rence  and  release  the  fair. 

Pope. 

Events  and  circumstances  are  published;  ‘I  am  sur- 
prised that  none  of  the  fortune-tellers,  or,  as  the  French 
call  them,  the  Diseurs  de  bonne  avanture,  who  publish 
their  bills  in  every  quarter  of  the  town,  have  not  turned 
our  lotteries  to  their  advantage.’ — Addison.  The 
measures  of  government  are  proclaimed  ; 

Nine  sacred  heralds  now,  proclaiming  loud 
The  monarch’s  will,  suspend  the  list’ning  crowd. 

POPK. 

It  is  folly  for  a man  to  declare  any  thing  to  be  true, 
which  he  is  not  certain  to  be  so,  and  wickedness  in  him 
to  declare  that  to  be  true  which  he  knows  to  be  false : 
whoever  publishes  all  he  hears  will  be  in  great  danger 
of  publishing  many  falsehoods ; whatever  \s  proclaimed 
is  supposed  to  be  of  sufficient  importance  to  deserve 
the  notice  of  all  who  may  hear  or  read. 

In  cases  of  war  or  peace,  princes  are  expected  to 
declare  themselves  on  one  side  or  the  other;  in  the  po- 
litical world  intelligence  is  quickly  published  through 
the  medium  of  the  publick  papers ; in  private  life  do- 
mestick  occurrences  are  published  with  equal  celerity 
through  the  medium  of  tale-bearers ; a jiroclamation  is 
the  ordinary  mode  by  which  a prince  makes  known 
his  wishes,  and  issues  his  commands  to  his  subjects; 
it  is  an  act  of  indiscretion  very  common  to  young  and 
ardent»inquirers  to  declare  their  opinions  before  they 
are  properly  matured ; the  publication  of  domestick 
circumstances  is  oftentimes  the  source  of  much  dis- 
quiet and  ill-will  in  families;  ministers  of  the  Gospel 
are  styled  messengers,  who  should  proclaim  its  glad 
tidings  to  all  people,  and  in  all  tongues. 


DECREE,  EDICT,  PROCLAMATION. 

Decree,  in  French  decret,  Latin  decrctus,  from  de- 
ctrno  to  give  judgement  or  pass  sentence,  signifies  the 
sentence  or  resolution  that  is  passed ; edict,  in  Latin 
edictus,  from  edico  to  say  out,  signifies  the  thing  spoken 
out  or  sent  forth  ; proclamation,  v.  To  declare. 

A decree  is  a more  solemn  and  deliberative  act  than 
an  edict;  on  the  other  hand  an  edict  is  more  authori- 
tative than  a decree.  A decree  is  the  decision  of  one  or 
many;  an  edict  speaks  the  will  of  an  individual:  coun- 
cils and  senates,  as  well  as  princes,  make  decrees; 
despotick  rulers  issue  edicts. 

Decrees  are  passed  for  the  regulation  of  publick  and 
private  matters;  they  are  made  known  as  occasion 
requires,  but  are  not  always  publick  ; 

If  you  deny  me,  fie  upon  your  law ! 

There  is  no  force  in  the  decrees  of  Venice. 

Shakspeare. 

Edicts  and  proclamations  contain  the  commands  of 
the  sovereign  authority,  and  are  directly  addressed  by 
the  prince  to  his  people.  An  edict  is  peculiar  to  a 
despotick  government ; ‘ This  statute  or  act  of  parlia- 
ment is  placed  among  the  records  of  the  kingdom, 
there  needing  no  formal  promulgation  to  give  it  the 
force  of  a law,  as  was  necessary  by  the  civil  law  with 
regard  to  the  emperour’s  edicts.' — Blackstone.  A 
proclamation  is  common  to  a monarchical  and  aristo- 
cratick  form  of  government;  ‘From  the  same  original 
of  the  king’s  being  the  fountain  of  justice,  we  may 
also  deduce  the  prerogative  of  issuing  proclamations, 
which  is  vested  in  the  king  alone.’ — Blackstone. 
The  ukase  in  Russia  is  a species  of  edict,  by  which  the 


emperour  makes  known  his  will  to  his  people;  the 
king  of  England  communicates  to  his  subjects  the 
determinations  of  himself  and  his  council  by  means 
of  d.  proclamation. 

TO  ANNOUNCE,  PROCLAIM,  PUBLISH, 
ADVERTISE. 

Announce,  in  Latin  annuncic,  is  compounded  of  an 
01  ad  and  nuncio  to  tell  to  any  one  in  a formal  manner; 
proclaim,  in  Latin  proclamo,  is  compounded  of  pro  and 
clamo  to  cry  before,  or  cry  aloud ; publish,  in  Latin 
publico,  from  publicus  and  populus,  signifies  to  make 
publick  or  known  to  the  people  at  large;  advertise, 
from  the  Latin  adverto,  or  ad  and  verto,  signifies  to 
turn  the  attention  to  a thing. 

The  cliaracteristick  sense  of  these  words  is  the 
making  of  a thing  known  to  several  individuals:  a 
thing  is  announced  to  an  individual  or  small  commu- 
nity ; it  is  proclaimed  to  a neighbourhood,  and  pub- 
lished to  the  world.  An  event  that  is  of  particular 
interest  is  announced;  ‘We  might  with  as  much  rea 
son  doubt  whether  the  sun  was  intended  to  enlighten 
the  earth,  as  whether  he  who  has  framed  the  human 
mind  intended  to  announce  righteousness  to  mankind 
as  a law.’ — Blair.  An  event  is  proclaimed  that  re 
quires  to  be  known  by  all  the  parties  interested  ; 

But  witness,  heralds!  and  proclaim  my  vow. 

Witness  to  gods  above,  and  men  below. — Pope. 

That  is  published  which  is  supposed  likely  to  interert 
all  who  know  it;  ‘ It  very  often  happens  that  none  are 
more  industrious  in  publishing  the  blemishes  of  an 
extraordinary  reputation,  than  such  as  lie  open  to  the 
same  censures  in  their  own  character.’ — Addison. 

Announcements  are  made  verbally,  or  by  some  well 
known  signal;  proclamations  are  made  verbally,  and 
accompanied  by  some  appointed  signal ; publications 
are  ordinarily  made  through  the  press,  or  by  oral  com 
munication  from  one  individual  to  another.  The 
arrival  of  a distinguished  person  is  announced  by  the 
ringing  of  the  bells;  the  proclamation  of  peace  by  a 
herald  is  accompanied  with  certain  ceremonies  calcu- 
lated to  excite  notice;  the  publication  of  news  is  the 
office  of  the  journalist. 

Advertise  denotes  the  means,  and  publish  the  end. 
To  advertise  is  to  direct  the  publick  attention  to  any 
event  or  circumstance ; ‘ Every  man  that  advertises 
his  own  excellence  should  write  with  some  conscious 
ness  of  a character  which  dares  to  call  the  attention 
of  the  publick.’ — Johnson.  To  publish  is  to  make 
known  either  by  an  oral  or  printed  communication ; 
‘ The  criticisms  which  I have  hitherto  published,  have 
been  made  with  an  intention  rather  to  discover  beauties 
and  excellences  in  the  writers  of  my  own  time,  than 
to  publish  any  of  their  faults  and  imperfections.’— 
Addison. 

We  publish  by  advertising,  but  we  do  not  always 
advertise  when  we  publish.  Mercantile  and  civil 
transactions  are  conducted  by  means  of  advertise- 
ments. Extraordinary  circumstances  are  speedily 
lished  in  a neighbourhood  by  circulating  from  mouth 
to  mouth. 


TO  PUBLISH,  PROMULGATE,  DIVULGE, 
REVEAL,  DISCLOSE. 

To  publish  signifies  the  same  as  in  the  preceding 
article ; promulgate,  in  Latin  promulgatus,  participle 
of  promulgo,  for  provulgo,  signifies  to  make  vulgar; 
divulge,  in  Latin  divulgo,  that  is,  in  diversos  vulgo, 
signifies  to  make  vulgar  in  different  parts;  reveal,  in 
Latin  revelo,  from  velo  to  veil,  signifies  to  take  off  the 
veil  or  cover ; disclose  signifies  to  make  the  reverse  of 
close. 

To  publish  is  the  most  general  of  these  terms,  con- 
veying in  its  extended  sense  the  idea  of  making  known ; 
‘ By  the  execution  of  several  of  his  benefactors,  Maxi- 
min  published  in  characters  of  blood  the  indelible 
history  of  his  baseness  and  ingratitude.’ — Gibbon. 
Publishing  is  an  indefinite  act,  whereby  we  may  make 
known  to  many  or  few ; but  to  promulgate  is  always 
to  make  known  to  many.  We  mvvy  publish  that  which 
is  a domestick  or  a national  concern , we  promulgate 
properly  only  that  which  is  of  general  interest:  the 
affairs  of  a family  or  of  a nation  are  published  in  the 
newspapers;  doctrines,  principles,  precepts,  and  the 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES 


$44 


tike,  are  promulgated;  ‘An  abnud  theory  on  one  side  ; 
of  a question  forms  no  justification  for  alleging  a false 
fact  or  promulgating  mischievous  maxims  on  the 
other.’ — Burke.  We  may  publish  things  to  be  known, 
or  things  not  to  be  known ; we  divulge  things  mostly 
not  to  be  known ; we  may  publish  our  own  shame,  or 
the  shame  of  another,  and  we  may  publish  that  which 
is  advantageous  to  another ; but  we  commonly  divulge 
the  secrets  or  the  crimes  of  another ; 

Tremble,  thou  wretch. 

That  hast  within  thee  undivulged  crimes. 

Shaespeare. 

To  publish  is  said  of  that  which  \^'as  never  before 
known,  or  never  before  existed  ; to  reveal  and  disclose 
are  said  of  that  wliich  has  been  only  concealed  or  lay 
hidden : we  publish  the  events  of  the  day ; we  reveal 
the  secret  or  the  mystery  of  a transaction ; ‘ In  con- 
fession, the  revealing  is  not  for  worldly  use,  but  for  the 
ease  of  a man’s  heart.’ — Bacon.  We  disclose  the 
whole  of  an  affair  from  beginning  to  end,  which  has 
never  been  properly  known  or  accounted  for; 

Then  earth  and  ocean  various  forms  disclose. 

Dryden. 


TO  UNCOVER,  DISCOVER,  DISCLOSE. 

To  uncover.,  like  discover,  implies  to  take  off  the 
covering;  but  the  former  refers  to  an  artificial  material 
and  occasional  covering ; the  latter  to  a moral,  natural, 
or  pe'^aanent  covering ; plants  are  %mcovcred  that  they 
may  receive  the  benefit  of  the  air ; they  are  discovered 
to  gratify  the  researches  of  the  botanist.  To  discover 
and  disclose  both  signify  to  lay  open,  but  they  differ  in 
tlie  object  and  manner  of  the  action : that  is  discovered 
which  is  supposed  to  be  covered ; and  that  is  disclosed 
which  is  supposed  to  be  shut  out  from  the  view : a 
lountry  is  discovered,  a scene  is  disclosed; 

Go  draw  aside  the  curtains,  and  discover 
The  several  caskets  to  this  noble  prince. 

Shakspeare. 

‘The  shells  being  broken,  struck  off,  and  gone,  the 
stone  included  in  them  is  thereby  disclosed  and  set  at 
liberty.’ — Woodward.  A plot  is  discovered  when  it 
becomes  known  to  one’s  self ; a secret  is  disclosed  when 
it  is  made  known  to  another;  ‘He  shall  never,  by  any 
alteration  in  me,  discover  iny  knowledge  of  his  mis 
lak  j.  ’—Pope. 

If  I disclose  my  passion. 

Our  friendship’s  at  an  end  ; if  I conceal  it. 

The  world  will  call  me  false.— Addison. 


TO  DISCOVER,  MANIFEST,  DECLARE. 

The  idea  of  making  known  is  conveyed  by  all  these 
terms;  but  <Z<scouer,  which  signifies  simply  the  taking 
off  the  covering  from  any  thing,  expresses  less  than 
manifest,  and  that  than  declare : we  discover  by  indi- 
rect means  or  signs  more  or  less  doubtful ; we  manifest 
by  unquestionable  marks;  we  declare  by  express 
words : talents  and  dispositions  discover  themselves ; 
particular  feelings  and  sentiments  manifest  themselves; 
facts,  opinions,  and  sentiments  are  declared : children 
early  discover  a turn  for  some  particular  art  or  science ; 
‘ Several  brute  creatures  discover  in  their  actions  some- 
thing like  a faint  glimmering  of  reason.’ — Addison. 
A person  manifests  his  regard  for  another  by  une- 
quivocal proofs  of  kindness ; ‘At  no  time  perhaps  did 
the  legislature  manifest  a more  tender  regard  to  that 
fundamental  principle  of  British  constitutional  policy, 
hereditary  monarchy,  th.an  at  the  time  of  the  revolu- 
tiony—BuRKE.  A person  of  an  open  disposition  is  apt 
to  declare  his  sentiments  without  disguise;  ‘Lang- 
horne,  Boyer,  and  Powel,  presbyterian  officers  who 
commanded  bodies  of  troops  in  Wales,  were  the  first 
that  declared  themselves  against  the  parliament.’— 
Hume. 

Things  are  said  to  discover,  persons  only  manifest  or 
declare  in  the  proper  sense;  but  they  may  be  used  figu- 
ratively: it  is  the  nature  of  every  thing  sublunary  to 
discover  symptoms  of  decay  more  or  less  early  ; it  is 
particularly  painful  when  any  one  manifests  an  un- 
friendly disposition  from  whom  we  had  reason  to  ex- 
pect the  contrary. 


TO  PROVE,  DEMONSTRATE,  EVINCE, 
MANIFEST. 

Prove, in  Latin  probo,  signifies  to  make  good  • de- 
monstrate, from  the  Latin  demonstro,  signifies,  oy  vir- 
tue of  the  intensive  syllable  de,  to  show  in  a specifick 
manner;  evince,  v.  To  argue;  manifest  signifies  to 
make  manifest. 

Proveis  here  the  general  and  indefinite  term,  the  rest 
imply  different  modes  of  proving ; to  demonstrate  is  to 
prove  specifically : we  may  prove  any  thing  by  simple 
assertion  ; but  we  must  demonstrate  by  intellectua 
efforts : we  may  prove  that  we  were  in  a certain  place ; 
but  we  demonstrate  some  point  in  science : we  may 
prove  by  personal  influence ; but  we  can  demonstrate 
only  by  the  force  of  evidence : we  prove  our  own  merit 
by  our  actions;  we  demonstrate  the  existence  of  a 
Deity  by  all  that  surrounds  us; 

Why  on  those  shores  are  they  with  joy  survey’d. 

Admir’d  as  heroes,  and  as  gods  obey’d, 
i U nless  great  acts  superiour  merit  prove  ? — Pope 
‘By  the  very  setting  apart  and  consecrating  places  for 
the  service  of  God,  we  demonstrate  our  acknoAvledg- 
ment  of  his  power  and  sovereignty  over  us.’ — Beve- 

RIDQE. 

To  prove,  evince,  and  manifest  are  the  acts  either 
of  persons  or  things ; to  demonstrate,  that  of  persons 
only  : in  regard  to  persons,  we  prove  either  the  facts 
which  we  know,  or  the  mental  endowments  which  we 
possess:  we  evince  and  manifest  a disposition  or  a 
state  of  mind : we  evince  our  sincerity  by  our  actions ; 
it  is  a work  of  time ; ‘ We  must  evijice  the  sincerity 
of  our  faith  by  good  works.’ — Blair.  We  manifest  a 
friendly  or  a hostile  disposition  by  a word  or  a single 
action,  it  is  the  act  of  the  moment ; ‘ In  the  life  of  a 
man  of  sense,  a shortlife  is  sufficient  to  manifest  him- 
self a man  of  honour  and  virtue.’ — Steele.  All 
these  terms  are  applied  to  things,  inasmuch  as  they 
may  tend  either  to  produce  conviction,  or  simply  to 
make  a thing  known ; io prove  and  evince  are  employed 
in  the  first  case;  to  manifest  in  the  latter  case;  tin: 
beauty  and  order  in  the  creation  prove  the  wisdom  of 
the  Creator;  a persistance  in  a particular  course  ol 
conduct  may  either  ci;mce  great  virtue  or  great  folly; 
the  miracles  wrought  in  Egypt  manifested  the  Divine 
power.  , 


PROOF,  EVIDENCE,  TESTIMONY. 

The  proof  is  that  which  simply  proves  ; the  evidence 
is  that  which  makes  evident,  which  rises  in  sense  upon 
tha  proof ; the  testimony  is  a species  of  evidence  by 
means  of  witnesses,  from  testis  a witness. 

In  the  legal  acceptation  of  the  terms,  proo/s  are  com 
monly  denominated  evidence,  because  no  proof  can  be 
admitted  as  such  which  does  not  tend  to  make  evident , 
but  as  the  word  proof  is  sometimes  taken  for  the  act 
of  proving  as  well  as  the  thing  proved,  the  terms  are 
not  always  indifferently  used ; ‘ Positive  proof  ia 
always  required,  where,  from  the  nature  of  the  case, 
it  appears  it  might  possibly  have  been  had.  But  next 
to  positive  proof,  circumstantial  evidence,  or  the  doc- 
trine of  presumptions,  must  take  place.’ — Blackstone. 
'■Evidence  is  either  written  or  parol.’— Blackstone. 
Testimony  is  properly  parol  evidence;  but  the  term  is 
only  used  in  relation  to  the  person  giving  the  evi- 
dence; ‘ Our  law  considers  that  there  are  many  trans- 
actions to  which  only  one  person  is  privy,  and  there- 
fore does  not  always  demand  the  testimony  of  two.’ — 
Blackstone. 

In  an  extended  application  of  the  words  they  are 
taken  in  the  sense  of  a sign  or  mark,  by  which  a thing 
is  known  to  exist;  and,  with  a similar  distinction,  the 
proof  is  the  sign  which  pr-ores;  ‘ Of  the  fallaciousness 
of  hope,  and  the  uncertainty  of  schemes,  every  day 
gives  some  new  proof.' — Johnson.  The  evidence  is 
the  sign  which  makes  evident;  hence  we  speak  of  the 
evidences  of  the  senses ; ‘ Cato  Major,  who  had  borne 
all  the  great  offiCes,  has  left  us  an  evidence,  under  his 
own  hand,  how  much  he  was  versed  in  country  affairs  ’ 
— Locke.  The  testimony  is  that  which  is  olfered  g\ 
given  by  persons  or  things  personified  in  proof  of  any 
thing ; ‘ Evidence  is  said  to  arise  from  testimony,  when 
we  depend  upon  the  credit  and  relation  of  others  foi 
the  truth  or  falsehood  of  any  thing.’— Wilkins.  Hence 
a person  makes  another  a present,  or  performs  any 
other  act  of  kindness  as  a testimony  of  his  regard : anil 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


444 


persons  or  things  personified  bear  testimony  in  favour 
of  persons ; ‘ I must  bear  this  testimony  to  Otway’s 
memory,  that  tiie  passions  are  truly  touched  in  his 
Venice  Preserved.’ — Drydkn.  " 

Ve  Trojan  flames,  your  testimony  bear 

Whpt  1 perform’d,  and  what  1 suffer’d  there. 

Drydkn. 

The  proof  is  employed  mostly  for  facts  or  physical 
objects ; the  evidence  is  applied  to  that  which  is  moral 
or  intellectual.  All  that  our  Saviour  did  and  said 
were  evidences  of  his  divine  character,  whicli  might 
have  produced  faith  in  the  minds  of  many,  even  if  they 
had  not  such  numerous  and  miraculous  proofs  of 
his  power.  The  evidence  may  be  internal,  or  lie  in  the 
thing  itself;  ‘Of  Swift’s  general  habits  of  thinking,  if 
his  letters  can  be  supposed  to  afford  any  evidence,  he 
was  not  a man  to  be  either  loved  or  envied.’ — Johnson. 
The  proof  is  always  external : ‘ Men  ought  not  to 
expect  either  sensible  7>roo/  or  demonstration  for  such 
matters  as  are  not  capable  of  such  proofs,  supposing 
them  to  be  true.’ — Wilkins.  The  internal  evidences 
of  tile  trutli  of  Divine  Revelation  are  even  more  nu- 
merous than  those  which  are  external : our  Saviour’s 
reappearance  among  his  disciples  did  not  satisfy  the 
unbelieving  Thomas  of  his  identity,  until  he  had  the 
farther  proofs  of  feeling  the  holes  in  his  hands  and 
ins  side. 


DEPONENT,  EVIDENCE,  WITNESS. 
Deponent,  from  the  Latin  dcpono,  is  the  one  laying 
down  or  open  what  he  has  heard  or  seen  ; evidence, 
from  evident,  is  the  one  producing  evidence  or  making 
evident ; witness,  from  the  Saxon  witan,  Teutonick 
meissen,  Greek  eldiw,  and  Hebrew  to  know,  is 
one  who  knows  or  makes  known. 

The  deponent  always  declares  upon  oath  ; he  serves 
to  give  information:  the  evidence  is  likew'ise  gene  ally 
bound  by  an  oath ; he  serves  to  acquit  or  condemn: 
the  witness  is  employed  upon  oath  or  otherwise  he 
parves  to  confirm  or  invalidate ; 

The  pleader  having  spoke  his  best, 

And  witness  ready  to  attest ; 

Who  fairly  could  on  oath  depose. 

When  questions  on  the  fact  arose. 

That  ev’ry  article  was  true. 

Nor  further  these  deponents  knew.— Swin 
A deponent  declares  either  in  writing  or  by  word  c f 
mouth  ; the  deposition  is  preparatory  to  the  trial : a n 
evidence  may  give  evidence  either  by  words  or  action'  ; 
whatever  serves  to  clear  up  the  thing,  whether  a pt..- 
son  or  an  animal,  is  used  as  an  evidence;  the  evidence 
always  comes  forward  on  the  trial ; ‘ Of  the  evidence 
whicli  appeared  against  him  (Savage)  the  character  of 
the  man  was  not  unexceptionable ; that  of  the  woman 
notoriously  infamous.’ — Johnson.  A witness  isalways 
a person  in  the  proper  sense,  but  may  be  applied  figu- 
ratively to  inanimate  objects  ; he  declares  by  word  of 
mouth  what  he  personally  knows.  Every  witness  is 
an  evidence  at  the  moment  of  trial,  but  every  evidence 
is  not  a witness.  When  a dog  is  employed  as  an  evi- 
dence he  cannot  be  called  a witness ; ‘ In  case  a woman 
be  forcibly  taken  away  and  married,  she  may  be  a wit- 
ness against  her  husband  in  order  to  convict  him  of 
felony.’— Blackstone.  ‘ In  every  man’s  heart  and 
conscience,  religion  has  many  witnesses  to  its  import- 
ance and  reality.’— Blair. 

Evidence  on  the  other  hand  is  confined  mostly  to 
judicial  matters  ; and  witness  extends  to  all  the  ordi- 
nary concerns  of  life.  One  person  appears  as  an  evi 
dence  against  another  on  a criminal  charge  : a witness 
appears  for  or  against ; he  corroborates  the  word  of 
another,  and  is  a security  in  all  dealings  or  matters  of 
(luestion  between  man  and  man. 


TO  CONVICT,  DETECT,  DISCOVER. 

Convict,  from  the  Latin  convictus,  participle  of  con- 
vince to  make  manifest,  signifies  to  make  clear;  detect, 
Irom  the  Latin  detectus,  participle  of  detego,  com- 
pounded Cl  the  privative  de  and  tego  to  cover,  signifies 
to  uncover  or  lay  open.  To  detect  and  discover  serve 
to  denote  the  laying  open  of  crimes  or  errours.  A per- 
son is  convicted  by  means  of  evidence ; he  is  detected 


by  means  of  ocular  demonstration.  One  is  convided 
of  having  been  the  perpetrator  of  some  evil  deed ; 
‘Advice  is  oflensive,  not  because  it  lays  us  open  to  un- 
expected regret,  or  convicts  us  of  any  fault  which  had 
escaped  our  notice,  but  because  it  shows  us  that  we 
are  known  to  others  as  well  as  ourselves.’ — Johnson. 
One  is  detected  in  the  very  act  of  committing  the  deed. 
One  is  convicted  of  crimes  in  a court  of  judicature  ; 
one  is  detected  in  various  misdemeanours  by  dilferert 
casualties ; ‘ Every  member  of  society  f<=-els  and  ac- 
knowledges the  necessity  of  detecting  crimes.’ — Jcun- 
soN.  Punishment  necessarily  follows  the  coHW2c<jan; 
but  in  the  case  of  detection,  it  rests  in  the  breast  of  the 
individual  against  whom  the  offence  is  committed. 

Detect  is  always  taken  in  a bad  sense  : discover  (v. 
Uncover)  in  an  indifferent  sense.  A person  is  detected 
in  what  lie  wislib  to  conceal ; a person  or  a thing  is 
discovered  that  has  unintentionally  lain  concealed. 
Thieves  are  detected  in  picking  pockets ; a lost  child 
is  discovered  in  a wood,  of  in  some  place  of  security. 
Detection  is  the  act  of  the  moment ; it  is  effected  by 
the  aid  of  the  senses  : a discovery  is  the  consequence 
of  efforts,  and  is  brought  about  by  circuitous  means, 
and  the  aid  of  the  understanding.  A plot  is  detected 
by  any  one*vho  communicates  what  he  has  seen  and 
heard ; many  murders  have  been  discovered  after  a 
lapse  of  years  by  ways  the  most  extraordinary.  No- 
thing is  detected  but  what  is  actually  passing  ; many 
things  are  discovered  which  have  long  passed.  Wicked 
men  go  on  in  their  career  of  vice  with  the  hope  of 
escaping  detection ; the  discovery  of  one  villany  often 
leads  to  that  of  many  more  ; ‘ Cunning  when  it  is  once 
detected  loses  its  force.’ — Addison.  ‘ We  arc  told  that 
the  Spartans,  though  they  punished  theft  in  the  young 
men  when  it  was  discovered,  looked  upon  it  as  honour 
able  if  it  succeeded.’ — Addison. 


TO  FIND,  FIND  OUT,  DISCOVER,  ESPY. 

DESCRY. 

Find,  in  German  finden,  &c.  is  most  probably  con 
nected  with  the  Latin  venio,  signifying  to  come  in  the 
way  discover,  V.  To  uncover ; in  French  es/>?er, 
comes  from  the  Latin  espicio,  signifying  to  see  a thing 
out ; descry,  from  the  Latin  discerno,  signifies  to  dis- 
tinguish a thing  from  others. 

To  find  signifies  simply  to  come  within  sight  of  a 
thing,  which  is  the  general  idea  attached  to  all  these 
terms  : they  vary,  however,  either  in  the  mode  of  the 
action  or  in  the  object.  Whai;  we  find  may  become 
visible  to  us  by  accident,  but  what  we  find  out  is  the 
result  of  an  effort.  We  may  find  any  thing  as  we 
pass  along  in  tlie  streets  ; but  we  find  out  mistakes  in 
an  account  by  carefully  going  over  it,  or  we  find  out 
the  difficulties  which  we  meet  with  in  learning,  by 
redoubling  our  diligence  ; ‘ Socrates,  who  was  a great 
admirer  of  Cretan  institutions,  set  his  excellent  wit  to 
find  out  some  good  cause  and  use  of  this  evil  inclina- 
tion (the  love  of  boys).’ — Walsh.  What  is  found 
may  have  been  lost  to  ourselves,  but  visible  to  others ; 

He  finds  the  fraud,  and  with  a smile  demands, 

On  what  design  the  boy  had  bound  Ins  hands. 

Dryden. 

What  is  discovered  is  always  remote  and  unknown, 
and  when  (fzscoaered  is  something  new;  ‘Cunning  is 
a kind  of  short-sightedness  that  discovers  the  minutest 
objects  which  are  near  at  hand,  but  is  not  able  to  dis- 
cern things  at  a distance.’ — Addison.  A piece  of  money 
may  be  found  lying  on  the  ground  ; but  a mine  is  dis- 
covered under  ground.  When  Captain  Cook  disco- 
vered the  islands  in  the  South  Sea,  niany  plants  and 
animals  were  found.  What  is  not  discoverable  may 
be  presumed  not  to  exist ; but  that  which  is  found  may 
be  only  what  has  been  lost.  What  has  once  been  dis- 
covered cannot  be  discove'-ed  again  ; but  what  is  found 
may  be  many  times  found.  Find  out  and  discover 
differ  principally  in  the  application  ; the  former  being 
applied  to  familiar,  and  the  latter  to  scientifick  objects; 
scholars  find  out  what  they  have  to  learn  ; men  of  re- 
search discover  what  escapes  the  notice  of  others. 

To  espy  is  a species  of  finding  out,  namely,  to  find 
out  what  is  very  secluded  jrr  retired  ; 

There  Agamemnon,  Priam  here  he  spies, 

And  fierce  Achilles,  who  both  kings  defies. 

Drydkm. 


446 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


Descry  is  a species  of  discovering^  or  observing  at  a 
distance,  or  among  a number  of  objects ; 

Through  this  we  pass,  and  mount  the  tower  from 
whence. 

With  unavailing  arms,  the  Trojans  make  defence ; 

From  this  the  trembling  king  had  oft  descried^  * 

The  Grecian  camp,  and  saw  their  navy  ride. 

Drydkn. 

An  astronomer  discovers  fresh  stars  or  planets;  he 
finds  those  on  particular  occasions  which  have  been 
already  discovered.  A person  finds  out  by  continued 
mquiry  any  place  to  which  he  had  been  wrong  directed : 
ne  espies  an  object  which  lies  concealed  in  a corner 
Dr  secret  place  : he  descries  a horseman  coming  down 
a hill. 

Find  and  discover  may  be  employed  with  regard  to 
objects,  either  of  a corporeal  or  intellectual  kind;  espy 
and  descry  only  with  regard  to  sensible  objects  of  cor- 
poreal vision  : find,  either  for  those  that  are  external 
or  internal ; discover,  only  for  those  that  are  external. 
The  distinction  between  them  is  the  same  as  before  ; 
VO  find  by  simple  inquiry ; we  discover  by  reflection 
y.nu  study ; we  find  or  find  out  the  motives  which  in- 
fluence a person’s  conduct ; we  discover  the  reasons 
or  causes  of  things : the  finding  serves  the  particular 
purpose  of  the  finder ; the  discovery  serves  the  pur- 
pose of  science,  by  adding  to  the  stock  of  general 
knowledge. 

When  find  is  used  as  a purely  Intellectual  opera- 
tion, it  admits  of  a new  view,  in  relation  both  to  dis- 
cover and  to  invent,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  following 
article. 


TO  FIND,  FIND  OUT,  DISCOVER,  INVENT. 

To  find  or  find  out  {v.  To  find)  is  said  of  things 
which  do  not  exist  in  the  forms  in  which  a person 
finds  them  : to  discover  {v.  To  uncover)  is  said  of  that 
which  exists  in  an  entire  state:  invent,  in  Latin  in- 
ventum,  from  invenio,  signifying  to  come  at  or  light 
upon,  is  said  of  that  which  is  new  made  or  modelled. 
The  merit  of  finding  or  inventing  consists  in  newly 
applying  or  modifying  the  materials  which  exist  sepa- 
rately; the  merit  of  discovering  consists  in  removing 
the  obstacles  which  prevent  us  from  knowing  the  real 
nature  of  the  thing:  imagination  and  industry  are  re- 
quisite for  finding  ox  inventing ; acuteness  and  pene- 
tralinn  for  discovering.  A person  finds  reasons  for 
justifying  himself:  he  discovers  trait^  of  a bad  dis- 
position in  another.  Cultivated  minus  find  sources 
of  amusement  within  themselves,  or  a prisoner  finds 
means  of  escape.  Maty  traces  of  a universal  deluge 
have  been  discovered ; the  physician  discovers  the  na- 
ture of  a particular  disorder. 

Find  is  applicable  to  the  operative  arts; 

Long  practice  has  a sure  improvement /orrnd. 

With  kindled  fires  to  burn  the  barren  ground. 

Drydrn. 

Discover  is  applied  to  speculative  objects  ; ‘ Since  the 
harmonick  principles  were  discovered,  niusick  has  been 
a great  independent  science.’ — Seward.  Invent  is  ap- 
plied to  the  mechanical  arts  ; 

The  sire  of  gods  and  men,  with  hard  decrees. 
Forbids  our  plenty  to  be  bought  with  ease  ; 

Himself  invented  first  the  shining  share, 

And  whetted  human  industiy  by  care. — Dryden. 
We  speak  o(  finding  modes  for  performing  actions, 
and  effecting  purposes ; of  inventing  machines,  instru- 
ments. and  various  matters  of  use  or  elegance;  of  dis- 
covering the  operations  and  laws  of  nature.  Many 
fruitless  attempts  have  been  made  to  find  the  longi- 
tude : men  have  not  been  so  unsuccessful  in  finding 
out  various  arts  for  communicating  their  thoughts, 
commemorating  the  exploits  of  their  nations,  and  sup- 
plying thSKiselves  with  luxuries;  nor  have  they  failed 
in  every  species  of  machine  or  instrument  which  can 
aid  their  purpose.  Harvey  discovered  the  circulation 
of  the  blood  : Torricelli  discovered  the  gravity  of  the 
air : by  geometry  the  properties  of  figures  are  dis- 
covered; by  chymistry  the  properties  of  compound 
substances:  but  the  geometrician  by  reasoning 
the  solution  of  any  problem  ; or  by  investigating,  he 
finds  out  a clearer  method  of  solving  the  same  prob- 
lems ; or  he  invents  an  instrument  by  which  the 
croof  can  be  deduceri  ( r'^m  ocular  demonstration.  Thus 


the  astronomer  discovers  the  motions  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  by  means  of  the  telescope  which  has  been  in 
vented. 


EMISSARY,  SPY. 

Emissary,  in  Latin  emissarius,  from  emitls  to  seni 
forth,  signifies  one  sent  out;  spy,  in  French  espion, 
from  the  Latin  spccio  to  look  into  or  look  about,  signi 
ties  one  narrowly  searched. 

Both  these  words  designate  a pevson  sent  out  by 
body  on  some  publick  concern  among  their  enemies 
but  they  differ  in  their  office  accorditig  to  the  etymo- 
logy of  the  words. 

'I’he  emissary  is  by  distinclion  sent  forth,  he  is  sent 
so  as  to  mix  with  the  people  to  whom  he  goes,  to  be 
in  all  places,  and  to  associate  with  every  one  indivi 
dually  as  may  serve  his  purpose ; the  spy,  on  the  other 
hand,  takes  his  station  wherever  he  can  best  perceive 
what  is  passing  ; he  keeps  himself  at  a distance  from 
all  but  such  as  may  particularly  aid  him  in  the  object 
of  his  search. 

The  object  of  an  emissary  is  by  direct  communica- 
tion with  the  enemy  to  sow  the  seeds  of  dissension,  to 
spread  false  alarms,  and  to  disseminate  false  principles; 
the  object  of  a spy  is  to  get  information  of  an  enemy’s 
plans  and  movements. 

Although  the  office  of  emissary  and  spy  are  neither 
of  them  honourable,  yet  that  of  the  former  is  more  dis- 
graceful than  that  of  the  latter.  The  emissary  is 
generally  employed  by  those  who  have  some  illegiti 
mate  object  to  pursue  ; ‘ The  Jesuits  send  over  emis 
saries  with  instructions  to  personate  themselves  mem 
bers  of  the  several  sects  among  us,’— Swift.  Spies  on 
the  other  hand  are  employed  by  all  regular  govern- 
ments in  a time  of  warfare ; ‘ He  (Henry  I.)  began 
with  the  Earl  of  Shrewsbury,  who  was  watched  for 
some  time  by  spies  and  then  indicted  upon  a charge 
of  forty-five  articles.’ — Hume. 

In  the  time  of  the  Revolution,  the  French  sent  their 
emissaries  into  every  country,  civilized  or  uncivilized, 
to  fan  the  flame  of  rebellion  against  established  govern- 
ments. At  Sparta,  the  trade  of  a sjjy  was  not  so  vile 
as  it  has  been  generally  esteemed ; it  was  considered 
as  a self-devotion  for  the  publick  good,  and  formed  a 
part  of  their  education. 

These  terms  are  both  applied  in  an  extended  appli- 
cation with  a similar  distinction;  ‘What  generally 
makes  pain  itself,  if  I may  so  say,  more  painful,  is 
that  it  is  considered  as  the  emissary  of  the  king  of 
terrours.’ — Burke. 

These  wretched  spies  of  wit  must  soon  confess, 

They  take  more  pains  to  please  themselves  the  less. 

Dryden 


MARK,  PRINT,  IMPRESSION,  STAMP. 

Mark  is  the  same  in  the  northern  languages,  and  in 
the  Persian  marz ; print  and  impression,  both  from 
the  Latin  premo  to  press,  signify  the  visible  effect  pro- 
duced by  printing  or  pressing ; stamp  signifies  the  efect 
produced  by  stamping. 

The  word  mark  is  the  most  general  in  sense  : what- 
ever alters  the  external  face  of  an  object  is  a mark  ; 
the  print  is  some  specifick  mark,  or  a figure  drawn 
upon  the  surface  of  an  object;  Hie  impression  is  the 
mark  pressed  either  upon  or  into  a body ; the  stamp 
is  the  mark  that  is  stamped  in  or  upon  the  body.  The 
mark  is  confined  to  no  size,  shape,  or  form  ; the  print 
is  a mark  that  represents  an  object : the  mark  may 
consist  of  a sjiot,  a line,  a stain,  or  a smear ; but  a 
print  df'seribes  a given  object,  as  a house,  a man,  fee. 
A mark  s either  a protuberance  or  a depression  ; an 
impression  is  always  a sinking  in  of  the  object:  a 
hillock  or  a hole  are  both  marks ; but  the  latter  is 
properly  the  impression  : the  stamp  mostly  resembles 
the  impression,  unless  in  the  case  of  a seal,  which 
is  stamped  upon  paper,  and  occasions  an  elevation 
with  the  wax. 

The  mark  is  occasioned  by  every  sort  of  action, 
gentle  or  violent,  artificial  or  natural;  by  the  voluntary 
act  of  a person,  or  the  unconscious  act  of  inanimate 
bodies ; by  means  of  compression  or  friction ; by  a 
touch  or  a blow,  and  the  like:  all  the  others  are  occa- 
sioned by  one  or  more  of  these  modes ; ‘ De  la  Chambre 
asserts  nositivelv  that  from  the  marks  on  the  body 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


447 


ine  configuration  of  the  plaiets  at  a nativity  may  be 
gathered.’— Walsh.  The  print  is  occasioned  by  arti- 
ficial means  of  compression,  as  when  tlie  print  of  let- 
ters or  pictures  is  made  on  paper;  or  by  accidental  and 
natural  compression,  as  when  the  print  of  the  hand 
is  made  on  the  wall,  or  the  print  of  the  foot  is  made 
on  the  ground ; 

From  hence  Astrea  took  her  flight,  and  here 
The  prints  of  lier  departing  steps  appear. 

Drydkn. 

The  impression  is  made  by  means  more  or  less  violent, 
as  when  an  impression  is  made  upon  wood  by  the  axe 
or  hammer ; or  by  means  gradual  and  natural,  as  by 
the  dripping  of  water  on  stone.  The  stamp  is  made 
by  means  of  direct  pressure  with  an  artificial  instru- 
ment. 

Mark  is  of  such  universal  application  that  it  is  con- 
fined to  no  objects  whatever,  either  in  the  natural  or 
moral  world ; print  is  mostly  applied  to  material  ob- 
jects, the  face  of  which  undergoes  a lasting  change,  as 
the  printing  made  on  paper  or  wood ; impression  is 
more  commonly  applied  to  such  natural  objects  as  are 
particularly  solid  ; stamp  is  generally  applied  to  paper, 
or  still  softer  and  more  yielding  bodies.  Impression 
and  stamp  have  both  a moral  application ; events  or 
speeches  make  an  impression  on  the  mind ; things 
bear  a certain  stamp  which  bespeaks  their  origin. 
Where  the  passions  have  obtained  an  ascendancy,  the 
occasional  good  impressions  which  are  produced  by 
religious  observances  but  too  frequently  die  away ; 
‘ No  man  can  offef  at  the  change  of  the  government 
established,  without  first  gaining  new  authority,  and 
in  some  degree  debasing  the  old  by  appearance  and 
impressions  of  contrary  qualities  in  those  who  before 
enj-oyed  it.’— Temple.  The  Christian  religion  carries 
with  itself  the  stamp  of  truth  ; 

Adult’rate  metals  to  the  sterling  stamp 
Appear  not  meaner  than  mere  human  lines 
Compar’d  with  those  whose  inspiration  shines. 

Roscommon. 


MARK,  SIGN,  NOTE,  SYMPTOM,  TOKEN, 
INDICATION. 

Mark,  V.  Mark,  impression ; sign,  in  Latin  signvm, 
Greek  ^lypa  from  to  punctuate,  signifies  the  thing 
that  points  out  ; symptom,  in  Latin  symptoma,  Greek 
trofirrrwpa  (romavuniiTTO)  to  fall  out  in  accordance  with 
any  thing,  signifies  what  presents  itself  to  confirm  one’s 
opinion  ; tofcen,  through  the  medium  of  the  northern 
languages,  comes  from  the  Greek  TEKpypiov;  indication, 
in  Latin  indicatio  from  indico,  and  the  Greek  evdeiKut 
1,0  point  out,  signifies  the  thing  which  points  out. 

The  idea  of  an  external  object  which  serves  to  direct 
the  observer,  is  common  to  all  these  terms;  the  differ- 
ence consists  in  the  objects  that  are  employed.  Any 
thing  may  serve  as  a mark,  a stroke,  a dot,  a stick  set 
up,  and  the  like  ; it  serves  simply  to  guide  the  senses: 
the  sign  is  something  more  complex;  it  consists  of  a 
figure  or  representation  of  some  object,  as  the  twelve 
signs  of  the  zodiack,  or  the  which  are  affixed  to 
houses  of  entertainment,  or  to  shops.  Marks  are  ar- 
bitrary; every  one  chooses  his  marifc  at  pleasure:  signs 
have  commonly  a connexion  with  the  object  that  is  to 
be  observed  : a house,  a tree,  a letter,  or  any  external 
object  maybe  chosen  as  a mark;  but  a tobacconist 
chooses  the  of  ablackman;  the  innkeeper  chooses 
the  head  of  the  reigning  prince.  Marks  serve  in  general 
simply  to  aid  the  memory  in  distinguishing  the  situation 
of  objects,  or  the  particular  circumstances  of  persons 
or  things,  as  the  marks  which  are  set  up  in  the  garden 
to  distinguish  the  ground  that  is  occupied ; they  may, 
therefore,  be  private,  and  known  only  to  the  individual 
or  individuals  that  make  them,  as  the  private  marks 
by  which  a tradesman  distinguishes  the  prices;  they 
may  likewise  be  changeable  and  fluctuating,  according 
to  the  humour  and  convenience  of  the  maker,  as  the 
private  marks  which  are  employed  by  the  military  on 
guard.  Signs,  on  the  contrary,  serve  to  direct  the  un- 
derstanding; they  have  either  a natural  or  an  artificial 
resemblance  to  the  object  to  be  repre.sented ; they  are 
consequently  chosen,  not  by  the  will  of  one,  but  by  the 
universal  consent  of  a body;  they  are  not  chosen  for 
the  moment,  but  for  a permanency,  as  in  the  case  of 
language,  either  oral  or  written,  in  the  case  of  the  zo- 
diacal orthe  sign  of  the  cross,  the  algebraical 


signs,  and  the  like.  It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  man> 
objects  may  be  both  a mark  and  a sign,  according  tc 
the  above  illustration  : the  cross  which  is  employed  in 
books,  by  way  of  reference  to  notes,  is  a mark  only, 
because  it  serves  merely  to  guide  the  eye,  or  assist  the 
memory  ; but  the  figure  of  the  cross,  when  employed 
in  reference  to  the  cross  of  our  Saviour,  is  a sign,  in- 
asmuch as  it  conveys  a distinct  idea  of  something  else 
to  the  mind ; so  likewise,  little  strokes  over  letters,  or 
even  letters  themselves,  may  merely  be  marks,  while 
they  only  point  out  a diflerence  between  this  or  that 
letter,  this  or  that  object;  but  this  same  stroke  becomes 
a sign,  if,  as  in  the  first  declension  of  Latin  nouns,  it 
points  out  the  ablative  case,  it  is  the  sign  of  the  abla 
five  case;  and  a single  letter  affixed  to  diflerent  parcels 
is  merely  a mark  so  long  as  it  simply  serves  this  pur- 
pose ; but  the  same  letter,  suppose  it  were  a word,  is  a 
sign  when  it  is  used  as  a sign.  It  is,  moreover,  clear 
from  the  above,  that  there  are  many  objects  which 
serve  as  maris,  which  are  never  signs;  and  on  the 
other  hand,  although  signs  me  mostly  composed,  yet 
there  are  two  sorts  of  signs  which  have  nothing  to  do 
with  the  mark ; namely,  those  which  we  obtain  by  any 
othei  .sense  than  that  of  sight;  or  those  which  are 
only  figures  in  the  mind.  When  words  are  spoken, 
and  not  written,  they  are  signs  and  not  marks ; and 
in  like  manner  the  sign  of  the  cross,  when  made  on 
the  forehead  of  children  in  baptism,  is  a sign,  but  not 
a mark.  This  illustration  of  these  two  words  in  their 
strict  and  proper  sense,  will  serve  to  explain  them  in 
their  extended  and  metaphorical  sense.  A mark  stands 
for  nothing  but  what  is  visible;  the  sign  stands  for 
that  only  which  is  real.  A star  on  the  breast  of  an 
officer  or  nobleman  is  a mark  of  distinction  or  honour, 
because  it  distinguishes  one  person  from  another,  and 
in  a way  that  is  apt  to  reflect  honour;  but  it  is  not  a 
sign  of  honour,  because  it  is  not  the  indubitable  test  of 
a man’s  honourable  feelings,  since  it  may  be  conferred 
by  favour  or  by  mistake,  or  from  some  partial  circum 
stance. 

The  mark  and  sign  may  both  stand  for  the  appear 
ance  of  things,  and  in  that  case  the  former  shows  the 
cause  by  the  effect,  the  latter  the  consequent  by  the 
antecedent.  When  a thing  is  said  to  bear  the  marks 
of  violence,  the  cause  of  the  mark  is  judged  of  by  the 
mark  itself ; but  when  we  say  that  a lowering  sky  is  a 
sign  of  rain,  the  future  or  consequent  event  is  judged 
of  by  the  present  appearance ; 

So  plain  the  signs,  such  prophets  are  the  skies. 

Dryden. 

So  likewise  we  judge  by  the  marks  of  a person’s  fool 
that  some  one  has  been  walking  in  a given  place ; 
when  mariners  meet  with  birds  at  sea,  they  consider 
them  a sign  that  land  is  near  at  hand. 

It  is  here  worthy  of  observation,  however,  that 
mark  is  only  used  for  that  which  may  be  seen,  bu; 
that  the  sign  may  serve  to  direct  our  conclusions,  even 
in  that  which  affects  the  hearing,  feeling,  smell,  or 
taste;  thus  hoarseness  is  a.  sign  that  the  person  has 
a cold;  the  effects  which  it  produces  on  the  patient 
are  to  himself  sensible  signs  that  he  labours  under 
such  an  affection.  The  smell  of  fire  is  a sign  that 
some  place  is  on  fire;  one  of  the  two  travellers,  in 
La  Molhe’s  fable,  considered  the  taste  of  the  wine  as 
a sign  that  there  must  be  leather  in  the  bottle,  and  the 
other  that  there  must  be  iron ; and  it  proved  that  they 
were  both  right,  for  a little  key  with  a bit  of  leather 
tied  to  it  was  found  at  the  bottom. 

In  this  sense  of  the  words  they  are  applied  to  moral 
objects  with  precisely  the  same  distinction:  the  ma?7£ 
illustrates  the  spring  of  the  action  ; the  sign  shows  the 
state  of  the  mind  or  sentiments:  it  is  a wiarA:  of  folly  or 
weakness  in  a man  to  yield  himself  implicitly  to  the 
guidance  of  an  interested  friend  ; ‘ The  ceremonial 
laws  of  Moses  were  the  marks  to  distinguish  the  peo 
pie  of  God  from  the  Gentiles.’ — Bacon.  Tears  are 
not  always  a sign  of  repentance;  ‘ The  sacring  of  the 
kings  of  France  (as  Loysel  says)  is  the  sign  of  their 
sovereign  priesthood.’ — Temple. 

A note  is  rather  a sign  than  a mark ; but  it  is  pro- 
perly the  sign  which  consists  of  marks,  as  a note  of 
admiration  (1),  and  likewise  a note  which  consists  of 
many  letters  and  words. 

Symptom  is  rather  a mark  than  a sign  ; it  explains 
the  cause  or  origin  of  complaints,  by  the  appearance? 
they  assume,  and  is  employed  as  a technical  term  unit 


448 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


In  the  science  of  medicine : as  a foaming  at  the  mouth, 
and  an  abhorrence  of  drink,  are  symptoms  of  canine 
madness ; motion  and  respiration  are  signs  of  life. 
Symptom  may  likewise  be  used  figuratively  in  appli- 
cation to  moral  objects;  ‘This  fall  of  the  French 
monarchy  was  far  from  being  preceded  by  any  exteriour 
symptoms  of  decline.’— Burke. 

Token  is  a species  of  mark  in  the  moral  sense, 
indication  a species  of  sign ; the  jnark  shows  what  is, 
the  token  serves  to  keep  in  mind  what  has  been:  a 
gift  to  a friend  is  a mark  of  one’s  alFection  and  esteem ; 
if  it  be  permanent  in  its  nature  it  becomes  a token  : 
friends  who  are  in  close  intercourse  have  perpetual 
opportunities  of  showing  each  other  marks  of  their 
regard  by  reciprocal  acts  of  courtesy  and  kindness; 
when  they  separate  for  any  length  of  time,  they  com- 
monly leave  some  token  of  their  tender  sentiments  in 
each  other’s  hands,  as  a pledge  of  what  shall  be,  as 
well  as  an  evidence  of  what  has  been ; ‘ The  famous 
bull-feasts  are  an  evident  token  of  the  Q-uixotism  and 
romantick  taste  of  the  Spaniards.’ — Somerville. 

Sign,  as  it  respects  an  indication,  is  said  in  abstract 
and  general  propositions:  indication  itself  is  only  em- 
ployed for  some  particular  individual  referred  to;  it 
bespeaks  the  act  of  the  persons:  but  the  is  only 
the  face  or  appearance  of  the  thing.  When  a man 
does  not  live  consistently  with  the  profession  which  he 
holds,  it  is  a sign  that  his  religion  is  built  on  a wrong 
foundation ; parents  are  gratified  when  they  observe 
the  slightest  indications  of  genius  or  goodness  in  their 
children  ; ‘ It  is  certain  Virgil’s  parents  gave  him  a good 
education,  to  which  they  were  inclined  by  the  early 
indications  he  gave  of  a sweet  disposition  and  excel- 
ient  wit.’ — Walsh. 


MARK,  TRACE,  VESTIGE,  FOOTSTEP,  TRACK. 

The  word  mark  has  already  been  considered  at  large 
in  the  preceding  article,  but  it  will  admit  of  farther 
niustration  when  taken  in  the  sense  of  that  which  is 
visible,  and  serves  to  show  the  existing  state  cf  things; 
mark  is  here,  as  before,  the  most  general  and  unqua- 
lified term;  the  other  terms  varying  in  the  circum- 
itances  or  manner  of  the  mark ; trace,  in  Italian  treccia, 
Greek  rpixtiv  to  run,  and  Hebrew  way,  signifies 
any  continued  mark  ; vestige,  in  Latin  vestigium,  not 
improbably  contracted  from  pedis  and  stigium  or 
stigma,  from  s-I^a>  to  imprint,  signifies  a print  of  the 
foot ; footstep  is  taken  for  the  place  in  which  the  foot 
has  stepped,  or  the  mark  made  by  that  step;  track, 
derived  from  the  same  source  as  trace,  signifies  the 
way  run,  or  the  mark  produced  by  that  running. 

The  mark  is  said  of  a fresh  and  uninterrupted  line ; 
lire  trace  is  said  of  that  which  is  broken  by  time:  a 
carriage,  in  driving  along  the  sand  leaves  marks  of  the 
wheels,  but  in  a short  time  all  traces  of  its  having 
leeii  there  will  be  lost : the  mark  is  produced  by  the 
action  of  bodies  on  one  another  in  every  possible  form ; 
the  spilling  of  a liquid  may  leave  a mark  on  the  floor ; 
.he  blow  of  a stick  leaves  a mark  on  the  body ; 

I have  served  him 

In  this  old  body ; yet  the  marks  remain 
Of  many  wounds. — Otway. 

I’he  trace  is  a mark  produced  only  by  bodies  making 
a progress  or  proceeding  in  a continued  course:  the 
ship  that  cuts  the  waves,  and  the  bird  that  cuts  the  air, 
leaves  no  traces  of  their  course  behind ; so  men  pass 
their  lives,  and  after  death  they  leave  no  traces  that 
they  ever  were ; ‘ The  greatest  favours  to  an  ungrateful 
man  are  but  like  the  motion  of  a ship  upon  the  waves : 
they  leave  no  trace,  no  sign  behind  them.’ — South. 
These  words  are  both  applied  to  moral  objects,  but 
the  mark  is  produced  by  objects  of  inferiour  import- 
ance ; it  excites  a momentary  observation,  but  does 
not  carry  us  back  to  the  past ; its  cause  is  either  too 
:i)vious  or  too  minute  to  awaken  attention ; a trace  is 
generally  a mark  of  something  which  we  may  wish  to 
see.  Marks  of  haste  and  imbecility  in  a common 
writer  excite  no  surprise,  and  call  forth  no  obser- 
ation ; 

The.se  are  the  monuments  of  Helen’s  love, 

Tlie  shame  I bear  below,  the  marks  I bore  above. 

Dryden. 

In  a writer  of  long  standing  ce'ebrity,  we  look  for 
traces  of  his  former  genius. 


The  vestige  is  a species  of  the  mark  caused  liierany 
by  the  foot  of  man,  and  consequently  applied  to  sucu 
places  as  have  been  inhabited,  where  the  active  in 
dustry  of  man  has  left  visible  marks;  it  is  a species 
of  trace,  inasmuch  as  it  carries  us  back  to  that  which 
was,  but  is  not  at  present.  We  discover  by  marks 
that  things  have  been;  we  discover  by  traces  ano 
vestiges  what  they  have  been;  a hostile  army  always 
leaves  sufficiently  evident  marks  of  its  having  passed 
through  a country  ; there  are  traces  of  the  Roman 
roads  still  visible  in  London  and  different  parts  of 
England;  Rome  contains  ninny  vestiges  of  its  former 
greatness ; ‘ Both  Britain  and  Ireland  had  temples  for 
the  worship  of  the  gods,  the  vestiges  of  which  are  now 
remaining.’— Parsons. 

Mineralogists  assert  that  there  are  many  marks  of  a 
universal  deluge  discoverable  in  the  fossils  and  strata 
of  the  earth ; philological  inquirers  imagine  that  there 
are  traces  in  the  existing  languages  of  the  world  suf- 
ficient to  ascertain  the  progress  by  which  the  earth 
became  populated  after  the  deluge;  the  pyramids  are 
vestiges  of  antiquity  which  raise  our  ideas  of  human 
greatness  beyond  any  thing  which  the  modern  state  of 
the  arts  can  present.  Vestige,  like  the  two  former 
may  be  applied  to  moral  as  well  as  natural  objects  with 
the  same  line  of  distinction.  A person  betrays  marks 
of  levity  in  his  conduct.  Wherever  we  discover  traces 
of  the  same  customs  or  practices  in  one  country  which 
are  prevalent  in  another,  we  suppose  those  countries 
to  have  had  an  intercourse  or  connexion  of  some  kind 
with  one  another  at  a certain  remote  period. 

Footstep  and  track  are  sometimes  employed  as  a 
mark,  but  oftener  as  a road  or  course  : when  we  talk 
of  following  the  footsteps  of  another,  it  may  signify 
either  to  follow  the  marks  of  his  footsteps  as  a guide 
for  the  course  we  should  take,  or  to  walk  in  the  very 
same  steps  as  he  has  done ; the  former  is  the  act  of 
one  who  is  in  pursuit  of  another ; the  latter  is  the  act 
of  him  w’ho  follows  in  a train.  Footsteps  is  employed 
only  for  the  steps  of  an  individual ; the  track  is  made 
by  the  steps  of  many ; it  is  the  line  which  has  been 
beaten  out  or  made  by  stamping:  the  term  footstep 
can  only  be  employed  for  men  or  brutes ; but  track  is 
applied  to  inanimate  objects,  as  the  wheel  of  a car 
riage.  When  Cacus  took  away  the  oxen  of  Hercules 
he  dragged  them  backward  that  they  might  not  oe 
traced  by  their  footsteps ; a track  of  blood  from  the 
body  of  a murdered  man  may  sometimes  lead  to  the 
detection  of  the  murderer. 

In  the  metaphorical  application  they  do  not  signify 
a wiarA,  but  a course  of  conduct;  the  former  respects 
one’s  moral  feelings  or  mode  of  dealing;  the  latter 
one’s  mechanical  and  habitual  manner  of  acting:  the 
former  is  the  consequence  of  having  the  same  princi- 
ples ; the  latter  proceeds  from  imnation  or  constant 
repetition. 

A good  son  will  walk  in  the  footsteps  of  a good 
father.  In  the  management  of  business  it  is  rarely 
wise  in  a young  man  to  leave  the  track  which  has 
been  marked  out  for  him  by  his  superiours  in  age  and 
experience ; 

Virtue  alone  ennobles  humankind. 

And  power  should  on  her  glorious  footsteps  wait. 

Wynne 

Though  all  seems  lost,  ’tis  impious  to  despair. 

The  tracks  of  Providence  like  rivers  wibd. 

Hioqons 


MARK,  BADGE,  STIGMA. 

Mark  (w.  Mark,  print)  is  still  the  general,  and  the 
two  other  specifick  terms ; they  are  employed  for  what- 
ever externally  serves  to  characterize  persons,  or  beto- 
ken any  part  either  of  his  character  or  his  circum- 
stances : mark  is  employed  either  in  a good,  bad,  or  in- 
different sense;  badge  in  an  indifferent;  stigma  in  a 
bad  sense : a thing  may  either  be  a mark  of  honour,  ot 
disgrace,  or  of  simple  distinc  ion  : a badge  is  a mark 
simply  of  distinction  ; the  stigma  is  a mark  of  disgrace. 
The  mark  is  conferred  upon  a person  for  his  merits,  at 
medals,  stars,  and  ribands  are  bestowed  by  princes  upon 
meritorious  officers  and  soldiers ; or  the  mark  attaches 
to  a person,  or  is  affixed  to  him,  in  consequence  of  his 
demerits;  as  a low  situation  in  his  class  is  a mark  of 
disgrace  to  a scholar;  or  a fool’s  cap  is  a mark  of  igno- 
miny aflixed  to  idlers  and  dunces ; or  a brai;d  in  the 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  449 


/brehrad  is  a mafk  of  ignom/ri^  for  criminals;  ‘In 
those  revolutionary  meetings,  every  counsel,  in  propor- 
tion as  it  is  daring  and  violent  and  perfidious,  is  taken 
for  tlie  wiorA  ofsuperiourgenius.’ — Burke,  'i'he  badge 
is  voluntarily  assumed  by  one’s  self  according  to  esta- 
blished cusfjni ; it  consists  of  dress  by  which  the  office, 
station,  and  even  religion  of  a particular  community  is 
distinguished:  as  the  gown  and  wig  is  ihe  badge  of 
gentlemen  in  the  law;  the  gown  and  surplice  that  of 
clerical  men;  the  uniform  of  charity  children  is  the 
badge  of  their  condition;  the  i)eculiar  habit  of  the 
(iuakers  and  Methodists  is  the  badge  of  their  religion  ; 

The  people  of  England  look  upon  hereditary  succes- 
sion as  a security  for  their  liberty,  not  as  a badge  of 
servitude.’ — Burke. 

The  stigma,  consists  not  so  much  in  what  is  openly 
imposed  upon  a person  as  wliat  falls  upon  him  in  the 
judgement  of  others  ; it  is  the  black  mark  which  is  set 
upon  a person  by  the  publick,  and  is  consequently  the 
strongest  of  all  marks,  which  everyone  most  dreads, 
and  every  good  man  seeks  least  to  dc-serve.  A simple 
mark  may  sometimes  be  such  only  in  our  own  imagi- 
nation ; as  when  one  fancies  th:it  dress  is  a mark  of 
superiority,  or  the  contrary;  that  the  courtesies  which 
we  receive  from  a superiour  are  marks  of  his  personal 
esteem  and  regard  : but  the  stigma  is  not  what  an  in- 
dividual itnagines  for  himself,  but  what  is  conceived  to- 
wards him  by  others;  the  office  of  a spy  and  informer 
is  so  odious,  that  every  man  of  honest  feeling  holds  the 
very  name  to  be  a stigma : although  a stigma  is  in 
general  the  consequence  of  a man’s  real  unworthiness, 
yet  it  is  possible  for  particular  prejudices  and  ruling 
passions  to  make  that  a stigma  which  is  not  so  de- 
servedly; as  in  the  case  of  men’s  religious  profession, 
inasmuch  as  it  is  not  accompanied  with  any  moral  de- 
pravity ; it  is  mostly  unjust  to  attach  a stigma  to  a 
whole  body  of  men  for  their  s.peculative  views;  ‘The 
cross,  which  our  Saviour’s  enemies  thought  was  to 
stigmatize  him  with  infamy,  became  the  ensign  of  his 
renown,’ — Blair. 


MARK,  BUTT. 

After  all  that  has  been  said  upon  the  word  mark  (v. 
Mark,  print),  it  has  this  additional  meaning  in  com- 
mon with  the  word  butt,  that  it  implies  an  object 
aimed  at:  the  mark  is  however  literally  a mark  that 
is  said  to  be  sliot  at  by  the  marksman  with  a gun  or  a 
bow; 

A fluttering  dove  u[>on  the  top  they  tie. 

Pile  living  mark  at  which  their  arrows  fly. 

Dryden. 

Or  it  is  metaphorically  employed  for  the  man  who  by 
his  peculiar  cnaracteristicks  makes  himself  the  object 
of  notice;  he  is  the  mark  at  which  every  one’s  looks 
and  thoughts  are  directed  ; 

He  made  the  mark 

For  all  the  people’s  hate,  the  prince’s  curses. 

Denham. 

The  butt,  from  the  French  but  the  end,  is  a species  of 
mark  m this  metaphorical  sense;  but  the  former  only 
calls  forth  general  observation,  the  latter  provokes  the 
laughter  and  jokes  of  every  one.  Whoever  renders 
himself  conspicuoas  by  his  eccentricities  either  in  his 
opinions  or  his  actions,  must  not  complain  if  he  be- 
comes a jnark  for  the  derision  of  the  publick ; it  is  a 
man’s  misfortune  rather  than  his  fault  if  lie  become 
the  butt  of  a company  who  are  rude  and  unfeeling 
enough  to  draw  their  pleasures  from  another’s  pain; 

' I mean  those  honest  gentlemen  that  are  pelted  by  men, 
women,  and  children,  by  friends  and  foes,  and  in  a word 
stand  as  butts  in  conversation.’ — Addison. 


TO  DERIVE,  TRACE,  DEDUCE. 

Derive,  from  the  Latin  de  and  rivus  a river,  signi- 
fies to  drain  after  the  manner  of  water  from  its  source ; 
trace,  in  Italian  tracciarc,  Greek  rpf%w  to  run,  Hebrew 
n-n  to  go,  signifies  to  go  by  a line  drawn  out,  to  fol- 
low the  line ; deduce,  in  Latin  deduce,  signifies  to  bring 
from. 

The  idea  of  drawing  one  thing  from  another  is  in- 
cluded in  all  the  actions  designated  by  these  terms. 
The  bet  of  deriving  is  immediate  and  direct ; that  of 

29 


tracing  a gradual  process;  mat  or  by  a 

ratiocinative  jiroce-ss. 

We  di.scovercau.ses  and  sources  by  derivation;  we 
discover  the  course  progress,  and  commencement  ot 
things  by  tracing ; we  discover  the  grounds  and  rea 
sons  of  things  by  deduction.  A person  dcrive.s  his 
name  from  a given  source;  he  traces  his  family  up  to 
a given  period  ; principles  or  jiowers  aie  deduced  from 
circumstances  or  observations.  The  Trojans  derived 
the  name  of  their  city  from  'Pros,  a king  of  Phrygia  : 
they  traced  the  line  of  their  kings  up  to  Dardanu  ». 
‘The  kings  among  the  heathens  ever  derived  theinl 
selves  or  their  ancestors  from  some  good.’ — Temple 
Let  Newton,  pure  intelligence!  whom  God 
To  mortals  lent  to  trace  his  boundless  works. 

From  laws  sublimely  simple  speak  thy  fame. 

Thomso.n 

Copernicus  deduced  the  piinciple  of  the  earth’s  turn 
ing  round  from  several  simiileoliservalions,  particularly 
from  the  apparent  and  contrary  motion  of  bodies  that 
are  really  at  rest.  The  English  tongue  is  of  such  mixed 
origin  that  there  is  scarcely  any  known  language  from 
which  some  one  of  its  words  is  not  derivable;  it  is  an 
interesting  etnployment  to  trace  the  progress  of  science 
and  civilization  in  countries  which  have  been  involved 
in  ignorance  and  barbaiism  ; from  the  writings  of 
Locke  and  other  philosoitliers  of  an  equally  loose 
stamp,  have  been  deduced  princi|)les  both  in  morals  and 
politicks  that  are  destructive  to  the  happiness  of  men  in 
civil  society;  ‘From  the  discovery  of  some  natural 
authority  may  perhaps  be  deduced  a truer  original  of 
all  governments  among  men  than  from  any  contracts.’ 
— Temple. 

TO  IMPLANT,  INGRAFT,  INCULCATE, 
INSTIL,  INFUSE. 

To  plant  is  properly  to  fix  plants  in  tlie  gi^and,  to  » 
implant  is,  in  the  improper  sense,  to  fix  principles  in 
the  mind.  Graft  is  to  make  one  plant  grow  on  the 
stock  of  another ; to  ingraft  is  to  make  particular 
principles  flourish  in  the  mind,  and  form  a part  of  the 
character.  Calco  is  in  Latin  to  tread  ; and  inculcate 
to  stamp  into  the  mind.  Stillo,  in  Latin,  is  literally  to 
fall  dropwise ; instillo,  to  instil,  is,  in  the  improper 
sense,  to  make  sentiments  as  it  were  drop  into  the  mind 
Fundo,  in  Latin,  is  literally  to  pour  in  a stream ; in- 
f undo,  to  inf  use,  is,  in  the  improper  sense,  to  pour  prin 
ciples  or  feelings  into  the  mind. 

To  implant,  ingraft,  and  inculcate  are  said  of  ab 
stract  opinions,  or  rulesof  right  and  wrong;  and 

infuse  of  such  principles  as  influence  the  heart,  the 
affections,  and  the  passions.  It  is  the  business  of  the 
parent  in  early  life  to  mpZant  sentiments  of  virtue  in 
ins  child ; * 

With  various  seeds  of  art  deep  in  the  mind. 

Implanted. — Thomson. 

It  is  the  business  of  the  teacher  to  ingraft  them ; 
‘The  reciprocal  attraction  in  the  minds  of  "men  is  a 
principle  ingrafted  in  the  very  first  formation  of  the 
soul,  by  the  Author  of  our  nature.’ — Berkeley.  The 
belief  of  a Deity,  and  all  the  truths  of  Divine  Revela 
tion,  ought  to  he  implanted  in  the  mind  of  the  child  as 
soon  as  it  can  understand  any  thing;  if  it  have  not  en 
joyed  this  privilege  in  its  earliest  infancy,  the  task  of 
ingrafting  these  principles  afterward  into  the  mind 
is  attended  with  considerable  difficulty  and  uncertainty 
of  success.  To  inculcate  is  a more  immediate  act 
than  either  to  mpZarit  or  ingraft.  It  is  the  business 
of  the  preacher  to  inculcate  the  doctrines  of  Chris- 
tianity from  the  pulpit;  ‘To  preach  practical  sermons, 
as  they  are  called,  that  is,  sermons  upon  virtues  and 
vices,  without  inculcating  the  great  Scripture  trutlK 
of  redemption,  grace,  &c.  which  alone  can  enable  an^. 
incite  us  to  forsake  sin  and  follow  after  righteousness; 
what  is  it,  but  to  put  together  the  wheels  and  set  the 
hands  of  a watch,  forgetting  the  spring  which  is  to 
make  them  all  goT — Bishop  Horne.  Instilling  is  a 
corresponding  act  whh  implanting ; we  implant  be- 
lief ; we  instil  the  feeling  which  is  connected  with  this 
belief.  It  is  not  enough  to  have  an  abstract  belief  of 
a God  implanted  into  the  mind  ; we  must  likewise  have 
a love  and  a fear  of  him,  and  reverence  for  his  holy 
namt  and  Word,  instilled  into  the  mind. 

To  instil  is  a gradual  process  which  is  the  natural 
work  of  education  ; to  infuse  is  a more  arbitrary  and 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


4iA> 


immeniait  act.  Soiitiinoiits  are  instilled  into  the  mind, 
not  aitogettier  by  tlie  persona!  efforts  of  any  individual, 
but  likewise  by  collateral  eiidi;avours  ; ihey  are  How- 
ever infused  at  tlie  express  will,  and  with  the  express 
endeavour  of  some  person.  By  the  reading  of  the 
Scriptures,  an  attendance  on  publick  worship,  and  the 
lutiuence  of  example,  combined  w’ith  the  instructions 
of  a parent,  religious  sentiments  are  instilled  into  the 
mind;  ‘Tiie  ajiostle  often  makes  mention  of  sound 
dot  trine  in  opi)osition  to  the  extravagant  and  corrupt 
opinions  which  false  teachers,  eveti  in  those  days,  in- 
siiUed  into  the  minds  of  their  ignorant  and  unwary 
disciples.’ — Bkveriugk.  By  the  counsel  and  conver- 
sation of  an  intimate  friend,  an  even  current  of  the 
feeling  becomes  infused  into  the  mind  ; 

No  sooner  grows 
The  soft  infusion  prevalent  and  wide. 

Than,  all  alive,  at  once  their  joy  o’ertiovvs 
In  musick  unconfin’d. — ThoKison. 

Instil  is  applicable  only  to  permanent  sentiments  ; in- 
fuse may  be  said  of  any  partial  I'eeling:  hence  vve 
speak  of  infusing'  a poison  into  the  mind  by  means  of 
insidious  and  mischievous  publications,  or  infusing  a 
jealousy  by  means  of  crafty  insinuations,  or  inf  using  an 
ardour  into  the  mitids  of  soldiers  by  means  of  spirited 
addresses  coupled  with  military  successes. 

TO  IMPRINT,  IMPRESS,  ENGRAVE. 

Print  and  press  are  both  derived  from  pi'essus,  par- 
ticiple of  premo^  signifying  in  the  literal  sense  to  press, 
or  to  make  a mark  by  pressing ; to  impress  and  im- 
print are  morally  enployed  in  the  same  sense.  Things 
are  impressed  on  the  mind  so  as  to  produce  a convic- 
tion : they  are  imprinted  on  it  so  as  to  produce  recol- 
lection. If  the  truths  of  Christianity  be  impressed  on 
the  mind,  they  will  show  themselves  in  a correspond- 
'ng  conduct:  whatever  is  imprinted  on  the  mind  in 
early  life,  or  by  any  particular  circumstance,  is  not 
readily  forgotten ; 

Whence  this  disdain  of  life  in  ev’ry  breast. 

But  from  a notion  on  their  minds  impress'd 
That  all  who  for  their  country  die  are  bless’d ! 

Jenvns. 

‘ Such  a strange,  sacred,  and  inviolable  majesty  has 
God  imprinted  upon  this  faculty  (the  conscience),  that 
it  can  never  be  deposed.’ — South.  Engrave^  from 
grave  and  the  German  graben  to  dig,  expresses  more 
in  the  proper  sense  than  either,  and  the  same  in  its 
moral  application  ; for  we  may  truly  say  that  if  the 
truths  of  Christianity  be  engraven  in  the  minds  of 
youth,  tl\ey  can  never  be  eradicated ; 

Deep  on  his  front  engraven, 
Deliberation  sat,  and  publick  care. — Milton. 

SEAL,  STAMP. 

Seal  is  a specifick,  stamp  a general,  term  : there 
cannot  be  a seal  w'ilhout  a stamp ; but  there  may  be 
many  stamps  where  there  is  no  seal.  Seal,  in  Latin 
sigillum,  signifies  a signet  or  little  sign,  consisting  of 
any  one’s  coat  of  arms,  or  any  other  device ; the  stamp 
is,  in  general,  any  impression  whatever  which  has 
been  made  by  stamping,  that  is,  any  impression  which 
is  not  easily  to  be  effaced.  In  the  improper  sense,  the 
seal  is  the  authority ; thus  to  set  one’s  seal  is  the  same 
as  to  authorize,  and  the  seal  of  truth  is  any  outward 
mark  which  characterizes  it ; 

Therefore,  not  long  in  force  this  charter  stood. 
Wanting  that  seal,  it  must  be  seal'd  in  blood. 

Denham. 

In  the  stamp  is  the  impression  by  which  we  distinguish 
the  thing ; thus  a thing  is  said  to  bear  the  stamp  of 
truth,  of  sincerity,  of  veracity,  and  the  like ; 

Wisdom  for  parts  is  madness  for  the  whole, 

This  stamps  the  paradox,  and  gives  us  leave 
To  call  the  wisest  weak. — Young. 

PICTURE,  PRINT,  ENGRAVING. 

Picture  (v.  Painting)  is  any  likeness  taken  by  the 
iiand  of  the  artist ; the  prirf,  is  the  copy  of  the  paint- 
in  a printed  state;  and  the  engraving  is  that 
a nich  is  [■••odaced  by  ap  engraver : every  engraving 


is  a print;  but  every  print  is  notar.  eKgrxving ; IXn 
the  picture  may  be  printed  off  from  soiueihiog  besides 
an  engraving,  as  in  the  case  of  wood  cuts.  The  pic- 
ture is  sometimes  taken  for  any  represeniatcon  of  a 
likeness  without  regard  to  the  mode  by  tvifich  it  is 
formed  : in  this  case  it  is  employed  mostly  for  the  re- 
presentations of  the  cemmon  kind  that  are  foup.d  in 
books ; but  the  print  und  engraving  are  said  of  the 
liigher  specimens  of  the  art.  On  certain  occasions  the 
word  engraving  is  most  appropriate,  as  to  take  an  «.» • 
graving  of  a particular  object ; on  other  occasiorrs  tJt* 
word  print,  as  a handsome  print  or  a large /rurwt; 
Tlie^rrctiires  plac’d  for  ornament  and  use. 

The  twelve  good  rules,  the  royal  game  of  goose. 

Goldsmith 

Tim,  with  surprise  and  pleasure  staring. 

Ran  to  the  glass,  and  then  comparing 
His  own  sweet  figure  with  the  print. 

Distinguish’d  every  feature  in ’t. — Swift 
‘ Since  the  publick  has  of  late  begun  to  expre>ss  a relish 
for  engravings,  drawings,  copyings,  and  for  the  original 
paintings  of  the  chief  Italian  school,  I doubt  not  that 
in  very  few  years  we  shall  make  an  equal  progress  in 
this  other  science.’ — Earl  of  Shaftesbury. 


TO  MARK,  NOTE,  NOTICE. 

Mark  is  here  taken  in  the  intellectual  sense,  fixing 
as  it  were  a mark  (u.  Mark)  upon  a thing  so  as  tc 
keep  it  in  mind,  which  is  in  fact  to  fix  one’s  attention 
upon  it  in  such  a manner  as  to  be  able  to  distinguisb 
it  by  its  character  istick  qualities ; to  mark  is  therefore 
altogether  an  intellectual  act : to  note  has  the  same  end 
as  that  of  marking,  namely,  to  aid  the  memory  ; but 
one  notes  a thing  by  making  a written  note  of  it ; this 
is  therefore  a mechanical  act : to  notice,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  a sensible  operation,  from  notitia  knowledge 
signifying  to  bring  to  one’s  knowledge,  perception,  or 
understanding  by  the  use  of  our  senses.  We  mark 
and  note  that  which  particularly  inlerests  us.  Mark- 
ing serves  a present  purpose.  Muting  is  applied  to 
that  which  may  be  of  use  in  future.  The  impaiienl 
lover  marks  the  hours  until  the  time  arrives  for  meet- 
ing his  mistress ; ‘ Many  who  mark  with  such  accur.acy 
the  course  of  time  appear  to  have  little  sensibility  of 
the  decline  of  life.’ — Johnson.  Travellers  note  what- 
ever strikes  them  of  importance  to  be  remembered 
when  they  return  home ; 

O treach’rous  conscience ! while  she  seems  to  sleep, 

Unnoted,  notes  each  moment  misapply’d. — Young. 
To  notice  may  serve  either  for  the  present  or  the  future; 
we  may  notice  things  merely  by  way  of  amusement, 
as  a child  will  notice  the  actions  of  animals ; or  we  may 
notice  a thing  for  the  sake  of  bearing  it  in  mind,  as  a 
person  notices  a particular  road  when  he  vrishes  to 
return  ; ‘ An  Englishman’s  notice  of  the  weather  is  the 
natural  consequence  of  changeable  skies  and  uncertain 
seasons.’ — Johnson. 


TO  NOTICE,  REMARK,  OBSERVE. 

To  notice  {v.  To  attend  to)  is  either  to  take  or  to  give 
notice : to  remark,  compounded  of  re  and  mark  (v 
Mark),  signifies  to  reflect  or  bring  back  any  mark  to 
our  own  mind,  or  communicate  the  same  to  another ; 
to  mark  is  to  mark  a thing  once,  but  to  remark  is  to 
mark  it  again  ; observe  (v.  Looker-on)  signifies  either 
to  keep  a thing  present  before  one’s  own  view,  or  to 
communicate  our  view  to  another. 

In  the  first  sense  of  these  words,  as  the  action  re- 
spects ourselves,  to  notice  and  remark  require  simple 
attention,  to  observe  requires  examination.  To  notice 
is  a more  cursory  action  than  to  remark:  we  may 
notice  a thing  by  a single  glance,  or  on  merely  turning 
one’s  head  ; but  to  remark  supposes  a reaction  of  the 
mind  on  an  object:  we  notice  that  a person  passes  oui 
door  on  a certain  day  and  at  a certain  hour  ; but  we 
remark  to  others  that  he  goes  past  every  day  at  the 
same  hour ; we  notice  that  the  sun  sets  this  eveninj 
under  a cloud,  and  we  remark  that  it  has  done  so  fo/ 
several  evenings  successively  : we  notice  the  state  of  a 
person’s  health  or  his  manners  in  company  , vve  remar 
his  habits  and  peculiarities  in  domestick  life.  What 
is  noticed  and  remarked  strikes  on  the  senses,  anO 
awakens  the  mind  ; what  is  observed  is  looked 


ENGLISH  SVNONYMES. 


4o 


ftiid  sought  for.  JsToticmg  and  remarking  are  often 
involuntary  acts  ; vve  see,  hear,  and  liiink,  because  the 
objects  obtrude  themselves  uncalled  for:  but  ol/scrving 
is  intentional  as  well  as  voluntary  ; we  see,  hear,  and 
think  on  that  which  we  have  w'atched.  We  remark 
things  as  matters  of  fact ; we  observe  them  in  order 
to  judge  of,  or  draw  conclusions  from,  them:  we  re- 
mark that  the  wind  lies  for  a long  time  in  a certain 
quarter ; we  observe  that  whenever  it  lies  in  a certain 
quarter  it  brings  rain  with  it.  A general  notices  any 
thing  particular  in  the  appearance  of  his  army ; he  , 
remarks  that  the  men  have  nut  for  a length  of  time 
worn  contented  faces  ; he  consequently  observes  their 
actions,  when  they  think  they  are  not  seen,  in  order  to 
discover  the  cause  of  their  dissatisfaction  : people  who 
have  no  cirriosity  are  sometimes  attracted  to  notice  the 
stars  or  planets,  when  they  are  particularly  bright; 
those  who  look  frequently  will  remark  that  the  same 
star  does  not  rise  exactly  in  the  same  place  for  two 
successive  nights ; but  the  astronomer  goes  farther,  and 
observes  all  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  in 
order  to  discover  the  schem6  of  the  universe;  ‘The 
depravity  of  mankind  is  so  easily  discoverable,  that 
nothing  but  the  desert  or  cell  can  exclude  it  from  no- 
tice.'— Johnson.  ‘ The  glass  that  magnifies  its  objects 
contracts  the  sight  to  a point,  and  the  mind  must  be 
fixed  upon  a single  character,  to  remark  its  minute 
pecHliarities.’— Johnson.  ‘ The  course  of  time  is  so 
visibly  marked,  that  it  is  observed  even  by  the  birds 
of  passage.’ — Johnson. 

In  the  latter  sense  of  these  verbs,  as  respects  the 
communications  to  others  of  what  passes  in  our  own 
minds,  to  notice  is  to  make  known  our  sentiments  by 
various  ways ; to  remark  and  observe  are  to  make 
them  known  only  by  means  of  words : to  notice  is  a 
personal  act  towards  an  individual,  in  which  we  direct 
our  attention  to  him,  as  may  happen  either  by  a bow, 
a nod,  a word,  or  even  a look  ; ‘ As  some  do  perceive, 
yea,  and  like  it  well,  they  should  he  so  noticed.' — 
Howard.  To  remark  and  observe  are  said  otdy  of  the 
thoughts  which  pass  in  our  own  minds,  and  are  ex- 
pressed to  others : friends  notice  each  other  when  they 
meet;  they  remark  to  others  the  impression  which 
passing  objects  make  upon  their  minds;  ‘ He  cannot 
distinguish  dilficult  and  noble  speculations  from  trifling 
and  vulgar  remarks.' — Collier.  The  observations 
which  intelligent  people  make  are  always  entitled  to 
n:tice  from  young  persons ; ‘ Wherever  I have  found 
her  notes  to  be  wholly  another  s,  which  is  the  case  in 
some  hundreds,  I have  barely  quoted  the  true  ptoprie- 
tor,  without  observing  upon  it.’— Pope. 

OBSERVATION,  OBSERVANCE. 

These  terms  derive  their  use  from  the  different  sig- 
nifications of  the  verb;  observation  is  the  act  of  ob- 
serving objects  with  the  view  to  examine  them  (a.  To 
notice) ; observance  is  the  act  of  observing  a thing  in 
the  sense  of  keeping  or  holding  it  sticred  (v.  To  keep). 
From  a minute  observation  of  the  human  body,  ana- 
tomists have  discovered  the  circulation  of  the  blood, 
and  the  source  of  all  the  humours;  ‘The  pride  which, 
under  the  check  of  publicko/Afcrjjftt/oH  would  have  been 
only  vented  among  domesticks,  becomes,  in  a country 
baronet,  the  torment  of  a province.’— Johnson.  By  a 
strict  observance  of  truth  and  justice,  a man  acquires 
the  title  of  an  upright  man;  ‘Von  must  not  fail  to 
behave  yourself  towards  my  Lady  Clare,  your  grand- 
mother, with  all  duty  and  observance.' — Earl  Staf- 
ford. 

EXTRAORDINARY,  REMARKABLE, 

Are  epithets  both  opposed  to  the  ordinary;  and  in 
that  sense  the  extraordinary  is  that  which  in  its  own 
nature  is  remarkable:  but  things,  however,  may  be 
extraordinary  which  are  not  remarkable,  and  the  con- 
trary. The  extraordinary  is  that  which  is  out  of  the 
ordinary  course;  but  it  does  not  always  excite  remark, 
and  is  not  therefore  remarkable;  as  when  we  speak  of 
an  extraordinary  loan,  an  extraordinary  measure  of 
government : on  the  other  hand,  when  extraordinary 
conveys  the  idea  of  what  deserves  notice,  it  expresses 
much  move  than  remarkable.  There  are  but  few  ex- 
traordinary things  ■,  many  things  are  remarkable : the 
remarkable  is  eminent ; the  extraordinai-y  is  superemi- 
nent  the  extraordinarr  excitee  our  astonishment ; the 


remarkable  only  awakens  our  interest  and  attention. 
The  extraordinary  is  unexpected  ; tne  remarkable  is 
sometimes  looked  for;  every  instance  of  sagacity  and 
fidelity  in  a dog  is  remarkable,  and  some  extraordinary 
instances  have  been  related,  which  would  almost  stag- 
ger our  belief;  ‘ The  love  of  praise  is  a passion  deep 
in  the  mind  of  every  extraordinary  person.’ — Hughes 
‘ The  heroes  of  literary  histoiy  have  been  no  less  re 
markable  for  what  they  have  sulfered  than  fur  what 
they  have  achieved.’ — Johnson. 

REMARK,  OBSERVATION,  COMMENT,  NOTl^ 
ANNOTATION,  COMMENTARY. 

Remark  and  observation,  v.  To  notice ; comment, 
in  Latin  commentum,  from  comminiscor  to  call  to  mind, 
are  either  spoken  or  written ; note,  annotation,  v.  JVote ; 
and  commentary,  a variation  of  comment,  are  always 
written.  Remark  and  observation,  admitting  of  the 
same  distinction  in  both  cases,  have  been  sufficiently 
explained  in  the  article  referred  to;  ‘ Spence,  in  his 
remarks  on  Pope’s  Odyssey,  produces  what  he  thinks 
an  unconquerable  quotation  from  Dryden’s  preface  to 
the  yEueid,  in  favour  of  translating  an  epick  poem  into 
blank  verse.’ — Johnson.  ‘If  the  critick has  published 
nothing  but  rules  and  observations  on  criticism,  I then 
consider  whether  there  be  a propriety  and  elegance  in 
his  thoughts  and  words.’ — Addison.  Comment  is  a 
species  of  remark  which  often  loses  in  good-nature 
'what  it  gains  in  seriousness;  it  is  mostly  applied  tc 
jrarticidar  persons  or  cases,  and  more  commonly  em 
ployed  as  a vehicle  of  censure  than  of  commendation  ; 
publick  speakers  and  publick  performers  are  exjrosed  to 
all  the  comments  which  the  vanity,  the  envy,  and  ill- 
nature  of  self-constituted  critikes  can  suggest ; but  when 
not  employed  in  personal  cases,  it  serves  for  exjtlana- 
tion ; 

Sublime  or  low,  unbended  or  intense, 

The  sound  is  still  a comment  to  the  sense. 

Roscommon 

The  other  terms  are  used  in  this  sense  only,  but  with 
certain  modifications:  the  note  is  most  general,  and 
serves  to  call  the  attention  to,  as  well  as  illustrate,  par- 
ticular passages  in  the  text ; ‘ The  history  of  the  notes 
(to  Pope’s  Homer)  lias  never  been  traced.’ — Johnson. 
Annotations  and  commentaries  are  more  minute ; the 
former  being  that  which  is  added  by  way  of  append- 
age, the  latter  being  employed  in  a general  form ; as 
the  annotations  of  the  Greek  scholiasts,  and  the  com- 
mentaries on  the  sacred  writings  ; ‘ I love  a critick  who 
mixes  the  rules  of  life  with  annotations  upon  writers.’ 
— Steele.  ‘ Memoirs  or  memorials  are  of  two  kinds 
whereof  the  one  may  be  termed  commentaries,  the 
other  registers.’— Bacon. 

TO  MENTION,  NOTICE, 

These  terms  are  synonymous  only  inasmuch  as  they 
imply  the  act  of  calling  things  to  another  person’s  mind. 
Jtlention,  from  mens  mind,  signifies  here  to  bring  to 
mind.  'We  mention  a thing  in  direct  terms.  Tonotice 
(v.  To  771  rtrA:),  signifies  to  take  notice  of  a thing  indi- 
rectly or  in  a casual  manner;  we  mention  that  which 
may  serve  as  information  ; we  notice  that  which  may 
be  merely  of  a personal  or  incidental  nature.  One 
friend  mentions  to  another  what  has  passed  at  a par- 
ticular meeting:  in  the  course  of  conversation  he  no- 
tices or  calls  to  the  notice  of  his  companion  the  badness 
of  the  road,  the  wideness  of  the  street,  or  the  like ; 

‘ The  great  critick  I have  before  mentioned,  though  a 
heathen,  has  taken  notice  of  the  sublime  manner  in 
which  the  lawgiver  of  the  Jews  has  described  the  cre« 
tion.’ — Addison. 


TO  SHOW,  POINT  OUT,  MARK,  INDICATE 
Show,  in  German  schauen,  &c.  Greek  dedopai,  conics 
from  the  Hebrew  to  look  upen;  to  point  out  is 
to  fix  a point  upon  a thing. 

Show  is  here  the  general  term,  and  the  others  spe- 
cifick  : the  common  idea  included  in  the  signification 
of  them  all  is  that  of  making  a thing  visible  to  another. 
To  show  \s  an  indefinite  term;  one  shows  by  simply 
setting  a thing  before  the  eyes  of  another ; to  point  out 
is  specifick ; it  is  to  show  some  particular  point  by  a 
direct  and  immediate  applicMion  to  it:  we  show  9 


452 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


person  a Look,  w nen  we  put  it  into  liis  hands ; but  we 
point  out  the  beauties  of  its  contents  by  making  apoint 
upon  them,  or  accompanying  the  action  with  some 
particular  movement  which  shall  direct  the  attention 
of  the  observer  in  a specifick  manner.  Many  things, 
therefore,  may  be  shown  which  cannot  be  pointed  out : 
a person  shows  himself  but  he  does  not  point  himself 
e,ut;  towns,  houses,  gardens,  and  the  like,  are  shown; 
but  single  things  of  any  description  axe  pointed  out. 

To  show  and.  point  out  are  personal  acts,  which  are 
addressed  from  one  individual  to  another;  hut  to  mar/r 
(u.  Jl/arA,  impression)  is  an  indirect  means  of  making 
a thing  visible  or  observable:  a person  may  mark 
something  in  the  absence  of  others,  by  which  he  in- 
tends to  distinguish  it  from  all  others:  thus  atradesman 
marks  the  prices  and  names  of  the  articles  which  he 
sets  forth  in  his  shop.  We  show  by  holding  in  one’s 
hand;  we ;?omt  oat  with  the  finger;  we  mar/r  with  a 
pen  or  pencil.  To  show  and  xnark  are  the  acts  either 
of  a conscious  or  an  unconscious  agent;  to  point  out 
is  the  act  of  a conscious  agent  only,  unless  taken  figu- 
ratively; 

His  faculties  unfolded,  pointed  out 

Where  lavish  nature  the  directing  hand 

Of  art  demanded. — Thomson. 

To  indicate  (v.  Mark,  sign)  that  of  an  unconscious 
agent  only : persons  or  things  show,  persons  only  pomt 
out,  and  things  only  indicate. 

As  applied  to  things,  show  is  a more  positive  term 
than  mark  or  indicate;  that  which  shows  serves  as 
a proof; 

The  glow-worm  shows  the  matin  to  be  near. 

And  ’gins  to  pale  his  inetfectual  fire. — Shakspkare. 
That  which  marks  serves  as  a rule  or  guide  for  distin- 
guishing; ‘ For  our  quiet  possession  of  things  useful, 
they  are  naturally  where  there  is  need.’ — Grew. 

Nothing  shows  us  the  fallacy  of  forming  schemes  for 
the  future,  more  than  the  daily  evidences  which  we 
have  of  the  uncertainty  of  our  existence;  nothing 
marks  the  character  of  a man  more  strongly  than  the 
manner  in  which  he  bestows  or  receives  favours.  To 
mark  is  commonly  applied  to  that  which  is  habitual 
and  permanent ; to  indicate  to  that  which  is  temporary 
or  partial.  A single  act  or  expression  sometimes  marks 
the  ruling  temper  of  the  mind;  a look  may  indicate 
what  is  passing  in  the  mind  at  the  time.  A man’s  ab- 
staining to  give  relief  to  great  distress  when  it  is  in  his 
power,  marks  an  unfeeling  character;  when  a person 
gives  another  a cold  reception,  it  indicates  at  least  that 
there  is  no  cordiality  between  them;  ‘Amid  this 
wreck  of  human  nature,  traces  still  remain  which  in- 
dicate its  author.’— Blair. 


TO  SHOW,  EXHIBIT,  DISPLAY. 

To  show  is  here,  as  before,  the  generick  term ; to 
exhibition.  To  give),  and  displaxj,m  FrewcYi  deployer. 
in  all  probability  changed  from  the  Latin  pLico.  sig- 
nifying to  unfold  or  set  forth  to  view,  are  sj)ecirick: 
they  may  all  designate  the  acts  of  either  persons  or 
things : the  first,  however,  does  this  either  in  the  proper 
or  the  improper  sense;  the  two  latter  rather  in  the  im- 
proper sense.  To  show  is  an  indefinite  action  applied 
to  every  object : we  may  show  that  which  belongs  to  ' 
others,  as  well  as  ourselves ; we  commonly  exhibit  that 
which  belongs  to  ourselves:  we  show  coraoreal  or 
mental  objects ; we  exhibit  that  which  is  menral  or  the 
work  of  the  mind : one  shows  what  is  worth  seeing  in 
a house  or  grounds;  he  exhibits  his  skill  on  a stage. 
To  show  is  an  indifierent  action : we  may  show  acci- 
dentally or  designedly,  to  please  others,  or  to  please 
ourselves; 

If  I do  feign 

O let  me  in  my  present  wildness  die. 

And  never  live  to  show  the  incredulous  world 
The  noble  change  that  I have  purposed. 

Shakspkare. 

We  erhiltt  and  display  with  an  express  intention,  and 
that  m',stly  to  please  ourselves;  we  may  s/roro  in  a 
private  or  a publick  manner  before  one  or  many;  we 
commonly  exhibit  and  display  in  a publick  manner,  or 
at  least  in  such  a manner  as  will  enable  us  best  to  be 
seen.  Exhibit  and  display  have  this  farther  distinc- 
tion, that  the  former  is  mostly  taken  in  a good  or  an 
kidifferent  sense,  the  latter  in  a bad  sense:  we  may 


exhibit  our  powers  from  a laudable  ambition  to  be  es 
teemed ; but  we  seldom  make  a display  of  any  quality 
that  is  in  itself  praiseworthy,  or  from  any  motive  but 
vanity:  what  we  exhibit  is,  therefore,  intrinsically 
good ; what  we  display  may  often  be  only  an  imagi- 
nary or  fictitious  excellence.  A musician  exhibits  his 
skill  on  any  particular  instrument;  a fop  di5;7Za?/s  his 
gold  seals,  or  an  ostentatious  man  displays  his  plate 
or  his  fine  furniture;  ‘The  exhibitors  of  that  show 
politickly  had  placed  whifflers  armed  and  linked 
through  the  hall.’ — Guyton.  ‘ They  are  all  couched 
in  a pit,  with  obscured  lights,  which  at  the  very  instant 
of  our  meeting  they  will  at  once  display  to  the  night.’ 
— Shakspkare. 

Exhibit,  when  taken  as  the  involuntary  act  of  per 
sons,  may  be  applied  to  unfavourable  objects  in  the 
sense  of  setting  forth  to  the  view  of  others;  ‘ One  of 
an  unfortunate  constitution  is  perpetually  exhibiting  a 
miserable  example  of  the  weakness  of  mind  and  body.’ 
— Pope.  Display,  on  the  other  hand,  is  applied  in  a 
favourable  sense ; but  it  expresses  the  setting  forth  to 
view  more  strikingly  than  the  word  exhibit; 

Thou  heav’ns  alternate  beauty  canst  display 

The  blush  of  morning  and  the  milky  way. 

Dryden. 

When  said  of  things,  they  differ  principally  in  the 
manner  and  degree  of  clearness  with  which  the  thing 
appears  to  present  itself  to  view:  to  shoto  is, as  before, 
altogether  indefinite,  and  implies  simply  to  bring  to 
view ; exhibit  implies  to  bring  inherent  properties  to 
light,  that  is,  apparently  by  a process  ; to  display  is  to 
set  forth  so  as  to  strike  the  eye ; the  windows  on  a 
frosty  morning  will  show  the  state  of  the  weather ; 

Then  let  us  fall,  but  fall  amid  our  foes ; 

Despair  of  life  the  means  of  living  shows. 

Dryden 

Experiments  with  the  air-pump  exhibit  the  many  won 
derful  and  interesting  properties  of  air ; ‘ The  world 
has  ever  been  a great  theatre,  exhibiting  the  same  re- 
peated scene  of  the  follies  of  men.’— Blair.  The 
beauties  of  the  creation  are  peculiarly  displayed  in  the 
spring  season  ; 

Which  interwoven  Britons  seem  to  raise, 

And  show  the  triumph  that  their  shame  displays 

Dryden 


SHOW,  EXHIBITION,  REPRESENTATION 
SIGHT,  SPECTACLE. 

Show  signifies  the  thing  shown  {v.  To  show) : exhibi 
tion  signifies  the  thing  exhibited  (v.  To  show);  repre- 
sentation, the  thing  represented:  sight,  the  thing  to  be 
seen;  and  spectacle,  from  the  Latin  s;?ecto,  stands  for 
the  thing  to  be  beheld. 

Show  is  here,  as  in  the  former  article,  the  most 
general  term.  Every  thing  set  forth  to  view  is  shown ; 
and  if  set  forth  for  the  amusement  of  others,  it  is  a show. 
This  is  the  common  idea  included  in  the  terms  exhibi- 
tion ax\A  representation:  but  show  is  a term  of  vulgar 
meaning  and  application  ; the  others  have  a higher  use 
and  signification.  Tlie  .show  consists  of  that  which 
merely  pleases  the  eye ; it  is  not  a matter  either  of  taste 
or  action,  but  merely  of  curiosity  ; 

Charm’d  with  the  wonders  of  the  show, 

On  ev’ryside,  above,  below. 

She  now  of  this  or  that  inquires. 

What  least  was  understood  admires. — Gay. 
Exhibition,  on  the  contrary,  presents  some  effort  of 
talent  or  some  work  of  genius;  ‘Copley’s  picture  of 
Lord  Chatham’s  death  is  an  exhibition  of  itself.’ — 
Beattie.  Representation  sets  forth  the  image  or  imi- 
tation of  some  thing  by  the  power  of  art;  ‘There  are 
many  virtues  which  in  their  own  nature  aie  incapable 
of  any  outward  representation.' — Addison.  Hence 
we  speak  of  a show  of  wild  beasts  ; an  exhibition  of 
paintings;  and  a theatrical  representation.  The  con- 
jurer makes  a show  of  his  tricks  at  a fair  to  the  won- 
der of  the  gazing  multitude;  the  artist  makes  an  exhi- 
bition o^  his  works;  representations  of  men  and  man- 
ners are  given  on  the  stage:  shows  are  necessary  to 
keep  the  populace  in  good  humour ; exhibitions  are  ne- 
cessary for  the  encouragement  of  genius;  representa 
tions  are  proper  for  the  amusement  of  the  cultivated, 
and  the  refinement  of  society.  The  show,  exhibition 
and  representation  are  presented  by  some  one  to  the 


EiNGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


453 


view  of  others ; tlie  sight  and  spectacle  present  them- 
eelves  to  view.  Sights  like  show^  is  a vulgar  term ; and 
spectacle  the  nobler  term.  Whatever  is  to  be  seen  to 
excite  notice  is  a sights  in  which  general  sense  it  would 
comprehend  every  show,  but  in  its  particular  sense  it 
Includes  only  that  which  casually  offers  itself  to  view  : 
a spectacle,  on  the  contrary,  is  that  species  of  sight 
which  has  something  in  it  to  interest  either  the  heart  or 
the  head  of  the  observer:  processions,  reviews,  sports, 
and  the  like,  are  sights ; but  battles,  bull  fights,  or  pub- 
lick  games  of  any  description  are  spectacles,  which  in- 
terest but  shock  the  feelings ; 

Their  various  arms  afford  a pleasing  sight. 

Urydkn. 

The  weary  Britons,  whose  warrable  youth 
Was  by  Maximilian  lately  ledd  away. 

Were  to  those  pagans  made  an  open  prey. 

And  daily  spectacle  of  sad  decay.— Spenser. 

SHOW,  OUTSIDE,  APPEARANCE, 
SEMBLANCE. 

Where  there  is  show  (?;.  To  show)  there  must  be  out- 
side and  appearance ; but  there  may  be  the  last  with- 
out the  former.  The  term  show  always  denotes  an  ac- 
tion, and  refers  to  some  person  as  agent;  but  the  out- 
side may  be  merely  the  passive  quality  of  something. 
We  speak,  therefore,  of  a thing  as  mere  s/toio,  to  sig- 
nify that  what  is  shown  is  all  that  exists ; and  in  this 
sense  it  may  be  termed  mere  outside,  as  consisting  only 
of  what  is  on  the  outside  ; 

You’ll  find  the  friendship  of  the  world  is  show, 
Mere  outward  show. — Savage. 

The  greater  part  of  men  behold  nothing  more  than 
the  rotation  of  human  affairs.  This  is  only  the  outside 
of  things.’ — Blair.  In  describing  a house,  however, 
we  speak  of  its  outside,  and  not  of  its  show ; as  also  of 
the  oMtside  of  a book,  and  not  of  the  sAoro.  Jippearance 
denotes  an  action  as  well  as  show;  but  the  former  is 
the  act  of  an  unconscious  agent,  the  latter  of  one  that 
is  conscious  and  voluntary:  the  appearance  presents  it- 
self to  the  view;  the  show  is  purposely  presented  to 
view.  A person  makes  a show  so  as  to  be  seen  by 
others ; his  appearance  is  that  which  shows  itself  in 
him.  To  look  only  to  show,  or  be  concerned  for  show 
only  signffies  to  be  concerned  for  that  only  which  will 
attract  notice;  to  look  only  to  the  owtsfde  signifies  to  be 
concerned  only  for  that  which  may  be  seen  in  a thing, 
to  the  disregard  of  that  which  is  not  seen  : to  look  only 
to  appearances  signifies  the  same  as  the  former,  except 
that  outside  is  said  in  the  proper  sense  of  that  which 
literally  strikes  the  eye ; but  appearances  extend  to  the 
conduct,  and  whatever  may  affect  the  reputation; 

‘ Every  accusation  against  persons  of  rank  was  heard 
with  pleasure  (by  James  I.  of  Scotland).  Every  ap- 
pearance of  guilt  W'as  examined  with  rigour.’-Ro- 
BERTSON. 

Semblance  or  seeming  (v.  To  seem)  always  conveys 
the  idea  of  an  unreal  appearance,  or  at  least  is  con- 
trasted with  that  which  is  real ; he  who  only  wears  the 
semblance  of  friendship  would  be  ill  deserving  the  con- 
fidence of  a friend ; 

But  man,  the  wildest  beast  of  prey. 

Wears  friendship’s  semblance  to  betray. — Moore. 

SHOW,  PARADE,  OSTENTATION. 

These  terms  are  synonymous  when  they  imply  ab- 
stract actions : show  is  here,  as  in  the  preceding  article, 
taken  in  the  vulgar  sense;  ostentation  and  parade  in- 
clude the  idea  of  something  particular : a man  makes  a 
show  of  his  equipage,  furniture,  and  the  like,  by  which 
he  strikes  the  eye  of  the  vulgar,  and  seeks  to  impress 
them  with  an  idea  of  his  wealth  and  superiour  rank  ; 
this  is  often  the  paltry  refuge  of  weak  minds  to  conceal 
their  nothingness:  a man  makes  a parade  with  his 
wealth,  his  knowledge,  his  charities,  and  the  like,  by 
which  he  endeavours  to  give  weight  and  dignity  to 
himself,  proportioned  to  the  solemnity  of  his  proceed- 
ings : the  show  is,  therefore,  but  a simple  setting  forth 
to  view ; 

Great  in  themselves 

They  smile  superiour  of  external  show. 

Somerville. 

The  varade  requires  art,  it  ns  a forced  effort  to  attract 


notice  by  the  number  and  extent  of  the  ceremonies  ; 
‘ It  was  not  in  the  mere  parade  of  royalty  that  the  Mex- 
ican potentates  exhibited  their  power.’ — Robertson. 
The  show  and  parade  are  confined  to  the  act  of  show- 
ing, or  the  means  which  are  employed  to  show;  bu* 
the  ostentation  necessarily  includes  the  purpose  for 
which  the  display  is  made  ; he  who  does  a thing  so  as 
to  be  seen  and  applauded  by  others,  does  it  from  osten 
tation,  particularly  in  application  to  acts  of  charity,  or 
of  publick  subscription,  in  which  a man  strives  to  im- 
press others  with  the  extent  of  his  wealth  by  the  libe- 
rality of  his  gift ; ‘ We  are  dazzled  with  the  splendour 
of  titles,  the  ostentation  of  learning,  and  the  noise  of 
victories.’ — Spectator. 


SHOWY,  Gr^UDY,  GAY 
Showy,  having  or  being  full  of  show  {v.  Show,  out 
side),  is  mostly  an  epithet  of  dispraise;  that  which  is 
showy  has  seldom  any  thing  to  deserve  notice  beyond 
that  which  catches  the  eye;  gaudy,  from  the  Latin 
gaudeo  to  rejoice,  signifies  literally  full  of  joy  : and  is 
applied  figuratively  to  the  exteriour  of  objects,  but  with 
the  annexed  bad  idea  of  being  striking  to  an  excess: 
gay,  on  the  contrary,  which  is  only  a contraction  of 
gaudy,  is  used  in  the  same  sense  as  an  epithet  of  praise. 
Some  things  may  be  showy,  and  in  their  nature  proper- 
ly so  ; thus  the  tail  of  a peacock  is  showy:  artificial 
objects  may  likewise  be  showy,  but  they  will  not  be 
preferred  by  persons  of  taste;  ‘Men  of  warm  imagina- 
tions neglect  solid  and  substantial  happiness  for  what 
is  showy  and  superficial.’ — Addison.  That  which  is 
gaudy  is  always  artificial,  and  is  always  chosen  by  the 
vain,  the  vulgar,  and  the  ignorant ; a maid  servant  wif 
bedizen  herself  with  gaudy  coloured  ribbons ; 

The  gaudy,  babbling,  and  remorseful  day 
Is  crept  into  the  bosom  of  the  sea.— Shakspeare. 
That  which  is  gay  is  either  nature  iself,  or  nature  imi 
tated  in  the  best  manner:  spring  is  a gay  season,  and 
flowers  are  xis gayest  accompaniments; 

Jocund  day 

Upon  the  mountain  tops  sits  gayly  dress’d. 

Shaksfkark. 

MAGNIFICENCE,  SPLENDOUR,  POMP. 
Magnificence,  from  magnus  and /aefo,  signifies  doing 
largely,  or  on  a large  scale  ; splendour,  in  Latin  splen- 
dor, from  splendeo  to  shine,  signifies  brightness  in  the 
external;  pomp,  in  Latin  in  Greek  iro/^7r?)  a pro- 

cession, from  nipno)  to  send,  signifies  in  general  forma 
lity  and  ceremony. 

Magnificence  lies  not  only  in  the  number  and  extent 
of  the  objects  presented,  but  in  their  degree  of  rich- 
ness as  to  their  colouring  and  quality ; splendour  is  but 
a characteristick  of  magnificence,  attached  to  such  ob- 
jects as  dazzle  the  eye  by  the  quantity  of  light,  or  the 
beauty  and  strength  of  colouring;  the  entertainments 
of  the  eastern  monarchs  and  princes  are  remarkable 
for  their  magnificence,  from  the  immense  number  of 
their  attendants,  the  crowd  of  equipages,  the  size  of 
their  palaces,  the  multitude  of  costly  utensils,  and  the 
profusion  of  viands  which  constitute  the  arrangement.^ 
for  the  banquet ; 

Not  Babylon, 

Nor  great  Alcairo,  such  magnificence 

Equall’d  in  all  their  glories. — Milton. 

The  entertainments  of  Europeans  present  much  splen 
dour,  from  the  richness,  the  variety,  and  the  brilliancy 
of  dress,  of  furniture,  and  all  the  apparatus  of  a feast, 
which  the  refinements  of  art  have  brought  to  per 
fection ; 

Vain  transitory  splendours  could  not  all 

Reprieve  the  tottering  mansion  from  its  fall. 

Goldsmith. 

Magnificence  is  seldomer  unaccompanied  with  splen- 
dour than  splendour  with  magnificence ; since  quan 
tity,  as  well  as  quality,  is  essential  to  the  one ; but  qua 
lity,  more  than  quantity,  is  an  essential  to  the  other:  a 
large  army  drawn  up  in  battle  array  is  a magnificent 
spectacle,  from  the  immensity  of  their  numbers,  and 
the  order  of  their  disposition:  it  will  in  all  probability 
be  a splendid  scene  if  there  be  much  richness  in  the 
dresses ; the  pomp  will  here  consist  in  such  large  bodies 
of  men  acting  by  one  impulse,  and  directed  by  ous. 


154 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES, 


will,  hence  military  pomp;  it  is  the  appendage  of 
P<jwer,  when  displayed  to  publick  view : on  particular 
occasions,  a monarch  seated  on  his  throne,  surrounded 
by  his  courtiers,  and  attended  by  his  guards,  is  said  to 
appear  with  pomp ; 

Was  all  that  pomp  of  wo  for  this  prepar’d? 

These  fires,  this  fun’ral  pile,  these  altars  rear’d  ? 

Drvdkn. 


MAGISTERIAL,  MAJESTICK,  STATELY, 
POMPOUS,  AUGUST,  DIGNIFIED. 

Magisterial^  from  magister  a master,  and  majestick, 
Irom  majestas,  are  both  derived  from  magis  more  or 
major  greater,  that  is,  more  or  greater  tlian  others: 
but  they  differ  in  this  respect,  that  the  magisterial  is 
something  assumed,  and  is  therefore  often  false ; the 
majestick  is  natural,  and  consequently  always  real : an 
upstart,  or  an  intruder  into  any  high  station  or  office, 
may  put  on  a magisterial  air,  in  order  to  impose  on  the 
multitude;  but  it  will  not  be  in  his  power  to  be  majes- 
ttcA,  which  never  shows  itself  in  a borrowed  shape; 
none  but  those  who  have  a superiority  of  character,  of 
birth,  or  outward  station,  can  be  majestick:  a petty 
magistrate  in  the  county  may  be  magisterial ; ‘ Govern- 
ment being  the  noblest  and  most  mysterious  of  all  arts, 
is  very  unfit  for  those  to  talk  magisterially  of  who 
never  bore  any  share  in  it.’— South.  A king' or  queen 
cannot  uphold  their  station  without  a majestick  de- 
portment; 

Then  Aristides  lifts  his  honest  front. 

In  pure  majestick  poverty  rever’d. — Thomson. 

The  stately  and  povipous  are  most  nearly  allied  to 
i\\ki  magisterial ; the  august  and  dignified  to  the  ma- 
jestick:  the  former  being  merely  extrinsick  and  as- 
sumed ; the  latter  intrinsick  and  inherent.  Magisterial 
respects  the  authority  which  is  assumed ; stately  re- 
gards the  splendour  and  rank;  ‘There  is  for  the  most 
part  as  much  real  enjoyment  under  the  meanest  cot- 
tage, as  within  the*  walls  of  the  stateliest  palace.’ — 
South.  Pompous  regards  the  personal  importance, 
with  all  the  appendages  of  greatness  and  power ; 

Such  seems  thy  gentle  height,  made  only  proud 
To  be  the  basis  of  that  pompous  load. — Denham. 
A person  is  magisterial  in  the  exercise  of  his  office, 
and  the  distribution  of  his  commapds;  he  is  stately  in 
his  ordinary  intercourse  with  his  inferiours  and  equals ; 
he  pompous  on  particular  occasions  of  appearing  in 
publick:  a person  demands  silence  in  a magisterial 
tone;  he  marches  forward  with  a stateZy  air;  he  comes 
forward  in  a pompous  manner,  so  as  to  strike  others 
with  a sense  of  his  importance. 

Majestick  is  an  epithet  that  characterizes  the  exte- 
riour  of  an  object ; 

A royal  robe  he  wore  with  graceful  pride, 
Embroider’d  sandals  glitter’d  as  he  trod. 

And  forth  he  mov’d,  majestick  as  a god. 

Pope. 

Jlugust  is  that  which  marks  an  essential  characteris- 
rick  in  the  object ; 

How  poor,  hew  rich,  how  abject,  how  august., 
How  complicate,  how  wonderful,  is  man ! 

Young. 

Dignified  serves  to  characterize  the  action,  or  the 
station ; 

Nor  can  I think  that  God,  Creator  wise. 

Though  threat’ning,  will  in  earnest  so  destroy 
Us,  his  prime  creatures,  dignified  so  high. 

Milton. 

The  form  of  a female  is  termed  majestick  which  has 
something  imposing  in  it,  suited  to  the  condition  of 
majesty,  or  the  most  elevated  station  in  society;  a mo- 
narch is  entitled  august  in  order  to  describe  the  extent 
of  his  empire;  an  assembly  is  denominated  august  to 
bespeak  its  high  character,  and  its  weighty  influence  in 
the  scale  of  society;  a reply  is  termed  dignified  when 
it  upholds  fhe  individual  and  personal  character  of  a 
man,  as  well  as  his  relative  character  in  the  community 
to  which  he  belongs : the  two  former  of  these  terms  are 
associated  only  with  grandeur  of  outward  circum- 
stances; the  last  is  applicable  to  men  of  all  stations, 
who  have  each  in  his  sphere  a dignity  to  maintain 
which  belongs  to  a man  as  an  independent  moral  agent. 


GRANDEUR,  MAGNIFICENCE. 

Grandeur,  from  grand,  in  French  grande,  La*ta 
grandis,  probably  from  yepaids  ancient,  because  tne 
term  in  Latin  is  applied  mostly  to  great  age,  and  after- 
ward extended  in  its  application  to  greatness  in  gene- 
ral, but  particularly  that  greatness  which  is  taken  in 
the  good  sense;  magnificence,  in  Latin  magnificentia, 
from  magnus  and  facio,  signifies  made  on  a large 
scale. 

An  extensive  assemblage  of  striking  qualities  In  the 
exteriour  constitutes  the  common  signification  of  these 
terms,  of  which  grandeur  is  the  genus,  and  magnifi- 
cence the  species.  Magnificence  cannot  exist  without 
grandeur,  but  grandeur  exists  without  magnificence  ; 
the  former  is  distinguished  from  the  latter  both  in  de- 
gree and  in  application.  When  applied  to  the  same 
objects  they  differ  in  degree;  magnificence  being  the 
highest  degree  of  grandeur.  As  it  respects  the  style  of 
living,  grandeur  is  within  the  reach  of  subjects;  mag- 
nificence is  mostly  confined  to  princes.  A person  °is 
said  to  live  in  a style  of  grandeur,  who  rises  anove  the 
common  level,  as  to  the  nundrer  of  his  servants,  the 
quality  of  his  equipage,  and  the  size  of  his  establish- 
ment. No  one  is  said  to  live  in  a style  of  magnificence 
who  does  not  surpass  the  grandeur  of  his  contempora- 
ries. Wealth,  such  as  falls  to  the  lot  of  many,  may 
enable  them  to  display  grandeur;  but  nothing  short  of 
a princely  fortune  gives  either  a title  or  a capacity  to 
aim  at  magnificence.  Grandeur  admits  of  degrees  and 
modifications;  it  may  display  itself  in  various  ways, 
according  to  the  taste  of  the  individual;  hnt  magnifi- 
cence is  that  which  has  already  reached  the  highest 
degree  of  superiority  in  every  particular. 

Those  who  are  ambitious  fiir  earthly  grandeur  are 
rarely  in  a temper  of  mind  to  take  a just  view  of  them- 
selves and  of  all  things  that  surround  them ; they  forget 
that  there  is  any  thing  above  this,  in  comparison  with 
which  it  sinks  into  insignificance  and  meanness; 
‘There  is  a kind  of  grandeur  and  respect,  which  the 
meanest  and  most  insignificant  part  of  mankind  en- 
deavour to  procure  in  the  little  circle  of  their  friendi 
and  acquaintance.’ — Addison.  The  grandeur  of  Eu 
ropean  courts  is  lost  in  a comparison  with  the  magnifi- 
cence of  eastern  princ'es,  ‘The  wall  of  China  is  one 
of  those  eastern  pieces  of  magnificence  wliich  makes  a 
figure  even  in  the  map  of  the  world,  although  an  ac- 
count of  it  would  have  been  thought  fabulous,  were  not 
the  wall  itself  extant.’ — Addison. 

Grandeur  is  applicable  to  the  works  of  nature  as  wel, 
as  art,  of  mind  as  well  as  matter;  magnificence  is  alto- 
gether the  creature  of  art.  A structure,  a spectacle,  an 
entertainment,  and  the  like,  may  be  grand  or  magnifi- 
cent; but  a scene,  a prospect,  a conception,  and  the 
like,  are  grand,  but  not  magnificent. 


NOBLE,  GRAND. 

J^Toblc,  in  liUtin  nohilis,  from  nosco  to  know,  signifies 
knowable,  or  worth  knowing;  grand,  v.  Grandeur. 

JSToble  is  a term  of  general  import;  it  simply  implies 
the  quality  by  which  a thing  is  distinguished  for  excel 
lence  above  other  things : the  grand  is,  properly  speak 
ing,  one  of  those  qualities  by  which  an  object  acquires 
the  name  of  noble;  but  there  are  many  noAZe  objects 
which  are  not  denominated  grand.  A building  may 
be  denominated  noble  for  its  beauty  as  well  as  its  size; 
but  a grand  building  is  rather  so  called  for  the  expense 
which  is  displayed  upon  it:  nobleness  of  acting  or 
thinking  comprehends  all  moral  excellence  that  rit  es  to 
a high  pitch;  but  grandeur  of  mind  is  peculiarly  ap- 
plicable to  such  actions  or  traits  as  denote  an  elevation 
of  character,  rising  above  all  that  is  common.  A 
family  may  be  either  noble  or  grand ; but  it  is  nobl'  *Mf 
birth ; it  is  grand  by  wealth,  and  an  expensive  style. 
living; 

What  then  Worlds 
In  a far  thinner  element  sustain’d. 

And  acting  the  same  part  with  greater  skill. 

More  rapid  movement,  and  for  noblest  ends  ! 

Young 

More  obvious  ends  to  pass,  are  not  these  stars, 
The  seals  majestick,  proud  imperial  thrones, 

On  which  angelick  delegates  of  heav’n 
Discharge  high  trusts  of  vengeance  or  of  love. 

To  clothe  in  outward  grandeur  grand  designs? 

YaivB 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


4bL 


GREAT  GRAND,  SUBLIME, 
nesti  terms  are  synonymous  only  in  llie  moral  ap- 
pliLation.  Great  simply  designates  extent;  grand  \n- 
eludes  likewise  the  idea  of  excellence  and  superiority. 
A great  undertaking;  characterizes  only  the  extent  of 
the  undertaking;  a grand  undertaking  bespeaks  its 
liuperiour excellence:  great  olijects  are  seen  with  faci- 
lily ; grand  objects  are  viewed  with  admira  tion.  It  is 
a great  poin'  to  make  a person  sensible  of  his  faults; 
it  should  be  the  grayid  aim  of  all  to  aspire  after  moral 
and  religious  nnprovement ; ‘There  is  nothing  in  this 
whole  art  of  architecture  which  pleases  the  imagina- 
tion, but  as  it  \s  great,  uncommon,  or  beautiful.’ — Ad- 
dison. ‘ There  is  generally  in  nature  something  more 
grand  and  august  than  what  we  meet  with  in  the 
curiosities  of  art.’ — Addison. 

Grand  and  sublime  are  both  superiour  to  great;  but 
the  former  marks  the  dimension  oi greatness ; the  latter, 
from  the  Latin  sublimis,  designates  that  of  height.  A 
scene  may  be  either  grand  or  sublime;  it  is  grand  as 
it  fills  the  imagination  with  its  immensity;  it  is  sioldme 
as  it  elevates  the  imagination  beyond  the  surrounding 
and  less  important  objects.  There  is  something  grand 
in  the  sight  of  a vast  army  moving  forward,  as  it  were, 
by  one  impulse  ; there  is  something  peculiarly  sublime 
in  the  sight  of  huge  mountains  and  craggy  cliffs  of  ice, 
shaped  into  various  fantastick  forms.  Grand  may  be 
said  either  of  the  works  of  art  or  nature:  sublime  is 
applicable  only  to  the  works  of  nature.  The  Egyptian 
pyramids, or  t'he  ocean,  are  both  grand  objects;  a tem- 
pestuous ocean  is  a sublime  object.  Grand  is  some- 
times applied  to  the  mind;  sublime  is  applied  both  to 
the  thoughts  and  the  expressions;  ‘Homer  fills  his 
readers  with  sublime  ideas.’ — Addison.  There  is  a 
grandeur  of  conception  in  the  writings  of  Milton ; 
there  is  a sublimity  in  the  inspired  writings,  which  far 
surpasses  all  human  productions 


TO  EXPRESS,  DECLARE,  SIGNIFY,  TESTIFY, 
UTTER. 

To  express,  from  the  Latin  exprimo  to  press  out,  is 
•aid  of  whatever  passes  in  the  mind;  \o  declare  (v.  To 
declare)  is  said  only  of  sentiments  and  opinions.  A 
man  expresses  anger,  joy,  sorrow,  and  all  the  affections 
in  their  turn  ; he  declares  his  opinion  for  or  against  any 
particular  measure. 

To  express  is  the  simple  act  of  communication,  re- 
sulting from  our  circumstances  as  social  agents ; to  de- 
clare is  a specifick  and  positive  act  that  is  called  for  by 
the  occasion:  the  former  may  be  done  in  private,  the 
latter  is  always  more  or  less  publick.  An  expression 
of  one’s  feelings  and  sentiments  to  those  whom  we 
esteem  is  the  supreme  delight  of  social  beings;  the  de- 
claration of  our  opinions  may  be  iirudent  or  imprudent, 
according  to  circumstances.  Words,  looks,  gestures, 
or  movements,  serve  to  express ; 

Thus  Roman  youth,  deriv’d  from  ruin’d  Troy, 

In  rude  Saturnian  rhymes  express  their  joy. 

Dryden. 

Actions,  as  well  as  words,  may  sometimes  declare; 
Th’  unerring  sun  by  certain  signs  declares, 

What  the  late  ev’n  or  early  morn  prepares. 

Dryden. 

Sometimes  we  cannot  express  our  contempt  in  so  strong 
a manner  as  by  preserving  a perfect  silence  when  we 
are  required  to  speak;  an  act  of  hostility,  on  the  part 
of  a nation,  is  as  much  a declaration  of  war  as  if  it 
were  expressed  in  positive  terms;  ‘As  the  Supreme 
Being  has  expressed,  and  as  it  were  printed  his  ideas 
in  the  creation,  men  express  the  r ideas  in  books.’ — 
Addison. 

On  him  confer  the  Poet’s  sacred  name. 

Whose  lofty  voice  <Zecfa?-es  the  heavenly  flame. 

Addison. 

To  cx/iress  and  are  both  said  of  words;  but 

express  has  always  regard  to  the  agent,  and  the  use 
which  he  makes  of  the  words.  Signify,  from  signum 
a sign,  and  f ado  to  make,  has  respect  to  the  things  of 
which  the  words  are  made  the  usual  signs:  hence  it  is 
that  a word  may  be  made  to  express  one  thing  while  it 
signifies  another;  and  hence  it  is  that  many  words, 
according  to  their  ordinary  signification,  will  not  ex- 
vress  what  the  speaker  has  in  his  mind,  and  wishes  to 


communicate:  the  monosy.lable  no  s gnifies  simple 
negation  : but  according  to  the  temper  of  the  speaker 
and  the  circumstances  under  which  it  is  spoken,  it  may 
express  ill-nature,  anger,  or  any  other  bad  passion; 

‘ If  there  be  no  cause  expressed,  the  jailer  is  not 
bound  to  detain  the  prisoner.  For  the  law  judges  in 
this  respect,  saith  sir  Edward  Coke,  like  Festus  the 
Roman  governour,  that  it  is  unreasonable  to  send  a 
prisoner,  and  not  to  signify  withal  the  crimes  alleged 
against  him.’ — Blackstone. 

To  signify  and  testify,  like  the  word  express,  are 
employed  in  general  for  any  act  of  communication 
otherwise  than  by  words ; but  express  is  used  in  ? 
stronger  sense  than  either  of  the  former.  The  passions 
and  strongest  movements  of  the  soul  are  expressed; 
the  simple  intentions  ortransitory  feelings  of  the  mind 
are  signified  or  testified.  A person  expresses  his  joy 
by  the  sparkling  of  his  eye,  and  the  vivacity  of  his 
countenance;  he  signifies  his  wdslies  by  a nod;  he 
testifies  his  approbation  by  a smile.  People  of  vivid 
sensibility  must  take  care  not  to  express  all  their  feel- 
ings; those  who  expect  a ready  obedience  from  ineir 
inferiours  must  not  adopt  a haughty  mode  of  signify 
ing  their  will ; nothing  is  more  gratifying  to  an  ingenu- 
ous mind  than  to  testify  its  regard  for  merit  wherever 
it  may  discover  itself. 

Express  may  be  said  of  all  sentient  beings,  and,  by 
a figure  of  speech,  even  of  those  which  have  no  sense  ; 
signify  is  said  of  rational  agents  only.  The  dog  has 
the  most  expressive  mode  of  showing  his  attachment 
and  fidelity  to  his  master; 

And  four  fair  (lueens,  whose  hands  sustain  a flow’r, 

Th’  expressive  emblem  of  tlieir  softer  pow’r. — Pope. 
A signifieant  look  or  smile  may  sometimes  give  rise  to 
suspicion,  and  lead  to  the  detection  of  guilt;  ‘Com- 
mon life  is  full  of  this  kind  of  significant  expressions, 
by  knocking,  beckoning,  frowning,  and  pouting;  and 
dumb  persons  are  sagacious  in  the  use  of  them.’ — 
Holder.  To  signify  and  testify,  though  closely  allied 
in  sense  and  application,  have  this  difference,  that  to 
signify  \s  simply  to  give  a sign  of  what  passes  in- 
} wardly,  to  testify  is  to  give  that  sign  in  the  presence 
of  others.  A person  signifies  by  letter  his  intention 
of  being  at  a certain  place  at  a given  time;  he  testi- 
fies his  sense  of  favours  conferred  by  every  mark  of 
gratitude  and  respect:  ‘ What  consolation  can  be  had, 
Dryden  hasaffforded,  by  living  to  repent,  and  to  testify 
his  repentance  (for  his  immoral  writings).’ — Johnson. 

Utter,  from  the  preposition  out,  signifying  to  bring 
out,  differs  from  express  in  this,  that  the  latter  respects 
the  thing  which  is  communicated,  and  the  former  the 
means  of  communication.  Weexpress  from  the  heart; 
we with  the  lips:  to  express  an  uncharitable  sen 
timent  is  a violation  of  Christian  duty  ; to  utter  an 
unseemly  word  is  a violation  of  good  manners:  those 
who  say  what  they  do  not  mean,  utter,  but  not  ex 
press  ; those  who  show  by  tlieir  looks  what  is  passing 
in  their  hearts,  express  but  do  not  utter ; 

The  multitude  of  angels,  with  a shout 
Loud  as  from  numbers  without  number,  sw'eet 
As  from  blessed  voices,  uttering  joy. — Milton 


SIGN,  SIGNAL. 

Sign  and  signal  are  both  derived  from  the  same 
source  (v.  Mark,  sign),  and  the  latter  is  but  a species 
of  the  former  ;*  the  sign  enables  us  to  recognise  an  ob 
ject;  it  is  therefore  sometimes  natural : signal  serves 
to  give  warning;  it  is  always  arbitrary. 

The  movements  which  are  visible  tn  the  counte 
nance  are  commonly  the  signs  of  what  passes  in  tht 
heart ; 

The  nod  that  ratifies  the  Will  Divine, 

The  faithful,  fix’d,  irrevocable  sign. 

This  seals  thy  suit. — Pope. 

The  beat  of  the  drum  is  the  signal  for  soldiers  to  repair 
to  their  post; 

Then  first  the  tremblin'jr  earth  the  signal  gave. 

And  flashing  fires  enlighten  all  the  cave.-— Dryden. 

We  converse  with  those  who  are  present  b>  signs; 
we  make  ourselves  understood  by  those  who  are  at  a 
distance  by  means  of  signals. 

♦Vide  Girard:  “ Signe,  signal  ’ 


456 


Ex^GLlSH  SYNONYMES, 


SIGNIFICANT  EXPRESSIVE. 

TTie  significant  is  that  wliich  serves  as  a sign ; the 
expressive  is  that  which  speaks  out  or  declares;  the 
latter  is  therefore  a stronaer  term  titan  the  former:  a 
look  is  significant  when  it  is  made  to  express  an  idea 
that  passes  in  the  mind ; but  it  is  expressive  when  it  is 
made  to  express  a feeling  of  the  heart : looks  are  but 
occasionally  significant^  but  the  countenance  may  be 
habitually  expressive.  Significant  is  applied  in  an 
nditierent  sense,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  thing 
signified;  but  expressive  is  always  applied  to  that 
vhich  is  good:  a significant  look  may  convey  a very 
bad  idea ; ‘ I could  not  help  giving  my  friend  the  mer- 
chant a look  upon  this  occasion.’ — Cumber- 

land. An  expressive  countenance  always  expresses 
good  feeling;  ‘ The  English,  Madam,  particularly  what 
we  call  the  plain  English,  is  a very  copious  and  ex- 
pressive language.’ — Richardson. 

The  distinction  between  these  words  is  the  same 
when  applied  to  things  as  to  persons:  a word  is  signi- 
ficant of  whatever  it  is  made  to  signify  ; but  a word  is 
expressive  according  to  the  force  with  which  it  conveys 
an  idea.  The  term  significant,  in  this  case,  simply  ex- 
plains the  nature ; but  the  epithet  expressive  charac- 
terizes it  as  something  good  ; technical  terms  are  sig- 
nificant only  of  the  precise  ideas  which  belong  to  the 
art ; most  languages  have  some  terms  which  are  pecu- 
liarly expressive,  and  consequently  adapted  for  poetry. 


SlGNIFIC^vTION,  MEANING,  IMPORT,  SENSE. 

The  signification  {v.  To  express)  is  that  of  which 
the  word  is  made  the  sign  ; the  meaning  is  that  which 
the  person  attaches  to  it ; the  import  is  that  wdiich  is 
imported  or  carried  into  the  understanding  ; the  sense 
is  that  which  is  comprehended  by  the  sense  or  the  uu 
derstanding. 

The  signification  of  a word  includes  either  the  whole 
or  the  part  of  what  is  understood  by  it;  ‘ A lie  consists 
in  this,  that  it  is  a false  signification  knowingly  and 
voluntarily  used.’ — South.  The  meaning  is  that  which 
the  person  wishes  to  convey  \\  ho  makes  use  of  a word. 
This  may  be  correct  or  incorrect  according  to  the  in- 
formation of  the  person  explaining  himself;  ‘ When 
beyond  her  expectation  I hit  upon  her  meaning,  I can 
perceive  a sudden  cloud  of  disappointment  spread  over 
her  face.’ — .Johnson.  The  import  of  a word  includes 
its  whole  force  and  value;  ‘ To  draw  near  to  God  is 
an  expression  of  awful  and  mysterious  import.' — 
Blair.  The  sense  of  a word  is  applicable  mostly  to 
a part  of  Us  signification  ; ‘There  are  two  senses  in 
which  w'e  may  be  said  to  draw  near,  in  such  a degree 
as  mortality  admits,  to  God.’ — Blair.  The  significa- 
tion of  a word  is  fixed  by  the  standard  of  custom ; 
it  is  not  therefore  to  be  changed  by  any  individual : the 
import  of  a term  is  estimated  by  the  various  accejna- 
tions  in  which  it  is  employed:  a sense  is  sometimes 
arbitrarily  attached  to  a word  which  is  widely  ditforent 
from  that  in  which  it  is  commonly  acknowledged. 

It  is  necessary  to  get  the  true  signification  of  every 
word,  or  the  particular  meaning  attached  to  it,  to  weigh 
the  import  of  every  term,  and  to  comprehend  the  exact 
sense  in  winch  it  is  taken.  Every  word  expressing 
either  a simple  or  a complex  idea,  is  said  to  have  a sig- 
nification, though  not  an  import.  Technical  and  moral 
terms  have  an  import  and  difierent  senses.  A child 
learns  the  significations  of  simple  terms  as  he  hears 
them  used ; a writer  must  be  acquainted  with  the  full 
import  of  every  term  which  he  has  occasion  to  make 
use  of.  The  different  senses  which  words  admit  of 
is  a great  source  of  ambiguity  and  confusion  with  illi- 
terate people. 

Signification  and  import  are  said  mostly  of  single 
words  only;  sense  is  said  of  words  either  in  connexion 
with  each  other,  or  as  belonging  to  some  class;  thus 
we  speak  of  the  signification  oi  the  word  house,  of  the 
import  of  the  term  love  ; but  the  sense  of  the  sen- 
tence, the  sense  of  the  author,  the  employment  of 
words  in  a technical,  moral,  or  physical  sense. 

’ro  DENOTE,  SIGNIFY,  IMPLV. 

Denote,  in  Latin  denoto  or  noto,  from  notum,  par- 
ticiple of  nosco,  signifies  to  cause  to  know ; signify, 
from  the  Latin  signum  a sign  and  fio  to  become,  is  to 
bewme  or  be  made  a sign,  or  guide  for  the  understand- 


ing ; imply,  from  the  Latin  implico  to  fold  in,  signifies 
to  fold  or  involve  an  idea  in  an  object. 

Denote  is  employed  with  regard  to  things  and  thcii 
characters;  signify  with  regard  to  the  thoughts  or 
movements.  A letter  or  character  may  be  made  to 
denote  any  number,  as  words  are  made  to  signify  the 
intentions  and  wishes  of  the  person.  Among  tlie  an- 
cient Egyptians  hieroglyphicks  were  very  much  em- 
ployed to  denote  certain  moral  qualities ; in  many  cases 
looks  or  actions  will  signify  more  than  words.  Devices 
and  emblems  of  different  descriptions  drawn  either 
from  fabulous  history  or  the  natural  world  are  likewise 
now  employed  to  denote  particular  circumstances  or 
qualities : the  cornucopia  denotes  plenty ; tlie  beehive 
denotes  industry;  the  dove  denotes  meekness;  and  the 
lamb  gentleness;  he  who  will  not  take  the  trouble  u, 
signify  his  wishes  otherwise  than  by  nods  or  signs 
must  expect  to  be  frequently  misunderstood ; ‘ Anoilier 
may  do  the  same  thing,  and  yet  the  action  want  that 
air  and  beauty  which  distinguish  it  from  others,  like 
that  inimitable  sunshine  Titian  is  said  to  have  diffused 
over  his  landscapes,  which  denotes  them  his.’— Spec- 
tator. ‘Simple  abstract  words  are  used  to  signify 
some  one  simple  idea,  without  much  adverting  to 
others  which  may  chance  to  attend  it.’— Burke. 

To  signify  and  imply  may  be  employed  either  as 
respects  actions  or  words.  In  the  first  case  signify  is 
the  act  of  the  person  making  known  by  means  of  a 
sign,  as  we  si'gnify  our  approbation  by  a look ; imply 
marks  the  value  or  force  of  the  action;  our  assent  is 
implied  in  our  silence.  When  applied  to  words  or 
marks,  signify  denotes  the  positive  and  established 
act  of  the  thing;  imply  its  relative  act : a word  sig- 
nifies whatever  it  is  made  literally  to  stand  for;  it 
implies  that  which  it  stands  for  figuratively  or  morally. 
The  term  house  signijies  that  which  is  constructed  for 
a dwelling  ; the  term  residence  implies  something  su- 
periour  to  a house.  A cross,  thus,  + signifies  addition 

in  arithmetick  or  algebra ; along  stroke,  thus, , 

with  a break  in  the  text  of  a work,  implies  that  the 
whole  sentence  is  not  completed.  It  frequently  hap- 
pens that  words  which  signify  nothing  particular  in 
themselves,  may  be  made  to  imply  a great  deal  by  the 
tone,  the  manner,  and  the  connexion;  ‘Words  signify 
not  immediately  and  primarily  things  themselves,  but 
the  conceptions  of  the  mind  concerning  things.’ — 
South.  ‘ Pleasure  implies  a proportion  and  agree 
ment  to  the  respective  states  and  conditions  of  men.’- 
SOUTH. 


SIGNIFICATION,  AVAIL,  IMPORTANCE, 
CONSEOUENCE,  WEIGHT,  MOMENT. 

Signify  (v.  To  signify)  is  here  employed  with  regard 
to  events  of  life,  and  their  relative  importance  ; avail 
{v.  To  avail)  is  never  used  otherwise.  That  which  a 
thing  signifies  is  what  it  contains ; if  it  signifies  no- 
thing, it  contains  nothing,  and  is  worth  nothing  ; if  it 
signifies  much,  it  contains  much,  or  Is  worth  much. 
That  which  avails  produces:  if  it  avails  nothing  it 
produces  nothing,  is  of  no  use ; if  it  avails  much,  it 
produces  or  is  worth  much. 

We  consider  the  end  as  to  its  signification,  and  the 
means  as  to  their  avail.  Although  it  is  of  little  or  no 
signification  to  a man  what  becomes  of  his  remains, 
yet  no  one  can  be  reconciled  to  the  idea  of  leaving 
them  to  be  exposed  to  contempt ; words  are  but  too 
often  of  little  avail  to  curb  the  unruly  wills  of  children , 
‘ As  for  wonders,  wli.Tt  signifieth  telling  us  of  them  V 
— Cumberland.  ‘ What  avail  a parcel  of  statutes 
against  gaming,  when  they  who  make  them  conspire 
together  for  the  infraction  of  them.’ — Cumberland. 

Importance,  from  porto  to  carry,  signifies  the  carry 
ing  or  bearing  with,  or  in  itself ; consequence,  front 
consequor  to  follow,  or  result,  signifies  the  following  oi 
resulting  from  a thing. 

Weight  signifies  \.\\G  quantum  that  the  thing  weighs, 
moment,  from  momentum,  signifies  the  foice  that  puts 
in  motion. 

Importance  is  what  things  have  in  themselves  ; they 
may  be  of  more  or  less  importance,  according  to  the 
value  which  is  sot  upon  them:  this  may  be  real  or 
unreal ; it  may  be  estimated  by  the  experience  of  theit 
past  utility,  or  from  the  presumption  of  their  uliliiv 
for  the  future  : the  idea  of  importance,  there'ore,  emorir 
into  the  meaning  of  the  other  terms  more  or  less  ■ Hr 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


467 


;nat  coriiiiders  liow  soon  he  must  cl»se  his  life,  will 
find  nothin''  of  so  much  importance  as  to  close  it  well.’ 
— Johnson.  Consequence  is  the  importance  of  a thing 
fioin  its  consequence.  This  term  therefore  is  pecu- 
liarly applicable  to  such  things,  the  consequences  of 
which  may  ho  more  immediately  discerned  either  from 
the  neglect  or  the  attention  : it  is  of  consequence  for  a 
letter  to  go  ofl’on  a certain  day,  for  the  affairs  of  an  in- 
dividuallnay  be  more  or  less  affected  by  it ; an  hour’s 
delay  sometiiries  in  the  departure  of  a military  expedi- 
tion may  be  of  such  consequence  as  to  determine  the 
fate  of  a battle  ; ‘ 'J'he  corrujttion  of  our  taste  is  not  of 
equal  consequence  with  the  depravation  of  our  virtue.’ 
— Warton.  The  term  weight  implies  a positively 
great  degree  of  importance:  it  is  that  importance  which 
a thing  has  intrinsically  in  itself,  and  which  makes  it 
weigh  111  the  mind  : it  is  ap[)lied  therefore  to  such 
things  as  offer  themselves  to  deliberation  ; hence  the 
counsels  of  a nation  are  always  weighty,  because  they 
involve  the  interests  of  so  many ; ‘ The  finest  works 
of  invention  are  of  very  little  weight,  when  put  in  the 
balance  with  what  refines  and  exalts  the  rational  mind.’ 
— Spectator.  Moment  is  that  importance  which  a 
thing  has  from  the  power  in  itself  to  produce  effects, 
or  to  determine  interests:  it  is  applicable,  therefore, 
only  to  such  things  as  are  connected  with  our  pros- 
perity or  iiapjiiness : when  used  without  any  adjunct, 
it  implies  a great  degree  of  importance,  but  may  be 
modified  in  various  v\'ays ; as  a thing  of  no  moment 
or  small  moment,  or  great  moment ; but  we  cannot  say 
with  the  same  propriety,  a thing  of  small  weight,  and 
still  less  a thing  of  great  weight : it  is  a matter  of  no 
small  moment  for  every  one  to  choose  that  course  of 
conduct  which  will  stand  the  test  of  a death-bed 
reflection;  ‘Whoever  shall  review  his  life,  will  find 
that  the  whole  tenour  of  his  conduct  has  been  deter- 
mined by  some  accident  of  no  a[)parent  moment.' — 
Johnson. 


UNIMPORTANT,  INSIGNIFICANT,  IMMATE- 
RIAL, INCONSIDERABLE. 

The  want  of  importance,  of  consideration,  of  signi- 
f.cation,  and  of  matter  or  substance,  is  expressed  by 
these  terms.  They  differ  therefore  principally  accord- 
ing to  the  meaning  of  the  primitives  ; but  they  are  so 
closely  allied  tha'  they  may  be  employed  sometimes 
indifferently.  Unimportant  regards  the  consequences 
our  actions  : it  is  unimportant  whether  we  use  this 
or  that  word  in  certain  cases  ; ‘ Nigno  and  Guerra 
made  no  discoveries  of  any  importanee.' — Robertson. 
Incon.siderable  and  insignificant  respect  those  things 
which  may  attract  notice  : the  former  is  more  adapted 
to  the  grave  style,  to  designate  the  comparative  low 
value  of  things ; the  latter  is  a familiar  term  which 
seems  to  convey  a contemptuous  meaning:  in  a de- 
scription we  may  say  that  the  number,  the  size,  the 
quantity,  &:c.  is  inconsiderable;  in  speaking  of  per- 
sons we  may  say  they  are  insignificant  in  stature,  look, 
talent,  station,  and  the  like  ; or  speaking  of  things,  an 
insignificant  production,  or  an  insignificant  word  ; 
‘ That  the  soul  cannot  be  proved  mortal  by  any  prin- 
ciple of  natural  reason  is,  I think,  no  inconsiderable 
point  gained.’ — South.  ‘ As  I am  insignificant  to  the 
company  in  publick  places,  I gratify  the  vanity  of  all 
who  pretend  to  make  an  appearance.’ — Addison.  Im- 
material is  a species  of  the  unimportant,  which  is  ap- 
plied only  to  familiar  subjects ; it  is  immaterial  whether 
we  go  to-day  or  to-morrow  ; it  is  immaterial  whether 
we  have  a few  or  many ; ‘ If  in  the  judgement  of  im- 
partial persons  the  arguments  be  strong  enough  to  con- 
vince an  unbiassed  mind,  it  is  not  material  whether 
every  wrangling  atheist  will  sit  down  contented  with 
ihem.’ — Stillingfleet. 


TRIFLING,  TRIVIAL,  PETTY,  FRIVOLOUS, 
FUTILE. 

Trifling,  trivial,  both  come  from  trivium,  a common 
place  of  resort  where  three  roads  meet,  and  signify 
common  ; petty  is  in  French  petit  little,  in  Latin  putiis 
a boy  or  minion,  and  the  Hebrew  'PiQ  foolish ; frivo- 
lous, in  Latin  frivnlus,  comes  in  all  probability  from 
fno  to  crumble  into  dust,  .signifying  reduced  to  nothing; 
futile,  in  Latin  futilis,  from  futio  to  pour  out,  signifies 
cast  away  as  worthless. 


All  these  epithets  characterize  an  object  as  of  little 
or  no  value:  trifling  and  trivial  differ  only  in  degree; 
the  latter  denoting  a still  lower  degree  of  value  than 
the  former.  What  is  trifling  or  trivial  is  that  which 
does  not  require  any  consideration,  and  may  be  easily 
passed  over  as  foigotten : trifling  objections  can  never 
weigh  against  solid  ''lason  ; trivial  remarks  only  ex- 
pose the  shallowness  of  the  remarker;  ‘We  e.xceed 
the  ancients  in  doggerel  humour,  burlesque,  and  all 
the  trivial  arts  of  ridicule.’ — Addison.  What  is  petty 
is  beneath  our  consideration,  it  ought  to  be  disregarded 
and  held  cheap  ; it  would  be  a petty  consideration  for 
a minister  of  state  to  look  to  the  small  savings  of  a 
private  family ; ‘ There  is  scarcely  any  man  without 
some  favourite  trifle  which  he  values  above  greater 
attainments ; some  desire  of  petty  praise  which  he 
cannot  patiently  suffe.’  to  be  frustrated.’ — Johnson. 
What  is  frivolous  end  futils  is  disgraceful  for  any 
one  to  consider ; the  fcimer  in  relation  to  all  the  ob- 
jects of  our  pursuit  or  attachment,  the  latter  only  in 
regard  to  matt»!rs  of  reasoning ; dress  is  a frivolous 
occupation  when  it  forms  the  chief  business  of  a ra- 
tional being ; ‘It  is  an  endless  and  frivolous  pursuit 
to  act  by  any  other  rule  than  the  care  of  satisfying.our 
own  minds.’ — Steele.  The  objections  of  freethinkers 
against  revealed  religion  are  as  futile  as  they  are  mis- 
chievous , ‘ Out  of  a multiplicity  of  criticisms  b^  va- 
rious hands  many  are  sure  to  be  futile.' — Cowrer 

SUPERFICIAL,  SHALI.OW,  FLIMSY. 

The  superficial  is  that  which  lies  only  at  the  surface 
it  is  therefore  by  implication  the  same  as  the  shallow, 
which  has  nothing  underneath  : shallow  being  a varia- 
tion of  hollow  or  empty.  Hence  a person  may  be 
called  either  superficial  or  shallow,  to  ind'cnte  that  he 
has  not  a profundity  of  knowledge;  but  otherwise, 
superficiality  is  applied  to  the  exercise  of  the  thinking 
faculty,  and  shallowness  to  its  extent  Men  of  free 
sentiments  are  superficial  thinkers,  although  they  may 
not  have  understandings  more  shallow  than  others 
Superficial  and  shallow  are  applicable  to  things  as  well 
as  persons : flimsy  is  applicable  to  things  only.  Flims'^ 
most  probably  comes  from  flame,  that  is,  flamy,  showy 
easily  seen  through.  In  the  proper  sense,  we  may 
speak  of  giving  a superficial  covering  of  paint  or 
colour  to  a body ; of  a river  or  piece  of  water  being 
shallow  ; of  cotton  or  cloth  being  flimsy.  In  the  im 
proper  sense,  a survey  or  a glance  may  be  superficial 
which  does  not  extend  beyond  the  superficies  of  things ; 
‘ By  much  labour  we  acquire  a superficial  acquaint 
ance  with  a few  sensible  objects.’ — Blair.  A conver- 
sation or  a discourse  may  be  shallow,  which  does  not 
contain  a body  of  sentiment ; 

I know  thee  to  thy  bottom  ; from  within 

Thy  shallow  centre  to  the  utmost  skin. — Dryden 
A work  or  performance  may  be  flimsy  which  has  no- 
thing solid  in  it  to  engage  the  attention  ; 

Proud  of  a vast  extent  of  flimsy  lines.— Pope 


SURFACE,  SUPERFICIES. 

Surface,  compounded  of  sur  for  super  and  face,  is 
a variation  of  the  Latin  term  s^iperficies ; and  yet  they 
have  acquirid  this  distinction,  that  the  former  is  the 
vulgar,  and  the  latter  the  scientifick  term:  of  course 
the  former  has  a more  indefinite  and  general  applica 
tion  than  the  latter.  A surface  is  either  even  or  un 
even,  smooth  or  rough  ; but  the  mathematician  always 
conceives  of  ti  plane  superficies  on  which  he  founds  his 
operations.  They  are  employed  in  a figurative  sense 
with  a similar  distinction  ; 

Errours  like  straws  upon  the  surface  flow ; 

He  who  would  search  for  pearls'inust  dive’  below’. 

Dryden. 

‘Those  who  have  undertaken  the  task  of  reconciling 
mankind  to  their  present  state  frequently  remind  us 
that  we  view  only  the  superficies  of  life.’— Johnson 


TO  EXPLAIN,  EXPOUND,  INTERPRET. 

To  explain  is  to  make  plain;  expound,  from  the 
Latin  expono,  compounded  of  ex  and  pono,  signifies 
to  set  forth  in  detail ; interpret,  in  Latin  interpreto 
and  interpretes,  compounded  of  inter  and  *^i£a  that 


458 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES 


\^.linguas  tongues,  signifies  literally  to  get  the  sense 
nf  one  language  by  means  of  another. 

To  explain  isthegenerick  term,  the  rest  are  specifick: 
to  expound  and  interpret  are  each  modes  of  explaining. 
Single  words  or  sentences  are  explained;  a whole  work, 
or  considerable  parts  of  it,  are  expounded ; the  sense  of 
any  writing  or  symbolical  sign  is  interpreted.  It  is  the 
business  of  the  philologist  to  explain  the  meaning  of 
words  by  a suitable  definition  ; ‘ It  is  a serious  thing  to 
have  connexion  with  a people,  who  live  only  tMider 
positive,  arbitrary,  and  changt  able  institutions ; and 
these  not  perfected,  nor  supplied,  lior  explained.,  by  any 
common  acknowledged  rule  of  moral  science.’— Burke. 
It  is  the  business  of  the  divine  to  expound  Scripture  ; 

One  meets  now  and  then  with  persons  who  are  ex- 
tremely learned  and  knotty  in  expounding  clear  cases.’ 
—Steele.  It  is  the  business  of  the  antiquarian  to 
interpret  the  meaning  of  old  inscriptions  on  stones,  or 
of  hieroglyphicks  on  buildings ; ‘ It  does  not  appear 
that  among  the  Romans  any  man  grew  eminent  by  in- 
terpreting another ; and  perhaps  it  was  more  frequent 
to  translate  for  exercise  or  amusement  than  for  fame.’ 
— Johnson. 

An  explanation  serves  to  assist  the  understanding, 
to  supply  a deficiency,  and  remove  obscurity;  an  ex- 
position is  an  ample  explanation.,  in  which  minute 
particulars  are  detailed,  and  the  connexion  of  events 
in  the  narrative  is  kept  up;  it  serves  to  assist  the 
memory  and  awaken  the  attention  : both  the  explana- 
tion and  exposition  are  employed  in  clearing  up  the 
sense  of  things  as  they  are,  but  the  interpretation  is 
more  arbitrary  ; it  often  consists  of  affixing  or  giving 
a sense  to  things  which  they  have  not  previously  had  ; 
hence  it  is  that  the  same  passages  in  authors  admit  of 
different  interpretations,  according  to  the  character  or 
views  of  the  commentator. 

There  are  many  practical  truths  in  the  Bible  which 
are  so  plain  and  positive,  that  they  need  no  literal 
explanation:  but  its  doctrines,  when  faithfully  ex- 
pounded, may  be  brought  home  to  the  hearts  and  con- 
sciences of  men;  although  the  partial  interpretations 
of  illiterate  and  enthusiastick  men  are  more  apt  todis- 
grace  than  to  advance  the  cause  of  religion. 

To  explain  and  interpret  are  not  confined  to  what 
is  written  or  said,  they  are  employed  likewise  with 
/egard  to  the  actions  of  men  ; exposition  is,  however, 
used  only  with  regard  to  wriiiiiL's.  The  major  part 
of  the  misunderstandings  and  animosities  which  arise 
among  men,  might  easily  bo  obviated  by  a timely  ex- 
planation; it  is  the  cliaracieristick  of  good-nature  to 
interpret  the  looks  and  actions  of  men  as  favourably 
as  possible.  The  explanation  may  sometimes  flow  out 
of  circumstances;  the  mterymetattort  is  always  the  act 
of  a voluntary  and  rational  agent.  The  discovery  of 
a plot  or  secret  scheme  will  serve  to  explain  the  mys- 
terious and  strange  conduct  of  such  as  were  previously 
acquainted  with  it.  According  to  an  old  proverb, 
“ Silence  gives  consent ;”  for  thus  at  least  they  are 
pleased  to  interpret  it,  who  are  interested  in  the  de- 
cision. 


TO  MISCONSTRUE,  MISINTERPRET. 

Jllisconstrue  and  misinte'-pret  signify  to  explain  in 
a w rong  way ; but  the  former  respects  the  sense  of  one’s 
words  or  the  impiication  of  one’s  actions : those  who 
indulge  themselves  in  a light  mode  of  speech  towards 
children  are  liable  to  be  mis-onstrued ; a too  great 
tenderness  to  the  criminal  may  Le  easily  misinterpreted 
into  favour  of  the  crime. 

These  words  may  likewise  be  employed  in  speaking 
of  language  in  general ; but  the  former  respects  the 
literal  transmission  of  foreign  ideas  into  our  native 
language  ; the  latter  respects  the  general  sense  which 
one  affixes  to  any  set  of  words,  either  in  a native  or 
foreign  language:  the  learners  of  a language  will  un- 
avoidably misconstrue  it  at  times;  in  all  languages 
there  are  ambiguous  expressions,  which  are  liable  to 
misinterpretation.  Misconstruing  is  the  consequence 
of  ignorance ; 

In  ev’ry  act  and  turn  of  life  he  feels 
Pnblick  calamities  or  household  ills  : 

The  judge  corrupt,  the  long-depending  cause. 

And  doubtful  issue  of  misconstrued  laws. — Prior. 
Misinterpretation  of  particular  words  are  oftener  the 
icnsr.quence  of  prejudice  and  voluntary  blindness. 


particularly  in  the  explanUion  of  the  law  of  ine  Sciip 
tures  ; ‘ Some  purposely  misrepresent  or  put  a wroii^ 
interpretation  on  the  virtues  of  others.’ — Addiscs. 

DEFINITE,  POSITIVE. 

Definite,  in  Latin  definitum,  participle  of  definio, 
comiiounded  of  de  and  finis,  signifies  that  which  is 
bounded  by  a line  or  limit;  positive,  in  Latin  posi- 
tivus,  from  pono  to  place,  signifies  that  which  .s  placed 
or  fixed. 

The  understanding  and  reasoning  powers  are  con- 
nected with  what  is  definite;  the  will  with  what  is 
positive.  A definite  answer  leaves  nothing  to  be  ex- 
plained ; a positive  answer  leaves  no  room  for  hesi 
tatioii  or  question.  It  is  necessary  to  be  definite  in 
giving  instructions,  and  to  be  positive  in  giving  com- 
mands. A person  who  is  definite  in  his  proceedings 
with  another,  puts  a stop  to  all  unreasonable  expecta- 
tions ; ‘ We  are  not  able  to  judge  of  the  degree  of  con- 
viction which  operated  at  any  particular  time  upon  our 
own  thoughts,  but  as  it, is  recorded  by  some  certain 
and  definite  eflect.’ — Johnson.  It  is  necessary  for 
those  who  have  to  exercise  authority  to  be  positive,  in 
order  to  enforce  obedience  from  the  self-willed  and 
contumacious ; ‘ The  Earl  Rivers  being  now  in  Jiis 
own  opinion  on  his  death-bed,  thought  it  his  duty  to 
provide  for  Savage  among  his  other  natural  children, 
and  therefore  demanded  a positive  account  of  him.’ — 
Johnson. 


DEFINITION,  EXPLANATION. 

A definition  is  properly  a species  of  explanation 
The  former  is  used  scientifically,  the  latter  on  ordinary 
occasions  ; the  former  is  confined  to  words,  the  latter 
is  employed  for  words  or  things. 

A definition  is  correct  or  precise;  an  explanation  is 
general  or  ample. 

The  definition  of  a word^defines  or  limits  the  extent 
of  its  signification  ; it  is  the  rule  for  the  scholar  in  the 
use  of  any  word  ; ‘ As  to  politeness,  many  have  at- 
tempted definitions  of  it.  I believe  it  is  best  to  be 
known  by  description,  definition  not  being  able  to  com- 
prise it.’ — Lord  Chatham.  The  explanation  of  a 
word  may  include  both  definition  and  illustration  : the 
former  admits  of  no  more  words  than  will  include  the 
leading  features  in  the  meaning  of  any  term  ; the  lattei 
admits  of  an  unlimited  scope  for  diffuseness  on  the 
part  of  the  explainer ; ‘ If  you  are  forced  to  desire 
further  information  or  explanation  upon  a point,  do  it 
with  proper  apologies  for  the  trouble  you  give.’ — Lord 
Chatham. 


TO  EXPLAIN.  ILLUSTRATE,  ELUCIDATE. 

Explain,  v.  ft  explain,  expound;  illustrate,  In 
Latin  illustratus  participle  of  illustro,  compounded 
of  the  intensive  syllable  in  and  lustro,  signifies  tc 
make  a thing  bright,  or  easy  to  be  surveyed  and  ex- 
amined ; elucidate,  in  Latin  elucidatus,  participle  of 
clucido,  from  lux  light,  signifies  to  bring  forth  into  the 
light. 

To  explain  is  simply  to  render  intelligible  ; to  Ulus 
trate  and  elucidate  are  to  give  addilional  clearness, 
every  thing  requires  to  be  explained  to  one  who  ia 
ignorant  of  it;  but  the  best  informed  will  require  to 
have  abstruse  subjects  illustrated,  and  obscure  sub- 
jects elucidated.  We  always  explain  when  we  Ulus 
trate  or  elucidate,  and  we  always  elucidate  when  we 
illustrate,  but  not  vice  versd. 

Vve  explain  by  reducing  compounds  to  simples,  and 
generals  to  particulars;  ‘I  know  I meant  just  what 
you  explain;  but  I did  not  explain  my  own  meaning 
so  well  as  you.’ — PoeE.  We  illustrate  by  means  of 
examples,  similes,  and  allegorical  figures ; ‘ It  is  in 
deed  the  same  system  as  mine,  but  illustrated  with  a 
ray  of  your  own.’— Pope.  We  elucidate  by  commen- 
taries, or  the  statement  of  facts;  ‘If  our  religious 
tenets  should  ever  want  a farther  elucidation,  we  shall 
not  call  on  atheism  to  explain  them.  — Burke.  Words 
are  the  common  subject  of  explanation;  moral  truths 
\oA\uno  illustration ; poetical  allusions  and  dark  pas 
sages  in  writers  require  elucidation.  All  explanations 
given  to  children  should  consist  of  as  few  words  as  poi* 
sible.  so  long  as  they  are  sufficiently  explicit. 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


EXPLANATORY,  EXPLICIT,  EXPRESS. 

Explanatory  signifies  containing;  or  belonging  to  ex- 
vlanation  {v.  To  explain) ; explicit,  in  Latin  expli- 
eatus,  from  explico  to  unfold,  signifies  unfolded  or  laid 
open  , express,  i\\  Latin  expressus,  signifies  the  same 
as  expressed  or  delivered  in  specifick  terms. 

The  explanatory  is  that  which  is  supei  added  to  clear 
up  difficulties  or  obscurities.  A letter  is  explanatory 
which  contains  an  of  something  preceding, 

in  lieu  of  any  thing  new;  ‘An  explanatory  law  stops 
the  current  of  a precedent  statute,  nor  does  either  of 
them  adni't  extension  afterwards.’ — Bacon.  'J'he  ex- 
plicic  IS  that  which  of  itself  obviates  every  difficulty; 
an  explicit  letter,  therefoie,  will  leave  nothing  that 
requires  explanation ; ‘ Since  the  revolution  the  bounds 
of  prerogative  and  liberty  have  been  better  defined,  the 
principles  of  government  more  thoroughly  examined 
and  understood,  and  the  rights  of  the  subject  more 
explicitly  guarded  by  legal  provisions,  than  in  any 
other  period  of  the  English  history.’— Blackstonk. 
The  explicit  admits  of  a free  use  of  words  ; the  express 
requires  thetn  to  be  unambiguous.  A person  ought  to 
be  explicit  when  lie  enters  into  an  engagement ; he 
ought  to  be  express  when  he  gives  commands,  or  con- 
veys his  wishes ; ‘ I have  destroyed  the  letter  I re- 
ceived from  you  by  the  hands  of  Lucius  Aruntius, 
though  it  was  much  too  innocent  to  deserve  so  severe 
a treatment;  however,  it  was  your  express  desire  1 
should  destroy  it,  and  I have  complied  accordingly.’ — 
Mblmoth  (Letters  of  Ciccro). 

TO  EXPOSTULATE,  REMONSTRATE. 

Expostulate,  from  posiulo  to  demand,  signifies  to 
demand  reasons  for  a thing  ; remonstrate,  from  mon~ 
etro  to  show,  signifies  to  show  reasons  against  a thing. 

We  expostulate  in  a tone  of  authority;  werernon- 
etrate  in  a tone  of  complaint.  He  who  expostulates 
pasaes  a censure,  and  claims  to  be  heard  ; he  who  re- 
monstrates presents  his  case,  and  requests  to  be  heard. 
Expostulation  may  often  be  the  precursor  of  violence; 
remonstrance  mostly  rests  on  the  force  of  reason  and 
representation  ; he  who  admits  of  expostulation  from 
an  inferiour  undermines  his  own  authority  ; he  who  is 
deaf  to  the  remonstrances  of  his  friends  is  far  gone  in 
folly ; the  expostulation  is  mostly  on  matters  of  per- 
sonal interest ; the  remonstrance  may  as  often  be  made 
on  matters  of  propriety.  The  Scythian  ambassadors 
expostulated  with  Alexander  against  his  invasion  of 
theirj:ountry  ; King  Richard  expostulated  with  Wat 
Tyler  on  the  subject  of  his  insurrection  ; ‘ With  the 
hypocrite  it  is  not  my  business  at  present  to  expos- 
tulate.'— Johnson.  Artabanes  remonstrated  with 
Xerxes  on  the  folly  of  his  projected  invasion  ; ‘ I have 
been  but  a little  rime  conversant  with  the  world,  yet 
I have  had  already  frequent  opportunities  of  observing 
the  little  efficacy  of  remonstrance  and  complaint.’ — 
Johnson. 

TO  UTTER,  SPEAK,  ARTICULATE, 
PRONOUNCE. 

Utter,  from  out,  signifies  to  put  out;  that  is,  to  send 
foithasound:  this  therefore  is  a more  general  term 
than  speak,  which  is  to  utter  an  intelligible  sound. 
We  may  utter  a groan  ; we  speak  words  only,  or  that 
which  is  intended  to  serve  as  words.  To  speak  there- 
fore is  only  a species  of  utterance;  a dumb  man  has 
utterance,  but  not  speech; 

At  each  word  that  my  destruction  utter'd 

My  heart  recoiled.— Otway. 

What  you  keep  by  you,  you  may  change  and  mend. 

But  w’ords  once  spoke,  can  never  be  recall’d. 

Waller. 

.Articulate  and  pronounce  are  modes  of  speaking ; 
to  articulate,  from  artivulum  a joint,  is  to  pronounce 
distinctly  the  letters  or  syllables  of  words;  wliich  is 
the  first  effort  of  a child  beginning  to  speak.  It  is 
of  great  importance  to  make  a child  articulate  every 
letter  when  he  first  begins  to  speak  or  read.  To  pro- 
nounce, from  the  Latin  pronuncio  to  speak  out  loud,  is 
a formal  mode  of  speaking. 

A ch'ld  must  first  articulate  the  letters  and  the  syl- 
ables,  then  he  pronounces  or  sets  forth  the  whole 
word ; this  is  necessary  before  he  can  speak  to  be  un- 
derstood ; ‘ The  torments  of  disease  can  sometimes 


only  be  signified  by  groans  sols,  or  inarticulate 
ejaculations.’ — Johnson.  ^ Speax.  the  speech,  I pray 
you,  as  I pronounced  li  to  vou.’ — Shakspeare. 


TO  SPEAK,  TALK,  CONVERSE,  DISCOURSE. 

Speak,  in  Saxon  specan,  is  probably  coimecled  with 
the  German  sprechen  to  speak,  and  brechen  to  break, 
the  Latin  precor  to  pray,  and  the  Hebrew  ; talk 
is  but  a variation  of  tell;  converse,  v.  Conversatii  n ; 
discourse,  in  Latin  discursus,  expresses  properly  an 
examining  or  deliberating  upon 

The  idea  of  communicating  with,  or  communicating 
to,  another,  by  means  of  signs,  is  common  in  the  sig- 
nification of  all  tliese  terms  : to  speak  is  an  indefinite 
term,  specifying  no  circumstance  of  the  action  ; we 
may  speak  only  one  word  or  many ; but  we  talk  for  a 
continuance:  we  S7;ea/r  from  various  motives;  we  talk 
for  pleasure;  we  converse  for  improvement  or  intel- 
lectual gratification:  we  speak  w'lih  or  to  a person, 
we  talk  commonly  toothers  ; we  converse  with  others. 
Speaking  a language  is  quite  distinct  from  writing; 
publick  speaking  has  at  all  times  been  cultivated  with 
great  care,  but  particularly  under  popular  governments; 
^Falsehood  is  a speaking  against  our  thoughts.’ — 
South.  Talking  is  mostly  the  pastime  of  the  idle 
and  the  empty;  those  who  think  least  talk  most; 
‘ Talkers  are  commonly  vain,  and  credulous  withal; 
for  he  that  talketh  what  he  knoweth,  will  also  talk 
what  he  knoweth  not.’ — Bacon.  Conversation  is  the 
rational  employment  of  social  beings,  who  seek  by  an 
interchange  of  sentiment  to  purify  the  afifections,  and 
improve  the  understanding ; 

Go,  therefore,  half  this  day,  as  friend  with  friend, 
Converse  with  Adam. — Milto.n. 

Conversation  is  the  act  of  many  together;  talk  nnU 
discourse  may  be  the  act  of  one  addressing  himself  tc 
others:  conversation  loses  its  value  when  it  ceases  tu- 
be general;  faZ/r  has  seldom  any  value  but  what  thf 
' iaZ/rer  attaclies  to  it;  the  discourse  derives  its  value 
from  the  nature  of  the  subject  as  well  as  the  character 
of  the  speaker:  conversation  is  adapted  for  mixed 
companies;  children  taZ/t  to  their  parents,  or  to  theiy 
companions;  parents  and. teachers  discourse  W3h5 
young  people  on  moral  duties ; 

Let  thy  discourse  be  such,  that  thou  maysl  give 
Profit  to  others,  or  from  them  receive.— Denham 


TO  BABBLE,  CHATTER,  CHAT,  PRATTLE, 
PRATE. 

Babble,  in  French  babiller,  probably  receives  its  ori 
gin  from  the  tower  of  Babel,  when  the  confusion  of 
tongues  took  place,  and  men  talked  unintelligibly  to 
each  other ; chatter,  chat,  is  in  French  coquet.  Low 
German  tatern,  High  German  schnattern,  Latin  bla 
tcro,  Hebrew  bata;  prattle,  prate,  in  Low  German 
praten,  is  probably  connected  with  the  Greek  to 

speak. 

All  these  terms  mark  a superfluous  or  improper  use 
of  speech:  babble  and  cAoZZer  are  onomatopelas drawn 
from  the  noise  or  action  of  speaking ; babbling  denotes 
rapidity  of  speech  which  renders  it  unintelligible, 
hence  the  term  is  applied  to  all  who  make  use  of  many 
words  to  no  purpose;  ‘To  stand  up  and  babble  \o  a. 
crowd  in  an  ale-house,  till  silence  is  commanded  by  the 
stroke  of  a hammer,  is  as  low  an  ambition  as  can  taint 
the  human  mind.’ — Hawkesworth.  Chatter  is  an 
imitation  of  the  noise  of  speech  properly  applied  to 
magpies  or  parrots,  and  figuratively  to  a corresponding 
vicious  mode  of  speech  in  human  beings; 

Sony;  birds  there  are  who,  prone  to  noise. 

Are  hir'd  to  silence  wisdom’s  voice ; 

And,r.k‘ird  iochattcr  out  the  hour. 

Rise  by  their  emptiness  to  power. — Moore. 

The  vice  of  babbling  is  most  commonly  attached  to 
men,  that  of  chattering  to  women;  the  ZiaZiZiZer  talks 
much  to  im.prcss  others  with  his  seif-importance;  the 
chatterer  is  actuated  by  self-conceit,  and  a desire  to 
display  her  volubility : the  former  cares  not  whethei 
he  is  understood ; the  latter  cares  not  if  she  be  but 
heard. 

Chatterivfi  h harmless,  if  not  respectable  the  win- 
ter's firesiv-'  neighbours  to  assemble  a»id  <hcu 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


4ao 

away  many  an  hour  which  might  otherwise  hang 
heavy  on  hand,  or  be  spent  less  inoffensively  ; 
Sometimes  I dress,  with  women  sit. 

And  chat  away  the  gloomy  fit.— Guken. 

Chatting  is  the  practice  of  adults;  prattling  txnA  prat- 
ing that  of  children  ; the  one  innocently,  the  other  im- 
pertinently : the  prattling  of  babes  has  an  interest  for 
every  feeling  mind,  but  for  parents  it  is  one  of  their 
highest  enjoyments; 

Now  blows  the  surly  north,  and  chills  throughout 
rite  stiff’ning  regions  ; while  by  stronger  charms 
Than  Circe  e’er  or  fell  Medea  brew’d. 

Each  brook  that  wont  to  prattle  to  its  banks 
Lies  all  bestill’d. — Armstrong. 

Prating  is  the  consequence  of  ignorance  and  childish 
assumption;  prattler hd,sa\\  the  unaffected  gayetyof 
an  uncontaminated  mind  ; a prater  is  forward,  obtru- 
sive, and  ridiculous ; 

My  prudent  counsels  prop  the  slate; 

Magpies  were  never  known  to  prate. — Moore. 

TALKATIVE,  LOaUACIOUS,  GARRULOUS. 
Talkative  implies  ready  or  prone  to  talk  {v.  To 
speak) ; loquacious,  from  loquor  to  speak  or  talk,  has 
the  same  original  meaning;  garrulous,  in  Latin  gar- 
rulus,  from  garrio  to  blab,  signifies  prone  to  tell  or 
make  known. 

These  reproachful  epithets  differ  principally  in  the 
degree.  To  talk  is  allowable  and  consequently  it  is 
not  altogether  so  unbecoming  to  be  occasionally  talk- 
ative: but  loquacity,  which  implies  always  an  immo- 
derate propensity  to  talk,  is  always  bad,  whether 
springing  from  affectation  or  an  idle  temper:  and  gar- 
rulity, which  arises  from  the  excessive  desire  of  com- 
municating, is  a failing  that  is  pardonable  only  in  the 
aged,  who  have  generally  much  to  tell ; ‘ Every  ab- 
surdity has  a champion  to  defend  it ; for  errour  is 
always  talkative.' — Goldsmith. 

Thersites  only  clamour’d  in  the  throng. 

Loquacious,  loud,  and  turbulent  of  tongue. — Pope. 
Pleas’d  w'ith  that  social,  sweet  garrulity. 

Till  poor  disbanded  vet’ran’s  sole  delight. 

Somerville. 


UNSPEAK.MILE,  INEFFABLE,  UNUTTER- 
ABLE, INEXPRESSIBLE. 

Unspeakable  and  ineffable,  from  the  Latin  for  to 
speak,  have  precisely  the  same  meaning;  but  un- 
speakable is  said  of  objects  in  general,  particularly  of 
that  which  is  above  human  conception,  and  surpasses 
the  power  of  language  to  describe  ; as  the  unspeak- 
able aoodness  o(  God;  ‘The  vast  difference  of  God’s 
nature  from  ours  makes  the  difference  between  them  so 
unspeakably  great.’ — South.  Ineffable  is  said  of  such 
objects  as  cannot  be  painted  in  words  with  adequate 
force,  as  the  ineffable  sweetness  of  a person’s  look  ; 
‘The  influences  of  the  Divine  nature  enliven  the  mind 
with  ineffable  joy.’ — South.  Unutterable  and  inex- 
pressible are  extended  in  their  signification  to  that 
which  is  incommunicable  by  signs  from  one  being  to 
another;  tims  grief  is  unutterable  wWxch  it  is  not  in 
the  power  of  the  sufferer  by  any  sounds  to  bring 
home  to  the  feeiings  of  another;  grief  is  inexpressible 
which  is  not  to  be  expressed  by  looks,  or  words,  or  any 
signs.  Unutterable  is  therefore  applied  only  to  the  in 
dividual  who  wishes  to  give  utterance ; inexpressible 
may  be  said  of  that  which  is  to  be  expressed  concern- 
ing others;  our  own  pains  are  i/waHeraife;  the  sweet- 
ness of  a person’s  countenance  is  inexpressible  ; 

Nature  breeds. 

Perverse,  ali  monstrous,  all  prodigious  things. 

Abominable,  unutterable. — Milton. 

The  evil  which  lies  lurking  under  a temptation  is  in- 
tolerable and  inexpressible.'— ^OVTVI. 

CONVERSATION,  DIALOGUE,  CONFERENCE, 
COLLOaUY. 

Conversation  denotes  the  act  of  holding  converse; 
dialogue,  in  French  dialogue,  Latin  dialogus,  Greek 
iufXeyoj,  compounded  of  ^id  and  A(5yof,  signifies  a 
speech  between  two;  conference,  from  the  Latin  con  • 


and  fero  to  put  together,  signifies  consulting  togethei 
on  subjects ; colloquy,  in  Latin  colloquium,  from  col  or 
con  and  loquor  to  speak,  signifies  the  act  of  talking  to- 
gether. 

A conversation  is  always  something  actually  held 
between  two  or  more  persons;  a dialogue  is  mostly 
fictitious,  and  written  as  if  spoken : any  number  of 
persons  may  take  part  in  a conversation ; but  a dia 
logue  always  refers  to  the  two  persons  who  are  ex- 
pressly engaged  : a conversation  may  be  desultory,  in 
which  each  takes  his  part  at  pleasure;  a dialogue  is 
formal,  in  which  there  will  always  be  reply  and  re- 
joinder; a conversation  may  be  carried  on  by  any 
signs  besides  words,  which  are  addressed  personally  to 
the  individual  present ; a dialogue  must  always  consist 
of  express  words : a prince  holds  frequent  conversa 
tionswilh  his  ministers  on  affairs  of  state;  ‘ I find  so 
much  Arabick  and  Persian  to  read,  that  all  my  leisure  in 
a morning  is  hardly  sufficient  for  a thousandth  part  of 
the  reading  that  would  be  agreeable  and  useful,  as  I 
wish  to  be  a match  in  conversation  with  the  learned 
natives  whom  I happen  to  meet.’ — Sir  Wm.  Jones. 
Cicero  wrote  dialogues  on  the  nature  of  the  gods,  and 
many  later  writers  have  adopted  the  dialogue  foi  in  as 
a vehicle  for  conveying  their  sentiments ; ‘ Aurengzebe 
is  written  in  rhyme,  and  has  the  appearance  of  being 
the  most  elaborate  of  all  Dryden’s  plays.  The  per 
sonages  are  i.mperial,  but  the  dialogue  is  often  domes 
tick,  and  therefore  susceptible  of  sentiments  accommo- 
dated to  familiar  incidents.’ — Johnson.  A conference 
is  a species  of  conversation ; a colloquy  is  a species  of 
dialogue:  a conversation  is  indefinite  as  to  the  subject, 
or  the  parties  engaged  in  it;  a conference  is  confined 
to  particular  subjects  and  descriptions  of  persons : a 
conversation  is  mostly  occasional ; a conference  is 
always  specifically  appointed : a conversation  is  mostly 
on  indifferent  matters;  a conference  is  mostly  on  na- 
tional orpublick  concerns.  Men  hold  a conversation  as 
friends;  they  hold  a conference  as  ministers  of  state; 
‘ The  conference  between  Gabriel  and  Satan  abounds 
with  sentiments  proper  for  the  occasion,  and  suitable 
to  the  persons  of  the  two  speakers.’ — Addison. 

The  dialogue  naturally  limits  the  number  to  two; 
the  colloquy  is  indefinite  as  to  number:  there  may  be 
dialogues  therefore  which  are  not  colloquies ; but  every 
colloquy  may  be  denominated  a dialogue;  ‘The  close 
of  this  divine  colloquy  (between  the  Father  and  the 
Son)  with  the  hymn  of  Angels  that  follow,  are  won 
derfully  beautiful  and  poetical.’ — Addison. 


ANSWER,  REPLY,  REJOINDER,  RESPONSE 
.Answer,  in  Saxon  andswaren  and  varan,  Goth,  awart 
andward,  German  antwort,  compounded  of  ant  or  uw. 
against,  and  wort  a w’ord,  signifies  a word  used  again? 
or  in  return  for  another ; req/ly  comes  from  the  Frencl 
repliquer,  Latin  replico  to  unfold,  signifying  to  unfold  ov 
enlarge  upon  by  way  o<’  explanation ; rejoin  is  com 
pounded  of  re  and  join,  signifying  to  join  or  add  in  re 
turn;  response,  in  Latin  responsus,  participle  of  re- 
spondco,  compounded  of  re  and  spondeo,  signifies  to 
declare  or  give  a sanction  to  in  return. 

Under  all  these  terms  is  included  the  idea  of  using 
words  in  return  for  other  words.  An  awszeer  is  given 
to  a question  ; a reply  is  made  to  an  assertion ; a re- 
joinder is  made  to  a reply  ; a response  is  made  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  words  of  another. 

One  answers  either  for  the  purpose  of  affirmatior 
assent,  information,  or  contradiction  ; 

The  blackbird  whistles  from  the  thorny  brake. 

The  mellow  bulfinch  answers  from  the  grove. 

Thomson. 

We  always  reply,  or  rejoin  in  order  to  explain  or  con 
fute ; ‘ He  again  took  some  time  to  consider,  and  civilly 
replied,  “ I do.” — “If  you  do  agree  with  me,”  rejoined 
I,  “in  acknowledging  the  complaint,  tell  me  if  you  will 
concur  in  promoting  the  cure.”  ’ — Cumberland.  Re 
sponses  are  made  by  way  of  assent  or  confirmation, 
and  sometimes  in  the  case  of  oracular  answers  by  way 
of  information  ; ‘ Lacedtemon,  always  disposed  to  con- 
trol the  growing  consequence  of  her  neighbours,  and 
sensible  of  the  bad  policy  of  her  late  measures,  had 
opened  her  eyes  to  the  folly  of  expelling  Hippias  on  the 
forged  responses  of  the  Pythia.’ — Cumberland.  It  is 
impolite  not  to  answer  when  we  are  addressed'  argu 
merits  are  maintained  by  the  alternate  replies  and 


ENGLISH  SiTNONYMES. 


rejoinders  of  two  parties ; but  such  arguments  seldom 
tend  to  the  pleasure  and  improvement  of  society:  the 
responses  in  the  liturgy  aie  peculiarly  calculated  to 
keep  alive  the  attention  of  those  who  take  a part  in  the 
devotion. 

An  answer  may  be  either  spoken  or  written;  reply 
and  rejoinder  are  used  in  personal  discourse  only  ; a 
response  may  be  said  or  sung. 

RETORT,  REPARTEE. 

Retort^  from  re  and  torqueo  to  twist  or  turn  back,  to 
recoil,  is  an  ill-natured  reply:  repartee^irom  the  word 
part,  signifies  a smart  reply,  a ready  taking  one’s  own 
part.  The  retort  is  always  in  answer  to  a censure,  ob- 
jection, or  argument  against  a thing,  for  which  one  re- 
turns a like  censure ; ‘ Those  who  have  so  vehemently 
urged  the  dangers  of  an  active  life,  have  made  use  of 
arguments  that  may  be  retorted  upon  theitiselves.’ — 
Johnson.  The  repartee  is  commonly  in  answer  to  the 
wit  of  another,  where  one  returns  wit  for  wit ; ‘ Henry 
IV.  of  France  would  never  be  transported  beyond  him- 
self with  choler,  but  he  would  pass  by  any  thing  with 
some  repartee.' — Howell.  In  the  acrimony  of  dis- 
putes it  is  common  to  hear  retort  upon  retort  to  an  end- 
less extent ; the  vivacity  of  discourse  is  sometimes 
greatly  enhanced  by  the  quick  repartee  of  those  who 
take  a part  in  it.  There  is  nothing  wanting  in  order  to 
make  a retort,  but  the  disposition  to  aggravate  one  with 
whom  we  are  offended  ; the  talent  for  ?-c^artce  is  alto- 
gether a natural  endowment  which  does  not  depend  in 
any  degree  upon  the  will  of  the  individual. 

FACETIOUS,  CONVERSABLE,  PLEASANT, 
JOCULAR,  JOCOSE. 

All  these  epithets  designate  that  companionable  qua- 
lity which  consists  in  liveliness  of  speech.  Facetious, 
in  Latin  facetus,  may  probably  come  from  for  to 
speak,  denoting  the  versatility  with  w’hich  a person 
makes  use  of  his  words;  conuersablc  is  literally  able  to 
hold  a conversation  ; pleasant  {v.  Jlgrecalle)  signifies 
making  ourselves  pleasant  with  others,  or  them  pleased 
with  us;  jocular,  after  the  manner  of  di.  joke;  jocose, 
using  or  having  jokes. 

Facetious  may  be  employed  either  for  writing  o 
conversation ; the  rest  only  in  conversation : the  face- 
tious man  deals  in  that  kind  of  discourse  which  mtty 
excite  laughter ; ‘I  have  written  nothing  since  I pub- 
lished, except  a certain  facetious  history  of  John 
Gilpin.’ — CowPER.  A conversable  man  may  instruct 
as  well  as  amuse ; 

But  here  my  lady  will  object. 

Your  intervals  of  time  to  spend. 

With  so  conversable  a friend. 

It  would  not  signify  a pin 

Whatever  climate  you  were  in.— Swift. 

The  pleasant  man  says  every  thing  in  a pleasant  man- 
ner; Ids  pleasantry  even  on  the  most  delicate  subject 
is  without  offence  ; ‘ Aristophanes  wrote  to  please  the 
multitude  ; h\s  pleasantries  are  coarse  and  impolite.’ — 
Warton.  The  person  speaking  is  ^‘ocose;  the  thing 
said,  or  the  manner  of  saying  \t,  is,  jocular : it  is  not 
for  one  to  be  always  jocose,  although  sometimes  one 
may  assume  a jocular  air  when  we  are  not  at  liberty 
to  be  serious ; 

Thus  Venus  sports. 

When,  cruelly  jocose, 

She  ties  the  fatal  noo.se, 

And  binds  unequals  to  the  brazen  yokes.— Creech. 
‘Pope  sometimes  condescended  to  be  jocular  with  ser- 
vants or  inferiours.’— Johnson.  A man  is’  facetious 
from  humour;  he  is  conversable  by  means  of  informa- 
tion; he  indulges  himself  in  occasional  pleasantry,  or 
allows  himself  to  be  jocose,  in  order  to  enliven  conver- 
sation ; a useful  hint  is  sometimes  conveyed  in  jocular 
terms 


ADDRESS,  SPEECH,  HARANGUE,  ORATION. 

Address,  V.  To  address  ; speech,  from  speat,  signifies 
tile  thing  spoken  ; harangue  probably  comes  from  ara 
an  altar,  where  harangues  used  to  be  delivered  ; ora- 
tion, from  the  Latin  oro  to  beg  or  entreat,  signifies  that 
which  is  said  by  way  of  entreaty 


41)1 

All  these  terms  denote  a set  form  of  words  directed 
or  supposed  to  be  directed  to  some  person : an  address 
in  this  sense  is  always  written,  but  the  rest  are  really 
spoken  or  supposed  to  be  so;  ‘When  Louis  of  France 
had  lost  the  battle  of  Fontenoy,  the  addresses  to  him 
at  that  time  were  full  of  his  fortitude.’ — Hughes.  A 
speech  is  in  general  that  which  is  addressed  in  a formal 
manner  to  one  person  or  more;  ‘ Every  circumstance 
in  their  speeches  and  actions  is  with  justice  and  deli- 
cacy adapted  to  the  persons  who  speak  and  act.’ — Ad- 
dison on  Milton.  An  harangue  is  a noisy,  tumultuous 
speech  addressed  to  many  ; ‘ There  is  scarcely  a city  in 
Great  Britain  but  has  one  of  this  tribe  who  takes  it 
into  his  protection,  and  on  the  market  days  harangues 
the  good  people  of  the  place  with  aphorisms  and  re- 
cipes.’—Pearce  oji  Quacks.  An  oration  is  a solemn 
speech  for  any  purpose  ; ‘ How  cold  and  unaffecling  tlie 
best  oration  in  the  world  would  be  without  the  proper 
ornaments  of  voice  and  gesture,  there  are  two  remark- 
able instances  in  the  case  of  Ligarius  and  that  of  Milo.’ 
— Swift. 

Addresses  are  frequently  sent  up  to  the  throne  by 
piiblick  bodies.  Speeches  in  Parliament,  like  harangues 
at  elections,  are  often  little  better  than  the  crude  effu- 
sions of  party  spirit.  The  orations  of  Demosthenes 
and  Cicero,  which  have  been  so  justly  admired,  re- 
ceived a polish  from  the  correcting  hand  of  their 
authors,  before  they  were  communicated  to  the  pub- 
lick. 

Addresses  of  thanks  are  occasionally  presented  to 
persons  in  high  stations  by  those  who  are  anxious  to 
express  a sense  of  their  merits.  It  is  customary  for  the 
King  to  deliver  speeches  to  both  houses  of  Parliament 
at  their  opening.  In  all  popular  governments  there  is  a 
set  of  persons  who  have  a trick  of  making  harangues 
to  the  populace,  in  order  to  render  them  dissatisfied  with 
the  men  in  power.  Funeral  orations  are  commonly 
spoken  over  the  grave. 


TO  ACCOST,  SALUTE,  ADDRESS. 

Accost,  in  French  accoster,  Is  compounded  of  acor  ad, 
and  the  Latin  costa  a rib  or  side,  signifying  to  come  by 
the  side  of  a person;  salute,  in  Latin  saluto,  from 
salus  health,  signifies  to  bid  good  speed ; address,  in 
French  addresser,  is  compounded  of  ad  and  dresser, 
from  the  Latin  direzi,  preterit  of  dirigo  to  direct  or 
apply,  signifying  to  direct  one’s  discourse  to  a person 

We  accost  a stranger  whom  we  casually  meet  by  the 
way  ; we  salute  our  friends  on  meeting  them  ; we  ad 
dress  indifferent  persons  in  company.  Curiosity  or  con 
venience  prompt  men  to  accost;  ‘When  ./Eneas  it 
sentby  Virgil  to  the  shades,  he  meets  Dido,  the  Gueen  of 
Carthage,  whom  his  perfidy  had  hurried  to  the  grave  : 
he  accosts  her  with  tenderness  and  excuses,  but  tlu 
lady  turns  away  like  Ajax  in  mute  disdain.’— John 
SON.  Good-will  or  intimacy  prompt  men  to  salute 
others;  business  or  social  communication  lead  men  to 
address  each  other.  Rude  people  accost  every  one 
whom  they  meet ; familiar  people  salute  those  with 
whom  they  are  barely  acquainted ; impertinent  people 
address  those  with  whom  they  have  no  business  ; ‘ I 
was  harassed  by  the  multitude  of  eager  salutations, 
and  returned  the  common  civilities  with  hesitation  and 
impropriety.’ — Johnson.  ‘ I still  continued  to  stand  in 
the  way,  having  scarcely  strength  to  walk  farther, 
when  another  soon  addressed  me  in  the  same  manner.’ 
— Johnson. 

We  must  accost  by  speaking;  but  we  may  salute  hy 
signs  as  well  as  words  ; and  address  by  writing  as  well 
as  by  speaking. 


SALUTE,  SALUTATION,  GREETING. 

Salute  and  salutation,  fromthe  Latin  sahis,  signifies 
literally  wisliing  health  to  a person;  greeting  comee 
from  the  German  griissen  to  kiss  or  salute. 

Salute  respects  the  thing,  and  salutation  the  person 
giving  the  salute;  a salute  may  consist  either  of  a 
word  or  an  action  ; ‘ Strabo  te  Is  us  he  saw  the  statue 
of  Memnon,  which,  according  to  the  poets,  saluted  the 
morning  sun,  every  day,  at  its  first  rising,  with  an  har- 
monious sound.’— Prideaux.  Sabatntions  pass  from 
one  friend  to  another;  ‘Josephus  makes  mention  of  a 
Manaken  who  had  the  spirit  of  prophecy,  and  one 
time  meeting  with  Herod  among  his  Echool-fellovva 


462 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


greeted  him  with  this  salutation,  ‘-Hail,  King  of  the 
Jews.”  Pridkaux.  The  salute  may  be  either  direct 
or  indirect;  the  salutation  is  always  direct  and  per- 
sonal: guns  are  fired  by  way  of  a salute;  bows  are 
given  in  the  way  of  a salutation;  greeting  is  a fami- 
liar kind  of  salutation,  which  may  be  given  vocall}’  or 
m writing; 

Not  only  those  I nam’d  I there  shall  greet, 

But  my  own  gallant,  virtuous  Cato  meet. 

Denham. 

ELOCUTION,  ELOaUENCE,  ORATORY, 
RHETORICK. 

Elocution  and  eloquence  are  derived  from  the  same 
Latin  verb  eloquor  to  speak  out ; oratory,  from  oro  to 
implore,  signifies  the  art  of  making  a set  speech. 

Elocution  consists  in  the  manner  of  delivery  ; elo- 
quence in  the  matter  that  is  delivered.  We  employ 
elocution  in  repeating  the  words  of  another;  we  em- 
ploy eloquence  to  express  our  own  thoughts  and  feel- 
ings. Elocution  is  requisite  for  an  actor;  eloquence 
for  ^ speaker , 

Soft  elocution  does  thy  style  renown. 

And  the  sweet  accents  of  the  peaceful  gown. 

Gentle  or  sharp,  according  to  thy  choice, 

To  laugh  at  follies  or  to  lash  at  vice.— Drydkn. 
Athens  or  free  Rome,  where  eloquence 
Flourish’d,  since  mute.— Milton. 

Eloquence  lies  in  the  person;  it  is  a natural  gift: 
oratory  lies  in  the  mode  of  expression ; it  is  an  acquired 
art ; ‘ As  harsh  and  irregular  sounds  are  not  harmony, 
so  neither  is  banging  a cushion  oratory.'— Swift. 
Rhctorich,  from  pico  to  speak,  is  properly  the  theory  of 
tha  1 art  of  which  oratory  is  the  practice.  But  the  term 
rhct^rick  may  be  sometimes  employed  in  an  improper 
sense  for  the  display  of  oratory  or  scientifick  speaking. 
Elcruence  speaks  one’s  own  feelings ; it  comes  from 
the  ‘'eart,  and  speaks  to  the  heart : oratory  is  an  imi- 
tative art ; it  describes  what  is  felt  by  another.  Rhe- 
toru  k is  the  affectation  of  oratory ; ‘ Be  but  a person 
in  credit  with  the  multitude,  he  shall  be  able  to  make 
popu'ar  rambling  stuff  pass  for  high  rhetorick  and 
moving  preaching.’— South. 

An  afflicted  pareni,  who  pleads  for  the  restoration  of 
her  child  that  has  been  torn  from  her,  will  exert  her 
eloquence;  a counsellor  at  the  bar,  who  pleads  the 
cause  of  his  client,  will  employ  oratory ; vulgar  par- 
tisans are  full  of  rhetorick. 

Eloquence  often  consists  in  a look  or  an  action  ; 
oratory  must  always  be  accompanied  with  language. 
There  is  a dumb  eloquence  which  is  not  denied  even 
to  the  brutes,  and  which  speaks  more  than  all  the 
studied  graces  of  speed)  and  action  employed  by  the 
rator ; 

tiis  Infant  softness  pleads  a milder  doom. 

And  speaks  with  all  the  eloquence  of  tears. — Heigh. 

Between  eloquence  and  oratory  tltere  is  the  same 
distinction  as  between  nature  and  art : the  former  can 
never  be  perverted  to  any  base  purposes;  it  always 
speaks  tiuth:  the  latter  wdll  as  easily  serve  the  pur- 
poses of  falsehood  as  of  truth.  The  political  [)arti.san, 
who  paints  the  miseries  of  the  poor  iti  glowing  lan- 
guage and  artful  periods,  may  often  have  oratory 
enough  to  excite  dissatisfaction  against  tlie  govern- 
ment, without  having  eloquence  to  describe  what  he 
really  feels. 

EFFUSION,  EJACULATION. 

Effusion  signifies  the  thing  poured  out,  and  ejacu- 
lation the  thing  ejaculated  or  thrown  out,  both  indi- 
cating a species  of  verbal  expression ; the  former  either 
ny  utterance  or  in  writing,  the  latter  only  by  utter- 
ance. The  effusion  is  not  so  vehement  or  sudden  as 
the  ejaculation ; the  ejaculation  is  iiot  so  ample  or  dif- 
fuse as  the  effusion ; effusion  is  seldom  taken  in  a good 
sense ; ej oculation  rarely  otherwise.  An  effusion  com- 
monly flows  from  a heated  imagination  uncorrected 
by  the  judgement ; it  is  therefore  in  general  not  only 
incoherent,  but  extravagant  and  senseless:  an  ejacu- 
lation is  produced  by  the  warmth  of  the  moment,  but 
never  without  reference  to  some  particular  circum- 
stance. Entlnisiasts  are  full  of  extravagant  effusions ; . 
cotitrite  sinnem  will  often  express  their  penitence  in' 


pious  ejaculations ; ‘ Brain  sick  opin»ators  please  thenv 
selves  in  nothing  but  the  ostentation  of  their  own  ex 
temporary  effusions.' — South.  ‘All  which  prayers 
of  our  Saviour’s  and  others  of  like  brevity  are  properly 
such  as  we  call  ejaculations.'— Sovtii. 

WORD,  TERM,  EXPRESSION. 

* Word  is  here  the  generick  term  ; the  other  two  arc 
specifick.  Every  term  and  expression  is  a word ; but 
every  word  is  not  ilenominated  a term  or  expression 
Language  consists  Df  words;  they  are  the  connected 
sounds  which  serve  for  the  communication  of  thought. 
Term,  from  terminus  a boundary,  signifies  any  word 
that  has  a specifick  or  limited  meaning ; expression 
(v.  To  express)  signifies  any  word  which  conveys  a 
forcible  meaning.  Usage  determines  words  ; science 
fixes  terms ; sentiment  provides  expressions.  The 
purity  of  a style  depends  on  the  choice  of  words ; the 
precision  of  a writer  depends  upon  the  choice  of  his 
terms ; the  force  of  a writer  depends  upon  the  aptitude 
of  his  expressions. 

The  grammarian  treats  on  the  nature  of  words ; the 
philosopher  weighs  the  value  of  scientifick  terms ; the 
rhetorician  estimates  the  force  of  expressions.  The 
French  have  coined  many  new  words  since  the  revo- 
lution ; terms  of  art  admit  of  no  change  after  the  signi- 
fication is  fully  defined  ; expressions  vary  according 
to  the  connexion  in  which  they  are  introduced  ; 

As  all  words  in  few  letters  live. 

Thou  to  few  words  all  sense  dost  give. — Cowley. 

‘ The  use  of  the  word  minister  is  brought  down  to  the 
literal  signification  of  it,  a servant ; for  now',  to  sarve 
and  to  minister,  servile  and  ministerial,  are  terms  equi- 
valent.’— South.  ‘A  maxim,  or  moral  saying,  natu- 
rally receives  this  form  of  the  antithesis,  because  it  is 
designed  to  be  engraven  on  the  memory,  which  recalls 
it  more  easily  by  the  help  of  such  contrasted  expres- 
sions.'— 


VERBAL,  VOCAL,  ORAL. 

Verbal,  from  verbum  a w’ord,  signifies  after  the  man 
ner  of  a spoken  word  ; oral,  from  os  the  mouth,  signi- 
fies by  word  of  mouth  ; and  vocal,  from  vox  the  voice, 
signifies  by  the  voice  : the  two  former  of  these  words 
are  used  to  distinguish  speaking  from  writing ; the 
latter  to  distinguish  the  sounds  of  the  voice  from  any 
other  sounds,  particularly  in  singing  : a verbal  message 
is  distinguished  from  one  written  on  a paper,  or  in  a 
note;  ‘Among  all  the  northern  nations,  shaking  of 
hands  was  held  necessary  to  bind  the  bargain,  a cus- 
tom which  we  still  retain  in  many  verbal  contracts.’ — 
Blackstone.  Oral  tradition  is  distinguished  from 
that  vviiich  is  handed  down  to  posterity  by  means  of 
books  ; ‘ In  the  first  ages  of  the  world  instruction  wai 
commonly  oral.' — Johnson.  Vocal  musick  is  distin- 
guished from  instrumental ; vocal  sounds  are  more 
harmonious  than  those  which  proceed  from  any  other 
bodies  ; 

Forth  came  the  human  pair, 

And  join’d  their  vocal  worship  lo  the  choir 
Of  creatures  wanting  voice. — Milton. 

VOTE,  SUFFRAGE,  VOICE. 

Vote,  in  Latin  votum,  from  vovco  to  vow,  is  very  pro- 
bably derived  from  vox  a voice,  signifying  the  voice 
that  is  raised  in  supplication  to  heaven  ; suffrage,  in 
Latin  suffragium,  is  in  all  probability  compounded  of 
sxib  and  frango  to  break  out  or  declare  for  a thing ; 
voice  is  here  figuratively  taken  for  the  voice  that  is 
raised  in  favour  of  a thing. 

Tlie  vote  is  the  wish  itself,  whether  expressed  oi 
not ; a person  has  a vote,  that  is,  the  power  of  wish- 
ing : but  the  suffrage  and  the  voice  are  the  wish  that 
is  expressed  ; a person  gives  his  suffrage  or  his®orce. 

The  vote  is  the  settled  and  fixed  wish ; it  is  that  by 
which  the  most  important  concerns  in  life  are  ietor- 
mined ; 

The  popular  vote 
Inclines  here  to  continue. — Milton. 

The  suffrage  is  a vote  given  only  in  particular  cases 
‘ Repuiation  is  commonly  lost,  because  it  never  w» 

Girard  : “ Terme,  expression 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


463 


deserved  , and  was  conl6>.*ed  at  first,  not  by  the  suf- 
frafre  of  criticism,  but  by  tlie  fondness  of  friendsliip.’ 
— Johnson.  Tlie  voice  is  a partial  or  occasional  wish, 
expressed  only  in  matters  of  minor  imjtortance  ; 

I ’ve  no  words. 

My  voice  is  in  my  sword ! Thou  bloodier  villain 
Than  terms  can  give  thee  out. — Shakspeark. 

But  sometimes  it  may  be  employed  to  denote  the  pub- 
lick  opinion ; 

That  something ’s  ours  when  we  from  life  depart, 

This  all  conceive,  all  feel  it  at  the  heart; 

The  wise  of  learn’d  antiquity  proclaim 

This  truth ; the  publick  voice  declares  the  same. 

Jenvns. 

The  vote  and  voice  are  given  either  for  or  against  a 
person  or  thing;  the  suffrag-e  is  commonly  given  in  fa- 
vour of  a person  : in  all  publick  assemblies  the  majority 
Df  votes  decides  the  question  ; members  of  Parliament 
are  chosen  by  the  suffrages  of  the  people;  in  the  exe- 
cution of  a will  every  executor  has  a voice  in  all  that 
is  transacted. 


LANGUAGE,  TONGUE,  SPEECH,  IDIOM, 
DIALECT. 

Language,  from  the  Latin  lingua  a tongue,  signifies, 
like  the  word  tongue,  that  which  is  spoken  by  the 
tongue ; speech  is  the  act  or  power  of  speaking,  or  the 
thing  spoken ; idiom,  in  Latin  idioma,  Greek  Ihimpa, 
from  jJtos  proprius  [troper  of  peculiar,  signifies  a pe- 
culiar mode  of  speaking  ; dialect,  m Latin  dialectus, 
Greek  SidXeKTiKos,  from  SiaXiyopai  to  speak  in  a dis- 
tinct manner,  signifies  a distinct  mode  of  speech. 

All  these  terms  mark  the  manner  of  expressing  our 
thoughts,  but  under  different  circumstances.  Lan- 
guage is  the  most  general  term  in  its  meaning  and  ap- 
plicarion ; it  conveys  the  general  idea  without  any 
modification,  and  is  applied  to  other  modes  of  expres- 
sion, besides  that  of  words,  and  to  other  objects  besides 
persons  : the  language  of  the  eyes  frequently  supplies 
the  place  of  that  of  the  tongue;  the  deaf  and  dumb 
use  the  language  of  signs ; birds  and  beasts  are  sup- 
Di!sed  to  have  their  peculiar  language; 

Nor  do  they  trust  their  tongue  alone. 

But  speak  a language  of  their  own. — SwTFT. 

On  the  other  hand,  tongue,  speech,  and  the  others,  are 
applicable  only  to  human  beings.  Language  is  either 
written  or  spoken  ; but  a tongue  is  conceived  of  mostly 
as  a something  to  be  spoken  ; and  speech  is,  in  the 
strict  sense,  that  only  which  is  spoken  or  uttered.  A 
tongue  is  a totality,  or  an  entire  assemblage,  of  all  that 
is  necessary  for  the  expressions ; it  comprehends  not 
only  words,  but  modifications  of  meaning,  changes  of 
termination,  modes  and  forms  of  words,  with  the  whole 
scheme  of  syntactical  rules ; a tongue  therefore  com- 
prehended, in  the  first  instance,  oidy  those  languages 
which  were  originally  formed;  the  Hebrew,  Greek,  and 
Latin  are  in  the  proper  sense  tongues ; but  those  which 
are  spoken  by  Europeans,  and  owe  their  origin  to  the 
former,  commonly  bear  the  general  denommation  of 
languages  ; ‘ What  if  we  cofdd  discourse  with  people 
of  all  the  nations  upon  the  earth  in  their  own  mother 
tongue  ? Unless  we  know  Jesus  Christ,  also,  we  should 
be  lost  for  ever.’ — Beveridge. 

Speech  is  an  abstract  term,  implying  either  the  power 
of  uttering  articulate  sounds,  as  when  we  speak  of  the 
gift  of  speech,  which  is  denied  to  those  who  are  dumb ; 
or  the  words  themselves  which  are  spoken,  as  when 
we  speak  of  the  parts  of  speech;  or  the  particular  mode 
of  expressitig  one’s  self,  as  when  we  say  that  a man  is 
known  by  his  speech;  ‘ When  speech  is  employed  only 
as  the  vehicle  of  falsehood,  every  man  must  disunite 
himself  from  others.’— Johnson.  Idiom  and  dialect 
are  not  properly  a language,  but  the  properties  of  lan- 
guage: the  idiom  is  the  peculiar  construction  and  turn 
of  a language,  which  distinguishes  it  altogether  from 
others;  it  is  that  which  enters  into  the  composition  of 
the  language,  and  cannot  be  separated  from  it ; ‘ The 
language  of  this  great  poet  is  sometimes  obscured  by 
old  words,  transpositions,  and  foreign  idioms.'— Anm- 
EON.  The  dialect  is  that  which  is  engrafted  on  a lan- 
guage by  the  inhabitants  of  particular  parts  of  a 
country,  and  admitted  by  its  writers  and  learned  men 
to  form  an  incidental  part  of  the  language;  as  the  dia- 
Ucts  Avhich  originated  with  the  lonians,  the  Athenians, 


the  .^Eolians,  and  were  afterward  amalgamated  into 
the  Greek  tongue;  as  also  the  dialects  of  the  High  and 
Low  German  which  are  distinguished  by  similar  pecu 
liarities;  ‘Every  art  has  its  dr'aZcct,  uncouth  and  un- 
grateful to  all  whom  custom  has  not  reconciled  to  iu 
sound.’ — Johnson. 

Languages  simply  serve  to  convey  the  thoughts; 
tongues  consist  of  words  W’ritterr  or  spoken  ; speech 
consists  of  words  spoken  • idioms  are  the  expression 
of  national  ntarmers,  customs,  and  turns  of  serrtirnent, 
which  are  the  most  difficult  to  be  transferred  from  one 
language  to  arrother;  dialects  do  not  vary  so  much  in 
the  words  themselves,  as  in  the  forms  of  words;  they 
are  prejudicial  to  the  perspicuity  of  a language,  but 
add  to  its  Irarmony. 

DICTION,  STYLE,  PHRASE,  PHRASEOLOGY. 

Diction,  from  the  Latin  dictio,  saying,  is  put  for  the 
mode  of  expre.ssing  ourselves;  style  comes  fr'onr  the 
Latirr  stylus  the  bodkin  with  which  the  Rontans  both 
wrote  and  corj-ected  what  tirey  had  written  on  their 
waxen  tablets;  wltence  the  word  has  been  used  for  the 
itranner  of  writing  irt  general ; phrase,  in  Greek  ippdaig, 
frotrt  (ppd^o)  to  speak ; and  phraseology  from  (ppdaii 
and  Adyos,  both  signify  the  manner  of  speakirtg. 

Diction  expresses  much  less  than  style:  the  formet 
is  applicable  to  the  first  efforts  of  learners  in  composi- 
tion ; the  latter  only  to  the  original  productions  of  a 
mattired  mind.  Errours  in  grammar,  false  construction, 
a confused  disposition  of  words,  or  an  improper  .".ppli- 
cation  of  them,  constitutes  bad  diction ; but  the  niceties, 
the  elegancies,  the  peculiarities,  and  the  beauties  of 
composition,  which  mark  the  genius  and  talent  of  the 
writer,  are  what  is  comprehended  under  the  name  of 
style.  Diction,  is  a general  term,  applicable  alike  to 
a single  sentence  or  a connected  conqiosition  ; style  is 
used  in  regard  to  a regular  piece  of  composition. 

As  drenon  is  a term  of  inferiour  import,  it  is  of  course 
mostly  confined  to  ordinary  subjects,  and  stvle  to  the 
productions  of  authors.  We  should  speak  of  a person’s 
diction  in  his  private  correspondence,  but  of  his  stijle 
in  his  literary  works.  Diction  requires  ordy  to  be  pure 
and  clear;  ^ P dor's  diction  is  more  his  own  than  that 
of  any  among  the  successors  of  Dryden.’ — Johnson. 
Style  may  likewise  be  terse,  polished,  elegant,  tiorid, 
poetick,  solter,  and  the  like ; ‘ I think  we  may  say  with 
justice,  that  when  mortals  converse  with  their  Creator, 
they  cannot  do  it  in  so  proper  a style  as  in  that  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures.’ — Addison. 

Diction  is  said  moslly  in  regard  to  what  is  written  ; 
phrase  and  phraseology  are  said  as  often  of  what  is 
spoken  as  what  is  written ; as  that  a person  has  adopted 
a strange  phrase  or  phraseology.  The  former  respects 
single  w'ords;  the  latter  comprehends  a succession  of 
phrases  ; 

Rude  am  I in  speech. 

And  little  blest  with  the  so(t  phrase  of  speech. 

Shakspeark. 

‘ I was  no  longer  able  to  accommodate  myself  to  the 
accidental  current  of  my  conversation;  my  notions 
grew  particular  and  paradoxical,  and  my  phraseology 
formal  and  unfashionable.’ — Johnson. 


DICTIONARY,  ENCYCLOP^EDTA. 

Dictionary,  front  the  Latin  dictum  a saying  or  word, 
is  a register  of  words;  encyclopcedia,  from  the  Greek 
tvKVKXoTTaiStla  or  iv  in  kvkXos  and  TraiSeia  learning, 
signifies  a register  of  things. 

The  definition  of  words,  with  their  various  changes, 
modifications,  uses,  acceptations,  and  applications, 'are 
the  proper  subjects  of  a dictionary;  ‘If  a man  that 
lived  an  age  or  two  ago  should  return  into  the  world 
again,  he  would  really  want  a dictionary  \o  help  him 
to  understand  his  own  language.’— Tillotson.  The 
nature  and  property  of  things,  with.their  construction, 
uses,  powers,  &c.  are  the  prope.-  subjects  of  an  en- 
cyclopedia ; ‘ Every  science  borroTvs  from  all  the  rest, 
and  we  cannot  attain  anysinsle  one  wiihoutthe  cn- 
eyeZopffid/a.’— Glanvillk.  A“  general  acquaintance 
with  all  arts  and  sciences  as  far  as  respects  the  use  of 
technical  terms,  and  a perfect  acquaintance  with  the 
classical  writers  in  the  language,  are  essential  for  the 
composition  of  a dictionary;  an  entire  acquaintance 
w th  all  the  minutiat  of  every  art  and  science  if 


164 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


requisite  for  the  composition  of  an  encyclopcedia.  A 
single  individual  may  qualify  liimself  for  the  task  of 
writing  ^dictionary;  but  the  universality  and  diver- 
sity of  knowledge  contained  in  an  cncyclopadiaxewAQr 
It  necessarily  the  work  of  many. 

A dictionary  has  been  e.vtended  in  its  application  to 
any  work  alphabetically  arranged,  as  biographical, 
medical,  botanical  dictionaries.!  and  tJie  like,  but  still 
preserving  this  distinction,  tliat  the  dictionary  always 
contains  only  3 general  or  partial  illustration  of  the 
Bubject  propose:.!,  wliile  the  cncyclopccdia  embraces  tlie 
whole  circle  cf  science. 


DICTIONARY,  LEXICON,  VOCABULARY, 
GLOSSARY,  NOMENCLATURE. 

Dictionary  (v.  Dictionary)  is  a general  term.  Lexi- 
con from  Afyw  to  say,  vocabulary  from  vox  a word,  glos- 
sary from  gloss  to  explain,  and  nomenclature  from 
nomen,  are  all  species  of  the  dictionary. 

Lexicon  is  a species  of  dictionary  appropriately  ap- 
plied to  the  dead  languages.  A Greek  orjiebrew  lexi- 
con is  distinguished  from  a dictionary  of  the  French 
or  English.  A vocabulary  is  a partial  kind  of  diction- 
ary which  may  comprehend  a simple  list  of  words, 
with  or  without  explanation,  arranged  in  order  or  other- 
wise. A glossary  is  an  explanatory  vocabulary^  vvliich 
commonly  serves  to  explain  the  obsolete  terms  employed 
in  any  old  author.  A nomenclature  is  literally  a list  of 
names,  and  in  particular  reference  to  proper  names. 

TURGID,  TUMID,  BOMBASTICK. 

Turgid  and  tumid  both  signify  swollen,  but  they  dif- 
fer in  their  applicatio.. ; turgid  belongs  to  diction,  as  a 
turgid  style ; lurnid  .s  applicable  to  the  water  and  other 
objects,  as  the  lumtd  waves.  Bombastick,  from  bombyx 
a kind  of  cotton,  signifies  puffed  up  like  cotton,  and  is, 
like  tur^rd,  applicable  to  words;  but  the  bombastick 
iikcludes  the  sentiments  expressed : turgidity  is  confined 
mostly  to  the  mode  of  expression.  A writer  is  turgid 
who  expresses  a simple  thought  in  a lofty  language; 
a person  xs  bombastick  yvho  deals  in  large  words  and  in- 
troduces high  sentiments  in  common  discourse. 

DIFFUSE,  PROLIX. 

Both  mark  defects  of  style  opposed  to  brevity.  Dif- 
fuse., in  Latin  diffusus,  participle  of  diffundo  to  pour 
out  or  spread  wide,  marks  the  quality  of  being  ex- 
tended in  space;  prolix^  in  Y ranch  prolixe,  changed 
Uom  prolaxus.,  signifies  lo  let  loose  in  a wide  space. 

The  diffuse  is  properly  opposed  to  the  precise ; the 
prolix  to  the  concise  or  laconick.  A diffuse  writer  is 
fond  of  amplification,  he  abounds  in  epithets,  tropes, 
figures,  and  illustrations;  the  proZia;  writer  is  fond  of 
circumlocution,  minute  details,  and  trifling  particulars. 
Diffaseness  is  a fault  only  in  degree,  and  according  to 
circumstances ; prolixity  is  a positive  fault  at  all  times. 
The  former  leads  to  the' use  of  words  unnecessarily  ; 
the  latter  to  the  use  of  phrases  as  well  as  words  that 
are  altogether  useless;  the  diffuse  s\.y\Q  has  too  much 
of  repetition ; the  prolix  style  .abounds  in  tautology. 
Diffuseness  often  arises  from  an  exuberance  of  ima- 
gination ; prolixity  from  the  want  of  imagination  ; on 
the  other  hand  the  former  may  be  coupled  with  great 
superficiality,  and  the  latter  with  great  solidity. 

Gibbon  and  other  modern  writers  have  fallen  into 
tlie  error  of  diffuseness.  Lord  Clarendon  and  many 
English  writers  preceding  him  are  chargeable  with  pro- 
lixity ; ‘ Few  authors  are  more  clear  and  perspicuous 
on  the  whole  than  Archbishop  Tillotson  and  Sir  Wil- 
liam Temple,  yet  neither  of  them  are  remarkable  for 
precision ; they  are  loose  and  diffuse.' — Bl.vir.  ‘ I look 
upon  a tedious  talker,  or  what  is  generally  known  by 
the  name  of  a story-teller,  to  be  much  more  insuffer- 
able than  n.  prolix  writer.’ — Steele. 

SENTENCE,  PROPOSITION,  PERIOD,  PHRASE. 

SenVznce.,  in  Latin  sententiafxs  but  a vari,ation  of 
sentiment  {v.  Opinion) ; proposition,  v.  Proposal  ; 
period,  in  Latin  periodus,  Greek  Trcpio^o?,  from  ncpi 
about  and  h6bs  way,  signifies  the  circuit  or  round  of 
words,  which  renders  the  sense  comnlete;  phrase, 
from  the  G^eek  ^pd^w  to  speak,  signifies  the  words  ut- 
tered 


The  sentence  consists  of  any  words  which  convey 
sentiment ; the  proposition  consists  of  the  thing  set 
before  the  mind,  that  is,  either  before  our  own  minds 
()r  the  minds  of  others;  hence  the  term  sentence  has 
iwore  especial  regard  to  the  form  of  words,  and  the 
proposition  to  the  matter  contained ; ‘ Some  expect  in 
letters  pointed  sentences  and  forcible  periods.' — John- 
son. ‘ In  1417,  it  required  all  the  eloquence  and  au 
thorlty  of  the  famous  Gerslion  to  prevail  upon  the 
council  of  Constance  to  condemn  ih'xs proposition,  tliaf 
there  are  some  cases  in  which  assassination  is  a virtue 
more  meritorious  in  a knight  than  a squire.’ — Robert 
SON.  Sentence  and  proposition  are  both  u.sed  techni- 
cally or  otherwise ; the  former  in  grammar  and  rhetorick, 
the  latter  in  logick.  The  sentence  is  simple  and  com- 
jrlex  ; the  proposition  is  universal  or  particular.  Period 
and  phrase,  like  sentence,  are  forms  of  words,  but  they 
are  solely  so,  whereas  the  sentence  depends  on  the 
connexion  of  ideas  by  which  it  is  formed ; \\a  speak 
of  sentences  either  as  to  their  structure  or  their  senti 
ment ; hence  the  sentence  is  either  grammatical  or 
moral ; ‘ A sentence  may  be  defined,  a moral  instruc- 
tion couched  in  a few  words.’— Broome.  Tha  period 
regards  only  the  structure ; itiseilher  well  or  ill  turned, 
long  or  short,  it  is  in  fact  a complete  sentence  from 
one  full  stop  to  another;  '■Periods  are  beautiful  when 
they  are  not  too  iong.’ — Ben  Jonson.  The  term 
phrase  denotes  the  character  of  the  words ; 

Disastrous  words  can  best  disasters  show. 

In  angry  phrase  the  angry  passions  glow. 

Elphinstone. 

Hence  it  is  either  vulgar  or  polite,  idiomatick  or  general: 
the  sentence  must  consist  of  at  least  two  words  to  make 
sense;  the  phrase  may  be  a single  word  or  otherwise 

SILENCE,  TACITURNITY. 

* The  Latins  have  the  two  verbs  sileo  and  taceo , 
the  former  of  which  is  interpreted  by  some  to  signify 
to  ce<ise  to  speak  ; and  the  latter  not  to  begin  to  speak  ; 
others  maintain  the  direct  contrary.  According  to  the 
I present  use  of  the  words,  silence  expresses  less  than 
taciturnity : the  silent  man  does  not  speak;  the  taciturn 
man  will  not  speak  at  all.  The  Latins  designated  the 
most  profound  silence  by  the  epithet  of  taciturna  si- 
lentia. 

Silence  is  either  occasional  or  habitual ; it  may  arise 
from  circumstances  or  character’  taciturnity  is  mostly 
habitual,  and  springs  from  disposition.  A loquacious 
man  may  be  silent  if  he  has  no  one  to  speak  to  liim, 
and  a prudent  man  will  always  be  silent  where  he 
finds  that  speaking  would  be  dangerous;  a taciturn 
man,  on  the  other  hand,  may  occasionally  make  an 
effort  to  speak,  but  he  never  speaks  without  an  effort 
When  silence  is  habitual,  it  does  not  spring  from  an 
unatniable  character;  but  taciturnity  has  always  its 
source  in  a vicious  temper  of  the  mind.  A silent  man 
may  frequently  contract  a habit  of  silence  from  thought- 
fulness, modesty,  or  the  fear  of  offending;  a man  is 
taciturn  only  from  the  sullenness  and  gloominess  of 
his  temper  Habits  of  retirement  render  men  silent; 
savages  seldom  break  their  szZence ; company  will  not 
correct  taciturnity,  but  rather  increase  it.  The  ob- 
server is  necessarily  silent;  if  bespeaks,  it  is  only  in 
order  to  observe;  the  melancholy  man  is  naturally  ta- 
citurn ; if  he  speaks,  it  is  with  pain  to  himself.  Seneca 
says,  talk  little  with  others  and  much  with  yourself; 
the  silent  man  observes  this  precept , :he  taciiurn  man 
exceeds  it ; 

Silence  is  the  perfectest  herald  of  joy; 

I were  but  little  happy,  if  I could  say  how  much. 

Shakspeare. 

‘Pythagoras  enjoined  his  scholars  in  absolute  siZence 
for  a long  novitiate.  I am  far  from  approving  such  a 
taciturnity;  but  I highly  approve  the  end  and  intent  of 
Pythagoras’  injunction.’ — Chatham 


SILENT,  DUMB,  MUTE,  SPEECHLESS. 

Not  speaking  is  the  common  idea  included  in  the 
signification  of  these  terms,  which  differ  either  in  the 
cause  or  the  circumstance ; silent  (v.  Silent)  is  alto- 
gether an  indefinite  and  general  term,  expressing  little 
more  than  the  common  idea.  We  may  be  silcnl 

* V’  le  Abbe  Roubaud;  “ Silencieux,  taciiurne.” 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


bt'cause  we  will  not  speak,  or  we  may  be  silent  because 
we  cannot  speak;  but  in  distinction  from  the  other 
terms  it  is  always  employed  in  the  former  case.  Some- 
lirnes  it  is  also  used  figuratively  to  denote  sending  forth 
uo  sound ; 

And  just  before  the  confines  of  the  wood, 

The  gliding  Lethe  leads  hav  silent  flood. 

Dryden. 

Dumb,  from  the  German  dumm  stupid  or  idiotick,  de- 
notes a physical  incapacity  to  speak  : hence  persons  are 
eaid  to  be  born  du7nb  ; they  may  likewise  be  dwnb  from 
temporary  physical  causes,  as  from  grief,  shame,  and 
the  like;  or  a person  may  be  struck  dumb  ; ‘The  truth 
of  it  is,  half  the  great  talkers  in  the  nation  would  be 
struck  dumb  were  this  fountain  of  discourse  (party 
lies)  dried  up.’ — Addison. 

’T  is  listening  fear  and  dumb  amazement  all. 

Thomson. 

JHute,  in  Latin  mutus,  Greek  fivTTdg  from  ixvu)  to  shut, 
signifies  having  a shut  mouth,  or  a temporary  disability 
to  speak  from  arbitrary  and  incidental  causes:  hence 
the  office  of  mutes,  or  of  persons  who  engage  not  to 
speak  for  a certain  time  ; and,  in  like  maimer,  persons 
are  said  to  be  mute  who  dare  not  give  utteiance  to 
their  thoughts; 

Mute  was  his  tongue,  and  upright  stood  his  hair. 

Dryden. 

Long  mute  he  stood,  and  leaning  on  his  staff, 
flis  wonder  witness’d  with  an  idiot  laugh. 

Dryden. 

Speechless,  or  void  of  speech,  denotes  a physical  inca- 
pacity to  sjieak  from  incidental  causes;  as  when  a 
person  falls  down  speechless  in  an  apoplectjck  fit,  or  in 
consequence  of  a violent  contusion  ; 

But  who  can  paint  the  lover  as  he  stood. 

Pierc’d  by  severe  amazement,  hating  life, 
Speechless,  and  fi.v’d  in  all  the  death  of  wo. 

Thomson. 


TO  SPEAK,  SAY,  TELL. 

Speak,  V.  To  speak;  saij,  in  Saxon  seegan,  German 
aagen,  Latin  seco  or  sequor,  changed  into  dico,  and 
Hebrew  to  vociferate ; tell,  in  Saxon  taellan.  Low 
German  wffan,  <fcc.,  is  probably  an  onomatopela  in 
language. 

To  speak  may  simply  consist  in  uttering  an  articu- 
late sound ; but  to  sa7j  is  to  communicate  some  idea 
by  means  of  words:  a child  begins  to  speak  the  mo- 
npent  it  opens  its  lips  to  utter  any  acknowledged  sound  ; 
f>ut  it  will  be  some  time  before  it  can  say  any  thing  : a 
Berson  is  said  to  speak  high  or  low,  distinctly  or  indis- 
tinctly; but  he  says  that  which  is  true  or  false,  right  or 
wrong:  a dumb  man  cannot  speak;  a fool  cannot  say 
any  thing  that  is  worth  hearing:  we  speak  languages, 
we  spealc  sense  or  nonsense,  we  speak  intelligibly  or 
unintelligibly;  but  we  say  what  we  think  at  the  time. 
In  an  extended  sense,  speak  may  refer  as  much  to  sense 
as  to  sound;  but  then  it  ajiplies  only  to  general  cases, 
and  say  to  particular  and  passing  circumstances  of  life: 
it  is  a great  abuse  of  the  gift  of  speech  not  to  speak  the 
truth ; it  is  very  culpable  in  a person  to  say  that  he  will 
do  a thing  and  not  to  do  it. 

To  say  and  tell  are  both  the  ordinary  actions  of  men 
in  their  daily  intercourse ; but  say  is  very  partial,  it 
may  comprehend  single,  unconnected  sentences,  or  even 
single  words;  we  may  say  yes  or  no;  but  w’e  tell  that 
which  is  connected,  and  which  forms  more  or  less  of  a 
narrative.  To  say  is  to  communicate  that  which 
passes  in  our  own  minds,  to  express  our  ideas  and 
feelings  as  they  rise  ; to  tell  is  to  communicate  events 
or  circumstances  respecting  ourselves  or  others:  it  is 
not  good  to  let  children  say  foolish  things  for  the  sake 
of  talking;  it  is  still  worse  for  them  to  be  encouraged 
in  telling  every  thing  they  hear : when  every  one  is 
allowed  to  say  what  he  likes  and  what  he  thinks,  there 
will  commonly  be  more  speakers  than  hearers;  those 
who  accustom  themselves  to  tell  long  stories  impose  a 
tax  upon  others,  which  is  not  repaid  by  the  pleasure  of 
t^eir  company. 

Men’s  reputations  depend  upon  wnat  otliers  say  of 
them  ; reports  are  spread  by  means  of  one  man  telling 
another;  ‘ He  thatquestioneth  much  shall  learn  much, 
and  content  much  fer  he  sha'.l  give  occasion  to  those 

30 


465 

whom  he  asketh  to  please  rnem.selves  in  speaking.'^ 
Bacon. 

Say,  Yoi  ke  (for  sure,  il  any,  thon  canst  tell). 
What  virtue  is,  who  practise  it  so  well. 

Jenyns. 

NEWS,  TIDINGS. 

J'Tiws  implits  iny  thing  new  that  is  related  or  circu 
lated  ; but  tidings,  from  tide,  signifies  that  which  flows 
in  periodically  like  the  tide,  and  comes  in  at  the  mo- 
ment the  thing  happens  JV’ttcs  is  unexpected;  it 
serves  to  gratify  idle  curie ;ity;  ‘I  wonder  that  in  the 
present  situation  of  affairs  you  can  take  pleasure  in 
writing  any  thing  but  news' — Spectator.  Tidings 
are  expected  ; they  serve  to  allay  anxiety; 

Too  soon  some  demon  to  my  father  bore 
The  tidings  that  his  heart  with  anguish  tore 

Falconer 

In  time  of  war  the  publick  a;e  eager  after  news ; and 
they  who  have  relatives  in  the  army  are  anxious  tc 
have  tidings  of  them. 

TO  REPEAT,  RECITE,  REHEARSE, 
RECAPITULATE. 

The  idea  of  going  over  any  words,  or  action.s,  is 
common  to  all  these  terms.  Repeat,  from  the  Latin 
repeto  to  seek,  or  go  over  again,  is  tlie  general  term 
including  only  the  common  idea.  To  recite,  rehearse 
and  recapitulate,  are  modes  of  repetitum,  conveying 
each  some  accessory  idea.  To  recite  is  to  repeat  in  a 
formal  manner;  to  rehearse  is  to  repeat  or  recite  by 
way  of  preparation;  to  recapitulate  is  to  repeat  in  a 
minute  and  specifick  manner.  We  repeat  both  actions 
and  words ; we  recite  only  words : we  repeat  single 
words,  or  even  sounds;  we  recite  always  a form  ol 
words:  we  repeat  our  own  words,  or  the  words  of  an- 
other; W'e  recite  only  the  words  of  another:  we  repeat 
a name;  we  recite  an  ode,  or  a set  of  verses;  we  repeat 
for  purposes  of  general  convenience;  we  recite  for  the 
convenience  or  amusement  of  others;  we  rehearse  io' 
some  specifick  purpose,  either  for  the  amusement  c: 
instruction  of  others;  we  recapitulate  for  the  instnic 
tion  of  others.  One  repeats  that  which  he  wishes  tc 
be  heard ; 

I could  not  half  those  horrid  crimes  repeal. 

Nor  half  the  punishments  those  crimes  have  met. 

Dryden 

A piece  of  poetry  is  recited  before  a company 
‘ Whenever  the  practice  of  recitation  was  disused,  the 
works,  whether  poetical  or  historical,  perished  with 
the  authors.’ — Johnson.  A piece  is  rehearsed  in  pri 
vate,  which  is  intended  to  herecited  in  publick ; 

Now  take  your  turns,  ye  muses,  to  nhearse 

His  friend’s  complaints,  and  mighty  magick  verse. 

Dryden 

One  recapitulates  the  general  heads  of  that  which  we 
have  already  spoken  in  detail ; ‘The  jiartsof  a judge 
are  to  direct  the  evidence  to  moderate  length,  repetition, 
or  impertinency  of  speech,  to  reeapitulate,  select,  and 
collate  the  material  points  of  that  which  has  been 
said.’ — Bacon.  A master  must  always  repeat  to  hia 
scholars  the  instruction  which  he  wishes  them  to  ro- 
member;  Homei  is  said  to  have  recited  his  verses  in 
diffeient  parts;  players  rehearse  tlieir  different  parts 
before  they  perform  in  publick;  ministers  recapitulate 
the  leading  points  in  their  discourse. 

To  repeat  is  commonly  to  use  the  same  words;  tc 
recite,  to  rehearse,  and  to  recapitulate,  do  not  neces 
sarily  require  any  verbal  sameness.  VVe  repeat  lite- 
rally what  \ve  hear  spoken  by  another;  but  we  rccitt 
and  rehearse  events;  and  we  recapitulate  in  a concitC 
manner  what  has  been  uttered  in  a particular  manner. 
An  echo  repeats  with  the  greatest  possible  precision; 
Homer  recites  the  names  of  all  the  Grecian  and  Trojan 
leaders,  together  with  the  names  and  account  of  their 
countries,  and  the  number  of  the  forces  which  they 
commanded  ; Virgil  makes  ^Eneas  to  rehearse  before 
Dido  and  her  courtiers  the  story  of  the  captute  of 
Troy,  and  his  own  adventures;  a }nAgQ  recapitulates 
evidence  to  a jury. 

To  repeat,  recite,  and  recapitulate  are  employed  in 
writing,  as  well  as  in  speaking;  rehearse  is  only  a 
mode  of  speaking.  It  is  sometimes  a beaut>  in  style  to 


466 


ENGLISH  SVNONYMES. 


repeat  particular  words  on  certain  occasions;  an  his- 
torian finds  it  necessary  to  recapitulate  the  principal 
events  of  any  particular  period. 


REPETITION,  TAUTOLOGY. 

Repetition  is  to  tautology  genus  to  the  species: 
the  latter  being  a species  of  vicious  repetition.  There 
may  be  frequent  repetitions  which  are  warranted  by 
necessity  or  convenience;  but  tautology  is  that  which 
nowise  adds  to  either  the  sense  or  the  sound.  A repe- 
tition may,  or  may  not,  consist  of  literally  the  same 
rvords;  but  tautology.,  from  the  Greek  ravrd  the  same, 
and  A(5ycf  a word,  supposes  such  a sameness  in  ex- 
pression, as  renders  the  signification  the  same.  In  the 
liturgy  of  the  church  of  England  there  are  some 
titions,  which  add  to  the  solemnity  of  the  worship;  in 
most  extemporary  prayers  there  is  much  tautology. 
that  destroys  the  religious  etiect  of  the  whole ; ‘ That 
is  truly  and  really  tautology,  where  the  same  thing  is 
repeated,  though  under  never  so  much  variety  of  ex- 
pression.’— South. 

TO  RELATE,  RECOUNT,  DESCRIBE. 

Relate,  in  Latin  relatus,  participle  of  referro,  sig- 
nifies to  bring  that  to  the  notice  of  others  which  has 
before  been  brought  to  our  own  notice;  recount  is  pro- 
perly to  count  again,  or  count  over  again;  describe, 
Iroin  the  Latin  scribo  to  write,  is  literally  to  write 
liown. 

The  idea  of  giving  an  account  of  events  or  circum- 
stances is  common  to  all  these  terms,  which  differ  in 
the  object  and  circumstances  of  the  action.  Relate  is 
said  generally  of  all  events,  both  of  those  which  con- 
cern others  as  well  as  ourselves; 

O Muse!  the  causes  and  the  crimes  relate, 

What  goddess  was  provok’d,  and  whence  her  hate. 

Drvden. 

Recount  is  said  particularly  of  those  which  concern 
ourselves,  or  in  which  we  are  interested ; 

To  recount  Almighty  works 
What  words  or  tongue  of  seraph  can  suffice? 

Milton. 

Those  who  relate  all  they  hear  often  relate  that  which 
.never  happened ; it  is  a gratification  to  an  old  soldier 
to  recount  all  the  transactions  in  which  he  bore  a part 
during  the  military  career  of  his  early  youth.  Events 
are  related  that  have  happened  at  any  period  of  time 
immediate  or  remote ; one  recounts  mostly  those  things 
which  have  been  long  passed  : in  recounting,  the 
memory  reverts  to  past  scenes,  and  counts  over  all 
that  has  deeply  interested  the  mind.  Travellers  are 
pleased  to  relate  to  their  friends  whatever  they  have 
seen  remarkable  in  other  countries;  the  recounting  of 
our  adventures  in  distant  regions  of  the  globe  has  a 
peculiar  interest  for  all  who  hear  them.  We  may  re- 
late either  by  writing  or  by  v;ord  of  mouth  ; we  recount 
only  by  word  of  mouth:  writers  of  travels  sometimes 
give  themselves  a latitude  in  relating  more  than  they 
have  either  heard  or  seen ; he  who  recounts  the  ex- 
ploits of  heroism,  which  he  has  either  witnessed  or 
performed,  will  alwavs  meet  with  a delighted  au- 
dience. 

Relate  and  recount  are  t-^aid  of  that  only  which 
passes;  describe  is  said  of  that  which  exists:  we  re- 
bate the  particulars  of  our  journey;  and  we  describe 
the  country  we  ptiss  through.  Personal  adventure  is 
always  the  subject  of  a relation;  the  quality  and  con- 
dition of  things  are  those  of  the  description.  We 
relate  what  happened  on  meeting  a friend ; we  describe 
the  dress  of  the  parties,  or  the  ceremonies  which  are 
usual  on  particular  occasions;  ‘ In  describing  a rough 
torrent  or  deluge,  the  numbers  should  run  easy  and 
flowing.’ — Pope. 


RELATION,  RECITAL,  NARRATION. 

Relation,  from  the  verb  relate,  denotes  the  act  of 
relating;  recital,  from  recite,  denotes  the  act  of  re- 
citing; narrative,  from  narrate,  denotes  the  thing 
narrated.  Relation  is  here,  as  in  the  former  para- 
graph (u.  To  relate),  the  general,  and  the  others  parti- 
cular terms.  Relation  applies  to  every  object  which 
)s  related,  whether  of  a publick  or  private,  a national 


or  an  inplividual  nature;  history  is  the  relation  ol 
national  events ; biography  is  the  relation  of  parliculai 
lives;  ‘Those  relations  are  commonly  of  most  value 
in  which  the  writer  tells  his  own  story.’ — Johnson. 
Recital  is  the  relation  or  repetition  of  actual  or  existing 
circumstances;  we  listen  to  the  recztaZ  of  misfortunes, 
distresses,  and  the  like ; ‘ Old  men  fall  easily  into  re- 
citals of  past  transactions.’ — Johnson.  The  relation 
may  concern  matters  of  indifference;  the  recital  is 
always  of  something  that  affects  the  interests  of  some 
individual:  the  pages  of  the  journalist  are  filled  with 
the  relation  of  daily  occurrences  which  simply  amuse 
in  the  reading;  but  the  recital  of  another’s  woes  often 
draws  tears  from  the  audience  to  whom  it  is  made. 

Relation  and  recital  are  seldom  employed  but  in 
connexion  with  the  object  related  or  recited;  narrative 
is  mostly  used  by  itself:  hence  we  say  the  relation  of 
any  particular  circumstance;  the  recital  of  anyone’s 
calamities ; but  an  affecting  narrative,  or  a simple 
narrative:  ‘Cynthia  was  much  taken  with  my  nar 
rative.' — Tatler. 


ANECDOTES,  MEMOIRS,  CHRONICLES, 
ANNALS. 

Anecdote,  from  the  Greek  aviKSoros,  signifies  what 
is  communicated  in  a private  way ; memoirs,  in  French 
memoires,  from  the  word  memory,  signifies  what  serves 
to  help  the  memory;  chronicle,  in  French  chronicle, 
from  the  Greek  xpivos  time,  signifies  an  account  of  the 
times;  annals,  Irom  the  French  annales,  the  Latin 
annus  a year,  signifies  a detail  of  what  passes  in  the 
year. 

All  these  terms  mark  a species  of  narrative  more  or 
less  connected,  that  may  serve  as  materials  for  a re 
gular  history. 

Anecdotes  consi.st  of  personal  or  detached  circum- 
stances of  a publick  or  private  nature,  involving  one 
subject  or  more.  Anecdotes  may  be  either  moral  or 
political,  literary  or  biographical;  they  may  serve  as 
characteristicks  of  any  individual,  or  of  any  particular 
nation  or  age;  ‘I  allude  to  those  papers  in  which  I 
treat  of  the  literature  of  the  Greeks,  carrying  down 
my  history  in  a chain  of  anecdotes  from  the  earliest 
poets  to  the  death  of  Menander.’ — Cumberland 

Memoirs  may  include  anecdotes,  as  far  as  they  are 
connected  with  the  leading  subject  on  which  they 
treat;  memoirs  are  rather  connected  than  complete; 
they  are  a partial  narrative  respecting  an  individual, 
and  comprehending  matter  of  a publick  or  private 
nature ; they  serve  as  memorials  of  what  ought  not  tc 
be  forgotten,  and  lay  the  foundation  either  for  a history 
or  a life;  ‘Caesar  gives  us  nothing  but  memoirs  of  his 
own  times.’ — Cullen. 

Chronicles  and  annals  are  altogether  of  a publick 
nature;  and  approach  the  nearest  to  the  regular  and 
genuine  history.  Chronicles  register  the  events  as  they 
pass;  annals  digest  them  into  order,  as  they  occur  in 
the  course  of  the  year.  Chronicles  are  minute  as  to 
the  exact  point  of  time;  annals  only  preserve  o 
general  order  within  the  period  of  a year. 

Chronicles  detail  the  events  of  small  as  well  as  largi 
communities,  as  of  particular  districts  and  cities 
annals  detail  only  the  events  of  nations.  Chronicles 
include  domestick  incidents  or  such  things  as  concern 
individuals.  The  word  annals,  in  its  proper  sense, 
relates  only  to  such  things  as  affect  the  great  body  of 
the  publick,  but  it  is  frequently  employed  in  an  im- 
proper sense.  Chronicles  may  be  confined  to  simple 
matter  of  fact;  annals  may  enter  into  the  causes  and 
consequences  of  events ; ‘ His  eye  was  so  piercing 
that,  as  ancient  chronicles  report,  he  could  blunt  the 
weapons  of  his  enemies  only  by  looking  at  them  * 
Johnson. 

Could  you  with  patience  hear,  or  I relate, 

O nymph  ! the  tedious  annals  of  our  fate, 
Through  such  a train  of  woes  if  I should  run 
The  day  would  sooner  than  the  tale  be  done. 

Drvden 

Anecdotes  require  point  and  vivacity,  as  they  seem 
rather  to  amuse  than  instruct ; the  grave  historian  will 
always  use  them  with  caution;  memoirs  require  au- 
thenticity; chronicles  require  accuracy;  annals  re- 
quire clearness  of  narration,  method  in  the  disposition, 
impartiality  in  the  representation,  with  almost  every 
reuuisite  that  constitutes  the  true  historian. 


ENGLISH  SYNONmESt. 


Jlnecdotcs  and  memoirs  are  of  more  modern  use: 
tkronicles  and  annals  were  frequent  in  former  ages; 
they  were  the  first  historick  monuments  whicli  were 
Btarnped  with  the  impression  of  tlie  simple,  frank,  and 
rude  manners  of  early  times.  The  chronicles  of  our 
present  times  are  principally  to  be  found  in  newspapers 
and  magazines;  the  annals  in  annual  registers  or 
retrospects- 

ACCOUNT,  NARRATIVE,  DESCRIPTION. 

Account,  V.  Account,  reckoning ; narrative,  from 
narrate,  is  in  Latin  narratus,  participle  of  narro  or 
gnarro,  signifies  that  which  is  made  known  ; descrip- 
tion, from  describe,  in  Latin  describe,  or  de  and  scribo, 
signifies  that  which  is  written  down. 

Account  is  the  most  general  of  these  terms;  what- 
ever is  nofed  as  worthy  of  remark  is  an  account;  jiar- 
rative  is  an  account  narrated  ; description  an  account 
described. 

Account  has  no  reference  to  tlie  person  giving  the 
account;  a narrative  must  have  a narrator;  a de- 
scription must  liave  a describes  An  account  may 
come  from  one  or  several  quarters,  or  no  specified 
quarter ; but  a narrative  and  description  bespeak 
themselves  as  the  production  of  some  individual. 

An  account  may  be  the  statement  of  a single  fact 
only ; a narrative  must  always  consist  of  several  con- 
nected incidents;  a description  o{  several  unconnected 
particulars  respecting  some  common  object. 

An  account  and  a description  may  be  communicated 
either  verbally  or  in  writing;  a narrative  is  mostly 
written. 

An  account  may  be  given  of  political  events,  natural 
phenomena,  and  domestick  occurrences ; as  the  sign- 
ing of  a treaty,  the  march  of  an  army,  the  death  and 
funeral  of  an  individual ; ‘A  man  of  business,  in  good 
company,  who  gives  an  account  of  his  abilities  and 
despatches,  is  hardly  more  insupportable  than  her  they 
tall  a notable  woman.’ — Stkelk.  ATiarr-at/ueismostly 
personal,  respecting  the  adventures,  the  travels,  the 
dangers,  and  the  escapes  of  some  particular  person ; 
‘Few  narratives  will,  either  to  men  or  women,  appear 
more  incredible  than  the  histories  of  the  Amazons.’ — 
Johnson.  A description  does  not  so  much  embrace 
occurrences,  as  characters,  appearances,  beauties,  de- 
fects, and  attributes  in  general ; ‘ Most  readers,  I be- 
lieve, are  more  charmed  with  Milton’s  description  of 
paradise  than  of  hell.’ — Addison. 

Accounts  from  the  armies  are  anxiously  looked  for 
in  time  of  war.  Whenever  a narrative  is  interesting, 
it  is  a species  of  reading  eagerly  sought  after.  The 
descriptions  which  are  given  of  the  eruptions  of  vol- 
canoes are  calculated  to  awaken  a strong  degree  of 
curiosity.  An  account  may  be  false  or  true ; a narra- 
tive clear  or  confused ; a description  lively  or  dull. 

FABLE,  TALE,  NOVEL,  ROMANCE. 

Fable,  in  'LaWn  fabula,  from /or  to  speak  or  tell,  and 
tale,  from  to  tell,  both  designate  a species  of  narration  ; 
novel,  in  Italian  novella,  is  an  extended  tale  that  has 
novelty;  romance,  from  the  Italian  rotnanzo,  is  a won- 
derful tale,  or  a tale  of  wonders,  such  as  was  most  in 
vogue  in  the  dark  ages  of  European  literature. 

Ditferent  species  of  composition  are  expressed  by  the 
above  words.  The  fable  is  allegorical ; its  actions  are 
natural,  but  its  agents  are  mostly  imaginary;  ‘ When 
I travelled,  I took  a particular  delight  in  hearing  the 
songs  and/a6fes  that  are  come  from  father  to  son,  and 
are  most  in  vogue  among  the  common  people.’ — Addi- 
son. The  taZe  is  fictitious,  but  not  imaginary;  both 
the  agents  and  actions  are  dravvn  from  the  passing 
scenes  of  life ; 

Of  Jason,  Theseus,  and  sueh  worthies  old, 

Light  seem  the  tales  antiquity  has  told. — Waller. 
Gods  and  goddesses,  animals  and  men,  trees,  vege- 
tables, and  inanimate  objects  in  general,  may  be  made 
theagentsof  a fable:  butof  a taZe,  properly  speaking, 
only  men  or  suiieinatural  spirits  can  be  the  agents  ; of 
the  former  description  are  the  celebrated  fables  of 
iEsop;  and  of  the  latter  the  tales  of  Marmontel,  the 
ales  of  the  Genii,  the  Chinese  tales,  &c.  Fables  are 
written  for  instruction ; tales  principally  for  amuse- 
ment; fables  consist  mostly  of  only  one  incident  or 
action,  from  which  a moral  may  be  drawn  ; tales 

30* 


always  of  many,  which  excite  an  interest  for  an  in 
dividual. 

The  tale  when  compared  with  the  novel  is  a simple 
kind  of  fiction,  it  consists  of  but  few  persons  in  the 
drama;  while  the  novel  on  the  contrary  admits  ol 
every  possible  variety  in  characters:  the  tale  is  told 
without  much  art  or  contrivance  to  keep  the  reader  in 
suspense,  without  any  depth  of  plot  or  importance  in 
the  catastrophe;  the  novel  affords  the  greatest  scope 
for  exciting  an  interest  by  the  rapid  succession  of 
events,  the  involvements  of  interests,  and  the  unravel 
lingof  its  plots;  'Anovel  conducted  upon  one  uniform 
plan,  containing  a series  of  events  in  familiar  life,  is  in 
effect  a protracted  comedy  not  divided  into  acts.’ — 
Cumberland.  If  the  novel  awakens  the  attention, 
the  romance  rivets  the  whole  mind  and  engages  the 
affections;  it  presents  nothing  but  what  is  extraordi 
nary  and  calculated  to  fill  the  imagination  : of  the 
former  description,  Cervantes,  La  Sage,  and  Fielding 
have  given  us  the  best  specimens ; and  of  the  latter 
we  have  the  best  modern  specimens  from  the  pen  of 
Mrs.  Radcliffe ; ‘In  the  romances  formerly  written, 
every  transaction  and  sentiment  was  so  remote  from 
all  that  passes  among  men,  that  the  reader  was  in 
little  danger  of  making  any  application  to  himself.’- 
JOIINSON. 


ANECDOTE,  STORY,  TALE. 

Anecdote,  v.  Anecdotes;  story,  like  history,  comes 
from  the  Greek  laToptoi  to  relate. 

An  anecdote  (v.  Anecdotes)  has  but  little  incident,  and 
no  plot:  a story  may  have  many  incidents,  and  an  im- 
portant catastrophe  annexed  to  it,  the  word  story  being 
a contraction  of  history : there  are  many  anecdotes  re- 
lated of  Dr.  Johnson,  some  of  which  are  of  a trifling  na- 
ture, and  others  characteristick;  stories  are  generally 
told  to  young  people  of  ghosts  and  visions,  which  are 
calculated  to  act  on  their  fears. 

An  anecdote  is  pleasing  and  pretty  ; a story  is  fright 
fill  or  melancholy : an  anecdote  always  consists  of  some 
matter  of  fact ; a story  is  founded  on  that  which  is  real. 
Anecdotes  are  related  of  some  distinguished  persons, 
displaying  their  characters  or  the  circumstances  of  their 
lives;  ‘How  admirably  Rapin,  the  most  popular 
among  the  French  criticks,  was  qualified  to  sit  in  judge- 
ment upon  Homer  and  Thucydides,  Demosthenes  and 
Plato,  may  be  gathered  from  an  anecdote  preserved  by 
Menage,  who  affirms  upon  his  own  knowledge  that  Le 
Fevre  and  Saumur  furnished  this  assuming  critick  with 
the  Greek  passages  which  he  had  to  cite,  Rapin  himself 
being  totally  ignorant  of  that  language.’ — Warton. 
Stories  from  life,  however  striking  and  wonderful,  will 
seldom  impress  so  powerfully  as  those  which  are  drawn 
from  the  world  of  spirits ; ‘ This  story  i once  intended 
to  omit,  as  it  appears  with  no  great  evidence  ; nor  have 
I met  with  any  confirmation  but  in  a letter  of  Farquhar, 
and  he  only  relates  that  the  funeral  of  Dryden  was  tu- 
multuary and  confused.’ — Johnson.  Anecdotes  serve 
to  amuse  men,  stories  to  amuse  children. 

The  story  \s  either  an  actual  fact,  or  something  feign- 
ed ; the  tale  is  always  feigned ; stories  are  circulated 
respecting  the  accidents  and  occurrences  which  happen 
to  persons  in  the  same  place  ; tales  of  distress  are  told 
by  many  merely  to  excite  compassion.  When  both 
are  taken  for  that  which  is  fictitious,  the  story  is  either 
an  untruth,  or  falsifying  of  some  fact,  or  it  is  altogether 
an  invention  ; the  tale  is  always  an  invention.  As 
an  untruth,  the  story  is  commonly  told  by  children; 
and  as  a fiction,  the  story  is  commonly  made  for 
children ; 

Meantime  the  village  rouses  up  the  fire, 

While  well  attested,  and  as  well  believed. 

Heard  solemn,  goes  the  goblin  story  round. 

Thomsow. 

The  tale  is  of  deeper  invention,  and  serves  for  a mor€ 
serious  end,  good  or  bad  ; 

He  makes  that  pow’r  to  trembling  nations  known. 
But  rarely  this,  not  for  each  vulgar  end, 

As  superstitious  idle  tales  pretend.— Jenyns. 

CAST,  TURN,  DESCRIPTION,  CHARACTER. 
Cast,  from  the  verb  to  c^st  {v.  To  cast),  signifies  that 
which  is  cast,  and  here,  by  an  extension  of  the  sense, 
the  form  in  which  it  is  cast ; turn,  from  the  verb  te 


468 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


hirw, signifies  also  he  a^l  ci  turnings  or  the  manner  of 
turning ; description  signifies  the  act  of  describings  or 
the  thing  whicli  is  to  be  described;  character  is  that 
by  which  the  character  is  known  or  determined  (u. 
Character) . 

What  is  cast  is  artificial ; what  turns  is  natural ; the 
former  is  the  act  of  some  foreign  agent;  the  latter  is 
the  act  of  the  subject  itself:  hence  tlie  cast,  as  applica- 
ble to  persons^  respects  that  which  they  are  made  by  cir- 
cumstances ; the  turn,  that  which  they  are  by  tliem- 
selves:  thus  there  are  religious  casts  in  India,  that  is, 
men  cast  in  a certain  form  of  religion  ; and  men  of  a 
particular  moral  cast,  that  is,  such  as  are  cast  in  a par- 
ticular mould  as  respects  their  thinking  and  acting;  so 
in  like  manner  men  of  a particular  turn,  that  is,  as  re- 
spects their  inclinations  and  tastes ; ‘ My  mind  is  of  such 
a particular  cast,  that  the  falling  of  a shower  of  rain, 
or  the  whistling  of  the  wind  at  such  a lime  (the  night 
season)  is  apt  to  fill  my  thoughts  with  something  awful 
and  solemn.’ — Addison.  ‘ There  is  a very  odd  turn  of 
thought  required  for  this  sort  of  writing  (the  fairy  way 
of  writing,  as  Drydeu  calls  it)  ; and  it  is  impossible  for 
a poet  to  succeed  in  it,  who  has  not  a particular  cast  of 
fancy.’ — Addison.  Description  is  a term  less  definite 
than  either  of  the  two  former ; it  respects  all  that  may 
be  said  of  a person,  but  particularly  that  which  distin- 
guishes a man  from  others,  either  in  his  mode  of  think- 
ing or  acting,  in  his  habits,  in  his  manners,  in  his  lan- 
guage, or  liis  taste;  ‘Chri.stian  statesmen  think  that 
those  do  not  believe  Christianity  who  do  not  care  it 
should  be  preached  to  the  poor.  But  as  they  know  that 
charity  is  not  confined  to  any  description,  they  are  not 
deprived  of  a due  and  anxious  sensation  of  pity  to  the 
distresses  of  the  miserable  great.’ — Burke.  The  cha- 
racter in  this  sense  is  a species  of  description,  namely, 
the  description  of  the  prominent  features  by  wliich  an 
object  is  distinguished ; 

Each  drew  fair  characters,  yet  none 

Of  those  they  feign’d  e.xcels  their  own. 

Denham. 

The  cast  is  that  which  marks  a man  to  others;  the 
turn  is  that  which  may  be  known  only  to  a man’s  self; 
The  description  or  character  is  that  by  which  he  is  de- 
scribed or  made  known  to  others. 

Tile  cast  is  that  which  is  fixed  and  unchangeable; 
the  tarn  is  that  which  may  be  again  turned;  and  the 
aescription  or  character  is  that  which  varies  with  the 
circumstances. 


LIST,  ROLL,  CATALOGUE,  REGISTER. 

List,  in  French  lisle,  and  German  liste,  comes  from 
the  German  leiste  a last,  signifying  in  general  any  long 
and  narrow  body ; roll  signifies  in  general  any  thing 
rolled  up,  particularly  paper  with  its  written  contents; 
catalogue,  in  Latin  catalogus,  Greek  KardKoyoi;,  from 
KaraXtyto  to  write  down,  signifies  a written  enumera- 
tion ; register  comes  from  the  Latin  verb  regero  {v. 
To  enrol). 

A collection  of  objects  brought  into  some  kind  of 
order  is  the  common  idea  included  in  the  signification 
of  these  terms.  The  contents  and  disposition  of  a list 
is  the  most  simple ; it  consists  of  little  more  than  names 
arranged  under  one  another  in  a long  narrow  line,  as  a 
list  of  words,  a list  of  plants  and  flowers,  a list  of 
voters,  a list  of  visits,  a list  of  deaths,  of  births,  of 
marriages  ; ‘ After  I had  read  over  the  list  of  the  per- 
sons elected  into  the  Tiers  Etat,  nothing  which  they 
afterward  did  could  appear  astonishing.’ — Burke. 
ReZI,  which  is  figuratively  put  for  the  contents  of  a 7-oW, 
!s  a list  rolled  up  for  convenience,  as  a long  roll  of 
saints;  ‘It  appears  from  the  ancient  rolls  of  parlia- 
ment, and  from  the  manner  of  choosing  the  lords  of  ar- 
ticles, that  the  proceedings  of  that  liigh  court  must 
have  beer;  in  a great  measure  under  their  direction.’ — 
R0BER.TSON.  Catalogue  involves  more  details  than  a 
simple  list ; it  specifies  not  only  names,  but  dates,  quali- 
ties, and  circumstances.  A list  of  books  contains  their 
titles;  tx  catalogue  of  books  contains  an  enumeration 
of  their  size,  price,  number  of  volumes,  edition,  &.c. ; 
a roll  of  saints  simply  specifies  their  names;  a cata- 
togue  of  saints  enters  into  particulars  of  their  ages, 
deaths,  &c. ; 

Ay ! in  the  catalogue  ye  g«  for  men, 

,\s  hounds,  and  greyhounds,  mongrels,  spaniels,  curs, 
All  by  the  name  of  dogs. — SHAKsPEiRE 


A re»-i6' ter  contains  more  thaneifner;  for  it  contain* 
events,  with  dates,  actors,  &c.  in  all  matters  of  publicSl 
interest;  I am  credibly  informed  by  an  antiquary  who 
has  searched  the  registers,  that  the  maids  of  lionour,  in 
Q.ueen  Elizabeth’slime,  were  allowed  three  rumps  of 
beef  for  their  breakfast.’ — Addison. 


TO  ENROL,  ENLIST  OR  LIST,  REGISTER, 
RECORD. 

Enrol,  compounded  of  en  or  in  and  roll,  signifies  t« 
place  in  a roll,  that  is,  in  a roll  of  paper  or  a book ; enlist. 
compounded  of  in  and  list,  signifies  to  put  down  in  i 
list ; register  is  iu  Latin  registrum,  from  regestum, 
participle  of  regero,  signifying  to  put  down  in  writing ; 
record,  in  Latin  rccordor,  compounded  of  re  back  or 
again,  and  cor  the  heart,  signifies  to  bring  back  to  the 
heart,  or  call  to  mind  by  a memorandum. 

Enrol  and  enlist  respect  persons  only ; register  re 
spects  persons  and  things;  record  respects  things  only 
Enrol  is  generally  applied  to  the  act  of  inserting  names 
in  an  orderly  manner  into  any  book;  ‘Anciently  no 
man  was  suffered  to  abide  in  England  above  forty  days, 
unless  he  were  enrolled  in  some  tithing  or  decennary  ' 
— Blackstone.  Enlist  is  a species  of  enrolling  ap' 
plicable  only  to  the  military,  or  persons  intended  for 
military  purposes  ; ‘ The  lords  would,  by  listing  their 
own  servants,  persuade  the  gentlemen  of  the  town  tc 
do  the  like.’ — Clarendon.  The  enrolment  is  an  act 
of  authority ; tlie  enlisting  is  the  voluntary  act  of  an  in- 
dividual. Among  the  Romans  it  was  the  office  of  the 
censor  to  enrol  the  names  of  all  the  citizens  in  order  to 
ascertain  their  number,  and  estimate  their  property 
In  modern  times  soldiers  are  mostly  raised  by  means 
of  enlisting. 

In  the  moral  application  of  the  terms,  to  enrol  is  to 
assign  a certain  place  or  rank  : to  enlist  is  to  put  one’s 
self  under  a leader,  or  attach  one’s  self  to  a party. 
Hercules  was  enrolled  among  the  gods ; ‘ We  find  our 
selves  enrolled  in  this  heavenly  family  as  servants  and 
as  sons.' — Sprat.  The  common  people  are  always 
ready  to  enlist  on  the  side  of  anarchy  and  rebellion  ; 

‘ The  time  never  was  when  I would  have  enlisted  under 
the  banners  of  any  faction,  though  I might  have  carried 
a pair  of  colours,  if  I had  not  spurned  them,  in  either 
legion.’ — Sir  Wm.  Jones. 

To  enrol  and  register  both  imjily  writing  down  in  a 
book  ; but  theformer  is  a less  formal  act  thanthelatter 
The  insertion  of  the  bare  name  or  designation  in  a cer 
tain  order  is  enough  to  constitute  an  enrolment.  Re 
gistering  comprehends  the  birth,  family,  and  other  col 
lateral  circumstances  of  the  individual.  The  object  ol 
registering  likewise  differs  from  that  of  enrolling 
What  is  registered  serves  for  future  purposes  and  is  of 
permanent  utility  to  society  in  general ; but  what  is  en 
rolled  often  serves  only  a particular  or  temporary  end 
Thus  in  numbering  the  people  it  is  necessary  simply  to 
enrol  their  names  ; but  when  iu  addition  to  this  it  was 
necessary,  as  among  the  Romans,  to  ascertain  tlieir 
rank  in  the  state,  every  thing  connected  with  their  pro- 
perty, their  family,  and  their  connexions  required  to  be 
registered.  So  in  like  manner  in  more  modern  times, 
it  has  been  found  necessary  for  the  good  government 
of  the  state  to  register  the  births,  marriages,  and  deaths 
of  eve.‘’y  citizen.  It  is  manifest,  therefore,  that  what  is 
registered,  as  far  as  respects  persons,  may  be  said  to  be 
enrolled ; but  what  is  enrolled  is  not  always  registered  ; 

‘ I hope  you  take  care  to  keep  an  exact  journal,  and  to 
register  all  occurrences  and  observations,  for  your 
friends  here  expect  such  a book  of  travels  as  has  not 
often  been  seen.’ — Johnson. 

Register,  in  regard  to  record,  has  a no  less  obvio-.is 
distinction:  the  former  is  used  for  domestick  and  civil 
transactions,  the  latter  for  pnblick  and  political  events 
What  \s  registered  serves  for  the  dtiily  purposes  of  the 
community  collectively  and  individually;  what  is  re 
corded  is  treasured  up  in  a special  manner  for  parti- 
cular reference  and  remembrance  at  a distant  period. 
The  number  or  names  of  streets,  houses,  carriages,  and 
the  like,  are  registered  in  different  offices;  the  deed* 
and  documents  which  recard  grants,  charters,  privileges, 
and  the  like,  either  of  individuals  or  particular  towns, 
are  recorded  in  the  archives  of  nations.  To  record  is, 
therefore,  a formal  species  of  registering:  wti  register 
when  we  record,  but  we  do  not  always  record  when 
weregister;  ‘The  medals  of  tlie  Romans  were  then 
current  money ; when  an  action  deserved  to  be  recorded 


ENGLISH  Si’NONYMES.  46S 


m coin,  it  was  stamped  perhaps  upon  a hundred 
thousand  pieces  of  money,  like  our  shillings  or  half- 
pence.’— Addison. 

In  an  extended  and  figurative  application  things  may 
be  said  to  be  registered  in  the  memory,  or  events  re- 
corded in  history.  We  have  a right  to  believe  that  the 
actions  of  good  men  ^reregistered  in  heaven,  and  that 
their  names  are  enrolled  among  the  saints  and  angels; 
the  particular  sayings  and  actions  of  princes  are  re- 
corded in  history,  and  handed  down  to  the  latest  pos- 
terity. 

RECORD,  REGISTER,  ARCHIVE. 

Record  is  taken  for  the  thitig  recorded;  register, 
either  for  the  thing  registered,  or  the  place  in  which  it 
is  registered;  archive,  mostly  for  the  place,  and  some- 
times for  the  thing.  The  records  are  either  historical 
details,  or  short  notices ; the  registers  are  but  short 
notices  of  particular  and  local  circumstances ; the  ar- 
chives are  always  connected  with  the  state.  Every 
place  of  antiquity  has  its  records  of  the  different  cir- 
cumstances which  have  been  connected  with  its  rise 
and  progress,  and  the  various  changes  which  it  has 
experienced.  In  publick  registers  we  find  accounts  of 
families,  and  of  their  various  connexions  and  fluctua- 
tions; in  publick  archives  we  find  all  legal  deeds  and 
instruments,  which  involve  the  interests  of  the  nation, 
both  in  its  internal  and  external  economy. 

TO  CALL,  BID,  SUMMON,  INVITE, 

Call,  in  its  abstract  and  original  sense,  signifies  simply 
to  give  an  expression  of  the  voice,  in  which  it  agrees 
with  the  German  schall,  Swedish  skalla  a sound,  Greek 
KoXioo  to  call,  Hebrew  the  voice;  bid  and  invite 

have  the  same  derivation  as  explained  in  the  preceding 
article;  summon,  in  French  sommer,  changed  from 
snmmoner,  Latin  submoneo,  signifies  to  give  private 
notice. 

The  idea  of  signifying  one’s  wish  to  another  to  do 
any  thing  is  included  in  all  these  terms. 

To  call  is  not  confined  to  any  particular  sound  ; we 
may  call  by  simply  raising  the  voice:  to  invite  is  not 
even  oonfiued  to  sounds ; we  may  invite  by  looks,  or 
rigns,  or  even  by  writing:  to  bid  and  summon  require 
the  express  use  of  words.  The  actions  of  calling  and 
inviting  are  common  to  animals  as  well  as  men  : the 
sheep  call  their  young  when  tlicy  bleat,  and  the  oxen 
their  companions  when  they  low;  cats  and  other  fe- 
males among  the  brutes  invite  their  young  to  come  out 
from  their  bed  when  it  is  proper  for  them  to  begin  to 
walk ; to  bid  and  summon  are  altogether  confined  to 
human  beings. 

Call  and  bid  are  direct  addresses : to  invite  and  sum- 
mowmay  pass  through  the  medium  of  a second  person. 

I call  or  bid  the  person  whom  I wish  to  come,  but  I 
send  him  a summons  or  invitation. 

Calling  of  itself  expresses  no  more  than  the  simple 
desire ; but  according  to  circumstances  it  may  be  made 
to  express  a command  or  entreaty.  When  equals  call 
each  other,  or  inferiours  call  their  superiours,  it 
amounts  simply  to  a wish  ; ‘ Ladronius,  that  famous 
captain,  was  called  up  and  told  by  his  servants  that  the 
general  was  fled.’ — Knowles.  When  the  dam  calls 
her  young  it  amounts  to  supplicating  entreaty;  but 
when  a father  calls  his  son,  or  a master  his  servant,  it 
is  equivalent  to  a command : ‘Why  came  not  the  slave 
back  when  I called  him  T— Shakspeare.  To  bid  ex- 
presses either  a command  or  an  entreaty : when  supe- 
liours  bid  it  is  a positive  command  ; 

Saint  Withold  footed  thrice  the  w’old  ; 

He  met  the  night-mare  and  her  ninefold, 

Bid  her  alight  and  her  troth  plight. — Shakspeare. 
When  equals  bid  it  is  an  act  of  civility,  particularly  in 
the  phrases  to  bid  welcome,  to  bid  God  speed,  to  bid 
farewell,  and  the  like,  which,  though  they  may  be  used 
by  superiours,  are  nevertheless  terms  of  kindness  and 
equality ; 

I am  bid  forth  to  supper,  Jessica ; 

There  are  my  keys.— -Shakspeare. 

To  summon  is  always  imperative  ; to  invite  always  in 
the  spirit  of  kindness  and  courtesy.  Persons  in  all 
tations  of  life  have  occasion  to  call  each  other;  but 
t is  an  action  most  bsfitiing  the  superiour ; to  bid  and  1 


rnrite  are  alike  the  actions  of  supeiiours  and  equals 
to  summon  is  the  act  of  a superiour  only. 

Calling  is  mostly  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  the 
object  to  or  from  a person  or  another  object,  whence 
the  phrases  to  call  up,  or  to  call  ofl',  &.c.  Bidding,  as 
a command,  may  be  employed  for  what  we  wish  to  be 
done  ; but  bidding  in  the  sense  of  an  invitation  is  em- 
ployed for  drawing  the  object  to  our  place  of  residence. 
Inviting  is  employed  for  either  [im  pose.  Summoning 
is  an  act  of  authority,  by  which  a person  is  obliged  to 
make  his  appearance  at  a given  place. 

These  terms  preserve  the  same  distinction  in  their 
extended  and  figurative  acceptation  ; 

In  a deep  vale,  or  near  some  ruin’d  wall. 

He  would  the  ghosts  of  slaughter’d  soldiers  call 

Drvdkn. 

‘ Be  not  amazed,  call  all  your  senses  to  you,  defend 
my  reputation,  or  bid  farewell  to  your  good  life  for 
ever.’ — Shakspeare.  ‘ The  soul  makes  use  of  her 
memory  to  call  to  mind  what  she  is  to  treat  of.’ — Duppa. 
The  star  that  bids  the  shepherd  fold. 

Now  the  top  of  heaven  doth  hold. — Milton. 

This  minute  may  be  mine,  the  next  another’s; 

But  still  all  mortals  ought  to  wait  the  summons. 

Smith. 

Still  follow  w'heie  auspicious  fates  in-jite, 

Caress  the  happy,  and  the  wretched  slight. — Lewis 

TO  CITE,  SUMMON. 

Cite,  V.  To  cite,  quote;  summon,  in  French  sommer, 
Latin  summoneo  or  submoneo,  compounded  of  sub  and 
moneo,  signifies  to  give  a private  intimation. 

The  idea  of  calling  a person  authoritatively  to  appear 
is  common  to  these  terms.  Cite  is  used  in  a genera! 
sense,  summon  in  ti  particular  and  technical  sense:  a 
person  may  be  cited  to  appear  before  his  superiour ; he 
is  summoned  to  appear  before  a court:  the  station  cf 
the  individual  gives  authority  to  the  act  of  citing;  the 
law  itself  gives  authority  to  that  of  summoning. 

When  cite  is  used  in  a legal  sense,  it  is  mostly  em- 
ployed for  witnesses,  and  summon  for  every  occasion . 
a person  is  cited  to  give  evidence,  he  is  summoned  to 
answer  a charge.  Cite  is  seldomer  used  in  the  legal 
sense  than  in  that  of  calling  by  name,  in  which  general 
acceptation  it  is  employed  with  regard  to  authors,  as 
specified  in  the  succeeding  article:  it  may, however, be 
sometimes  used  in  a general  sense ; 

E’en  social  friendship  duns  ij^s  ear. 

And  cites  him  to  the  publick  sphere.— Shenstone. 
The  legal  is  the  ordinary  sense  of  .^ammoTi;  it  ma}q 
however,  be  extended  in  its  application  to  any  call  for 
which  there  may  be  occasion;  as  when  we  speak  of 
the  summons  which  is  given  to  attend  the  death-bed  of 
a friend,  or,  figuratively,  death  is  said  to  summon  mor 
tals  from  this  world  ; 

The  sly  enchantress  summon'd  all  her  train. 

Alluring  Venus,  queen  of  vagrant  love. 

The  boon  companion  Bacchus,  loud  and  vain, 

And  tricking  Hermes,  god  of  fraudful  gain. — West 


TO  CITE,  aUOTE. 

Cite  and  quote  are  both  derived  from  the  same  Latin 
verb  cito  to  move,  and  the  Hebrew  fUD  to  stir  up,  sig- 
nifying to  put  in  action. 

To  cite  is  employed  for  persons  or  things;  to  quoh 
for  things  only  : authors  are  cited;  passages  from  theii 
works  are  ^Moted ; we  cite  otdy  by  authority ; we  quote 
for  general  purposes  of  convenience.  Historians  ough, 
to  cite  their  authority  in  order  to  strengthen  their  evi 
dence  and  inspire  confidence;  ‘The  great  work  of 
which  Justinian  has  the  credit,  consists  of  texts  col- 
lected from  law  books  of  approved  authority;  and 
those  texts  are  adjusted  according  to  a scicntifical  an.a- 
ly.sis;  the  names  of  the  original  authors  and  the  titles 
of  their  several  books  being  constantly  cited.' — Sir 
Wm.  Jones.  Controversialists  must  gwotc  theobjection- 
able  passages  in  those  works  which  they  wish  to  con 
fute:  it  is  prudent  to  cite  no  one  whose  authority  ia 
questionable  ; it  is  superfluous  to  quote  any  thing  that 
can  be  easily  perused  in  the  original ; ‘ Let  us  consider 
what  is  truly  glorious  according  to  the  author  I have 
to-day  quoted  in  the  front  of  my  paper.’— Steele 


470 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES 


NOISE  CRY,  OUTCRY,  CLAMOUR. 

JV'oise  is  any  loud  sound  ; cry,  outcry,  and  clamour 
are  particular  kinds  of  noises,  diftering  either  in  the 
cause  or  the  nature  of  the  sounds.  A noise  proceeds 
either  from  animate  or  inanimate  objects ; the  cry  pro- 
ceeds only  from  animate  objects.  The  report  of  a 
cannon,  or  the  loud  sounds  occasioned  by  a high  wind, 
are  noises,  but  not  cries  ; 

Nor  was  his  ear  less  peal’d 
With  noises  loud  and  ruinous. — Milton. 

Cries  issue  from  birds,  beasts,  and  men ; 

From  either  host,  the  mingled  shouts  and  cries 
Of  Trojans  and  Rutilians  rend  the  skies.— Dryden. 
A noise  is  produced  often  by  accident ; a cry  is  always 
occasioned  by  some  particular  circumstance:  when 
many  horses  and  carriages  are  going  together,  they 
make  a great  noise;  hunger  and  pain  cause  cricj  to 
proceed  both  from  animals  and  human  beings. 

JV'oise,  when  compared  with  cry,  is  sometimes  only 
an  audible  sound ; the  cry  is  a very  loud  noise;  what- 
ever disturbs  silence,  as  the  falling  of  a pin  in  a per- 
fectly still  assembly,  is  denominated  a noise;  but  aery 
is  that  which  may  often  drown  other  rioises,  as  the  qries 
of  people  selling  things  about  the  streets.  A cry  is  in 
general  a regular  sound,  but  outcry  and  clamour  are 
irregular  soun^ls;  the  former  may  proceed  from  one  or 
many,  the  latter  from  many  in  conjunction.  A cry 
after  a thief  becomes  an  outcry  when  set  up  by  many 
at  a time;  it  becomes  a clamour,  if  accompanied  with 
shouting,  bawling,  and  noises  of  a mixed  and  tumultu- 
ous nature; 

And  now  great  deeds 

Had  been  achiev’d,  whereof  all  liell  had  rung. 

Had  not  the  snaky  sorceress  that  sat 
Fast  by  hell  gate,  and  kept  the  fatal  key, 

Ris’n,  and  with  hideous  outcry  rush’d  between. 

Milton. 

Their  darts  with  clamour  at  a distance  drive, 

And  only  keep  the  languish’d  war  alive. — Dryden. 
These  terms  may  all  be  taken  in  an  improper  as  well 
<is  a proper  sense.  Whatever  is  obtruded  upon  the 
publick  notice  so  as  to  become  the  universal  subject  of 
conversation  and  writing,  is  said  to  make  a noise;  in 
this  manner  a new  and  good  performer  at  the  theatre 
makes  a noise  on  his  first  appearance;  ‘What  noise 
have  we  had  about  transplantation  of  diseases,  and 
transfusion  of  blood.’ — Raker.  ‘ Socrates  lived  in 
Athens  during  the  great  plague,  which  has  made  so 
much  noise  through  all  ages,  and  never  caught  the  in- 
fection.’— Addison.  JiToise  and  clamour  may  be  for  or 
against  an  object;  cry  and  oMtery  are  always  against 
the  object,  varying  in  the  degree  and  manner  in  which 
they  display  themselves : the  cry  is  less  than  Wie  outcry, 
and  this  is  less  than  the  clamour.  When  the  publick 
voice  is  raised  in  an  audible  manner  against  any  par- 
ticular matter,  it  is  a cry ; if  it  be  mingled  with  intem- 
perate language  it  is  an  outcry ; if  it  be  vehement,  and 
exceedingly  noisy,  it  is  a clamour.  Partisans  raise  a 
cry  in  order  to  form  a body  in  their  favour; 
Amazement  seizes  all;  the  general  cry 
Proclaims  Laocoon  justly  doom’d  to  die. — Dryden. 
The  discontented  are  ever  ready  to  set  up  an  outcry 
against  men  in  power ; ‘ These  outcries  the  magistrates 
there  shun,  since  they  are  hearkened  unto  here.’ — 
Spenser  {on  Ireland).  A clamour  for  peace  in  the 
time  of  war  is  easily  raised  by  those  who  wish  to 
thwart  the  government;  ‘The  people  grew  then  exor- 
bitant in  their  clamours  for  justice.’— Clarendon. 

TO  CRY,  WEEP. 

Cry  comes  from  the  Greek  Kya^iw,  and  the  Hebrew 
to  cry  or  call ; weep,  in  Low  German  wapen,  is  a 
variation  of  whine,  in  German  weinen,  which  is  an 
onomatopela.  An  outward  indication  of  pain  is  ex- 
pressed by  both  these  terms,  but  the  former  compre- 
hends an  audible  expression  accompanied  or  not  with 
tears;  the  latter  simply  indicates  the  shedding  of  tears. 

Criing  arises  from  an  impatience  in  suffering  corpto- 
real  pains;  children  and  weak  people  commonly  cry : 
weeping  is  occasioned  by  mental  grief ; the  wisest  and 
best  of  men  will  not  disdain  sometimes  to  weep. 

Crying  is  as  selfish  as  it  is  weak ; it  serves  to  relieve 


the  pain  of  the  individual  to  the  annoyance  ot  u» 
hearer ; 

The  babe  clung  crying  to  his  nurse’s  breast. 

Scared  at  the  dazzling  helm  and  nodding  crest 

Pope 

Weeping,  when  called  forth  by  others’  sorrows,  is  an 
infirmity  which  no  man  would  wish  to  be  without;  as 
an  expression  of  generous  sympathy  it  affords  essential 
relief  to  the  sufferer ; 

Thy  Hector,  wrapt  in  everlasting  sleep. 

Shall  neither  hear  thee  sigh,  nor  see  thee  weep 

Pope. 

TO  CRY,  SCREAM,  SHRIEK. 

Cry,v.  To  cry,  weep  ‘ scream  and.  shriek  are  varla 
tions  of  cry. 

To  cry  indicates  the  utterance  of  an  articulate  or  an 
inarticulate  sound  ; scream  is  a species  of  crying  in  the 
first  sense  of  the  word;  shriek  is  a species  of  crying  in 
its  latter  sense. 

Crying  is  an  ordinary  mode  of  loud  utterance  re- 
sorted to  on  common  occasions ; one  cries  in  order  to 
be  heard : screaming  is  an  intemperate  mode  of  crying, 
resorted  to  from  an  impatient  desire  to  be  heard,  or 
from  a vehemence  of  feeling.  People  scream  to  deaf 
people  from  the  mistaken  idea  of  making  themselves 
heard  ; whereas  a distinct  articulation  will  always  be 
more  efficacious.  It  is  frequently  necessary  to  cry 
when  we  cannot  render  ourselves  audible  by  any  othei 
means;  but  it  is  never  necessary  or  proper  to  scream 
Shriek  may  be  compared  with  cry  and  scream,  as  ex- 
pressions of  pain  ; in  this  case  to  shriek  is  more  than 
to  cry,  and  less  than  to  scream.  They  both  signify  to 
cry  with  a violent  efiort.  We  may  cry  from  the  sligj.it 
est  pain  or  inconvenience ; but  one  shrieks  or  screams 
only  on  occasions  of  great  agony,  either  corporeal  or 
mental.  A child  cries  when  it  has  hurt  its  finger;  it 
shj'ieksln  the  momenlof  terrourat  the  sightof  a fright 
fill  object;  or  screams  until  some  one  comes  to  its  as- 
sistance. 

To  cry  is  an  action  peculiar  to  no  age  or  sex;  to 
scream  and  Vn  shriek  are  the  common  actions  of  women 
and  children.  Men  cry,  and  children  scream,  for  assist- 
ance; excess  of  pain  will  sometimes  compel  a man  ts 
cry  out;  a violent  alarm  commonly  makes  femalei 
shriek  ; 

Like  a thin  smoke  he  sees  the  spirit  fly, 

And  hears  a feeble,  lamentable  cry. — ^Pope. 
Rapacious  at  the  mother’s  throat  they  fly. 

And  tear  the  screaming  infant  from  her  breast 

Thomson. 

The  house  is  fill’d  with  loud  laments  and  cries. 

And  shrieks  of  women  rend  the  vaulted  throne 

Dryden 

TO  CRY,  EXCLAIM,  CALL. 

All  these  terms  express  a loud  mode  of  speaking, 
which  is  all  that  is  implied  in  the  sense  of  the  word 
cry,  while  in  that  of  the  two  latter  are  comprehended 
accessory  ideas. 

To  exclaim,  from  the  Latin  exclamo  or  ex  and  clamo, 
to  cry  out  or  aloud,  signifies  to  cry  with  an  effort ; call 
comes  from  the  Greek  acA/w. 

We  cry  from  Ihe  simple  desire  of  being  heard  at  a 
distance:  we  exclaim  from  a sudden  emotion  or  agita 
tion  of  mind.  As  a cry  bespeaks  distress  and  trouble, 
an  exclamation  bespeaks  surpri.se,  grief,  or  joy.  We 
cry  commonly  in  a large  assembly  or  an  open  space, 
but  we  may  exclaim  in  conversation  with  an  individual. 

To  cry  is  louder  and  more  urgent  than  to  call.  A 
man  who  is  in  danger  of  being  drowned  cries  for  help, 
he  who  wants  to  raise  a load  calls  for  assistance:  a 
cry  is  a general  or  indirect  address;  a call  is  a particu- 
lar and  immediate  address.  We  cry  to  all  or  any  who 
may  be  within  hearing;  we  call  to  an  individual 
name  with  a direct  reference  to  him ; 

There  while  you  groan  beneath  the  load  of  life, 
They  cry,  behold  the  mighty  Hector’s  wife! — Pope 
The  dreadful  day 

No  pause  of  words  admits,  no  dull  delay ; 

Fierce  Discord  storms,  Apollo  loud  exclaims, 

Fame  calls.  Mars  thunders,  and  the  field ’s  in  flames 

Pors 


47; 


E.NGLlSIl  SYNONYMES. 


LOUD,  NOISY,  HIGHSOUNDING, 
CLAMOROUS. 

Loud  is  doubtless  connected,  tliroi;«h  tlie  medium  of 
die  German  laut  a sound,  and  lauschen  to  listen,  with 
the  Greek  (tXdw  to  hear,  because  sounds  are  the  ohiect 
of  hearing:  nofsy,  having  a noise,  like  noisome  mA 
noxious,  comes  from  the  Latin  noceo  to  hurt,  signifying 
in  general  offensive,  that  is.  to  the  sense  of  hearing,  of 
smelling,  and  the  like:  signifies  the  same 

as  pitched  upon  an  elevated  key,  so  as  to  make  a great 
noise,  to  be  heard  at  a distance:  clamorous,  from  the 
Latin  clamo  to  cry,  signifies  crying  with  a loud  voice.  | 

Loud  is  here  the  generick  term,  since  it  signifies  a I 
great  sound,  which  is  the  idea  common  to  them  all.  As 
an  epithet  for  persons,  loud  is  mostly  taken  in  an  indif-  | 
ferent  sense ; all  the  others  are  taken  for  being  loud 
beyond  me.asure:  noisy  is  to  be  intemperately  loud; 
highsounding  is  only  to  be  loud  from  the  bigness  of 
one’s  words;  clamorous  is  to  be  disagreeably  and 
painfully  loud.  We  must  speak  loudly  to  a deaf  per- 
son in  order  to  make  ourselves  heard; 

The  clowns,  a boist’rous,  rude,  ungoveTi’d  crew, 

With  furious  haste  to  the  loud  summons  flew. 

Drvden. 

Children  will  be  noisy  at  all  times  if  not  kept  under 
control; 

O leave  the  noisy  town.— Drydkn. 

Flatterers  are  always  highsounding  in  their eulogiums 
of  those  by  whom  they  expect  to  be  served ; ‘ I am 
touched  with  sorrow  at  the  conduct  of  some  few  men, 
who  have  lent  the  authority  of  their  highsounding 
names  to  the  designs  of  men  with  whom  they  could 
not  be  acquainted.’— Burke.  Children  will  'oe  cla- 
morous for  what  they  want,  if  they  expect  to  get  it  by 
dint  of  noise;  they  will  be  turbulent  in  case  of  refusal, 
if  net  under  proper  discipline; 

Clam'rous  around  the  royal  hawk  they  fly. 

Dryden. 

In  the  improper  application,  loud  is  taken  in  as  bad  a 
sense  as  the  rest:  Xhcloudest  praises  are  the  least  to  be 
regarded:  the  applause  of  a mob  is  always  noisy: 
hi^sounding  titles  serve  only  to  excite  contempt 
where  there  is  not  some  corresponding  sense:  it  is  the 
business  of  an  opposition  party  to  be  clamorous, 
which  serves  the  purpose  of  exciting  turbulence  among 
•he  ignorant. 

TO  NOMINATE,  NAME. 

J^Tominate  comes  immediately  from  the  Latin  nomi- 
tiatus,  participle  of  nomivo:  name  comes  from  the 
Teutonick,  kc,.  name,  and  both  from  the  Latin  nomen, 
&c.  (v.  To  name). 

To  nominate  and  to  name  are  both  to  mention  by 
name:  but  the  former  is  to  mention  for  a specifick  pur- 
pose; the  latter  is  to  mention  for  general  purposes: 
persons  only  are  nominated ; things  as  well  as  persons 
are  named:  one  nominates  a person  in  order  to  propose 
him,  or  appoint  him,  to  an  office;  ‘Elizabeth  nomi- 
nated her  commissioners  to  hear  both  parties.’ — Ro- 
bertson. One  names  a person  casually,  in  the  course 
of  conversation,  or  one  names  him  in  order  to  make 
some  inquiry  respecting  him  ; 

Then  Calchas  (by  Ulysses  first  inspir’d'i 

Was  urg’d  to  name  whom  th’  angry  gods  requir’d. 

Dunham. 

To  be  nominated  is  a publick  act;  to  be  named  is  gene- 
rally private:  one  is  nominated  before  an  assembly; 
one  is  named  in  any  place  : to  be  nominated  is  always 
an  honour;  to  be  named  is  either  honourable,  or  the 
pntrary,  according  to  the  circumstances  under  which 
it  is  mentioned : a person  is  nominated  as  member  of 
Parliament ; he  is  named  in  terms  of  respect  or  other- 
wise whenever  he  is  spoken  of. 


TO  NAME,  CALL. 

Wame  is  properly  to  pronounce  some  word,  from  the 
Latin  nomen,  Greek  Svoya,  Hebrew  DNJ  i call,  v.  To 
call. 

Both  these  words  imply  the  direction  of  the  sound  to 
an  object:  but  nammo^  is  confined  to  the  use  of  some 
distinct  and  significant  sound , calling  is  said  of  anv 


sound  whatever:  we  may  call  wit:out  naming,  bu 
we  cannot  name  without  calling.  A person  is  named  by 
his  name,  whether  proper,  patronymick,  or  whatever 
is  usual ; he  is  called  according  to  the  characteristickg 
by  which  he  is  distinguished.  The  emperour  Tiberius 
was  named  Tiberius  ; he  was  called  a monster.  Wil- 
liam the  First  of  England  is  named  William ; he  is 
called  the  Conqueror.  Helen  went  three  times  round 
the  wooden  horse  in  order  to  discover  the  snare,  and, 
with  the  hope  of  taking  the  Greeks  by  surprise,  called 
their  principal  captains,  naming  ibem  by  their  names 
and  counteifeiting  the  voices  of  their  wives.  Many 
ancient  nations  in  naming  any  one  called  him  the  sou 
of  some  one,  as  Richardson  the  son  of  Richard,  and 
Robertson  the  son  of  Robert ; 

Some  haughty  Greek  who  lives  thy  tears  to  see, 
Imbitters  all  thy  woes  by  naming  me. — Pope. 

I lay  the  deep  foundations  of  a wall. 

And  iEnns,  nam'd  from  me,  the  city  caR.— Dryden, 


NAME,  APPELLATION,  TITLE, 
DENOMINATION. 

d^ame,  v.  To  name  ; appellation,  in  French  appella~ 
lion,  Latin  appellatio,  from  appello  to  call,  sigtiifies 
that  by  which  a person  or  thing  is  called;  title,  in 
French  litre,  Latin  titulus,  from  the  Greek  riw  to  hon- 
our, signifies  that  appellation  which  is  assigned  to  any 
one  for  the  purpose  of  honour  ; denomination  signifies 
that  which  denominates  or  distinguishes. 

J^ame  is  a generick  term,  the  rest  are  specifick.  What- 
ever word  is  employed  to  distinguish  one  thing  from 
another  is  a name ; therefore  an  appellation  and  o-title 
is  a name,  but  not  vice  versa ; 

Then  on  your  name  shall  wretched  mortals  call, 

And  ofler’d  victims  at  your  altars  fall. — Drydkn. 
h name  is  either  common  or  proper;  an  appellation 
is  generally  a cominon  name  given  for  some  specifick 
purpose  as  chai acteristick.  Several  kings  of  France 
liad  the  names  of  Charles,  Louis,  Philip,  but  one  was 
distinguished  with  the  appellation  oi'  Stammerer,  an- 
1 other  by  that  of  the  Simple,  and  a third  by  that  of  the 
Hardy,  arising  from  particular  characters  or  circum- 
stances; ‘ The  names  deiived  from  the  profession  of 
the  ministry  in  the  language  of  the  present  age,  are 
made  but  the  appellatives  oi  scorn.’ — South.  A title 
is  a species  of  appellation,  not  drawn  from  any  thing 
personal,  but  conferred  as  a ground  of  political  dis 
tinction.  An  appellation  may  be  often  a term  of  re- 
proach ; but  a title  is  always  a mark  of  honour.  An 
appellation  is  given  to  all  objects,  animate  or  inani- 
mate ; a title  is  given  mostly  to  persons,  sometimes  to 
things.  A particular  house  may  have  the  appellation 
of  ‘ the  Cottage,’  or  ‘ the  Hall as  a particular  person 
may  have  the  title  of  Duke,  liOrd,  or  Marquis;  ‘ We 
generally  find  in  titles  an  intimation  of  some  particu 
iar  merit  that  should  recommend  men  to  the  high  sta- 
tions which  they  possess.’ — Addison. 

Denomination,  is  to  particular  bodies,  what  appella- 
tion is  to  an  individual ; namely,  a term  of  distinction, 
drawn  from  their  peculiar  character  and  circum- 
stances. The  Christian  world  is  split  into  a number  of 
different  bodies  or  communities,  under  the  denomina- 
tions of  Catholicks,  Protestants,  Calvinists,  Presbyte- 
rians, &c.  which  have  their  origin  in  the  peculiar  form 
of  faith  and  discipline  adopted  by  these  bodies;  ‘It  has 
cost  me  much  care  and  thought  to  marshal  and  fix  the 
people  under  their  proper  denominations.' — Addison 


TO  NAME,  DENOMINATE,  STYLE,  ENTITLE 
DESIGNATE,  CHARACTERIZE. 

To  name  (v.  To  name,  call)  signifies  simply  to  give  a 
name  to,  or  to  address  or  specify  by  the  given  name; 
‘ I could  Jiame  some  of  our  acquaintance  who  have  been 
obliged  to  travel  as  far  as  Alexandria  in  pursuit  of 
money.’ — Melmoth  (7>c«erso/  Cicero).  To  denomi 
note  is  to  give  a specifick  namni\mi  some  specifick 
ground,  or  to  distinguish  by  the  name;  ‘A  faWe  in 
tragick  or  epick  poetry  is simple  when  the 
events  it  contains  follow  each  in  an  unbroken  te 
nour.’ — Warton.  To  style,  from  the  no’in  style  or 
manner  (v.  Diction,  style''  signifies  *o  address  by  8 
suecifick  name 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


4:2 


Happy  those  times, 

When  loi  Js  weie  styled  laiheisof  families. 

Shakspeare. 

'1 0 entitle  is  to  give  a specifi(  k or  appropriate  name  ; 
‘ Besides  the  Scripture,  tlie  books  whi  .‘h  they  call  eccle- 
siastical were  thought  not  unworthy  to  be  brought  into 
publick  audience,  and  with  that  name  they  entitled  the 
books  which  we  term  Apocryphal.’ — Hooker.  Adam 
named  every  thing;  we  denominate  the  man  who 
drinks  excessively  ‘ a drunkard  subjects  style  their 
inonatch  ‘ His  Majesty books  are  entitled  according 
to  the  judgement  of  the  author. 

To  name,  denominate,  style,  and  entitle  are  the  acts 
of  conscious  agents  only.  To  designate,  signifying  to 
mark  out,  and  characterize,  signifying  to  form  a cha- 
racter istick,  are  said  only  of  things,  and  agree  with  the 
former  only  inasmuch  as  words  may  either  designate 
or  characterize:  thus  the  word  ‘ capacity’  is  said  to 
desfo-nate  the  power  of  holding;  and  ‘ tinesse’ cAa»-ac- 
terizes  the  people  by  whom  it  was  adopted  ; ‘ This  is  a 
plain  designation  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough;  one 
kind  of  stuff  used  to  fatten  land  is  called  marie,  and 
every  one  knows  that  borough  is  the  name  of  town.’ 
— Swift.  ‘There  are  faces  not  only  individual,  but 
geniilitious  and  national.  European,  Asiatick,  Chinese, 
African,  and  Grecian  faces  are  characterized.' — Ar- 
BUTHNOT. 

NAME,  REPUTATION,  REPUTE,  CREDIT. 

Jfame  is  here  taken  in  the  improper  sense  for  a name 
acquired  in  publick  by  any  peculiarity  orquality  in  an 
object;  reputation  aud  repute,  from  reputo  or  re  and 
puto  to  think  back,  or  in  reference  to  some  immediate 
object,  signihes  the  s'ate  of  being  thought  of  by  the 
publick,  or  held  in  publick  estimation  ; credit  (v.  Credit) 
signifies  the  stateof  being  believed  or  trusted  in  general. 

J^ame  implies  something  more  specifick  than  repu- 
tation; and  reputation  something  more  substantial 
than  name:  a name  may  be  acquired  by  some  casualty 
or  by  some  quality  that  has  more  show  than  W'orth; 
reputation  is  acquired  only  by  time,  and  built  only  on 
merit:  a name  may  be  arbitrarily  given,  simply  by  way 
of  distinction;  reputation  is  not  givpn,  but  acquired, 
or  follows  as  a consequence  of  one’s  Honourable  exer- 
tions. A physician  sometimes  gets  a name  by  a single 
instance  of  professional  skill,  which  by  a combination 
of  favourable  circumstances  he  may  convert  to  his 
own  advantage  in  forming  an  extensive  practice;  but 
unless  he  have  a commensurate  degree  of  talent,  this 
name  will  never  ripen  into  a solid  reputation; 

Who  fears  not  to  do  ill,  yet  fears  the  name. 

And,  free  from  conscience,  is  a slave  to  fame. 

Denuam. 

* Splendour  of  reputation  is  not  to  be  counted  among 
the' necessaries  of  life.’ — Johnson. 

Inanimate  objects  get  a name,  but  reputation  is  ap- 
plied only  to  persons  or  that  which  is  personal.  Fashion 
(s  liberal  in  giving  a name  to  certain  shops,  certain 
streets,  certain  commodities,  as  well  as  to  certain  trades- 
people, and  the  like.  Universities,  academies,  and  pub- 
lick institutions,  acquire  a reputation  for  their  learn- 
ing, their  skill,  their  encouragement  and  promotion  of 
the  arts  or  sciences:  name  and  reputation  are  of  a 
more  extended  nature  than  repute  and  credit.  Stran- 
getB  and  distant  countries  hear  of  the  name  and  the 
reputation  of  any  thing  ; but  only  neighbours  and  those 
who  have  the  means  of  personal  observation  can  take 
a part  in  its  repute  and  credit.  It  is  possible,  therefore, 
to  have  a name  and  reputation  without  having  repute 
and  credit,  and  vice  versa,  for  the  objects  which  con- 
stitute the  former  are  sotnetimes  different  from  those 
which  produce  the  latter.  A manufacturer  has  a 
name  for  the  excellence  of  a particular  article  of  his 
own  manufacture ; a book  has  a name  among  witlings 
ind  pretenders  to  literature:  a good  writer,  however, 
B^eks  to  establish  his  reputation  for  genius,  learning, 
industry,  or  some  praiseworthy  characteristick : a 
preacher  is  in  high  repute  among  those  who  attend  him  : 
a master  gains  great  credit  from  the  good  perform- 
ances of  his  scholars;  ‘Mutton  has  likewise  been  iu 
great7-e/>itfeamongour  valiant  countrymen.’--ADDisoN 
Would  you  true  happiness  attain. 

Let  honesty  your  passions  rein, 

So  live  in  credit  as:^!  esteem. 

And  the  good  name  you  lost,  redeem  — Gay. 


JV'ame  and  repute  are  taken  either  in  a good  3i  bad 
sense ; reputation  and  credit  are  taken  in  the  good 
sense  only : a person  or  thing  may  get  a good  or  an  ill 
name;  a person  or  thing  may  be  in  good  or  ill  repute ; 
reputation  may  rise  to  different  degrees  of  height,  or 
it  may  sink  again  to  nothing,  but  it  never  sinks  into 
that  which  is  bad ; credit  may  likewise  be  high  or  low 
but  when  it  becomes  bad  it  is  discredit.  Families  get 
an  ill  name  for  their  meanness;  housea  of  entertain- 
ment get  a good  name  for  their  accommodation; 
houses  fall  into  bad  repute  when  said  to  be  haunted; 
a landlord  comes  into  high  repute  among  his  tenants, 
if  he  be  considerate  and  indulgent  towards  them. 

CHARACTER,  REPUTATION. 

From  the  natural  sense  of  a stamp  or  mark  {v.  Cha 
racter,  letter),  this  word  is  figuratively  employed  for 
the  moral  mark  which  distinguishes  one  man  from  an 
other;  reputation,  from  the  French  reputer,  Latin 
reputo  to  think,  signifies  what  is  thought  of  a person: 
character  lies  in  the  man ; it  is  the  mark  of  what  he  is; 
it  shows  itself  on  all  occasions : reputation  depends 
upon  others;  it  is  what  they  think  of  him. 

A character  is  given  particularly : a reputation  is 
formed  generally.  Individuals  give  a character  of 
another  from  personal  knowledge:  publick  opinion 
constitute  tire  reputation.  Character  has  always  some 
foundation;  it  is  a positive  description  of  something: 
reputation  has  more  of  conjecture  in  it;  its  source  is 
hearsay. 

It  is  possible  for  a man  to  have  a fair  reputation  who 
has  not  in  reality  a good  character;  although  men  of 
really  good  character  are  not  likely  to  have  a badrepu- 
tation;  ‘Let  a man  think  what  multitudes  of  those 
among  whom  hedwellsare  totally  ignorant  of  his  tiaine 
and  character;  how  many  imagine  themselves  too 
much  occupied  with  their  own  wants  and  pursuits  to 
pay  him  the  least  attention  ; and  where  his  reputation 
is  in  ^ny  degree  spread,  how  often  it  has  been  attacked, 
and  how  many  rivals  are  daily  rising  to  abate  it.’— 
Blair. 


FAME,  REPUTATION,  RENOWN.  * 
Fame,  from  the  Greek  ^rjpi  to  say,  is  the  most  noisy 
and  uncertain  ; it  rests  upon  report : reputation  (.a 
Character,  reputation)  is  silent  and  solid  ; it  lies  mere 
in  the  thoughts,  and  is  derived  from  observation : re 
rowK,  in  French  renomm^e,  from  nom  a name,  signifie.s 
the  reverberation  of  a name  ; it  is  as  loud  as  fame,  but 
more  substantial  and  better  founded  : hence  we  say  that 
a person’s  fame  has  gone  abroad;  his  reputation  is 
established  ; and  he  has  got  renown. 

Fame  may  be  applied  to  any  object,  good,  bad,  or 
indifferent; 

Europe  with  Afric  in  his/a7«e  shall  join. 

But  neither  shore  his  conquests  shall  confine. 

Dryden. 

Reputation  is  applied  only  to  real  eminence  in  some 
department;  ‘Pope  doubtless  ajipioached  Addison, 
when  the  reputation  of  their  \yit  first  brought  them 
together,  with  the  re.spect  due  to  a man  whose  abilities 
were  acknowledged.’ — Johnson.  Renown  is  employed 
only  for  extraordinary  men  and  brilliant  exploits; 

‘ Well  constituted  governinents  have  always  made  the 
profession  of  a physician  both  honourable  and  advan 
tageous  Homer’s  Machaon  and  Virgil’s  lapis  were 
men  of  renown,  heroes  in  war.’ — Johnson.  The  fame 
of  a quack  may  be  spread  among  the  ignorant  multi 
tude  by  means  of  a lucky  cure,  or  the  fame  of  an  au- 
thor may  be  spread  by  means  of  a popular  work  ; ‘ The 
artist  finds  greater  returns  in  profit,  as  the  author  in 
fame.' — Addison.  The  reputation  of  a physician  rests 
upon  hisfried  skill  and  known  experience ; the  renown 
of  a general  is  proportioned  to  the  magnitude  of  his 
achievements; 

How  doth  it  |)lease  and  fill  the  memory. 

With  deeds  of  brave  renown,  while  on  each  liand 
Historick  urns  and  breathing  statues  rise, 

And  speaking  busts.— Dyer. 

FAME,  REPORT,  RUMOUR,  HEARSAY. 
Fame  (v.  Fame)  has  a reference  to  the  thing  which 
gives  birth  to  it;  it  goes  about  of  itself  without  aw 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


47^5 


apparent  instrunientalil)'.  Tli3  report,  from  re  and 
porto,  to  carry  back,  or  away  from  an  object,  has 
always  a reference  to  the  reporter.  Rumour,  in  Latin 
■rumo*-,  from  ruo  to  rush  or  to  flow,  has  a reference  to 
the  flying  nature  of  words  tliat  are  carried  ; it  is  tliere- 
fore  projjerly  a flying  report.  Hearsay  refers  to  the 
receiver  of  that  wliich  is  said  ; it  is  limited  tlierefore  to 
a small  number  of  speakers  or  reporters.  The  fame 
serves  to  form  or  establish  a character  either  of  a per- 
son or  a thing;  it  will  be  good  or  bad  according  to  cir- 
cumstances; xhefame  of  our  Saviour’s  miracles  went 
abroad  through  the  land ; 

Space  may  produce  new  worlds,  whereof  so  rife 
There  went  a fame  in  heav’n,  that  he  ere  long 
Intended  to  create. — Milton. 

'I  he  report  serves  to  communicate  information  of 
events;  it  may  be  more  or  less  correct  according  to  the 
veracity  or  authenticity  of  the  reporter;  reports  of 
victories  mostly  precede  tlie  official  confirmation; 
‘ What  liberties  any  man  may  take  in  imputing  words 
to  me  which  I never  spoke,  and  what  credit  Ca;sar  may 
give  to  such  reports,  these  are  points  for  which  it  is  by 
no  means  in  my  power  to  be  answerable.’ — Melmoth 
(^Letters  of  CAcero).  The  rumour  serves  the  jmiposes 
of  fiction ; it  is  more  or  less  vague,  according  to  the 
temper  of  the  times  and  the  nature  of  the  events ; every 
battle  gives  rise  to  a thousand  rumours; 

For  which  of  you  will  stop 
The  vent  of  hearing,  when  loud  rumour 
Speaks  1 — Shakspeark. 

The  hearsay  serves  for  information  or  instruction,  and 
is  seldom  so  incorrect  as  it  is  familiar;  ‘What  in- 
fluence can  a mother  have  over  a daughter,  from 
whose  example  the  daughter  can  only  have  hearsay 
benefits  V — Richardson. 


FAMOUS,  CELEBRATED,  RENOWNED, 
ILLUSTRIOUS. 

Famous  signifies  literally  having  fame  or  being  the 
cause  of  fame ; it  is  applicable  to  that  which  causes  a 
noise  or  sensation ; to  that  which  is  talked  of,  written 
upon,  discussed,  and  thought  of;  to  that  which  is  re- 
ported of  far  and  near ; to  that  which  is  circulated 
among  all  ranks  and  orders  of  men : celebrated  signifies 
literally  kept  in  the  memory  by  a celebration  or  memo- 
rial, and  is  applicable  to  tlnit  which  is  praised  and 
nonoured  with  solemnity:  renowned  signifies  literally 
possessed  of  a name,  and  is  applicable  to  whatever  e.\- 
tends  the  name,  or  causes  the  name  to  be  often  re- 
peated: illustrious  signifies  literally  what  has  or  gives 
a lustre;  it  is  applicable  to  w'hatever  confers  dignity. 

Famous  is  a term  of  indefinite  import ; it  conveys  of 
itself  frequently  neither  honour  nor  dishonour,  since 
it  is  employed  indilfereritly  as  an  epithet  for  things 
praiseworthy  or  otherwise  ; it  is  the  only  one  of  these 
terms  which  may  be  used  in  a bad  sense.  The  others 
rise  in  a gradually  gpod  sense;  ‘ I thought  it  an  agree- 
able change  to  have  my  thoughts  diverted  from  the 
greatest  among  the  dead  and  fabulous  heroes,  to  the 
most  famous  among  the  real  and  living.’ — Addison. 

* The  celebrated  is  founded  upon  merit  and  the  dis- 
play of  talent  in  the  arts  and  sciences;  it  gains  the 
subject  respect;  ‘While  I was  in  this  learned  body,  I 
applied  myself  with  so  much  diligence  to  my  studies, 
that  there  are  very  few  celebrated  books  either  in  the 
learned  or  modern  tongues  which  I am  not  acquainted 
with.’ — Addison.  The  renowned  is  founded  upon  the 
possession  of  rare  or  extraordinary  qualities,  u[)on 
successful  exertions  and  an  accordance  with  publick 
opinion ; it  brings  great  honour  or  glory  to  the  subject; 

Castor  and  Pollux  first  in  martial  force. 

One  hold  on  foot,  and  one  renown' d for  horse. 

Pope. 

The  illustrious  is  founded  upon  those  solid  qualities 
which  not  only  render  one  known  but  distinguished; 
It  ensures  regard  and  veneration ; ‘ The  reliefs  of  the 
envious  man  are  those  little  blemishes  that  discover 
themselves  in  an  illustrious  character.’ — Addison. 

A person  may  be  fo.mous  for  his  eccentricities; 
celebrated  as  an  artist,  a writer,  or  a player;  renowned 

* Vide  Abbe  Girard;  Fan/eux,  illustre,  celebre, 

tenomcid  ” i 


as  a warriour  or  a statesman ; illustrious  as  a prince, 
a statesman,  or  a senator. 

The  maid  of  Orleans,  who  was  decried  by  the  Eng 
lish,  and  idolized  by  the  French,  is  equally  famous  in 
both  nations.  There  are  celebrated  authors  whom  to 
censure  even  in  that  which  is  censurable,  would  en- 
danger one’s  reputation.  'J’he  renowned  heroes  of 
antiquity  have,  by  the  perusal  of  their  exploits,  given 
birth  to  a race  of  modern  heroes  not  inferiuur  to  them- 
selves. Princes  may  shine  in  their  lifetime,  but  they 
cannot  render  themselves  illustrious  to  posterity  ex 
cept  by  the  monuments  of  goodness  and  wisdom  which 
they  leave  after  them. 


NOTED,  NOTORIOUS. 

fN'oted  fv.  Distinguished)  may  be  employed  either  in 
a good  or  a bad  sense ; notorious  is  never  u.sed  but  in  a 
bad  sense-  men  may  be  noted  for  their  talents,  or  theii 
eccentricities;  they  are  notorious  only  for  their  vices- 
noted  characters  excite  many  and  diverse  remarks  from 
their  friends  and  their  enemies;  netor/ows- characters 
are  universally  shunned; 

An  engineer  of  noted  skill. 

Engag’d  to  stop  the  growing  ill. — Gay. 

‘What  principles  of  ordinary  prudence  can  warrant  * 
man  to  trust  a notorious  cheatT — South. 


DISTINGUISHED,  CONSPICUOUS,  NOTED 
EMINENT,  ILLUS’J'RIOUS. 

Distinguished  signifies  having  a mark  of  distinction 
by  which  a thing  is  to  be  distinguished ; conspicuous, 
in  Latin  conspicuus,  from  conspicio,  signifies  easily 
to  be  seen;  noted,  from  notus  known,  signifies  well 
known;  eminent,  iir  Latin  eminens,  from  emineo  or  e 
and  maneo,  signifies  remaining  or  stamling  oirt  above 
the  rest;  illustrious,  in  Latin  illustris,  from  lustro  to 
shine,  signifies  slione  upon. 

The  idea  of  an  object  having  something  attached  to 
it  to  excite  notice  is  common  to  all  these  terms. 

Distinguished  in  its  general  sense  expresses  little 
more  than  this  idea;  the  rest  are  but  modes  of  the 
distinguished.  A thing  is  distinguished  in  proportiv-in 
as  it  is  distinct  or  seiiarate  from  others ; it  is  conspicu. 
ous  in  proportion  as  it  is  easily  seen  ; it  is  noted  in  pro- 
portion as  it  is  widely  known.  In  this  sense  a rank  is 
distinguished;  a situation  i:,  conspicuous ; a place  is 
noted.  Persons  are  distinguished  by  external  marks  or 
by  characteristick  qualities;  persons  or  things  are  con 
spicuous  mostly  from  some  external  maik  ; persons  or 
things  axe  noted  mostly  by  collateral  circumstances. 

A man  may  be  distinguished  by  his  decorations,  or 
he  may  be  distinguished  by  his  manly  air,  or  liy  hi.s 
abilities;  ‘It  has  been  observed  by  some  writers  that 
man  is  more  distinguished  from  the  atiimal  world  by 
devotion  than  by  reason.’ — Addison.  A person  is  con- 
spicuous by  the  gaudiness  of  his  dress ; a house  is  con 
spicuous  that  stands  on  a hill ; 

Before  the  gate  stood  Pyrrhus,  threat’ning  loud. 

With  gliit’ring  arms,  conspicuous  in  the  crowd. 

Dryden 

A person  is  noted  for  having  performed  a wonderfm 
cure;  a place  is  noted  for  its  fine  waters;  ‘Upon  my 
calling  in  lately  at  one  of  the  most  noted  Temple  coffee 
houses,  I found  the  whole  room,  which  was  full  of 
young  students,  divided  into  several  parties,  each  of 
which  was  deeply  engaged' in  some  controversy.’- 
Budrell. 

We  may  be  distinguished  for  things,  good,  bad,  or 
indifferent:  we  may  be  conspicuous  for  our  singulari- 
ties or  that  which  only  attracts  vulgar  notice : we  may 
be  noted  for  that  which  is  bad,  and  mostly  for  that 
which  is  the  subject  of  vulgar  discourse:  we  can  be 
eminent  ami  illustrious  only  for  that  which  is  really 
good  and  praiseworthy;  the  former  applies  however 
mostly  to  those  things  which  set  a man  high  in  the 
circle  of  his  acquaintance;  the  latter  to  that  which 
makes  him  shine  before  the  world.  A man  of  distin- 
guished talent  will  be  apt  to  excite  envy  if  he  be  not 
also  distinguished  for  his  private  virtue;  affectation  is 
never  better  pleased  than  When  it  can  place  itself  in 
such  a conspicuous  situation  as  to  draw  all  eyes  upon 
itself:  lovers  of  fame  are  sometimes  contented  to  ren 
der  themselves  noted  for  their  vices  or  absurdities 


474 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


notliing  Is  more  gratifying  to  a man  than  to  render 
himself  eyiinent  for  his  professional  skill ; ‘ Of  Prior, 
eminent  as  he  was  both  by  his  abilities  and  station,  very 
few  memorials  have  been  left  by  his  contempurraries.’ — 
Johnson.  Jt  is  the  lot  of  but  few  to  be  illustrious, 
and  those  few  are  very  seldom  to  be  envied  ; 

Hail,  sweet  Saturnian  soil!  of  fruitful  grain 
Great  parent,  greater  of  illustrious  men. 

Drydkn. 

In  an  extended  and  moral  application,  these  terms 
saay  be  employed  to  heighten  the  character  of  an  ob- 
ject; a favour  may  be  said  to  be  distinguished,  piety 
eminent,  and  a name  illustrious ; ‘Amid  the  agita- 
tions of  popular  government,  occasions  will  sometimes 
oe  afforded  for  eminent  abilities  to  break  forth  with 
peculiar  lustre.  But  while  publick  agitations  allow  a 
few  individuals  to  be  uncommonly  distinguished,  the 
general  condition  of  the  publick  remains  calamitous 
and  wretched.’ — Blair. 

Next  add  our  cities  of  illustrious  name. 

Their  costly  labour  and  stupendous  frame 

Drydkn. 


SIGNAL,  MEMORABLE. 

Signal  signifies  serving  as  a sign ; memorable  signi- 
fies worthy  to  be  remembered. 

They  both  express  the  idea  of  extraordinary,  or 
being  distinguished  from  ordinary,  or  being  distin- 
guished from  every  thing  else:  whatever  is  signal  de- 
serves to  be  stamped  on  the  mind,  and  to  serve  as  a 
sign  of  some  property  or  characteristick ; whatever  is 
memorable  impresses  upon  the  memory,  and  refuses  to 
be  forgotten:  the  former  applies  to  the  moral  cha- 
racter; the  latter  to  events  and  times:  the  Scriptures 
furnish  us  with  many  signal  instances  of  God’s  ven- 
geance against  impenitent  sinners,  as  al.so  of  his  favour 
towards  those  who  obey  his  will;  ‘We  find,  in  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  not  only  no  opposition  to  Chris- 
tianity from  the  Pharisees,  but  several  signal  occa- 
sions in  which  they  assisted  its  first  teachers.’ — 
WoTTON.  The  Reformation  is  a memorable  event  in 
the  annals  of  ecclesiastical  history;  ‘That  such  de- 
fiverances  are  actually  afforded,  those  three  memorable 
examples  of  Abimelech,  Esau,  and  Balaam  sufficiently 
demonstrate.’—  South. 


TO  SIGNALIZE,  DISTINGUISH. 

Tc  signalize,  or  make  one’s  self  a sign  of  any  thing, 
is  a much  stronger  term  than  simply  to  distinguish ; it 
is  in  the  power  of  many  to  do  the  latter,  but  few  only 
have  the  power  of  effecting  the  former;  the  English 
have  always  signalized  themselves  tirr  their  uncon- 
querable valour  in  battle  ; ‘The  knight  of  La  Mancha 
gravely  recounts  to  his  coni[)anion  the  adventure  by 
which  he  is  to  s/,g?/aZ«2e  himself  ’ — Johnson.  There  is 
no  nation  that  has  not  distinguished  itself,  at  some 
period  or  another,  in  war  ; 

The  valued  file 

Distinguishes  the  swift,  the  slow,  the  subtle. 

Shakspeare. 


OF  FASHION,  OF  QUALITY,  OF 
DISTINCTION. 

These  epithets  are  employed  irromiscnously  in  collo- 
quial discourse;  but  not  with  strict  propriety;*  by 
men  of  fashion  are  understood  such  men  as  live  in  the 
fashionable  world,  and  keep  the  be.st  company;  ‘The 
free  manner  in  which  people  of  fashion  are  discoursed 
on  at  such  meetings  (of  tradespeople),  is  but  a just  re- 
proach of  their  failures  in  this  kind  (in  payment).’ — 
Steele.  By  men  of  quality  are  understood  men  of 
rank  or  title;  ‘The  single  dress  of  a lady  of  quality  is 
often  the  product  of  a hundred  climes.’ — Addison. 
By  men  of  distinction  are  understood  men  of  honour- 
able superiority,  whether  by  wealth,  office,  or  pre- 
eminence in  society  ; ‘ It  behooves  men  of  distinction, 
with  their  power  and  example,  to  preside  over  the  pub- 
lick diversions  in  such  a manner  as  to  check  any  thing 
that  tends  to  the  corruption  of  manners.’ — Steele. 

♦ \ ide  Trttsler:  “Of  fashion,  of  quality,  of  dis- 
raiction, ' 


Gentry  and  merchants,  though  not  men  of  quihty, 
may,  by  their  mode  of  living,  ue  meno/  fashion;  anc 
by  the  office  they  hold  in  the  state,  they  may  likewise 
be  men  of  distinction. 

PROMINENT,  CONSPICUOUS. 

Prominent  signifies  hanging  over;  conspicuous  'r 
Distinguished)  signifies  easy  to  be  behold  : the  forme) 
is,  therefore,  to  the  latter,  in  some  measure,  a.s  the  spe 
cies  to  the  genus:  what  is  prominent  is,  in  general,  <»i, 
that  very  account  conspicuous;  but  many  things  may 
be  conspicuous  besides  those  which  are  prominent. 
The  terms  prominent  and  conspicuous  have,  however 
an  application  suited  to  their  peculiar  meaning:  nothing 
is  prominent  but  what  projects  beyond  a certain  line 
every  thing  is  conspicuous  which  may  be  seen  by  many 
the  nose  on  a man’s  face  is  u prominent  feature,  owiiq 
to  its  projecting  situation  ; and  it  is  sometimes  conspi 
cuous,  according  to  the  position  of  the  person:  a figure 
in  a painting  is  said  to  be  prominent,  if  it  appears  tc 
stand  forward  or  before  the  others ; but  it  is  not  pro 
perly  conspicuous,  unless  there  be  something  in  it 
which  attracts  the  general  notice,  and  distinguishes  it 
from  all  other  things:  on  the  contrary,  it  is  conspi 
cuous,  but  not  expressly  prominent,  when  the  colours 
are  vivid  ; ‘ Lady  Macbeth’s  walking  in  her  sleep  is  an 
incident  so  full  of  tragick  horrour,  that  it  stands  out  as 
a prominent  feature  in  the  most  sublime  drama  in  the 
world.’— Cumberland.  ‘That  innocent  mirth  which 
had  been  so  conspicuous  in  Sir  Thomas  More’s  life,  did 
not  forsake  him  to  the  last.’— Addison. 


BRIGHTNESS,  LUSTRE,  SPLENDOUR, 
BRILLIANCY. 

Brightness,  from  the  English  bright,  Saxon  breorhe 
probably  comes,  like  the  German  pracht  splendour, 
from  the  Hebrew  to  shine  or  glitter;  lustre,  in 

French  lustre,  Latin  lustrum  a purgation  or  cleansing, 
that  is,  to  make  clean  or  pure  ; splendour,  in  French 
splcndeur,  Latin  splendor,  from  splendco  to  shine, 
comes  either  from  the  Greek  an'hrjSds  embers,  or  anivQiifj 
a spark ; brilliancy,  from  brilliant  and  briller  to 
shine,  comes  from  the  German  brille  spectacles,  and 
the  middle  Latin  beryllus  a crystal. 

Brightness  is  the  generick,  the  rest  are  specifick 
terms:  there  cannot  be  lustre,  splendour,  and  bril 
liancy,  without  brightness ; but  there  may  he  bi-ighl- 
ness  where  these  do  not  exist.  These  terms  rise  in 
sense ; lustre  rises  on  brightness,  splendour  on  lustre, 
and  brilliancy  on  splendour. 

Brightness  and  lustre  are  applied  properly  to  na 
tural  lights ; splendour  and  brilliancy  have  been  more 
commonly  applied  to  that  which  is  artificial : there  is 
always  more  or  less  brightness  in  the  sun  or  moon  ; 
there  is  an  occasional  lustre  in  all  the  heavenly  bodies 
when  they  shine  in  their  unclouded  brightness ; there 
is  splendour  in  the  eruptions  of  flame  from  a volcano 
or  an  immense  conflagration;  there  is  brilliancy  in  a 
collection  of  diamonds.  There  may  be  both  splendour 
and  brilliancy  in  an  illumination:  splendour  arises 
from  the  mass  and  richness  of  light;  brilliancy  from 
the  variety  and  brightness  of  the  lights  and  colours. 
Brightness  may  be  obscured,  lustre  may  be  tarnished, 
splendour  and  brilliancy  diminished. 

The  analogy  is  closely  preserved  in  the  figurative 
application.  Brightness  attaches  to  the  moral  cha- 
racter of  men  in  ordinary  cases ; ‘ Earthly  honours  are 
both  short-lived  in  their  continuance,  and,  while  they 
last,  tarnished  with  spots  and  stains.  On  some  quarter 
or  other  their  brightness  is  obscured.  But  the  honour 
which  proceeds  from  God  and  virtue  is  nninixed  and 
pure.  It  is  a lustre  which  is  derived  from  heaven.’— 
Blair.  Dustz-e  attaches  to  extraordinary  instances  of 
virtue  and  greatness ; splendour  and  brilliancy  attach 
to  the  achievements  of  men  ; ‘ Thomson’s  diction  is  in 
the  highest  degree  florid  and  luxuriant,  such  as  may 
be  said  to  be  to  his  images  and  thoughts  “both  their 
lustre  and  their  shade  ;”  such  as  invest  them  with 
splendour  through  wh  ch  they  are  not  easily  discerni- 
ble.’—Johnson.  ‘There  is  an  appearance  of  bril- 
liancy in  the  pleasures  of  high  life  which  naturally 
dazzles  the  young.’ — Craig. 

Our  Saviour  is  strikingly  represented  to  us  as  the 
brightness  of  his  Father’s  glory,  and  the  express  image 
I of  his  person.  The  humanity  of  the  Englisli  in  the 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


475 


aonr  of  conquest  adds  a lui^re  to  their  victories  which 
aie  either  splendid  or  brilliant,  according  to  the  num- 
ber and  nature  of  the  circumstances  which  render 
them  remarkable. 

FIRE,  HEAT,  WARMTH,  GLOW. 

In  tlie  proper  sense  these  words  are  easily  distin- 
guished, but  not  so  easily  in  the  improper  sense  ; and 
as  the  iatter  depends  principally  upon  the  former,  it  is 
not  altogether  useless  to  enter  into  some  explanation  of 
their  physical  meaning. 

Fire  IS  with  regard  to  heat  as  the  cause  to  the 
effect  : it  is  itself  an  inherent  property  in  some  material 
bodies,  and  when  in  action  communicates  heat;*  fire 
is  perceptible  to  us  by  the  eye,  as  well  as  the  touch  ; 
heat  is  perceptible  only  by  tlie  touch  : we  distinguish 
fire  by  means  of  the  flame  it  sends  forth,  or  by  the 
changes  which  it  produces  upon  other  bodies  ; but  we 
discover  heat  only  by  the  sensations  which  it  produces 
in  ourselves. 

Fire  has  within  itself  the  power  of  communicating 
heat  to  other  bodies  at  a distance  from  it;  but  heat, 
when  it  lies  in  bodies  without  ^re,  is  not  communi- 
cable or  even  perceptible,  except  by  coming  in  contact 
with  the  body.  Fire  is  producible  in  some  bodies  at 
pleasure,  and  when  in  action  will  communicate  itself 
without  any  external  influence;  but  Aeat  is  always  to 
be  produced  and  kept  in  being  by  some  external 
agency:  fire  spreads;  but  heat  dies  away.  Fire  is 
producible  only  in  certain  bodies ; but  heat  may  be  pro- 
duced in  many  more  bodies;  fire  may  be  elicited  from 
a flint,  or  from  wood,  steel,  and  some  few  other  mate- 
rials ; but  heat  is  producible,  or  exists  to  a greater  or 
less  degree,  in  all  material  substances. 

Heat  and  warmth  differ  principally  in  degree;  the 
latter  being  a gentle  degree  of  the  former.  The  term 
heat  is,  however,  in  its  most  extensive  sense  applicable 
to  that  utiiversal  principle  which  pervades  all  nature, 
animate  and  inanimate,  and  seems  to  vivify  the  whole ; 
it  is  this  principle  which  appears  either  under  the  form 
oi  fire,  or  under  the  more  commonly  conceived  form  of 
heat,  as  it  is  generally  understood,  and  as  I have  here 
considered  it.  Heat  in  this  limited  sense  is  less  active 
than  fire,  and  more  active  than  warmth;  the  former  is 
produced  in  bodies,  either  by  the  violent  action  ot'  fire, 
as  in  the  boiling  of  water,  the  melting  of  lead,  or  the 
violent  friction  of  two  hard  bodies ; the  latter  is  pro- 
duced by  the  simple  expulsion  of  the  cold,  as  in  the 
case  of  feathers,  wool,  and  other  substances,  which 
produce  and  retain  warmth. 

Heat  may  be  the  greatest  possible  remove,  but  warmth 
may  be  the  smallest  possible  remove,  from  cold  ; the 
latter  is  opposed  to  the  cool,  which  borders  on  the  cold. 
Heat  is  that  which  to  our  feelings  is  painful  ; but 
warmth  is  that  which  is  always  grateful.  In  animate 
bodies  fire  cannot  long  exist,  as  it  is  in  its  nature  con- 
suming and  destructive ; it  is  incompatible  with  animal 
life:  heat  will  not  exist,  unless  when  the  body  is  in  a 
diseased  or  disordered  state:  hnl  warmth  is  that  por- 
tion of  heat  which  exists  in  every  healthy  subject;  by 
this  the  hen  hatches  and  rears  her  young,  by  this  the 
operation  of  gestation  is  carried  on  in  the  female. 
Glow  is  a partial  heat  or  warmth  which  exists  oris 
known  to  exist,  mostly  in  the  human  frame;  it  is  com- 
monly produced  in  the  body  when  it  Is  in  its  most 
vigorous  state,  and  its  nerves  are  firmly  braced  by 
the  cold. 

From  the  above  analysis  the  figurative  application 
of  these  terms,  and  the  grounds  upon  which  they  are 
so  employed,  will  be  easily  discerned.  As  fire  is  the 
strongest  and  most  active  principle  in  nature,  which 
seizes  every  thing  within  its  reach  with  the  greatest 
possible  rapidity,  genius  is  said  to  be  possessed  of 
fire  which  flies  with  rapidity  through  all  the  regions 
of  thought,  and  forms  the  most  lively  images  and  com- 
binations ; 

That  modern  love  is  no  such  thing, 

As  what  those  ancient  poets  sing, 

A fire  celestial,  chaste,  refined. — Swift. 

But  when  fire  is  applied  to  the  eye  or  the  looks,  it  bor- 
rows its  meaning  from  the  external  property  of  flame, 
which  is  very  aptly  depicted  iti  the  eye  or  the  looks  of 
lively  people.  As  heat  is  always  excessive  and  mostly 
violent,  those  commotions  and  fermentations  of  the 

* Vide  Eberhardt:  “ Hitze,  feuer,  warme.” 


mind  which  flow  from  the  agitation  of  the  passions, 
particularly  of  the  angry  passions,  is  termed  heat. 
As  warmth  is  a gentle  and  grateful  properly,  ic  hag 
with  most  propriety  been  ascribed  to  the  aflections 
As  glow  is  a partial  but  vivid  feeling  of  the  body, 
so  is  friendship  a strong  but  particular  alfection  of 
the  mind:  hence  the  propriety  of  ascribing  a glow  to 
friendship 

Age  damps  the  fireoi  the  poet.  Disputants  in  the 
heat  of  the  contest  are  apt  to  forget  all  the  forms  of 
good- breeding  ; ‘TheAeatof  Milton’s  mind  might  be 
said  to  sublimate  his  learning.’ — Johnson.  A man 
of  tender  moral  feelings  speaks  with  warmth  of  a 
noble  action,  or  takes  a interest  in  the  concerns 
of  the  innocent  and  the  distressed ; ‘ I fear  I have 
pressed  you  farther  upon  this  occasion  than  was  neces- 
sary: however,  I know  you  will  excuse  my  warmth  in 
the  cause  of  a friend.’ — Mklmouth  [Letters  of  Cicero 
to  CcBsar).  A youth  in  the  full  glow  of  friendship 
feels  himself  prepared  to  make  any  sacrifice  in  sup 
porting  the  cause  of  his  friend ; 

The  frost-concocted  glebe 
Draws  in  abundant  vegetable  soul. 

And  gathers  vigour  for  the  coming  year; 

A stronger  glow  sits  on  the  lively  cheek 
Of  ruddy  fire. — Thomson. 


FERVOUR,  ARDOUR. 

Fervour,  from  ferveo  to  boil,  is  not  so  violent  a heat 
as  ardour,  from  ardeo  to  burn.  The  affections  are 
properly  fervent ; the  passions  are  ardent : we  are 
fervent  in  feeling,  and  ardent  in  acting:  ihe  fervour 
of  devotion  may  be  rational ; but  the  ardour  of  zeal  is 
mostly  intemperate.  The  first  martyr,  Stephen,  was 
filled  with  a holy /eruoitr ; St.  Peter,  in  the  ardour  of 
his  zeal,  promised  his  master  to  do  more  than  lie  was 
able  to  perform ; ‘ The  joy  of  the  Lord  is  not  to  be 
understood  of  high  raptures  and  transports  of  religious 
fervour.' — Blair.  ‘ Do  men  hasten  to  their  devotions 
with  that  ardowr  that  they  would  to  a lewd  play  7’- 
SOUTH. 

HOT,  FIERY,  BURNING,  ARDENT. 

Hot,  in  German  heiss,  Latin  wstus,  comes  from  ths 
Hebrew  fire ; /ery  signifies  having  fire ; burning 
the  actual  Slate  of  burning;  ardent,  the  having  ardour 
[v.  Fervour). 

These  terms  characterize  either  the  presence  of  heal 
or  the  cause  of  heat;  hot  is  the  general  term  which 
marks  simply  the  presence  of  heat;  fiery  goes  farther, 
it  denotes  the  presence  of  fire  which  is  the  cause  of 
heat;  burnmg  denotes  the  action  of  and  conse- 
quently is  more  expressive  than  the  two ; ardent, 
which  is  literally  the  same  in  signification,  is  employed 
either  in  poetry  or  in  application  to  moral  objects:  a 
room  is  hot;  a furnace  or  the  tail  of  a comet  fiery ; a 
eoaX  burning ; the  sun  ai-dent; 

Let  loose  the  raging  elements.  Breath’d  hot 
From  all  the  boundless  furnace  of  the  sky. 

And  the  wide,  glittering  waste  of  burning  sand 
A suffocating  wind  the  pilgrim  smites 
With  instant  death. — Thomson. 

E’en  the  camel  feels. 

Shot  through  his  wither’d  heart,  the.^ery  blast. 

Thomson 

The  royal  eagle  draws  his  vigorous  young. 

Strong  pounc’d,  and  ardent  with  paternal  fire. 

Thomson. 

In  the  figurative  application,  a temper  is  said  to  b€ 
hot  or  fiery ; rage  is  burning;  the  mind  is  ardent  in 
pursuit  of  an  object.  Zeal  may  be  hot,  fiery,  burning, 
and  ardent;  but  in  the  first  three  cases,  it  denotes  the 
intemperance  of  the  mind  when  heated  by  religion  or 
politicks ; the  latter  is  admissible  so  long  as  it  is  con- 
fined to  a good  object. 

RADIANCE,  BRILLIANCY 

Both  these  terms  express  the  circumstance  of  a great 
light  in  a body:  hot  radiance,  from  radius  a ray  de- 
notes the  emission  of  rays,  and  is,  therefore,  peculiarly 
applicable  to  bodies  naturally  luminous,  like  the 
heavenly  bodies;  and  brilliancy  [v.  Bright)  denotes 
the  whole  body  of  liflht  emitted  and  may,  therefore 


476 


ENGLISH  SmONYMES. 


he  applied  equally  to  natural  and  artificial  light.  The 
radiancy  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  censlitutes  a 
part  of  their  beauty ; the  brilliancy  of  a diatnond  is 
frequently  compared  with  that  of  a star. 


TO  SHINE,  GLITTER,  GLARE,  SPARKLE, 
RADIATE. 

Shine,  in  Saxon  schinean,  German  scheinen,  is  in  all 
probability  connected  with  the  words  show,  see,  &c. ; 
glitter  and  glare  are  variations  from  the  German 
gleissen,  glanzen,  &c.  which  have  a similar  meaning; 
to  sparkle  signifies  to  produce  sparks  ; and  spark  is 
in  Saxon  spearce,  Low  German  and  Dutch  spark;  to 
radiate  is  to  produce  rays,  from  the  Latin  radius  a 
ray. 

The  emission  of  light  is  the  common  idea  conveyed 
by  these  terms.  To  shine  expresses  simply  this  general 
idea ; glitter  and  the  other  verbs  include  some  colla- 
teral ideas  in  their  signification. 

To  shine  is  a steady  emission  of  light ; to  glitter  is 
an  unsteady  emission  of  light,  occasioned  by  the  re- 
flection on  transparent  or  bright  bodies:  the  sun  and 
moon  shine  whenever  they  make  their  appearance ; 
but  a set  of  diamonds  glitter  by  the  irregular  reflection 
of  the  light  on  them  ; or  the  brazen  spire  of  a steeple 
glitters  when  the  sun  in  the  morning  shines  upon  it. 
In  a moral  application,  what  shines  appears  with  a 
true  light; 

Yet  something  shines  more  glorious  in  his  word, 

His  mercy  this. — Waller, 

What  glitters  appears  with  a false  or  borrowed  light ; 

The  happiness  of  success  glittering  before  him  with- 
draws his  attention  from  the  atrociousness  of  the 
guilt.’ — Johnson. 

Shine  specifies  no  degree  of  light;  it  may  be  barely 
sufficient  to  render  itself  visible,  or  it  may  be  a very 
strong  degree  of  light:  glare  on  the  contrary  denotes 
the  highest  possible  degree  of  light:  the  sun  frequently 
glares,  when  it  shines  only  at  intervals ; ‘ This  glorious 
morning  star  was  not  the  transitory  light  of  a comet 
which  shines  and  glares  for  a while,  and  then  pre- 
sently vanishes  into  nothing.’ — South.  All  naked 
light,  the  strength  of  which  is  diminished  by  any 
shade,  will  produce  a glare,  as  the  glare  of  the  eye 
when  fi.xed  full  upon  an  object; 

Against  the  Capitol  I met  a lion. 

Who  glar'd  upon  me,  and  went  surly  by 
Without  annoying  me. — Shakspeare. 

To  shine  is  to  emit  light  in  a full  stream;  but  to 
sparkle  is  to  emit  it  in  small  portions  ; and  to  radiate 
is  to  emit  it  in  long  lines.  The  fire  sparkles  in  the 
burning  of  wood  ; or  the  light  of  the  sun  sparkles 
when  it  strikes  on  knobs  or  small  points  ; the  sun  ra- 
diates when  it  seems  to  emit  its  light  in  rays; 

His  eyes  so  sparkled  with  a lively  flame. 

Dryden. 

Now  had  the  sun  withdravvn  his  radiant  light. 

Dryden. 


FLAME,  BLAZE,  FLASH,  FLARE,  GLARE. 

Flame,  in  Latin  Jlamma,  from  the  Greek  to 

burn,  signifies  the  luminous  exhalation  emitted  from 
fire  ; blaze,  from  the  German  blasen  to  blow,  signifies 
a flame  blown  up,  that  is,  an  extended  flame;  flash  and 
flare,  which  are  but  variations  of  flame,  denote  dif- 
ferent species  of  flame ; the  former  a sudden  Jlnone,  the 
latter  a dazzling,  unsteady ^ame.  Glare,  which  is  a 
varialion  of  glow,  denotes  a glowing,  that  is  a strong 
flame,  that  emits  a strong  light:  a candle  burns  only 
hy  flame,  paper  commonly  by  a blaze,  gunpowder  by  a 
fash,  a torch  by  a flare,  and  a conflagration  by  a 
glare ; 

His  lightning  your  rebellion  shall  confound, 

And  hurl  ye  headlong to  the  ground. 

Pope. 

Swift  as  a flood  of  fire  when  storms  arise 
Floats  the  wide  field,  and  blazes  to  the  skies. 

Pope. 

Have  we  not  seen  round  Britain’s  peopled  shore, 
Her  useful  sons  exchang’d  for  useless  ore. 


Seen  all  her  triumphs  but  destruction  haste, 
lAkc  flaring  tapers  brightening  as  they  waste. 

Goldsmith. 

Ev’n  in  the  height  of  noon  oppress’d,  the  sun 
Sheds  weak  and  blunt,  his  wide  refracted  ray, 
Whence  oft,  with  many  a broaden’d  orb 

He  frights  the  nations.— Thomson. 

GLARING,  BAREFACED. 

Glaring  is  here  used  in  the  figurative  sense,  drawn 
from  its  natural  signification  of  broad  light,  which 
strikes  powerfully  upon  the  senses  ; barefaced  signifies 
literally  having  a hare  or  uncovered  face,  which  de 
notes  the  absence  of  all  disguise  or  all  shame. 

Glaring  designates  the  thing ; barefaced  charac 
terizes  the  person : a ,g-Zarmo- falsehood  is  that  which 
strikes  the  observer  in  an  instant  to  be  falsehood;  a 
barefaced  lie  or  falsehood  betrays  the  effrontery  of  him 
who  utters  it.  A glaring  absurdity  will  be  seen  in- 
stantly without  the  aid  of  reflection ; ‘ The  glaring 
side  is  that  of  enmity.’— Burke.  A barefaced  piece 
of  impudence  characterizes  the  agent  as  more  than 
ordinarily  lost  to  all  sense  of  decorum  ; ‘ The  animosi- 
ties increased,  and  the  parties  appeared  barefaced 
against  each  other.’ — Clarendon. 

GLEAM,  GLIMMER,  RAY,  BEAM. 

Gleam  is  in  Saxon  gleomen,  German  glimmen, 
Glimmer  is  a variation  of  the  same  verb ; ray  is  con 
nected  with  the  word  row ; beam  comes  from  the  Ger 
man  baum  a tree. 

Certain  portions  of  light  are  designated  by  all  these 
terms:  but  und glimmer  are  indefinite  ; ray  and 

beam  are  definite.  A gleam  is  properly  the  commence- 
ment of  light,  or  that  portion  of  opening  light  which 
interrupts  the  darkness;  a glimmer  is  an  unstead> 
gleam ; 

A dreadful  gleam  from  his  bright  armour  came. 

And  from  his  eye-balls  flash’d  the  living  flame. 

POPK. 

‘ The  glimmering  light  which  shot  into  the  chaos  from 
the  utmost  verge  of  the  creation,  is  wonderfully  beau- 
tiful and  poetick.’ — Addison.  Ray  and  beam  are  por-- 
tions  of  light  which  emanate  from  some  luminous 
body;  the  former  from  all  luminous  bodies  in  general, 
the  latter  more  particularly  from  the  sun : the  forni;ei 
is,  as  its  derivation  denotes,  a row  or  line  of  lisht 
issuing  in  a greater  or  less  degree  from  any  body;  the 
lattej-  is  a great  line  of  light,  like  a pole  issuing  from  a 
body; 

A sudden  ray  shot  beaming  o’er  the  plain, 

And  show’d  the  shores,  the  navy,  and  the  main 

Pope 

The  stars  shine  smarter ; and  the  moon  adorns, 

As  with  unborrow’d  beams,  her  horns. 

Dryden 

There  may  be  a gleam  of  light  visible  on  the  wall  ot  j 
dark  room,  or  a glimmer  if  it  be  moveable  ; there  may 
be  rays  of  light  visible  at  night  on  the  back  of  a glow- 
worm, or  rays  of  light  may  break  through  the  shutters 
of  a closed  room ; 

The  stars  emit  a shiver’d  ray.— Thomson. 

The  sun  in  the  height  of  its  splendour  sends  forth  its 
beams ; and  in  the  same  manner  the  human  counto 
nance  or  eyes  may  be  said  to  send  forth  beams  ; 

The  modest  virtues  mingle  in  her  eyes, 

Still  on  the  ground  dejected,  darting  all 
Their  humid  beams  into  the  blooming  flowers. 

Thomson. 

Gleam  and  ray  may  be  applied  figuratively;  beam  only 
in  the  natural  sense:  a gleam  of  light  may  break  in  on 
the  benighted  understanding;  but  a glimmer  of  \\g\M 
rather  confuses;  rays  of  light  may  dart  into  the  mind 
of  the  most  ignorant  savage  who  is  taught  the  pi  in- 
ciples  of  Christianity  by  the  pure  practice  of  its  pro- 
fessors. 


CLEAR,  LUCID,  BRIGHT,  VIVID. 

Clear,  V.  To  absolve;  lucid,  in  Latin  ZucZdas,  front 
laceo  to  shine,  and  lux  light,  signifies  hiving  light 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


477 


fright,  V.  Brightness ; vivid,  Lafin  vividus  from  vivo 
to  live,  signifies  being  in  a state  of  life. 

These  epithets  mark  a gradation  in  their  sense:  the 
idea  of  light  is  common  to  them;  bnt  cZeai- expresses 
ess  than  lucid,  lucid  than  bright,  and  bright  less  than 
vivid:  a mere  freedom  from  stain  or  dulness  consti- 
tutes clearness  ; 

Some  choose  the  clearest  light, 

And  l«ldly  challenge  the  most  piercing  eye. 

Roscommon. 

The  return  of  light,  and  consequent  removal  of  dark- 
ness, constitutes  lucidity ; 

Nor  is  the  stream 
Of  purest  crystal,  nor  the  lucid  air. 

Though  one  transparent  vacancy  it  seems. 

Void  of  their  unseen  people. — Thomson. 
Brightness  supposes  a certain  strength  of  light; 

This  place,  the  brightest  mansion  of  the  sky, 

I ’ll  call  the  palace  of  the  Deity.— Drvdkn. 
Vividness  indicates  freshness  combined  with  strength, 
and  even  a degree  of  brilliancy  ; 

From  the  moist  meadow  to  the  wither’d  hill, 

Led  by  the  breeze,  the  vivid  verdure  runs, 

And  swells,  and  deepens  to  the  cherish’d  eye. 

Thomson. 

A sky  is  clear  that  is  divested  of  clouds;  the  atmo- 
sphere is  lucid  in  the  day,  but  not  in  the  night:  the  sun 
shines  bright  when  it  is  unobstructed  by  any  thing 
the  atmosphere  ; lightning  sometimes  presents  a vivid 
redness,  and  sometimes  a vivid  paleness  ; the  light  of 
the  stars  may  be  clear,  and  sometimes  bright,  but  never 
vivid;  the  light  of  the  sun  is  rather  bright  than  clear 
or  vivid;  the  light  of  the  moon  is  either  clear,  bright, 
or  vivid.  * 

These  epithets  may  with  equal  propriety  be  applied 
to  colour,  as  well  as  to  light ; a clear  colour  is  unmixed 
with  any  other;  a bright  colour  has  something  striking 
and  strong  in  it;  a vivid  colour  something  lively  and 
fresh  in  it. 

In  their  moral  application  these  epithets  preserve  a 
similar  distinction:  a conscience  is  said  to  be  clear 
when  it  is  free  from  every  stain  or  spot;  ‘ I look  upon  a 
sound  imagination  as  the  greatest  blessing  of  life,  next 
to  a clear  judgement,  and  agood  conscience.’— Addison. 
A deranged  understanding  may  have  laclrf  intervals; 
‘ I believe  were  Rousseau  alive,  and  in  one  of  his  lucid 
intervals,  he  would  be  shocked  at  the  practical  phrensy 
of  his  scholars.’ — Burke.  A bright  intellect  throws 
light  on  every  thing  around  it; 

But  in  a body  which  doth  freely  yield 
His  parts  to  reason’s  rule  obedient, 

There  Alma,  like  a virgin  queen  most  bright. 

Doth  flourish  in  all  beauty  excellent. — Spenser. 

A vivid  imagination  glows  with  every  image  that  na- 
ture presents ; 

There  let  the  classick  page  thy  fancy  lead 
Through  rural  scenes,  such  .as  the  Mantuan  swain 
Paints  in  the  matchless  harmony  of  song, 

Or  catch  thyself  the  landscape,  glided  swift 
Athwart  imagination’s  vivid  eye. — Thomson. 

PELLUCID,  TRANSPARENT. 

Pellucid,  in  Latin  pellucidus  changed  from  perlu- 
cidus,  signifies  very  shining;  transparent,  in  Latin 
transparens,  from  trans  through  or  beyond,  and^jareo 
to  appear,  signifies  visible  throughout. 

Pellucid  is  said  of  that  which  is  pervious  to  the  light, 
or  that  into  which  the  eye  can  penetrate  ; transparent 
is  said  of  that  which  is  throughout  bright:  a stream  is 
pellucid;  it  admits  of  the  light  so  as  to  reflect  objects, 
but  it  is  not  transparent  for  the  eye. 


CLEARLY,  DISTINCTLY. 

That  is  seen  clearly  of  which  one  has  a general 
view ; that  is  seen  distinctly  which  is  seen  so  as  to  dis- 
tinguish the  several  parts. 

We  see  the  moon  cleaily  whenever  it  shines;  but 
we  cannot  see  the  spots  in  the  moon  distinctly  without 
the  help  of  glasses. 

What  w'e  see  distinctly  must  be  seen  clearly,  but  a 
thing  may  be  seen  clearly  without  being  seen  dis- 
tinctly. 


A want  of  light,  or  the  intervention  of  other  objects, 
prevents  us  froni  seeing  clearly ; distance,  or  a defect 
in  the  sight,  prevents  us  fr.om  seeing  distinctly. 

* Old  men  often  see  clearly  but  not  distinctly ; they 
perceive  large  or  luminous  objects  at  a distance,  but 
they  cannot  distinguish  such  small  objects  as  the  cha 
racters  of  a book  without  the  help  of  convex  glasses  ; 
short-sighted  persons,  on  the  contrary,  see  near  objects 
distinctly,  but  they  have  no  clear  vision  of  distant 
ones,  unless  they  are  viewed  through  concave  glasses; 
‘ The  custom  of  arguing  on  any  side,  even  against  our 
persuasion,  dims  the  understanding,  and  makes  it  by 
degrees  lose  the  faculty  of  discerning  clearly  !:etween 
truth  and  falsehood.’ — Locke.  ‘ Whether  we  are  able 
to  comprehend  all  the  operat-'ons  of  nature,  and  the 
manners  of  them,  it  matters  not  to  inquire;  bat  this  is 
certain,  that  we  can  comprehend  no  more  of  them  than 
we  can  distinctly  conceive.’ — Locke. 


CLEARNESS,  PERSPICUITY. 

Clearness,  from  clear  {v.  Clear,  lucid),  is  here  usea 
figuratively,  to  mark  the  degree  of  light  by  which  one 
sees  things  distinctly;  perspicuity,  in  French  perspi- 
cuity, Latin  perspicuitas  from  perspicuus  nnd perspicio 
to  look  through,  signifies  the  quality  of  being  able  to 
be  seen  through. 

These  epithets  denote  qualities  equally  requisite  to 
render  a disccurse  intelligible,  but  each  has  its  peculiar 
character,  f Clearness  respects  our  ideas,  and  springs 
from  the  distinction  of  the  things  themselves  that  are 
discussed  : perspicuity  respects  the  mode  of  expressing 
the  ideas,  and  springs  from  the  good  qualities  of  style. 
It  requires  a clear  head  to  be  able  to  see  a subject  in  all 
its  bearings  and  relations ; to  distinguish  all  the  niceties 
and  sh.ades  of  difference  between  things  that  bear  a 
strong  resemblance,  and  to  separate  it  from  all  irrele- 
vant objects  that  intermingle  themselves  with  it.  But 
whatever  may  be  our  clearness  of  conception,  it  is  re- 
quisite, if  we  would  communicate  our  conceptions  to 
others,  that  we  should  observe  a purity  in  our  mode  of 
diction,  that  we  should  be  particular  in  the  choice  of 
our  terms,  careful  in  the  disposition  of  them,  and  ac 
curate  in  the  construction  of  our  sentences;  that  is 
perspicuity,  which,  as  it  is  the  first,  so,  according  to 
duintilian,  it  is  the  most  important  part  of  composition 

Clearness  oi  intellect  is  a natural  gift;  perspicuity 
is  an  acquired  art : although  intimately  connected  wit.h 
each  other,  yet  it  is  possible  to  have  clearness  without 
perspicuity,  and  perspicuity  without  clearness.  Peo- 
ple of  quick  capacities  will  have  clear  ideas  on  the 
subjects  that  offer  themselves  to  their  notice,  but  for 
want  of  education  they  may  often  use  improper  or  am 
biguous  phrases ; or  by  errours  of  construction  rendei 
their  phraseology  the  reverse  of  perspicuous : on  the 
other  hand,  it  is  in  the  power  of  some  to  express  them- 
selves persplcaoMsly  on  subjects  far  above  their  com 
prehension,  from  a certain  facility  which  they  acquire 
of  catching  up.suitable  modes  of  expression. 

The  study  of  the  classicks  and  mathematicks  are 
most  fitted  for  the  improvement  of  clearness ; the  study 
of  grammar,  and  the  observance  of  good  models,  will 
serve  most  effectually  for  the  acquirement  of  perspi- 
cuity; ‘ Yv^henever  men  think  clearly  and  are  tho- 
roughly interested,  they  express  themselves  with  per- 
spicuity and  force.’ — Robertson.  ‘ No  modern  orator 
can  dare  to  enter  the  lists  with  Demosthenes  and  'Pully. 
We  have  discourses,  indeed,  that  may  be  rtdmired  for 
their  perspicuity,  purity,  and  elegance  ; but  can  pro- 
duce none  that  abound  in  a stiblimity  which  whirla 
away  the  auditor  like  a mighty  torrent.’ — Warton. 


FAIR,  CLEAR. 

Fair,  in  Saxon  fagar,  probably  from  the  Latin  pul 
cher  beautiful;  fair  {v.  Clear)  is  used  in  a positive 
sense;  clear  in  a negative  sense : there  must  be  some 
brightness  in  what  is  fair ; there  must  be  no  spots  in 
what  is  clear.  The  weather  is  said  to  be  fair,  which 
is  not  only  free  from  what  is  disagreeable,  but  some- 
what enlivened  by  the  sun  ; it  is  clear  when  it  is  fre* 
from  clouds  or  mists.  A fair  skin  approaches  t 
white;  a clear  skin  is  without  spots  or  irregularities; 

* Vide  Trusler : Clearly,  distinctly.” 
t Vide  Abbe  Girard  ; “ Claris,  perspicuity  ' 


478 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


His  fair  large  front,  and  eyes  sublime,  declar’d 
Absolute  rule.— Milton. 

I thither  went 

With  unexperienced  thought,  and  laid  me  down 
On  the  green  bank,  to  look  into  the  clear 
Smooth  lake  — Milton. 

In  the  moral  application,  a fair  fame  speaks  much  in 
praise  of  a man;  a clear  reputation  is  free  from  faults. 
A fair  statement  contains  every  thing  that  can  be  said 
pro  and  con  ; a clear  statement  is  free  from  ambiguity 
ar  obscurity.  Fairness  is  something  desirable  and  in- 
viting; clearness  is  an  absolute  requisite,  it  cannot  be 
dispensed  with. 

APPARENT,  VISIBLE,  CLEAR,  PLAIN, 
OBVIOUS,  EVIDENT,  MANIFEST. 

Apparent.,  in  Latin  apparens,  participle  of  appareo 
to  appear,  signifies  the  quality  of  appealing;  visible, 
in  Latin  visibilis,  from  visus,  participle  of  video  to  see, 
signifies  capable  of  being  seen;  clear,  v.  Clear,  lucid; 
plain,  in  Latin  planus  even,  signifies  what  is  so  smooth 
and  unencumbered  that  it  can  be  seen  ; obvious,  in 
Latin  obvius,  compounded  of  ob  and  via,  signifies  the 
quality  of  lying  in  one’s  way,  or  before  one’s  eyes; 
evident,  in  French  evident,  Latin  evidens,  from  video, 
Greek  ei6a>,  Hebrew^*!'  to  know,  signifies  as  good  as 
certain  or  known ; manifest,  in  French  manifeste, 
Latin  manifestus,  compounded  oimanus  the  hand,  and 
festus,  participle  of  the  old  vethfendo  to  fall  in,  signi- 
fies the  quality  of  falling  in  or  coming  so  near  that  it 
can  be  laid  hold  of  by  the  hand. 

These  words  agree  in  expressing  various  degi'ees  in 
ihe  capability  of  seeing ; but  visible  is  the  only  one  used 
purely  in  a physical  sense  ; apparent,  clear,  plain,  and 
obvious  are  used  physically  and  morally  ; evident  and 
manifest  solely  in  a moral  acceptation.  That  which 
is  simply  an  object  of  sight  is  visible; 

The  visible  and  present  are  for  brutes  ; 

A slender  portion,  and  a narrow  bound. — Young. 
That  of  which  we  see  only  the  surface  is  apparent; 

‘ The  perception  intellective  often  corrects  the  report  of 
phantasy,  as  in  the  apparent  bigness  of  the  sun,  and 
the  apparent  crookedness  of  the  staff  in  air  and  water.’ 
—Hale.  The  stars  themselves  are  visible  to  us  ; but 
thejrsize  is  merely  apparent;  the  rest  of  these  terms 
denote  not  only  what  is  to  be  seen,  but  what  is  easily 
to  be  seen:  they  are  all  applied  as  epithets  to  objects 
of  mental  discernment. 

What  is  apparent  appears  but  imperfectly  to  view  ; 
It  is  opposed  to  that  which  is  real : what  is  clear  is  to 
be  seen  in  all  its  bearings  ; it  is  opposed  to  that  which 
is  obscure ; what  is  plain  is  seen  by  a plain  understand- 
ing; it  requires  no  deep  reflection  nor  severe  study; 
it  is  opposed  to  what  is  intricate  : what  is  obvious  pre- 
sents itself  readily  to  the  mind  of  every  one;  it  is  seen 
at  the  first  glance,  and  is  opposed  to  that  which  is  ab- 
struse : what  is  evident  is  seen  forcibly,  and  leaves  no 
hesitation  on  the  mind  ; it  is  opposed  to  that  which  is 
dubious:  manifest  is  a greater  degree  of  the  evident; 
it  strikes  on  the  understanding  and  forces  conviction  ; 
it  is  opposed  to  that  which  is  dark. 

A contradiction  may  be  apparent ; on  closer  obser- 
vation it  may  be  found  not  to  be  one.  Men’s  virtues 
or  religion  may  be  only  apparent;  ‘ The  outward  and 
appar f’fif'sa'-ctity  of  actions  should  flow  from  purity  of 
heart’ — Rogers.  A case  is  clear;  it  is  decided  on 
immediately ; ‘ We  pretend  to  give  a clear  account  how 
thunder  and  lightning  are  produced.’ — Temple.  A 
truth  is  plain  ; it  is  involved  in  no  perplexity;  it  is  not 
multifarious  in  its  bearings;  a falsehood  is  plain;  it 
admits  of  no  question  ; ‘ It  is  plain  that  vur  skill  in 
literature  is  owing  to  the  knowledge  of  Greek  and  La- 
tin, which  that  they  are  still  preserved  among  us,  can  be 
ascribed  only  to  a religious  regard.’ — Berkeley.  A 
reason  is  obvious;  it  flows  out  of  the  nature  of  the 
case;  ‘ It  is  obvious  to  remark  that  we  follow  nothing 
heartily  unless  carried  to  it  by  inclination.’ — Grove. 

A proof  is  evident ; it  requires  no  discussion,  there  is 
nothing  in  it  that  clashes  or  contradicts;  the  guilt  or 
innocence  of  a person  is  evident  v/hen  every  thing 
serves  to  strengthen  the  conclusion  ; ‘ It  is  evident  that 
fame,  considered  merely  as  the  immortality  of  a name, 
is  not  less  likely  to  be  the  reward  of  bad  actions  than 
of  good.’ — Johnson.  A contradiction  or  absurdity  is 


wfflTii/esr,  which  is  felt  by  all  as  soon  as  it  is  perceived . 
‘ Among  the  many  inconsistencies  which  folly  produces 
in  the  human  mind,  there  has  often  been  observed  a 
manifest  and  striking  contrariety  between  the  life  of  an 
author  and  his  writings.’ — Johnson. 

APPEARANCE,  AIR,  ASPECT. 
Appearance,  which  signifies  the  thing  that  appears, 
is  the  generick:  air,  v.  Air,  manner;  and  aspect,  in 
Latin  aspectus,  from  aspicio  to  look  upon,  signifying 
the  thing  that  is  looked  upon  or  seen,  are  specifick 
terms.  The  whole  external  form,  figure,  or  colours 
whatever  is  visible  to  the  eye,  is  its  appearance ; ‘The 
hero  answers  with  the  respect  due  to  the  beautiful 
appearance  she  made.’ — Steele.  Air  is  a particular 
appearance  of  any  object  as  far  as  it  is  indicative  of 
its  quality,  condition,  or  temper ; an  air  of  wretched 
ness  or  of  assumption;  ‘ Some  who  had  the  most  as- 
suming air  went  directly  of  themselves  to  errour  with- 
out expecting  a conductor.’— Parnell.  Aspect  is  the 
partial  appearance  of  a body  as  it  presents  one  of  its 
sides  to  view;  a gloomy  or  cheerful  aspect;  ‘Her 
motions  were  steady  and  composed,  and  her  aspect 
serious  but  cheerful ; her  name  was  Patience.’ — Ad 

DISON. 

It  is  not  safe  to  judge  of  any  person  or  thing  alto 
gether  by  appearances ; the  appearance  and  reality  are 
often  at  variance  : the  appearance  of  Ihe  sun  is  that  of 
a moving  body,  but  modern  astronomers  are  of  opinion 
that  it  has  no  motion  round  the  earth ; there  are  par- 
ticular towns,  habitations,  or  rooms,  which  have  always 
an  air  of  comfort,  or  the  contrary  ; this  is  a sort  of 
appearance  the  most  to  be  relied  on.  Politicians  of  a 
certain  stamp  are  always  busy  in  judging  of  the  future 
from  the  aspect  of  affairs;  but  their  predictions,  like 
those  of  astrologers,  who  judge  from  the  aspect  of  the 
heavens,  turn  out  to  the  discredit  of  the  prophet. 

HIDEOUS,  GHASTLY,  GRIM,  GRISLY. 
Hideous,  in  French  hideux,  comes  probably  from 
Aide,  signifying  fit  only  to  be  hidden  from  the  view ; 
ghastly  signifies  like  a ghost ; ^/•i7K,in  German 
signifies  fierce  ; grisly,  from  grizzle,  signifies  grizzled, 
or  motley  coloured. 

An  unseemly  exteriour  is  characterized  by  these 
terms  ; but  the  hideous  respects  natural  objects,  and  the 
ghastly  more  properly  that  which  is  supernatural  or 
what  resembles  it.  A mask  with  monstrous  grinning 
features  looks  hideous  ; 

From  the  broad  margin  to  the  centre  grew 
Shelves,  rocks,  and  whirlpools,  hideous  to  the  view. 

Falconer. 

A human  form  with  a visage  of  deathlike  paleness  is 
ghastly  ; 

And  death 

Grinn’d  horribly  a ghastly  smile.— Milton. 

The  grim  is  applicable  only  to  the  countenances ; dogs 
or  wild  beasts  may  look  very  grim; 

Even  hell’s ^rr/n  king  Alcides’  pow’r  confess’d. — Pope. 
Grisly  refers  to  the  whole  form,  but  particularly  to  the 
coIf)ur;  as  blackness  or  darkness  has  always  something 
terrifick  in  it,  n grisly  figure,  having  a monstrous  as- 
semblage of  dark  colour,  is  particularly  calculated  to 
strike  terrour ; 

All  parts  resound  with  tumults,  plaints,  and  fears, 

And  grisly  death  in  sundry  shapes  appears. — Pope 
Hideous  is  applicable  to  objects  of  hearing  also,  as  a 
hideous  rour  •,  but  the  rest  to  objects  of  sight  only. 

FACE,  FRONT, 

Figuratively  designate  the  particular  parts  of  bodies 
which  bear  some  sort  of  resemblance  to  the  human 
face  or  forehead. 

The  face  is  applied  to  that  part  of  bodies  which 
serves  as  an  index  or  rule,  and  contains  certain  marks 
Indirect  the  observer;  ihe  front  is  employed  for  that 
part  which  is  most  prominent  or  foremost:  hence  we 
speak  of  the  face  of  a wheel  or  clock,  the  face  of  a 
painting,  or  the  face  of  nature;  but  the  frojit  of  a 
house  or  building,  and  the  frrnt  of  a stage:  henc« 
likewise,  the  propriety  of  ihf  expressions,  to  put  a 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


475 


good  face  on  a tiling,  to  s.'iow  a bold  front;  ‘ A com- 
mon soldier,  a tliild,  a girl,  the  door  of  an  inn,  have 
changed  the  face  of  fortune,  and  almost  of  nature.’ — 
Burkk. 

Where  the  deep  trench  in  length  extended  lay, 
Compacted  troops  stand  wedged  in  firm  array, 

A dreadful  front. — Pone. 

FACE,  COUNTENANCE,  VISAGE, 
in  Latin  fades,  from  fadr  to  make,  signifies 
the  wlioie  form  or  make;  countenance,  in  French 
contenance,  from  the  Latin  conlineo,  signifies  the  con- 
tents, or  what  is  contained  in  the  face;  visage,  Uom 
visuo  and  video  to  see,  signifies  the  particular  form  of 
the  face  as  it  presents  itself  to  view ; properly  speak- 
ing a kind  of  countenance. 

The  face  consists  of  a certain  set  of  features;  the 
countenance  consists  of  the  general  aggregate  of  looks 
produced  by  these  features  ; the  visage  consists  of  such 
looks  in  particular  cases : the /ace  is  the  work  of  nature; 
the  countenance  and  visage  are  the  work  of  the  mind : 
the  face  remains  the  same,  but  the  countenance  and 
visage  are  changeable.  The  face  belongs  to  brutes  as 
well  as  men  ; the  countenance  is  the  peculiar  property 
of  man  ; visage  is  a term  peculiarly  applicable  to  su 
periour  beings  ; it  is  employed  only  in  the  grave  or  lofty 
style  ; ‘ No  part  of  the  body  besides  the  face  is  capable 
of  as  many  changes  as  there  are  different  emotions  in 
the  mind,  and  of  expressing  them  all  by  those  changes.’ 
— Hughes.  ‘ As  the  countenance  admits  of  so  great 
variety  it  requires  also  great  judgement  to  govern  it  ’ — 
Hughes. 

A sudden  trembling  seized  on  all  his  limbs 
His  eyes  distorted  grew,  his  visage  pale; 

His  speech  forsook  him. — Otway. 

TO  GAPE,  STARE,  GAZE. 

To  gape,  in  German  gaffen,  Saxon  geopnian  to  make 
open  or  wide,  is  to  look  with  an  open  or  wide  mouth ; 
stare,  from  the  German  starr  fixed,  signifies  to  look 
with  a fixed  eye  ; gaze  comes  very  probably  from  the 
Greek  aYd^opai  to  admire,  because  it  signifies  to  look 
»teadily  from  a sentiment  of  admiration. 

Oape  and  stare  are  taken  in  the  bad  sense;  the 
former  indicating  the  astonishment  of  gross  ignorance ; 
the  latter  not  only  ignorance  but  impertinence:  gaze  ia 
"aken  always  in  a good  sense,  as  indicating  a laudable 
feeling  of  astonishment,  pleasure,  or  curiosity.  A 
clown  gapes  at  the  pictures  of  wild  beasts  which  he 
sees  at  a fair;  ‘ It  was  now  a miserable  spectacle  to 
see  us  nodding  and  gaping  at  one  another,  every  man 
talking,  and  no  man  heard.’— Sir  John  Mandevill^. 
An  impertinent  fellow  stares  at  every  woman  he  looks 
at,  and  stares  a modest  woman  out  of  countenance; 
Astonish’d  Aunusjust  arrives  by  chance 
To  see  his  fall,  nor  farther  dares  advance  ; 

But,  fixing  on  the  maid  his  horrid  eye, 

He  stares  and  shakes,  and  finds  it  vain  to  fly. 

Dryuen. 

A lover  of  the  fine  arts  will  gaze  with  admiration  and 
delight  at  the  productions  of  Raphael  or  Titian ; 

For  while  expecting  there  the  queen,  he  rais’d 
His  wond’ring  eyes,  and  round  the  temple ^az’d. 
Admir’d  the  fortune  of  the  rising  town. 

The  striving  artists,  and  their  art’s  renown. 

Dryden. 

When  a person  is  stupified  by  affiight,  he  gives  a va- 
cant stare.  Those  who  are  filled  with  transport  gaze 
on  the  object  of  their  ecstasy. 

VIEW,  SURVEY,  PROSPECT. 

View,  v.  To  look,  and  survey,  compounded  of  vey 
or  view  and  sur  over,  mark  the  act  of  the  person, 
namely,  the  looking  at  a thing  with  more  or  less  atten- 
tion ; prospect,  from  the  Latin  prospectus  and  pro- 
syicio  to  see  before,  designates  the  thing  seen.  We 
tn\iLe  0.  view  or  survey ; the  p?-os/>ect  presents  itself:  the 
view  is  of  an  indefinite  extent;  the  survey  always 
comprehensive  in  its  nature.  Ignorant  people  take 
hut  narrow  wem  of  things;  men  take  more  or  less 
enlamed  wrercs  arcording  to  their  cultivation : the  ca 
pacious  mind  of  a genius  takes  a survey  of  all  nature;  | 


Fools  view  but  part,  and  not  the  wholes  irae}' 

So  crowd  existence  all  into  a day. — Jencns. 

The  view  depends  altogether  on  the  train  of  a person  n 
thoughts;  the  prospect  is  set  before  him,  it  depends 
upon  the  nature  of  the  thing;  our  preros  of  advance- 
ment are  sometimes  very  fallacious  ; our  prospects  are 
very  delusive;  both  occasion  disappointment;  the 
former  is  the  keener,  as  we  have  to  charge  the  miscal- 
culation ujion  ourselves.  Sometimes  our  prospects 
depend  upon  our  views,  at  least  in  matters  of  religion  ; 
he  who  forms  erroneous  views  of  a future  state  has  but 
a wretched  prospect  beyond  the  grave ; 

No  land  so  rude  but  looks  beyond  the  tomb 
For  future  prospects  in  a world  to  come. — Jenyns 

VIEW,  PROSPECT,  LANDSCAPE. 

View  and  prospect  {v.  View,  prospect),  though  ap 
plied  here  to  external  objects  of  sense,  have  a similar 
distinction  as  in  the  jireceding  article.  'I'he  view  is  not 
only  that  which  may  be  seen,  but  that  which  is  actually 
seen  ; the  prospect  is  that  which  may  be  seen : that 
ceases,  therefore,  to  be  nview,  which  has  not  an  im- 
mediate agent  to  view ; although  a prospect  exists  con- 
tinually, whether  seen  or  not:  hence  we  speak  with 
more  propriety  of  our  view  being  intercepted,  than  our 
prospect  intercepted;  a confined  and  bounded  rirew,  but 
a lively  or  dreary  prospect.  The  terms,  however,  are 
are  sometimes  indifferently  applied ; 

Thus  was  this  place 

A happy  rural  seat  of  various  views. — Milton. 

Now  skies  and  seas  their  prospect  only  bound. 

Dryden 

View  is  an  indefinite  term ; it  may  be  said  either  of  a 
number  of  objects,  or  of  a single  object,  of  a whole  or 
of  a part;  prospect  is  said  only  of  an  aggregate  number 
of  objects : we  may  have  a view  of  a town,  of  a num- 
ber of  scattered  houses,  of  a single  house,  or  of  the 
spire  of  a steeple  ; but  a prospect  comprehends  all  that 
comes  within  the  range  of  the  eye.  View  may  be  said 
of  that  which  is  seen  directly  or  indirectly;  prospect 
only  of  that  which  directly  presents  itself  to  the  eye  ; 
hence  a drawing  of  an  object  may  be  termed  a view, 
although  not  a prospect.  View  is  confined  to  no  par- 
ticular objects;  prospect  mostly  respects  rural  objects; 
and  landscape  respects  no  others.  Landscape,  land 
skip,  or  landshape  denotes  any  portion  of  country  which 
is  in  a particular  form : hence  the  landscape  is  a spe- 
cies of  prospect.  A prospect  may  be  wide,  and  com- 
prehend an  assemblage  of  objects  both  of  nature  and 
art;  but  a landscape  is  narrow,  and  lies  within  the 
compass  of  the  naked  eye:  hence  it  is  also  that  Zand- 
scape  may  be  taken  also  for  the  drawing  of  a landscape, 
and  consequently  for  a species  of  view : the  taking  of 
views  or  landscapes  is  the  last  exeicise  of  the  learnei 
in  drawing; 

So  lovely  seem’d 

That  landscape,  and  of  pure  now  purer  air 
Meets  his  .approach. — Milton. 


VISION,  APPARITION,  PHANTOM,  SPECTRE 
GHOST. 

Vision,  from  the  I.atin  visus  seeing  or  seen,  signifies 
either  the  act  of  seeing  or  the  thing  seen;  apparition, 
from  appear,  signifies  the  thing  that  appears.  As  the 
thing  seen  is  only  the  improper  signification,  the  term 
vision  is  never  employed  but  in  regard  to  some  agent, 
the Disron  depends  upon  the  stale  of  the  visual  organ; 
the  vision  of  a person  whose  sight  is  defective  will  fre- 
quently be  fallacious ; he  will  see  some  things  double 
which  are  single,  long  which  are  short,  and  the  like. 
In  like  manner,  if  the  sight  be  miraculously  impres.sed 
his  vision  will  enable  him  to  see  that  which  is  super 
natural ; hence  it  is  that  vision  is  either  true  or  false, 
according  to  the  circumstances  of  the  individual ; and  a 
vision,  signifying  a thing  seen,  is  taken  for  a super- 
natural exertion  of  the  vision:  apparition,  on  the  con- 
trary, refers  us  to  the  object  seen ; this  may  be  true  or 
false  according  to  the  manner  in  which  it  presents  itself. 

Joseph  was  warned  by  a vision  to  fly  into  Egypt 
with  his  family;  *Mary  Macdalen  was  informed  of 
the  resurrection  of  our  Saviour  by  an  apparition  • 

* VideTrusIer:  “ Tision,  apparition’ 


480 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES 


fevci.sh  people  often  think  they  see  visions ; timid  and 
credulous  people  sometimes  take  trees  and  posts  for 
apparitions ; 

Visions  and  inspirations  some  expect 
Their  course  here  to  direct. — Cowlky. 

Furl  fast  he  flies,  and  dares  not  look  behind  him, 
Till  out  of  breath  he  overtakes  liis  fellows, 

Who  gather  round  and  wonder  at  tlie  tale 
Of  horrid  apparition. — Blair. 

Phantom,  from  the  Greek  (paivu)  to  appear,  is  used 
^r  a false  apparition,  or  the  appearance  of  a thing 
otherwise  than  what  it  is;  thus  the  ignis  fatuus,  vul- 
garly called  Jack-o’-Lantern,  is  a phantom;  besides 
which  there  are  many  phantoms  of  a moral  kind 
which  haunt  the  imagination  ; ‘ The  phantoms  which 
haunt  a desert  are  want,  and  misery,  and  danger.’ — 
Johnson. 

Spectre,  from  specio  to  behold,  and  ghost,  from  geist 
a spirit,  are  the  apparitions  of  immaterial  substances. 
The  spectre  is  taken  for  any  spiritual  being  that  ap- 
pears ; but  tlie  ghost  is  taken  only  for  the  spirits  of 
departed  men  wlio  appear  to  their  fellow-creatures: 
a spectre  is  sometimes  made  to  appear  on  the  stage; 
ghosts  exist  mostly  in  the  imagination  of  the  young 
and  the  ignorant ; 

Rous’d  from  their  slumbers. 

In  grim  array  the  grisly  spectres  rise. — Blair. 

The  lonely  tower 

Is  also  shunn’d,  whose  mournful  chambers  hold. 

So  night-struck  fancy  dreams,  the  yelling  ghost. 

Thomson. 

RETROSPECT,  REVIEW,  SURVEY. 

Retrospect  is  literally  looking  back,  from  retro  be- 
hind, and  spicio  to  behold  or  cast  an  eye  upon ; a 
review  is  a view  repeated ; and  a survey  is  a looking 
over  at  once,  from  the  French  sur  over,  and  voir 
to  see. 

A retrospect  is  always  taken  of  that  which  is  past 
and  distant ; a review  may  be  taken  of  that  which  is 
present  and  before  us;  every  retrospect  is  a species  of 
review,  but  every  review  is  not  a retrospect.  We  take 
a retrospect  of  our  past  life  in  order  to  draw  salutary 
reflections  from  all  that  we  have  done  and  sutfered ; 
we  take  a review  of  any  particular  circumstance  which 
is  passing  before  us,  in  order  to  regulate  our  present 
conduct.  The  retrospect  goes  further  by  virtue  of  the 
mind’s  power  to  reflect  on  itself,  and  to  recall  all  past 
images  to  itself;  the  review  may  go  forward  by  the 
exercise  of  the  senses  on  external  objects.  The  his- 
torian takes  a retrospect  of  all  the  events  which  have 
happened  within  a given  period  ; the  journalist  takes 
a.  review  of  all  the  events  that  are  passing  within  the 
time  in  wliich  he  is  living ; ‘ Believe  me,  my  lord,  I look 
upon  you  as  a spirit  entered  into  another  life,  where 
you  ought  to  despise  all  little  views  and  mean  retro- 
spects.'— Pope  {Letters  to  Atierbury).  ‘The  retro- 
spect of  life  is  seldom  wholly  unattended  by  uneasi- 
ness and  shame.  It  too  much  resembles  the  review 
which  a traveller  takes  from  some  eminence  of  a 
barren  country.’ — Blair. 

The  review  may  be  said  of  the  past  as  well  as  the 
present ; it  is  a view  not  only  of  what  is,  but  what  has 
lieeii : the  survey  is  entirely  confined  to  the  present ; it 
is  a view  oidy  of  that  which  is ; ‘ Every  man  accus- 
tomed to  take  a survey  of  his  own  notions,  will,  by  a 
slight  retrospection,  be  able  to  discover  that  his  mind 
has  undergone  many  revolutions.’ — Johnson. 

We  take  a review  of  what  we  have  already  viewed, 
in  order  to  get  a more  correct  insight  into  it;  we  take 
a survey  of  a thing  in  all  its  parts  in  order  to  get  a 
comprehensive  view  of  it,  in  order  to  examine  it  in  all 
its  bearings.  A general  occasionally  takes  a review  of 
all  his  army ; he  takes  a survey  of  the  fortress  which 
he  is  going  to  besiegs  or  attack. 

REVISAL,  REVISION,  REVIEW, 

Revisal,  revision,  and  review,  all  come  from  the 
Latin  video  to  see,  and  signify  looking  back  upon  a 
thing  or  looking  at  it  again:  the  terms  revisal  and  re- 
vision are  however  mostly  employed  in  regard  to  what 
is  written;  rcurew  is  used  for  things  in  general.  The 
revisal  of  a book  is  the  work  of  the  author,  for  the 
purposes  of  correct’on;  ‘There  is  in  your  ersons  a 


difference  and  a peculiarity  of  character  preservet. 
througl)  the  whole  of  your  act.ons,  that  I could  never 
imagine  but  that  this  proceeded  from  a long  and  care- 
ful revisal  of  your  work.’ — Loftus.  'i'lie  review  of  a 
book  is  the  work  of  Ihecritick,  for  the  purpose  of  esti- 
mating its  value;  ‘A  commonplace  book  accustoms 
the  mind  to  discharge  itself  of  its  reading  on  paper, 
instead  of  relying  on  its  natural  powers  of  retention 
aided  by  frequent  revisions  of  its  ideas.’ — Earl  of 
Chatham.  Revisal  and  revision  differ  neither  in 
sense  nor  application,  unless  that  the  former  is  more 
frequently  employed  abstractedly  from  the  object  re- 
vised, and  revision  mostly  in  conjutiction : whoever 
wishes  his  work  to  be  correct,  will  not  spare  a revisal; 
the  revision  of  classical  books  ought  to  be  intrusted 
only  to  men  of  profound  erudition.  The  term  revision 
may  also  sometimes  be  applied  to  other  objects  besides 
those  of  literature;  ‘How  enchanting  must  such  a 
review  (of  their  memorandum  books)  prove  to  those 
who  make  a figure  in  the  polite  world.’ — Hawkes 

WORTH. 

TO  ECLIPSE,  OBSCURE 

Eclipse,  in  Greek  eK^siipii,  comes  from  ficXelww  to 
fail,  signifying  to  cause  a failure  of  light ; obscure,  from 
the  adjective  obscure  {v.  Dark),  signifies  to  cause  the 
intervention  of  a shadow. 

In  the  natural  as  well  as  the  moral  application, 
eclipse  is  taken  in  a particular  and  relative  significa- 
tion ; obscure  is  used  in  a general  sense.  Heavenly 
bodies  are  eclipsed  by  the  intervention  of  other  bodies 
between  them  and  the  beholder;  things  are  in  general 
eiscM7-cd  which  are  in  any  way  rendered  less  striking 
or  visible.  To  eclipse  is  therefore  a species  of  ob- 
scuring: that  is  always  obscured  which  is  eclipsed; 
but  every  thing  is  not  eclipsed  which  is  obscured. 

So  figuratively  real  merit  is  eclipsed  by  the  interven- 
tion of  that  which  is  superiour  ; 

Sarcasms  may  eclipse  thine  own, 

But  cannot  blur  my  lost  renown. — Butlsr. 
Merit  is  often  oisewred  by  an  ungracious  exteriouf  Ir 
the  [lossessor,  or  by  the  unfortunate  circumstances  of 
his  life;  ‘Among  those  who  are  the  most  richly  en- 
dowed by  nature  and  accomplished  by  their  own  in- 
dustry, how  few  are  there  whose  virtues  are  not  ol- 
scured  by  the  ignorance,  prejudice,  or  envy  of  thfh 
beholders.’ — Aeihson. 


DARK,  OBSCURE,  DIM,  MYSTERIOUS 

Dark,  in  Saxon  deore,  is  doubtless  connected  with 
the  German  dunkel  dark  and  dunst  a vapour,  which  ia 
a cause  of  darkness ; obscure,  in  Latin  obscurus,  com- 
pounded of  ob  and  scurus,  Greek  cKupds  and  cKia  a 
shadow,  signifies  literally  interrupted  by  a shadow; 
dim  is  but  a variation  of  dork,  dunkel.  Sec. 

Darkness  expresses  more  than  obscurity : the  former 
denotes  the  total  privation  of  light;  the  latter  only  the 
diminution  of  light. 

Dark  is  opposed  to  light ; obscure  to  bright:  what  is 
dark  is  altogether  hidden ; what  is  obscure  is  not  to  be 
seen  distinctly,  or  without  an  effort. 

Darkness  maybe  used  either  in  the  natural  or  moral 
sense;  obscurity  only  in  the  moral  sense;  in  this  case 
the  former  convej's  a more  unfavourable  idea  than  the 
latter:  darkness  serves  to  cover  that  which  ought  not 
to  be  hidden;  obscurity  intercepts  our  view  of  that 
which  we  would  wish  to  see : the  former  is  the  conse- 
quence of  design;  the  latter  of  neglect  or  accident: 
the  letter  sent  by  tlie  conspirator  in  the  gunpowder 
plot  to  his  friend  was  dark; 

Why  are  thy  speeches  dark  and  troubled, 

As  Cretan  seas  wlien  vex’d  by  warring  winds? 

Smith. 

All  passages  in  ancient  writers  which  allude  to  circum 
stances  nt>  longer  known,  must  necessarily  be  obscure, 

‘ He  that  reads  and  grows  no  wiser  seldom  suspects  his 
own  deficiency,  but  complains  of  hard  words  and  ob 
scure  sentences.’— Johnson.  A corner  may  be  said  to 
be  dark  nr  obscure;  but  the  former  is  used  literally  and 
the  latter  figuratively:  the  owl  is  obliged,  from  the 
weakne.ss  of  its  visual  organs,  to  se<?k  the  darkest  cor- 
ners in  the  daytime;  men  of  distorted  minds  often 
seek  obscure  corners,  only  from  disappointed  ambition. 

Dim  expresses  a degree  of  darkness,  but  it  i.s  em 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


481 


ployed  mr.ic  in  relation  to  the  person  seeing  than  to  the 
object  seen.  The  eyes  are  said  to  grow  dim,  or  the 
sight  dim.  Tlie  light  is  said  to  be  dim,  by  which  tilings 
are  but  dimly  seen ; 

The  stars  shall  fade  away,  the  sun  himself 
Grow  dim  with  age,  and  nature  sink  in  years, 

But  thou  Shalt  flourisli  in  immortal  youth. 

.Addison. 

Mysterious  denotes  a species  of  the  dar/c,  in  relation 
to  the  actions  of  men:  where  a veil  is  intentionally 
thrown  over  any  object  so  as  to  render  it  as  incom- 
prehensible as  that  which  is  sacred.  JDarlc  is  an  epi- 
thet taken  always  in  the  bad  sense,  but  mysterious  is 
always  in  an  indifferent  sense.  We  are  told  in  the 
Sacred  Writings,  that  men  love  darkness  rather  than 
light,  because  their  deeds  are  evil.  Whatever,  there- 
fore, is  dark  in  the  ways  of  men,  is  naturally  presumed 
to  be  evil ; but  things  may  be  mysterious  in  the  events 
of  human  life,  without  the  express  intention  of  an  in- 
dividual to  render  them  so.  The  speeches  of  an  as- 
sassin and  conspirator  will  be  dark;  ‘Randolph,  an 
agent  extremely  [uoper  for  conducting  any  dark  in- 
trigue, was  despatched  into  Scotland,  and,  residing  se- 
cretly among  the  lords  of  the  congregation,  observed 
and  quickened  their  motions.’ — Robertson.  Any 
intricate  affair  which  involves  the  characters  and  con- 
duct of  men  may  be  mysterious ; ‘ The  affection  which 
Mary  in  her  letter  exi)resses  for  Bothvvell,  fully  accounts 
for  every  subsequent  part  of  her  conduct,  which,  with- 
out admitting  this  circumstance,  appears  altogether 
mysterious  and  inconsistent.’ — Robertson.  j 

The  same  distinction  exists  between  these  terms 
when  applied  to  the  ways  of  Providence,  which  are 
said  to  he  sometimes  dark.,  inasmuch  as  they  present  a 
cloudy  aspect ; and  mostly  mysterious.,  inasmuch  as 
they  are  past  finding  out. 

UNSEARCHABLE,  INSCRUTABLE. 

These  terms  are  both  applied  to  the  Almighty,  but 
not  altogether  indifferently  ; for  that  which  xsunsearch- 
able  is  not  set  at  so  great  a distance  from  us  as  that 
which  is  inscrutable : for  that  which  is  searched  is  in 
common  concerns  easier  to  be  found  than  that  which 
requires  a scrutiny.  The  ways  of  God  are  all,  to  us 
finite  creatures,  more  or  less  unsearchable  ; 

Things  else  by  me  unsearchable,  now  heard 
With  wonder. — Milton. 

The  mysterious  plans  of  -Providence  as  frequently 
evinced,!!!  the  affairs  of  men  are  aMogether  inscrutable ; 
‘To  ex()ect  that  the  intricacies  of  science  will  be 
pierced  by  a careless  glance,  is  to  expect  a particular 
privilege;  but  to  suppose  that  the  maze  is  inscrutable 
to  diligence,  is  to  enchain  the  mind  in  voluntary 
shackles.’— Johnson 


OPAaUE,  DARK. 

Opaijue,  in  Latin  opacus,  comes  from  ops  the  earth, 
because  the  earth  is  the  darkest  of  all  bodies  ; the 
word  opaque  is  to  dark  as  the  species  to  the  genus,  for  it 
expresses  that  species  of  darkness  which  is  inherent  in 
solid  bodies,  in  distinction  from  those  which  emit  light 
from  tliemselves,  or  admit  of  light  into  themselves;  it 
is  therefore  employed  scientifically  for  the  more  vul- 
gar and  familiar  term  dark.  On  this  ground,  the  earth 
is  termed  nn  opaque  body  in  distinction  from  the  sun, 
moon,  or  other  lumiuous  bodies:  any  solid  substance, 
as  a tree  or  a stone,  is  an  opaque  body,  in  distinction 
foiii  glass,  M'hich  is  i clear  or  transparent  body. 

But  all  sunshine,  as  when  his  beams  at  noon. 
Culminate  from  th’  equator  as  they  now 
Shot  upward  still,  whence  no  way  round 
Shadow  from  body  opaque  can  fall. — Milton. 

SHADE,  SHADOW. 

Shade  and  shadow,  in  German  schatten,  are  in  all 
nobability  connected  with  the  word  shine,  show,  (v. 
To  show,  fcc.) 

Both  these  terms  express  that  darkness  which  is  oc- 
casioned by  the  sun’s  rays  being  intercepted  by  any 
body;  but  shade  simply  expresses  the  absence  of  the 
light,  and  shadors  signifies  also  the  figure  of  the  body 
which  thus  inteicepts  the  light.  Trees  naturally  pro- 


duce a shaae,  by  means  of  their  branches  and  leaves 
and  wherever  the  image  of  the  tree  is  reflected  on  the 
earth,  that  forms  its  shadow.  It  is  agreeable  n the 
heat  of  summer  to  sit  in  the  shade; 

Welcome,  ye  shades!  ye  bowery  thickets,  hail! 

Tho-mson. 

The  constancy  with  which  the  shadow  follows  the  man 
has  been  proverbially  adopted  as  a simile  for  one  Who 
clings  close  to  another ; 

At  every  step. 

Solemn  and  slow,  the  shadows  blacker  fall, 

And  all  is  awful  listening  gloom  around. 

Thomson 

The  distinction  between  these  terms,  in  the  moral 
sense,  is  precisely  the  same:  a person  is  said  to  be  in 
the  shade,  if  he  lives  in  obscurity,  or  unnoticed  ; ‘ the 
law  (says  St.  Paul)  is  a shadow  of  things  to  come 


TO  DISAPPEAR,  VANISH. 

To  disappear  signifies  not  to  appear  {v.  Jlir);  vanish, 
in  French  evanir,  Latin  evanco  or  evanesco,  com- 
pounded of  e and  vaneo,  in  Greek  <^aivoi  to  appear, 
signifies  to  go  out  of  sight. 

To  disappear  comprehends  no  particular  mode  of 
action  ; to  vanish  includes  in  it  the  idea  of  a ra{)id  mo- 
tion. A thing  either  gradually  orsuddenly ; 

it  vanishes  on  a sudden  . it  disappears  in  the  ordinary 
course  of  things  ; it  vanishes  by  an  unusual  effort,  a 
supernatural  or  a magick  power.  Any  object  that  re 
cedes  or  moves  away  will  soon  disappear ; 

Red  meteors  ran  across  th’  ethereal  space. 

Stars  disappear'd,  and  comets  took  their  place 
Drydkn. 

In  fairy  tales  things  are  made  to  vanish  the  instant 
they  ^re  beheld;  ‘ While  I was  lamenting  this  sudden 
desolation  that  had  been  made  before  nie,  the  whole 
scene  vanished.' — Addison.  To  disappear  is  often  a 
temporary  action;  to  vanish  generally  conveys  the 
idea  of  being  permanently  lost  to  the  sight.  The  stars 
appear  and  disappear  in  the  firmament;  lightnirg 
vanishes  with  a rapidity  that  is  unequalled. 


TO  LOOK,  APPEAR. 

Look  is  here  taken  in  the  neuter  and  improper  tense, 
signifying  the  act  of  things  figuratively  striving  to  be 
seen;  appear,  from  the  Latin  appareo  ox p area,  Greek 
irdpcipi,  signifies  to  be  present  or  at  hand,  within  sight. 

The  look  of  a thing  respects  the  impressions  which 
it  makes  on  the  senses,  that  is,  the  manner  in  which  h 
looks;  its  appearance  implies  the  simple  act  of  its 
coming  into  sight:  the  look  of  any  thing  is  therefore 
characterized  as  good  or  bad,  mean  or  handsome,  ugly 
or  beautiful;  the  appearance  is  characterized  aseaily 
or  late,  sudden  or  unexpected:  there  is  .something  very 
unseemly  in  the  look  of  a clergyman  affecting  the  airs 
of  a fine  gentleman  ; the  appearance  of  the  stars  in  an 
evening  presents  an  interesting  view  even  to  the  ordi- 
nary beholder.  As  what  appears  must  appear  in  some 
form,  the  signification  of  the  term  has  been  extended 
to  the  manner  of  the  appearance,  and  brought  still 
nearer  to  look  in  its  application;  in  this  case,  the  term 
is  rather  more  familiar  than  that  of  appearance. 
we  may  speak  either  of  regarding  the  look  or  the  ap- 
pearance of  a thing,  as  far  as  it  may  impress  others; 
but  the  latter  is  less  colloquial  than  the  former : a man’s 
conduct  is  said  to  look  rather  than  to  appear  ill ; but 
on  the  other  hand,  we  say  a thing  assumes  an  appear- 
ance, or  has  a certain  appearance. 

Look  is  always  employed  for  what  is  real ; w'hat  a 
thing  looks  is  that  which  it  really  is:  appear,  however, 
sometimes  refers  not  only  to  what  is  external,  but  to 
what  is  superficial.  If  we  say  a person  looks  ill,  it 
supposes  some  po.sitive  and  unequivocal  evidence  of 
illness:  if  we  say  he  appears  to  be  ill,  it  is  a less  posi- 
tive assertion  than  the  former;  it  leaves  room  for 
doubt,  and  allows  the  possibility  of  a mistake.  We 
are  at  liberty  to  judge  of  things  by  their  looks,  without 
being  chargeable  with  want  of  judgement;  but  as  ap 
pearances  are  said  to  be  deceitful,  it  becomes  necessary 
to  admit  them  with  caution  as  the  rule  of  ®ur  judge 
ment.  Look  is  employed  mostly  in  regard  to  objects 
of  sense ; appearance  respects  natural  and  moral  ot 


4B2 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


jects  iridifferenUy  the  sky  toofcs  lowering;  an  object! 
ippears  through  a microscope  greater  than  if  »«ally  is ; 
Distressful  nature  pants , 

The  very  streams  look  languid  from  afar. 

Thomson. 

A person’s  conduct  appears  in  a more  culpable  light 
when  seen  ihiough  the  representation  of  an  enemy; 

‘ Never  does  liberty  appear  more  amiable  than  under 
the  government  of  a pious  and  good  prince.’ — Addison. 


LOOK,  GLANCE. 

Look  Air)  is  the  generick,  and  glance  (v.  To 
glance  at)  the  specifick  term ; that  is  to  say,  a casual 
or  momentary  look:  a look  may  be  characterized  as 
severe  or  mild,  fierce  or  gentle,  angry  or  kind  ; glance 
as  hasty  or  sudden,  imperfect  or  slight:  so  likewise  we 
speak  of  taking  a look^  or  catching  di  glance; 

Here  the  soft  flocks,  with  the  same  harmless  look 
Tliey  wore  alive. — Thomson. 

The  tiger,  darting  fierce 
Impetuous  on  his  prey,  the  glance  has  doom’d. 

Thomson. 


TO  LOOK,  SEE,  BEHOLD,  VIEW,  EYE. 
Look,  in  Saxon  locan,  Upper  German  lugen,  comes 
from  lux  light,  and  the  Greek  Adw  to  see;  see,  in  Ger- 
man seken,  probably  a variation  from  the  Latin  video 
to  see  • behold,  compounded  of  the  intensive  be  and 
hold,  signifies  to  hold  or  fix  the  eye  on  an  object;  view, 
from  the  French  voir,  and  the  Latin  video,  signifies 
simply  to  see ; to  eye,  from  the  noun  eye,  naturally  sig- 
nifies to  fathom  wiUi  the  eye. 

We /oo/c  voluntarily  ; we  see  involuntarily  : the  eye 
sees ; the  person  looks:  absent  people  often  see  things 
before  they  are  fully  conscious  that  they  are  at  iiand: 
we  may  look  without  seeing,  and  we  may  see  without 
looking : near-sighted  people  often  look  at  that  which 
is  too  distant  to  strike  the  visual  organ.  To  behold  is 
to  look  at  for  a continuance ; to  view  is  to  look  at  in  all 
directions;  to  eye  is  to  loo/r  at  earnestly,  and  by  side 
glances:  that  w'hich  is  seen  may  disappear  in  an  in- 
stant; it  may  strike  the  eye  and  be  gone:  but  what  is 
looked  at  must  make  some  stay;  consequently,  light- 
ning, and  things  equally  fugitive  and  rapid  in  their 
flight,  may  he  seen,  but  cannot  be  looked  at. 

To  look  at  is  the  familiar,  as  well  as  the  general  term, 
\n  regard  to  the  others;  we  look  at  things  in  general, 
which  we  wish  to  see,  that  is,  to  see  them  clearly,  fully, 
and  in  all  iheir  parts;  but  we  behold  that  which  excites 
a moral  or  intellectual  interest;  ‘ The  most  unpardon- 
able malefactor  in  the  world  going  to  his  death,  and 
bearing  it  with  composure,  would  win  the  pity  of  those 
who  should  behold  him.’ — Steele.  We  view  that 
which  demands  intellectual  attention ; 

They  climb  the  next  ascent,  and,  looking  down, 
Now  at  a nearer  distance  view  the  town  ; 

The  prince  with  wonder  sees  the  stately  tow’rs 
(Which  late  were  huts  and  shepherds’  bow’rs). 

Dryden. 

We  eye  that  which  gratifies  any  particular  passion ; 

Half  afraid,  he  first 

Against  the  window  beats,  then  brisk  alights 
On  the  w'arnt  hearth  ; then,  hopping  o’er  the  floor, 
Eyes  all  the  smiling  family  askance.— Thomson. 

An  inquisitive  child  looks  at  things  which  are  new  to 
if,  but  does  not  behold  them ; we  look  at  plants,  or 
finery,  or  whatever  gratifies  the  senses,  but  w'e  do  not 
behold  them : on  the  other  hand,  we  behold  any  spec- 
tacle which  excites  our  admiration,  our  astonisnment, 
our  pity,  or  our  love : we  look  at  objects  in  order  to 
observe  their  external  properties;  hut  we  view  them  in 
order  to  find  out  their  component  parts,  their  internal 
properties,  their  powers  of  motion  and  action,  &c. ; we 
look  at  things  to  gratify  the  curiosity  of  the  moment, 
or  for  mere  amusement ; but  the  jealous  man  eyes  his 
rival,  in  order  to  mark  his  movements,  his  designs,  and 
his  successes;  the  envious  man  eyes  him  who  is  in 
prosperity,  wdth  a malignant  desire  to  see  him  humbled. 

To  look  is  an  indiflerent,  to  behold  and  view  are  good 
and  honomable  actions;  to  eye,  as  the  act  of  persons, 
•f>  commonly  a nwan,  and  even  base  action. 


LOOKER-ON,  SPECTATOR,  BEHOLDER, 
OBSER  v^ER. 

The  looker-on  and  the  spectator  are  both  opposed  to 
the  agents  or  actors  in  any  scene ; but  the  former  is 
still  more  abstracted  from  the  objects  he  sees  than  the 
latter. 

A looker-on  (u.  To  look)  is  careless;  he  has  no  pari 
and  takes  no  part  in  what  he  sees ; he  looks  on,  be- 
cause tl>e  thing  is  before  him,  and  he  has  nothing  else 
to  do:  a syeefafor  may  likewise  be  unconcerned,  but 
in  general  he  derives  amusement,  if  nothing  else,  from 
what  he  sees.  A clown  may  be  a looker-on,  who  with 
open  nouth  gapes  at  all  that  is  before  him,  without 
understanding  any  part  of  it;  but  he  who  looks  ori  to 
draw  a moral  lesson  from  the  whole  is  in  the  moral 
sense  not  an  uninterested  spectator ; ‘ Lookers-on 
many  times  see  more  than  gamesters.’ — Bacon. 

But  high  in  heaven  they  sit,  and  gaze  from  far. 

The  tame  spectators  of  his  deeds  of  war. — Pope. 

The  beholder  has  a nearer  interest  than  the  specta 
tor;  and  the  observer  has  an  interest  not  less  near 
than  that  of  the  beholder,  but  somewhat  difl'erent  the 
beholder  has  his  affections  roused  by  what  he  sees; 
‘Objects  imperfectly  discerned  take  forms  from  the 
hope  or  fear  of  the  beholder.' — Johnson.  The  ob- 
server has  his  understanding  employed  in  that  which 
passes  before  him  ; ‘ Swift  was  an  exact  observer  of 
life.’— Johnson.  The  beholder  indulges  himself  in 
contemplation  ; the  observer  is  busy  in  making  it  sub- 
servient to  some  proposed  object ; every  beholder  of  our 
Saviour’s  sufferings  and  patience  was  struck  with  the 
conviction  of  his  Divine  character,  not  excepting  even 
some  of  those  who  were  his  most  prejudiced  adver- 
saries ; every  calm  observer  of  our  Saviour’s  words 
and  actions  was  convinced  of  his  Divine  mission 

TO  SEE,  PERCEIVE,  OBSERVE. 

See,  in  the  .e.uian  se//en,  Greek  dedoyai,  Hebrew 
is  a general  term ; it  may  be  either  a voluntary 
or  involuntary  action;  perceive,  from  the  Latin  per- 
cipio  or  per  and  capio  to  take  into  the  mind,  is  always 
a voluntary  action;  and  observe  (v.  To  notice)  is  an 
intentional  action.  The  eye  sees  when  the  mind  i» 
absent ; the  mind  and  the  eye  perceive  in  conjunction  ; 
hence,  we  may  say  that  a person  sees,  but  does  not 
perceive : we  observe,  not  merely  by  a simple  act  of  the 
mind,  but  by  its  positive  and  fixed  exertion.  We  see 
a thing  without  knowing  what  it  is;  we  perceive  a 
thing,  and  know  what  it  is,  but  the  impression  passes 
away  ; we  observe  a thing,  and  afterward  retrace  the 
image  of  it  in  our  mind.  We  see  a star  when  the  eye 
is  directed  towards  it;  we  perceive  it  move  if  we  look 
at  it  attentively;  we  observe  its  position  in  different 
parts  of  the  heavens.  The  blind  cannot  see,  the  ab- 
sent cannot yerceme,  the  dull  cannot  observe. 

Seeing,  as  a corporeal  action,  is  the  act  only  of  the 
eye;  perceiving  and  observing  are  actions  in  which  all 
the  senses  are  concerned.  We  see  colours,  we  per- 
ceive the  state  of  the  atmosphere,  and  observe  its 
changes.  Seeing  is  sometimes  extended  to  the  mind’s 
operations,  in  which  it  has  an  indefinite  meaning  ; but 
perceive  and  observe  have  both  a definite  sense  : we 
may  see  a thing  distinctly  and  clearly,  or  otherwise ; 
we  perceive  it  always  with  a certain  degree  of  dis- 
tinctness; and  it  with  a positive  degree  of  mi- 

nuteness : we  see  the  truth  of  a.remark ; we  perceive 
the  force  of  an  objection;  we  oJ^erwe  the  reluctance,  of 
a person.  It  is  farther  to  be  observed,  however,  that 
when  see  expresses  a mental  operation,  it  expresses 
what  is  purely  mental ; perceive  and  observe  are  ap- 
plied to  such  objects  as  are  seen  by  the  senses  as  well 
as  the  mind. 

See  is  either  employed  as  a corporeal  or  incorporeal 
action ; perceive  and  observe  are  obviously  a junction 
of  the  corporeal  and  incorporeal  We  see  the  light 
with  our  eyes,  or  we  see  the  truth  of  a proposition 
with  our  mind’s  eye; 

There  plant  eyes,  all  mist  from  thence 

Purge  and  disperse,  that  I may  see  and  tell 

Of  things  invisible  to  mortal  sight.— Milton. 

We  perceive  the  difference  of  cliinate,  or  we  petctuvi 
the  difference  in  the  comfort  of  our  situation ; 

Sated  at  length,  ere  long  I might yercei»c 

Strange  alteraiton  in  me.— Milton. 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES 


485 


PV  e observe  tKe  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies ; ‘ Every 
part  of  your  last  letter  glowed  with  that  warmth  of 
friendship,  which,  though  it  was  by  no  means  new  to 
me,  I could  not  but  observe  with  peculiar  satisfaction.’ 

Mklmoth  LLetters  of  Cicero). 

TO  SEEM,  APPEAR. 

The  idea  of  coming  to  the  view  is  expressed  by  both 
these  terms;  but  the  word  seem  rises  upon  that  of 
appear.  Seem,  from  the  Latin  similis  like,  signifies 
literally  to  appear  like,  and  is  therefore  a species  of 
appearance,  which  is  from  the  Latin  appareo  or  pareo, 
and  the  Gr3ek  -Kapdpi  to  be  present,  signifies  to  be 
present,  or  before  the  eye.  Every  object  may  appear; 
but  nothing  seems,  except  that  which  the  mind  admits 
to  appear  in  tiny  given  form.  7’o  seem  requires  some 
reflection  and  comparison  of  objects  in  the  mind  one 
with  another ; this  term  is,  therefore,  peculiarly  appli- 
cable to  matters  that  may  be  different  from  what  they 
appear,  or  of  an  indeterminate  kind ; that  the  sun  seems 
to  move,  is  a conclusion  which  we  draw  from  the  ex- 
ercise of  our  senses,  and  by  comparing  this  case  with 
others  of  a similar  nature  ; it  is  only  by  a farther  re- 
search into  the  operations  of  nature  that  we  discover 
this  to  be  no  conclusive  proof  of  its  motion.  To  ap- 
pear, on  the  contrary,  is  the  express  act  of  the  things 
themselves  on  us;  it  is,  therefore,  peculiarly  applicable 
to  such  objects  as  make  an  impression  on  us ; to  appear 
is  the  same  as  to  present  itself;  the  stars  appear  in  the 
firmament,  but  we  do  not  say  that  they  seem  there ; 
the  sun  appears  dark  through  the  clouds. 

They  are  equally  applicable  to  moral  as  well  as 
natural  objects  with  the  above-mentioned  distinction. 
Seem  is  said  of  that  which  is  dubious,  contingent,  or 
future;  appear  of  that  which  is  actual,  positive,  and 
past.  A thing  seems  strange  which  we  are  led  to  con- 
clude as  strange  from  what  we  see  of  it;  a thing  ap- 
pears clear  when  we  have  a clear  conception  of  it;  a 
plan  seems  practicable  or  impracticable ; an  author 
appears  to  understand  his  s'ubject,  or  the  contrary.  It 
seems  as  if  all  efforts  to  reform  the  bulk  of  mankind 
will  be  found  inefficient ; it  appears  from  the  long  ca- 
talogue of  vices  which  are  still  very  prevalent,  that 
little  progress  has  hitherto  been  made  in  the  work  of 
reformation ; 

Lash’d  into  foam,  the  fierce  conflicting  brine 

Seems  o’er  a thousand  raging  waves  to  burn. 

Thomson. 

O heavenly  poet ! such  thy  verse  appears, 

So  sweet,  so  charming  to  my  ravish’d  ears.— Dryden. 

TO  PERCEIVE,  DISCERN,  DISTINGUISH. 

Perceive,  in  Latin  percipio,  or  per  and  capio,  sig- 
nifies to  take  hold  of  thoroughly  ; discern,  v.  Discern- 
ment. 

To  perceive  (v.  To  see)  is  a positive,  to  discern  a 
relative,  action ; we  perceive  things  by  themselves ; we 
discern  them  amid  many  others : we  perceive  that 
which  is  obvious ; we  discern  that  which  is  remote, 
or  which  requires  much  attention  to  get  an  idea  of  it. 
We  perceive  by  a person’s  looks  and  words  what  he 
intends;  we  discern  the  drift  of  his  actions.  We  may 
perceive  sensible  or  spiritual  objects;  we  commonly 
discern  only  that  which  is  spiritual ; we  perceive  light, 
darkness,  colours,  or  the  truth  or  falsehood  of  any 
thing; 

And  lastly,  turning  inwardly  her  eyes. 

Perceives  how  all  her  own  ideas  rise. — Jenyns. 

We  discern  characters,  motives,  the  tendency  and  con- 
sequences of  actions,  &c. ; ‘ One  who  is  actuated  by 
party  spirit,  is  almost  under  an  incapacity  of  discern- 
ing either  real  blemishes  or  beauties.’ — Addison.  It 
is  the  act  of  a child  to  perceive  according  to  the  quick- 
ness of  its  senses;  it  is  the  actof  a man  to  discern  ac- 
cording to  the  measure  of  his  knowledge  and  under- 
standing. 

To  discern  and  distingvish  (v.  Difference)  approach 
the  nearest  in  sense  tc  each  other  ; but  the  former  sig- 
nifies to  see  only  one  thing,  the  latter  to  see  two  or 
more  in  quick  succession.  We  discern  what  lie  in 
things  ; we  distin^iiisA  things  according  to  their  out- 
ward marks;  we  discern  things  in  order  to  under- 
stand their  essences ; we  distinguish  in  order  not  to  con- 
toiind  them  together  Experienced  and  discreet  people 


may  discern  the  signs  of  (he  times ; it  is  just  to  dif 
tinguish  between  an  action  done  from  inadvertence 
and  that  which  is  done  from  design.  The  conduct  d. 
people  is  sometimes  so  veiled  by  art,  that  it  is  not  easy 
to  discern  their  object ; ‘ The  custom  of  arguing  on  any 
side,  even  against  our  persuasions,  dims  the  under- 
standing, and  makes  it  by  degrees  lose  the  faculty  of 
discerning  between  truth  and  falsehood.’ — 7/Ocke. 
It  is  necessary  to  distinguish  between  practice  and 
profession  ; ‘ Mr.  Boyle  observes,  that  though  the  mole 
be  not  totally  blind  (as  is  generally  thought),  she  has 
not  sight  enough  to  distinguish  objects.’ — Addison 

TO  OBSERVE,  WATCH. 

These  terms  agree  in  expressing  the  act  of  looking 
at  an  object;  but  to  observe  {v.  To  notiee)  is  not  to 
look  after  so  strictly  as  is  imjilied  by  to  watch  {v.  To 
watch) ; a general  observes  the  motions  of  an  enemy 
when  lliey  are  in  no  particular  state  of  activity;  he 
watches  the  motions  of  an  enemy  when  they  are  in  a 
state  of  commotion;  we  observe  a thing  in  order  to 
draw  an  infeience  from  it;  we  watch  any  thing  in 
order  to  discover  what  may  happen;  we  observe  with 
coolness;  we  icatc/i  with  eagerness;  we  observe  enra- 
fully ; we  watch  narrowly;  the  conduct  of  mankind 
in  general  is  observed; 

Nor  must  the  ploughman  less  observe  the  skies. 

Dryden 

The  conduct  of  suspicious  individuals  is  watched; 

For  thou  know’st 

What  hath  been  warn’d  us,  what  malicious  foe 

Watches,  no  doubt,  with  greedy  hope  to  find. 

His  wish  and  best  advantage,  us  asunder.— Milton 


WAKEFUL,  WATCHFUL,  VIGILANT. 

We  may  be  waAe/uI  without  being  watchful;  but 
we  cannot  be  watchful  without  being  wakeful. 

Wakefulness  is  an  affair  of  the  body,  and  depends 
upon  the  temperament;  watchfulness  is  an  affair  of 
the  will,  and  depends  upon  the  determination.  Some 
persons  are  more  wakeful  than  they  wish  to  be; 

Musick  shall  wake  her,  that  hath  power  to  charm 

Pale  sickness,  and  avert  the  stings  of  pain  ; 

Can  raise  or  quell  our  passions,  and  becalm 

In  sweet  oblivion  the  too  wakeful  sense. — Fenton 
Few  persons  are  as  watchful  as  they  ought  to  be, 
‘He  who  remembers  what  has  fallen  out  will  be 
watchful  against  what  may  happen.’ — South.  Vigi- 
lance,  from  the  Latin  vigil,  and  the  Greek  dyaXXt<fM 
to  be  on  the  alert,  expresses  a high  degree  of  watch- 
fulness : a sentinel  is  watchful  who  on  ordinary  oc- 
casions keeps  good  watch;  but  it  is  necessary  lor  him, 
on  extraordinary  occasions,  to  be  vigilant,  in  order  to 
detect  whatever  may  pass. 

We  are  watchful  mostly  in  the  proper  sense  of 
watching ; but  we  may  be  vigilant  in  detecting  moral 
as  well  as  natural  evils;  ‘ Let  a man  strictly  observe 
the  first  hints  and  whispers  of  good  and  evil  that  pass 
in  his  heart ; this  will  keep  conscience  quick  and  vigi 
Zaiit.’— South. 

TO  ABSTRACT,  SEPARATE,  DISTINGUISH. 

To  abstract,  from  the  Latin  abstractum,  participle 
of  abstraho  to  draw  from,  signifies  to  draw  one  thing 
from  another;  separate,  in  Latin  separatus,  participle 
of  separo,  is  compounded  of  se  and  paro  to  dispose 
apart,  signifying  to  put  things  asunder,  or  at  a distance 
from  each  other;  distinguish,  in  French  distinguer, 
Latin  distinguo,  is  compounded  of  the  separative  pre 
position  dis  and  tingo  to  tinge  or  colour,  signifying  to 
give  different  marks  by  which  things  may  be  known 
from  each  other. 

Jlbstract  is  used  for  the  most  part  in  the  moral  a, 
spiritual  sense;  separate  mostly  in  a physical  sense- 
distinguish  either  in  a moral  or  physical  sense;  we 
abstract  what  we  wish  to  regard  particularly  and  indi 
vidually ; we  separate  what  we  wish  not  to  be  united ; 
we  distinguish  what  we  wish  not  to  confound.  The 
mind  performs  the  office  of  abstraction  for  itself; 
separating  and  distinguishing  are  exerted  on  externa* 
objects.*  Arrangement,  place,  time,  and  circum 

* Vide  Abbe  Girard;  “Dirtinguer  separer 


4d4 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


stances  serve  to  separate : the  ideas  formed  of  things, 
the  outward  marks  attached  to  them,  the  qualities  at- 
tributed to  them  serve  to  distinguish. 

By  the  operation  of  abstraction  the  mind  creates  for 
itself  a multitude  of  new  ideas:  in  the  act  of  separa- 
tion bodies  are  removed  from  each  other  by  distance 
of  place:  in  the  act  of  distinguishing  oh]iicXs  are  dis- 
covered to  be  similar  or  dissimilar,  dualities  are 
abstracted  from  the  subjects  in  which  they  are  in- 
herent : countries  are  separated  by  mountains  or  seas : 
their  inhabitants  are  distinguished  by  their  dress,  lan- 
guage, or  manners.  The  mind  is  never  less  abstracted 
from  one’s  friends  than  when  separated  from  them  by 
immense  oceans:  it  requires  a keen  eye  to  distinguish 
objects  that  bear  a great  resemblance  to  each  other. 
Volatile  persons  easily  abstract  their  minds  from  the 
most  solemn  scents  to  fix  them  on  trifling  objects  that 
pass  before  them;  ‘We  ought  to  abstract  o\ix  minds 
from  the  observation  of  an  excellence  in  those  we  con- 
verse with,  till  we  have  received  some  good  informa- 
tion of  the  disposition  of  their  minds.’ — Steele.  An 
unsocial  temper  leads  some  men  to  separate  them- 
selves from  all  their  companions;  ‘It  is  an  eminent 
instance  of  Newton’s  superiority  to  the  rest  of  man- 
kind that  he  wa.s  able  to  separate  knowledge  from 
those  weaknesses  by  which  knowledge  is  generally 
disgraced.’ — Johnson.  An  absurd  ambition  leads 
others  to  distinguish  themselves  by  their  eccentri- 
cities; ‘Fontenelle,  in  his  panegyrick  on  Sir  Isaac 
Newton,  closes  a long  enumeration  of  that  philoso- 
pher’s virtues  and  attainments  with  an  observation 
that  he  was  not  distinguished  from  other  men  by  any 
singularity  either  natural  or  affected.’— Johnson. 


ABSENT,  ABSTRACTED,  DIVERTED, 
DISTRACTED. 

Absent.,  in  French  absent,  Latin  absens,  comes  from 
ab  and  sum  to  be  from,  signifying  away  or  at  a dis- 
tance from  all  objects;  abstracted,  in  French  abstrait, 
Latin  abstractus,  participle  of  abstraho,  or  ab  and 
traho  to  draw  from,  signifies  drawn  or  separated  from 
all  objects;  diverted,  in  French  dfijertir,  Latin  diverto, 
compounded  of  di  or  dis  asunder  and  verto  to  turn, 
signifies  to  turn  aside  from  the  object  that  is  present ; 
distracted  of  course  implies  drawn  asunder  by  difterent 
objects. 

A want  of  attention  is  implied  in  all  these  terms, 
but  in  different  degrees  and  under  difierent  circum- 
stances. 

Absent  and  abstracted  denote  a total  exclusion  of 
present  objects ; diverted  and  distracted  a misapplied 
attention  to  surrounding  objects,  an  attention  to  such 
things  as  are  not  the  immediate  object  of  concern. 

Absent  and  abstracted  differ  less  in  sense  than  in 
application:  the  former  is  an  epithet  expressive  either 
of  a habit  or  a state,  and  precedes  the  noun ; the  latter 
expresses  a state  only,  and  is  never  adjoined  to  the 
nouti : we  say,  a man  is  absent  or  an  absent  man ; he 
is  abstracted,  but  not  an  abstracted  man,  although 
when  applied  to  other  objects  it  may  be  applied  to 
denote  a temporary  state; 

A voice,  than  human  more,  th’  abstracted  ear 
Of  fancy  strikes,  “ Be  not  afraid  of  us. 

Poor  kindred  man.”— Thomson. 

We  are  absent  or  abstracted  when  not  thinking  on 
what  passes  before  us ; we  are  diverted  when  we  listen 
to  any  other  discourse  than  that  which  is  addressed  to 
us;  we  are  distraeted  when  we  listen  to  the  discourse 
of  two  persons  at  the  same  time. 

The  absent  man  has  his  mind  and  person  never  in 
the  same  place : he  is  abstracted  from  all  the  surround- 
ing scenes;  his  senses  are  locked  up  from  all  the  ob- 
jects that  seek  for  admittance;  he  is  often  at  Rome 
while  walking  the  streets  of  London,  or  solving  a 
problem  of  Euclid  in  a social  parly;  ‘Theophrastus 
called  one  who  barely  rehearsed  his  speech,  with  his 
eyes  fixed,  an  '‘absent  actor.”’ — Hughes.  The  man 
who  is  diverted  seeks  to  be  present  at  every  thing ; he 
is  struck  with  every  thing,  and  ceases  to  be  attentive 
to  one  thing  in  order  to  direct  his  regards  to  another; 
he  turns  from  the  right  to  the  left,  but  does  not  stop  to 
hink  on  any  one  point;  ‘ The  mind  is  refrigerated  by 
nterrupfion  ; the  thoughts  are  diverted  from  the  prin- 
,ipal  subject ; the  reader  is  weary,  he  knows  not  why.’ 
—Johnson  {Preface  to  Shakspeare),  The  distracted 


man  can  be  present  at  nothing,  as  all  objects  strike  nim 
with  equal  force;  his  thoughts  are  in  a state  of  vacil 
lation  and  confusion;  ‘He  used  to  rave  for  his  Ma- 
rianne, and  call  upon  her  in  his  distracted  fits  ’ 
Addison. 

A habit  of  profound  study  sometimes  causes  ah 
sence ; it  is  well  for  such  a mind  to  be  soraetimf* 
diverted:  the  ardent  contemplation  of  any  one  subject 
occasions  frequent  abstractions  ; if  they  are  too  fre- 
quent, or  ill-timed,  they  are  reprehensible : the  juvenile 
and  versatile  mind  is  most  prone  to  be  diverted;  it  fel- 
lows the  bias  of  the  senses,  which  are  caught  by  the 
outward  surface  of  things;  it  is  impelled  by  curiosity 
to  look  rather  than  to  think:  a well-regulated  mind  is 
rarely  exposed  to  distractions,  which  result  from  con 
trariety  of  feeling,  as  well  as  thinking,  peculiar  to  per 
sons  of  strong  susceptibility  or  dull  comprehension. 

The  absent  man  neither  derives  pleasure  from  so 
ciety,  nor  imparts  any  to  it ; his  resources  are  in  him 
self.  The  man  who  is  easily  diverted  is  easily  pleased , 
but  he  may  run  the  risk  of  displeasing  others  by  the 
distractions  of  his  mind.  The  distracted  man  is  a 
burden  to  himself  and  others. 


TO  DISTINGUISH,  DISCRIMINATE. 

To  distinguish  {v.  To  abstract)  is  the  general,  fa 
discriminate  {v.  Discernment)  is  the  particular,  term 
the  former  is  an  indefinite,  the  latter  a definite,  action 
To  discriminate  is  in  fact  to  distinguish  specifically 
hence  we  speak  of  a distinction  as  true  or  false,  but 
of  a discrimination  as  nice. 

We  distinguish  things  as  to  their  divisibility  or 
unity ; we  discriminate  them  as  to  their  inherent  pro- 
perties : we  distinguish  things  that  are  alike  or  unlike 
to  separate  or  collect  them ; we  discriminate  those  tha* 
are  different,  for  the  purpose  of  separating  one  from 
the  other : we  distinguish  by  means  of  the  senses  as 
well  as  the  understanding;  we  discriminate  by  th^ 
understanding  only:  we  distinguish  things  by  their 
colour,  or  we  distinguish  moral  objects  by  iheii  truth 
or  falsehood ; 

’T  is  easy  to  distinguish  by  the  sight 
The  colour  of  the  soil,  and  black  from  white 
Dryden 

We  discriminate  the  characters  of  men,  or  we  dis 
criminate  their  merits  according  to  circumstances; 
‘A  satire  should  expose  nothing  but  what  is  corrigible, 
and  make  a due  discrimination  between  those  whe 
are  and  those  who  are  not  the  proper  objects  of  it.’— 
Addison. 

TO  DIVIDE,  SEPARATE,  PART. 

To  divide  signifies  the  same  as  in  the  preceding ; to 
separate,  in  Latin  separatus,  participle  of  separo,  or 
se  apart  and  paro  to  dispose,  signifies  to  put  things 
asunder,  or  at  a distance  from  each  other;  to  part 
signifies  to  make  into 

That  is  said  to  be  divided  which  has  been,  or  is 
conceived  to  be,  a whole ; that  is  separated  which 
might  be  joined:  a river  divides  a town  by  running 
through  it ; 

Nor  cease  your  sowing  till  mid-winter  ends. 

For  this,  through  twelve  bright  signs  Apollo  guides 

The  year,  and  earth  in  several  climes  divides. 

Dryden. 

Mountains  or  seas  separate  countries ; ‘ Can  a body  be 
inflammable  from  which  it  would  puzzle  a chymist  to 
separate  an  inflammable  ingredient  1’— Boyle.  To 
divide  does  not  necessarily  include  a separation; 
although  a separation  supposes  a division:  an  army 
may  be  divided  into  larger  or  smaller  portions,  and  yet 
remain  united  ; but  during  a march,  or  an  engagement, 
these  companies  are  frequently  separated. 

Opinions,  hearts,  minds,  &lc.  may  be  divided;  cor- 
poreal bodies  only  are  separated  : the  minds  of  men 
are  often  most  divided,  when  in  person  they  are  least 
separated;  and  those,  on  the  contrary,  who  are  sepm- 
rated  at  the  greatest  distance  from  each  other  may  be 
the  least  divided;  ‘Where  there  is  the  greatest  and 
most  honourable  love,  it  is  sometimes  better  to  be 
joined  in  death,  than  separated  in  life.’ — Steele. 

To  part  approaches  nearer  to  separate  than  to 
dhiide:  the  latter  is  applied  to  things  only;  the  two 
former  to  persons,  as  well  as  things : a thing  becomet 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


■mailer  oy  being  divided;  ‘If  we  divide  the  life  of 
most  men  into  twenty  parts,  we  shall  find  at  least 
nineteen  of  tliein  filled  with  gaps  and  chasms,  which 
are  neither  filled  up  witli  pleasure  or  business.’ — 
Addison.  One  thing  loses  its  junction  with,  or  cohe- 
sion to,  another,  by  being  parted:  a loaf  of  bread  is 
divided  by  being  cut  into.tvvo;  two  loaves  are  parted 
which  have  been  baked  together. 

Soinetiines  part,  as  well  as  divide,  is  used  in  the  ap- 
plication of  that  which  is  given  to  several,  in  wliich 
case  they  bear  tlie  same  analogy  as  before:  several 
things  are  parted,  one  thing  is  divided : a man’s  per- 
sonal effects  may  be  parted,  by  common  consent, 
among  his  children;  but  his  estate,  or  the  value  of  it, 
must  be  du’zded  .•  whatever  can  be  disjoined  without 
losing  its  integrity  is  parted,  otherwise  it  is  divided : in 
this  sense  our  Saviour’s  gai  inenls  are  said  to  have  been 
parted,  because  they  were  distinct  things;  but  the  ves- 
ture which  was  without  seam  must  have  been  divided 
if  they  had  not  cast  lots  for  it. 

As  disjunction  is  the  common  idea  attached  to  both 
separate  awApart,  they  are  frequently  used  in  relation 
lo  the  same  objects:  houses  may  be  both  separated 
and  parted;  they  are  parted  by  that  which  does  not 
keep  them  at  so  great  a distance,  as  when  they  are  said 
to  be  separated:  two  houses  are  parted  by  a small 
opening  between  them  ; they  are  separated  by  an  inter- 
vening garden:  fields  are  with  more  propriety  said  to 
be  separated;  rooms  are  said  more  properly  to  be 
parted. 

With  regard  to  persons,  par-t  designates  the  actual 
leaving  of  the  person  ; separate  is  used  in  general  for 
that  which  lessens  the  society : the  former  is  often 
casual,  temporary,  or  partial ; the  latter  is  positive  and 
serious : the  parting  is  momentary ; 

The  prince  pursu’d  the  parting  deity 

With  words  like  these,  “ Ah,  whither  do  you  fly  ? 

Unkind  and  cruel  to  deceive  your  son.”— Dryden. 
The  separation  may  be  longer  or  shorter ; ‘ I pray  let 
me  retain  some  room,  though  never  so  little,  in  your 
thoughts,  during  the  time  of  this  our  separation.' — 
Howell.  Two  friendspa?-t  in  the  streets  after  a casual 
meeting ; two  persons  separate  on  the  road  who  had 
set  out  to  travel  together:  men  and  their  wives  often 
part  without  coming  to  a positive  separation:  some 
couples  are  separated  from  each  other  in  every  respect 
but  tliat  of  being  directly  parted : the  moment  of  part- 
ing between  friends  is  often  more  painful  than  the 
separation  which  afterward  ensues. 


TO  DIVIDE,  DISTRIBUTE,  SHARE. 

To  divide,  in  Latin  divido,  from  di  or  dis  and  vido, 
in  the  Etruscan  iduo  to  part,  wiiicli  comes  from  the 
Greek  eis  into  two,  signifies  literally  to  make  into 
two;  distribute,  in  Latin  distWiwfws,  from  distribuo, 
or  dis  and  tribuo,  signifies  lo  bestow  apart ; share,  from 
the  word  shear,  and  the  German  scheeren,  signifies  sim- 
ply to  cut. 

The  act  ofdraidfn^  does  not  extend  beyond  the  thing 
divided;  that  of  distributing  and  sharing  compre- 
hends also  the  purpose  of  the  action : we  divide  the 
thing;  we  distribute  to  the  person:  we  may  divide 
therefore  without  distributing;  or  we  may  divide  in 
order  to  distribute  : thus  we  divide  our  land  into  dis- 
tinct fields  for  our  private  convenience;  or  we  divide 
a sum  of  money  into  so  many  parts,  in  order  to  distri- 
bute it  among  a given  number  of  persons; 

Let  old  Timotheus  yield  the  prize, 

Or  both  divide  the  crown  ; 

He  rais’d  a mortal  to  the  skies, 

She  drew  an  angel  down. — Dryden. 

Two  urns  by  Jove’s  high  throne  have  ever  stood 
The  source  of  evil  one,  and  one  of  good; 

From  thence  the  cup  of  mortal  man  he  fills, 
Blessings  to  these,  to  those  distributes  ill. — Pope. 
On  the  other  hand,  we  may  distribute  without  dividing; 
for  guineas,  books,  apples,  and  many  other  things  may 
be  distributed,  which  require  no  division. 

To  share  is  lo  make  into  parts  the  same  as  divide. 
End  it  is  lo  give  those  parts  to  son.e  persons,  the  same 
as  distribute : but  the  person  who  shares  tak3s  a part 
tiimself ; 

Why  grieves  my  son  1 Thy  anguish  let  me  share. 

Reveal  the  cause,  and  trust  a parent’s  care. — Pope. 


He  who  distributes  gives  it  always  to  Olliers;’  ‘ Provi 
dence  has  made  an  equal  distribution  of  iiatcral  gifts 
whereof  each  creature  severally  has  a share.' — L’Es 
TRANGK.  A loaf  is  divided  in  older  to  be  eaten: 
bread  is  distributed  in  loaves  among  the  poor ; the  loaf 
is  shared  by  a poor  man  with  his  poorer  neighbour,  or 
the  profits  of  a business  ate  shared  by  the  partners. 

To  share  may  imply  eitiier  to  give  or  receive ; to  dis- 
tribute implies  giving  only:  we  share  our  own  with 
another,  or  another  sAar-es  what  w’e  have;  butwedra- 
tribute  our  own  to  others;  ‘ They  will  be  so  much  the 
more  careful  to  determine  properly  as  they  shall  (will) 
be  obliged  to  share  the  expenses  of  maintaining  the 
masters.’ — AIelmoth  ‘Letters  of  Pliny). 


TO  DISPENSE,  DISTRIBUTE. 

Dispense,  from  the  La.in  pendo  to  pay  or  bestow,  sig- 
nifies to  bestow  in  difierent  directions;  and  distribute.. 
from  the  Latin  tribuo  to  bestow,  signifies  the  same 
thing. 

Dispense  is  an  indiscriminate  action  ; distribute  is  a 
particularizing  action:  we  to  all ; we  distri 

bute  to  each  individually:  nature  dispenses  her  gifts 
bountifully  to  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth; 

Though  Nature  weigh  our  talents,  and  dispense 
To  every  man  his  modicum  of  sense; 

Yet  much  depends,  as  in  the  tiller’s  toil, 

On  culture,  and  tlie  sowing  of  the  soil. 

Covvper. 

A parent  distributes  among  his  children  different  tokens 
of  his  parental  tenderness  ; ‘ Piay  be  no  niggard  in  dis- 
tributing my  love  plentifully  among  our  friends  at  the 
inns  of  court.’ — Howell. 

Dispense  is  an  indirect  action  that  has  no  immediate 
reference  to  the  receiver ; distribute  is  a direct  and  per- 
sonal action  communicated  by  the  giver  to  the  receiver: 
Providence  dispenses  his  favours  to  those  w'ho  put  a 
sincere  trust  in  him ; ‘ Those  to  whom  Christ  has  com- 
mitted the  dispensing  of  his  Gospel.’ — Decay  of 
Piety.  A prince  distributes  marks  of  his  favour  and 
preference  among  his  courtiers ; ‘ The  king  sent  over  a 
great  store  of  gentlemen  and  warlike  people,  among 
whom  he  distributed  the  land.’ — Spenser  on  Ireland. 


PART,  DIVISION,  PORTION,  SHARE. 

Part,  in  Latin  ;?ars,  comes  from  the  Hebrew 
to  divide,  signifying  the  thing  divided  or  parted  from 
another;  division  signifies  the  same  as  portion;  por- 
tion, in  Latin  portio,  is  supposed  to  be  changed  from 
partio,  which  comes  from  partior  to  distribute,  and 
originally  from  the  Hebrew,  as  the  word/;art ; share, 
in  Saxon  scyran  to  divide,  comes  in  all  probability  from 
the  Hebrew  Tljy  lo  remain,  that  is,  what  remains  after 
a division. 

Part  is  a term  not  only  of  more  general  use,  but  of 
more  comprehensive  meaning  than  division;  it  is  al- 
ways employed  for  the  thing  divided,  but  division  may 
be  either  employed  for  tlie  act  of  dividing,  or  the  thing 
that  is  divided:  but  in  all  cases  the  word  division  has 
always  a reference  to  some  action,  and  the  agent  by 
whom  it  has  been  performed  ; whereas  which  is 
perfectly  abstract,  has  altogether  lost  this  idea.  We 
always  speak  of  apart  as  ofiposed  to  the  whole,  but 
of  a division  as  it  has  been  made  of  the  whole. 

A part  is  formed  of  itself  by  accident,  or  made  by 
design  ; a division  is  always  the  effect  of  design : apart 
is  inde^ite  as  to  its  quantity  or  nature,  it  may  be  large 
or  small,  round  or  square,  of  any  dimension,  of  any 
form,  of  any  size,  or  of  any  character  ; but  a division 
is  always  regulated  by  some  certain  principles,  it  de- 
pends upon  the  circumstances  of  the  divisor  and  thing 
to  be  divided.  A page,  a line,  or  a word  isthe^jart  of 
any  book  ; but  the  books,  chapters,  sections,  and  para 
graphs  are  the  divisions  of  the  book.  Stones,  woo<\ 
water,  air,  and  the  like,  are  parts  of  the  world;  fire, 
air,  earth,  and  water  are  physical  divisions  of  lh« 
globe;  continents,  seas,  rivers,  mountains,  and  the 
like,  are  geographical  divisions,  under  which  are  like 
wise  included  its  political  divisions  into  countries, 
kingdoms,  &c.  ; 

Shall  little  haughty  Ignorance  pronounce 

His  works  unwise,  of  which  the  smullest/rart 

Exceeds  the  narrow  vision  of  her  mind  1 — Thomson 


486  ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


‘ A divuion  (in  a discourse)  sliould  be  natural  and  sim- 
ple.’—Blair. 

A part  may  be  detached  from  the  whole  ; a division 
is  always  conceived  of  in  connexion  with  the  whole; 
portion  and  share  are  particular  species  of  divisions, 
which  are  said  of  such  matters  as  are  assignable  to  in- 
dividuals; portion  respects  individuals  without  any 
distinction ; 

The  jars  of  gen’rms  wine,  Acestes’  gift, 

He  set  abroach,  and  for  the  feast  prepar’d. 

In  equal  portions  with  the  ven’son  shar'd. 

Drydkn. 

hhare  respects  individuals  specially  referred  to ; 

The  monarch,  on  whom  fertile  Nile  bestows 
All  which  that  grateful  earth  can  bear, 

Deceives  himself  if  he  suppose 
That  more  than  this  falls  to  his  share. — Cowley. 
The  portion  of  happiness  which  falls  to  every  man’s 
lot  is  more  equal  than  is  generally  supposed  ; the  share 
which  partners  have  in  the  profits  of  any  undertaking 
depends  upon  the  sum  \thich  each  has  contributed 
towards  its  completion.  The  portion  is  that  which 
simply  comes  to  any  one  ; but  the  share  is  that  which 
belongs  to  him  by  a certain  right.  According  to  the 
ancient  customs  of  Normandy,  the  daughters  could 
have  no  more  than  a third  part  of  the  property  for 
their  share,  which  was  divided  in  equal  portions  be- 
tween them. 


PART,  PIECE,  PATCH. 

Part  signifies  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  article ; 
piece,  in  French  piece,  comes  from  the  Hebrew 
to  diminish  ; whence  also  comes  patch,  signifying  the 
thing  in  its  diminished  form,  that  which  is  less  than  a 
whole.  The  part  in  its  strict  sense  is  taken  in  con- 
nexion with  the  whole;  the  piece  is  the  part  detached 
from  the  whole ; the  patch  is  that  piece  which  is  distin- 
guished from  others.  Things  may  be  divided  intoparts 
without  any  express  separation ; but  when  divided  into 
pieces  they  are  actually  cut  asunder.  Hence  we  may 
speak  of  a loaf  as  divided  into  twelve  parts  when  it  is 
conceived  only  to  be  so ; and  divided  into  twelve 
pieces,  when  it  is  really  so.  On  this  ground,  we  talk  of 
the  parts  of  a country,  but  not  of  the  pieces;  and  of  a 
piece  of  land,  not  a part  of  land ; so  likewise  letters 
are  said  to  be  the  component  parts  of  a word,  but  the 
half  or  the  quarter  of  any  given  letter  is  called  apiece. 
The  chapters,  the  pages,  the  lines,  &c.  are  the  various 
parts  of  a book ; certain  passages  or  quantities  drawn 
from  the  book  are  called  pieces  : the  parts  of  matter 
may  be  infinitely  decomposed ; vaiious  bodies  may  be 
formed  out  of  so  ductile  a piece  of  matter  as  clay. 
The  piece  is  that  which  may  sometimes  serve  as  a 
whole;  but  the  patch  is  that  which  is  always  broken 
and  disjointed, — something  imperfect;  many  things 
may  be  formed  out  of  a piece;  but  the  patch  only 
serves  to  fill  up  a chasm. 


TO  PARTAKE,  PARTICIPATE,  SHARE. 

Partake  and  participate,  the  one  English,  and  the 
other  Latin,  signily  literally  to  take  a part  in  a thing. 
The  former  is  employed  in  the  proper  or  improper 
sense ; and  the  latter  in  the  improper  sense  only ; we 
maypartflieof  a feast, or  wemaypar<a^■eof  pleasure; 
but  we  participate  only  in  pleasure  or  pain,  &c. 

To  partake  is  a selfish  action ; to  participate  is  either 
a selfish  or  a benevolent  action:  we  partake  of  that 
which  pleases  ourselves ; 

All  eJse  of  nature’s  common  giftparta^re. 
Unhappy  Dido  was  alone  awake. — Dryden. 

We  participate  in  that  which  pleases  another; 

Our  God,  when  heav’n  and  earth  he  did  create. 
Form’d  man,  who  should  of  both  participate 

Denham. 

Wspartakeof  a meal  vdth  a friend  ; we  participate  i» 
the  gifts  of  Providence,  or  in  the  enjoyments  which 
anotner  feels. 

To  partake  is  the  act  of  taking  the  thing,  or  getting 
the  thing  to  one’s  self ; to  share  is  the  act  of  having  a 
title  to  a share,  or  being  in  the  habits  of  receiving  a 
ohare ; we  may,  therefore,  partake  of  a thing  without 
$harini[  it,  and  share  it  without  partaking.  We  par- 


take of  things  most]y  through  ihe  medium  of  tnesense* 
whatever,  therefore,  we  lake  part  in,  whether  gratae 
tously  or  casually,  that  we  may  be  said  to  partake  of, 
in  this  manner  we  partake  of  an  entertainment  with 
out  sharing  it;  or  we  partake  in  a design,  &c. ; 

By-and-by,  thy  bosom  shall  partake 
The  secrets  of  my  heart.— Shakspeare. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  share  things  that  promise  to  oe 
of  advantage  or  profit,  and  what  we  share  is  what  we 
claim ; in  this  manner  we  share  a sum  of  money  which 
has  been  left  to  us  in  common  with  others; 

Avoiding  love,  I had  not  found  despair, 

But  shar'd  with  savage  beasts  the  common  air. 

DRYPElt 


DEAL,  aUANTITY,  PORTION. 

Deal,  in  Saxon  deel,  Dutch  decl,  and  German  theiL, 
from  dmlen,  theilen,  &c.  to  divide,  signifies  literally  the 
thing  divided  or  taken  otf ; quantity,  in  Latin  quaniitas, 
comes  from  quantum,  signifying  how  much;  portion, 
through  the  Latin  pars  and  portio,  comes  from  the 
Hebrew  to  divide,  signifying,  like  the  word  deal, 
the  thing  taken  oft'. 

Deal  always  denotes  something  great,  and  cannot  be 
coupled  with  any  epithet  that  does  not  express  much ; 
quantity  is  a term  of  relative  import ; it  either  marks 
indefinitely  the  how,  or  so  much  of  a thing,  or  may  be 
defined  by  some  epithet  to  express  much  or  little;  por- 
tion is  of  itself  altogether  indefinite,  and  admits  of  being 
qualified  by  any  epithet  to  express  much  or  little : deal 
is  a term  confined  to  familiar  use,  and  sometimes  sub 
stituted  for  quantity,  and  sometimes  for  portion.  It  is 
common  to  speak  of  a deal  or  a quantity  of  paper,  a 
great  deal  or  a great  quantity  of  money  ; likewise  of  a 
great  deal  or  a great  portion  of  pleasure,  a great  deal 
or  a great  portion  of  wealth;  and  in  some  cases  deal 
is  more  usual  than  either  quantity  or  portion,  as  a deal 
of  heat,  a deal  of  rain,  a deal  of  frost,  a deal  of  noise, 
and  the  like;  but  it  is  altogether  inadmissible  in  the 
higher  style  of  writing;  ‘ This,  my  inquisitive  temper, 
or  rather  impertinent  humour,  of  prying  into  all  sorts 
of  writing,  with  my  natural  aversion  to  loquacity, 
gives  me  a good  deal  of  employment  when  I enter  any 
house  in  the  country.’ — Addison.  ‘There  is  never 
room  in  the  world  for  more  than  a certain  quantity  or 
measure  of  renown.’ — Johnson. 

Portion  is  employed  only  for  that  which  is  detached 
from  the  whole;  quantity  may  sometimes  be  employed 
for  a number  of  wholes.  We  may  speak  of  a large  or 
a small  quantity  of  books;  a large  or  a small  quantity 
of  plants  or  herbs ; but  a large  or  a small  portion  of 
food,  a large  or  small  portion  of  colour.  Quantity  is 
used  only  in  the  natural  sense;  portion  also  in  the 
moral  application,  and  mostly  in  the  sense  of  a stated 
quantity.  Material  substances,  as  wood,  stone,  metals, 
and  liquids,  are  necessarily  considered  with  regard  to 
quantity;  the  qualities  of  the  mind  and  the  circum- 
stances of  human  life  are  divided  into  portions.  A 
builder  estimates  the  quantity  of  materials  which  he 
will  want  for  the  completion  of  a house;  the  work 
man  estimates  the  portion  of  labour  which  the  work 
will  require ; 

In  battles  won,  fortune  a part  did  claim. 

And  soldiers  have  their  portion  in  the  fame. 

Waller 


TO  COMMUNICATE,  IMPART. 

Communicate,  in  Latin  communicatus,  participle  of 
communico,  contracted  from  communifico,  signifies  to 
make  common  property  with  another;  impart,  com- 
pounded of  in  and  part,  signifies  to  give  in  part  to 
another. 

Imparting  is  a species  of  communicating;  one  al- 
ways communicates  in  imparting,  but  not  vice  versd. 

Whatever  can  be  enjoyed  in  common  with  others  is 
communicated;  whatever  can  be  shared  by  another  is 
imparted:  what  one  knows  or  thmksis communicated 
or  made  commonly  known  ; what  onq  feels  is  imparten 
and  participated  in;  intelligence  or  information  ii 
communicated;  ‘ A man  who  publishes  his  works  in  a 
volume  has  an  infinite  advantage  over  one  who  com 
municates  his  writings  to  the  world  in  loose  tracts 
Addison.  Secrets  or  sorrows  are  imparted; 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


481 


let  hear  what  an  unskilful  friend  may  say, 

As  if  a blind  man  should  direct  your  way  : 

So  I myself,  though  wanting  to  be  tauglit. 

May  yet  impart  a hint  that ’s  worth  your  thought. 

Golding. 

Those  who  always  communicate  all  they  hear,  some- 
times communicate  more  than  they  really  know  ; it  is 
the  characterislick  of  friendship  to  allow  her  votaries 
io  impart  their  joys  and  sorrows  to  each  other. 

A person  may  communicate  what  belongs  to  another, 
as  well  as  that  which  is  his  own ; but  he  imparts 
that  only  which  concerns  or  belongs  to  himself:  an 
openness  of  temper  leads  some  men  to  communicate 
their  intentions  as  soon  as  they  are  formed;  loquacity 
impels  others  to  communicate  whatever  is  told  them : a 
generosity  of  temper  leads  some  men  to  impart  their 
substance  for  the  relief  of  tlieir  fellow-creatures ; a 
desire  for  sympathy  leads  others  to  impart  their  senti- 
ments. There  is  a great  pleasure  in  communicating 
good  intelligence  and  in  imparting  good  advice. 


CO.MMUNICATIVE,  FREE, 

Are  epithets  that  convey  no  respectful  sentiment  of 
the  object  to  which  they  are  ap[)lied  : a person  is  com- 
municative, who  is  ready  to  tell  all  he  knows;  he  is 
free,  when  he  is  ready  to  say  all  he  thinks:  the  commu- 
nicative person  has  no  regard  for  himself;  the  free 
person  has  no  regard  for  others. 

A communicative  temper  leads  to  the  breach  of  all 
confidence ; a free  temper  leads  to  violation  of  all  de- 
cency: communicativeness  of  disposition  produces 
much  mischief;  freedom  of  speech  and  behaviour  oc- 
casions much  offence.  Communicativeness  is  the  ex- 
cess of  sincerity ; it  offends  by  revealing  what  it  ought 
to  conceal ; freedom  is  the  abuse  of  sincerity ; it  offends 
by  speaking  what  it  ought  not  to  think. 

These  terms  are  sometimes  taken  in  a good  sense ; 
when  a person  is  communicative  for  the  instruction  or 
amusement  of  others,  and  \sfree  in  imparting  to  others 
whatever  he  can  of  his  enjoyments;  ‘ The  most  mise- 
rable of  all  beings  is  the  most  envious ; as  on  the  other 
hand  the  most  communicative  is  the  happiest.’ — Grove. 
‘Aristophanes  was  in  private  life  of  a free,  open,  and 
companionable  temper.’ — CuiMberland. 

COMMUNION,  CONVERSE. 

Communion,  from  commune  and  common,  signifies  the 
act  of  making  common  (w.  Common) ; converse,  from 
the  Ij-atin  converto  to  convert  or  translate,  signifies  a 
traiisietfing. 

Both  these  terms  imply  a communication  between 
minds;  but  the  former  may  take  place  without  corpo- 
real agency,  the  latter  never  does;  spirits  hold  commu- 
nion with  each  other,  or  men  may  hold  spiritual  com- 
munion with  God  : ‘ Where  a long  course  of  piety  and 
close  communion  with  God  has  purged  the  heart  and 
rectified  the  will,  knowledge  will  break  in  upon  auch 
a soul.’ — South.  People  hold  converse  together ; 

In  varied  converse  softening  every  theme. 

You  frequent  pausing  turn  ; and  from  her  eyes, 
Where  meeken’d  sense,  and  amiable  grace. 

And  lively  sweetness  dwell,  enraptured  drink 
That  nameless  spirit  of  ethereal  joy. — Thomson. 

For  the  same  reason  a man  may  hold  communion 
with  himself ; he  holds  converse  always  with  another. 

COMMUNITY,  SOCIETY. 

Both  these  terms  are  employed  for  a body  of  rational 
beings;  community,  from  communitas  and  communis 
common  {v.  Common),  signifies  abstractedly  the  state 
of  being  common,  and  in  an  extended  sense  those  who 
are  in  a state  of  common  possession ; society,  in  Latin 
societas,  from  socius  a companion,  signifies  the  state  of 
being  companions,  or  those  who  are  in  that  state. 

Community  \n  any  thing  constitutes  a community ; a 
common  interest,  a common  language,  a common  go- 
vernment, is  the  basis  of  that  community  which  is 
formed  by  any  number  of  individuals;  communities 
are  therefore  divisible  into  large  or  small;  t(  e former 
may  be  states,  the  latter  families;  ‘Was  there  ever 
any  community  so  corrupt  as  not  to  include  within  it 
individuals  of  real  worth  T — Blair.  The  coming  to- 


gether of  many  constitutes  a society;  societut  are 
either  private  or  publick,  according  to  the  purpose  fo,’ 
which  they  meet  together;  friends  form  societies  fo. 
the  purpose  of  pleasure;  indifferent  persons  form  so- 
cieties lor  the  purposes  of  business ; ‘ The  great  com- 
munity of  mankind  is  necessarily  broken  into  smallei 
independent  societies' — Johnson. 

Community  has  always  a restrictive  and  relative 
sense ; society  has  a general  and  unlimited  import 
the  most  dangerous  members  of  the  community  are 
those  who  attempt  to  poison  the  minds  of  youth  with 
contempt  for  religion  and  disaffection  to  the  state  ; the 
morals  of  society  are  thus  corrupted  as  it  were  at  the 
fountain-head. 

Community  refers  to  spiritual  as  well  as  corporeal 
agents;  society  mostly  to  human  beings  only:  the 
angels,  the  saints,  and  the  spirits  of  just  men  made 
perfect,  constitute  a community ; with  them  there  is 
more  communion  than  association. 


CONVIVIAL,  SOCIAL,  SOCIABLE. 

Convivial,  in  Latin  convivialis,  from  convivo  to  live 
together,  signifies  being  entertained  together;  social, 
from  socius  a companion,  signifies  pertaining  to  com 
pany. 

The  prominent  idea  in  convivial  is  that  of  sensua] 
indulgence;  the  prominent  idea  in  social  is  that  of  en- 
joyment from  an  intercourse  with  society.  The  con 
vivial  is  a species  of  the  social;  it  is  the  social  in  mat- 
ters of  festivity.  What  is  convivial  is  social,  but 
what  is  social  is  something  more ; the  former  is  ex- 
celled by  the  latter  as  much  as  the  body  is  excelled  by 
the  mind.  We  speak  of  convivial  meetings,  convivial 
enjoyments,  or  the  convivial  board ; but  social  inter- 
course, social  pleasure,  social  amusements,  and  the 
like;  ‘It  is  related  by  Carte,  of  the  Duke  of  Ormond, 
that  he  used  often  to  pass  a night  with  Dryden,  and 
those  with  whom  Dryden  consorted ; who  they  were 
Carte  has  not  told,  but  certainly  the  convivial  table  at 
which  Ormond  sat  was  not  surrounded  with  a plebeian 
society.’— JohnsonT  ‘ Plato  and  Socrates  shared  many 
social  hours  with  .‘Aristophanes.’ — Cumberland. 

Social  signifies  belonging  or  allied  to  a companion, 
having  the  disposition  of  a companion;  sociable,  from 
the  same  root,  signifies  able  or  fit  to  be  a companion  ; 
the  former  is  an  active,  the  latter  a passive  quality: 
social  people  seek  others ; sociable  people  are  sought 
for  by  others.  It  is  possible  for  a man  to  be  social  and 
not  sociable;  to  be  sociable  and  not  social:  he  who 
draws  his  pleasures  from  society  without  communica- 
ting his  share  to  the  common  stock  of  entertainments 
is  socmZ  but  not  sociable ; men  of  a taciturn  disposi 
tion  are  often  in  this  case ; they  receive  more  than  they 
give:  he,  on  the  contrary,  who  has  talents  to  please 
company,  but  not  the  inclination  to  go  into  company, 
may  be  sociable,  but  is  seldom  social;  of  this  descrip- 
tion are  humorists  who  go  into  company  to  gratify 
their  pride,  and  stay  away  to  indulge  their  humour. 
Social  and  sociable  are  likewise  applicable  to  things, 
with  a similar  distinction  ; social  intercourse  is  that 
intercourse  which  men  have  together  for  the  purposes 
of  society ; social  pleasures  are  what  they  enjoy  by  as- 
sociating together; 

Social  friends. 

Attun’d  to  happy  unison  of  soul.— Thomson. 

A path  or  a carriage  is  denominated  sociable  which 
encourages  the  association  of  many  ; ‘ Sciences  are  of 
a sociable  disposition,  and  ffourish  best  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  each  other.’— Blaukstonk. 


SOCIETY,  COMPANY. 

Society  (v.  Association)  and  company  (v.  Associa- 
tion) here  express  either  the  persons  as.sociating  oi 
the  act  of  associating. 

In  either  case,  society  is  a general,  and  company  a 
particular,  term ; as  respects  persons  associating,  society 
comprehends  either  all  the  associated  part  of  mankind, 
as  when  we  speak  of  the  laws  of  society,  the  well-being 
of  society;  or  it  is  said  only  of  a particular  number  ot 
individuals  associated : in  which  latter  case  it  come.* 
nearest  to  company,  and  differs  from  it  only  as  to  the 
purpose  of  the  association.  A society  is  a’vvays  formed 
for  some  solid  purpose,  as  tin  Humane  Society.-  and 


4€3 


ENGIJSH  SYNONYMES 


the  ccnipany  is  always  brought  together  for  pleasure  or 
piorit,  as  has  already  been  observed. 

Good  sense  teaches  us  the  necessity  of  conforming 
to  the  rules  of  the  society  to  which  we  belong;  good 
breeding  prescribes  to  us  to  render  ourselves  agreeable 
to  the  company  of  which  we  form  a part. 

When  expressing  the  abstract  action  of  associating, 
society  is  even  more  general  and  indefinite  than  before  ; 
It  exjnesses  that  which  is  common  to  mankind ; and 
company  that  which  is  peculiar  to  individuals.  The  love 
of  society  is  inherent  in  our  nature  ; it  is  weakened  or 
destroyed  only  by  the  vice  of  our  constitution  or  the 
derangement  of  our  system ; 

Solitude  sometimes  is  best  society, 

And  short  retirement  urges  sweet  return. — Milton. 
Every  one  naturally  likes  the  company  of  his  own 
friends  and  connexions  in  preference  to  that  of 
strangers.  Society  is  a permanent  and  habitual  act; 
compmiy  is  only  a particular  act  suited  to  the  occa- 
sion ; it  behooves  us  to  shun  the  society  of  those  from 
whom  we  can  learn  no  good,  although  we  may  some- 
times be  obliged  to  be  in  their  company.  Tha  society 
of  intelligent  men  is  desirable  for  those  who  are  en- 
tering life;  the  company  of  facetious  men  is  agreeable 
in  travelling ; ‘ Company,  though  it  may  reprieve  a man 
from  his  melancholy,  cannot  secure  him  from  his  con- 
science.’—South. 


ASSOCIATE,  COMPANION. 

Jlssociate,  in  Latin  associatus,  participle  of  associo, 
compounded  of  as  or  ad  and  socio  to  ally,  signifies  one 
united  with  a person  ; companion,  from  company,  sig- 
nifies one  that  bears  company  (v.  To  accompany). 

Associates  are  habitually  together;  companions  are 
only  occasionally  in  each  other’s  company:  as  our 
habits  are  formed  from  our  associates,  we  ought  to  be 
particular  in  our  choice  of  them;  as  onr  companions 
contribute  much  to  our  enjoyments,  we  ought  to  choose 
such  as  are  suitable  to  ourselves ; ‘ We  see  many  strug- 
gling single  about  the  world,  unhappy  for  want  of  an 
associate,  and  pining  with  the  necessity  of  confining 
their  sentiments  to  their  own  bosoms.’— Johnson. 
Many  men  may  be  admitted  companions,  who  would 
not  altogether  be  fit  as  associates;  ‘ There  is  a degree 
of  want  by  which  the  freedom  of  agency  is  ahno.st  de- 
itroyed,  and  long  association  with  fortuitous  compa- 
nions wxW  at  last  relax  the  strictness  of  truth,  and  abate 
the  fervour  of  sincerity.’— Johnson. 

An  associate  may  take  part  with  us  in  some  busi- 
ness, and  share  with  us  in  the  labour;  ‘ Addison  con- 
tributed more  than  a fourth  part  (of  the  last  volume  of 
the  Spectator),  and  the  other  contributors  are  by  no 
means  unworthy  of  appearing  as  Jiis  associates.' — 
Johnson.  A companion  takes  {tart  with  us  in  some 
concern,  and  shares  with  us  in  the  pleasure  or  the  pain  ; 

Thus  while  the  cordage  stretch’d  ashore  may  guide 

Our  brave  companions  through  the  swelling  tide; 

’Phis  floating  lumber  shall  sustain  them  o’er 

The  rocky  shelves,  in  safety  to  the  shore. — Falconer. 

ASSOCIATION,  SOCIETY,  COMPANY, 
PARTNERSHIP. 

All  these  terms  denote  a union  of  several  persons 
into  one  body. 

Association  To  associate)  is  general,  the  rest 
specifick.  Whenever  we  habitually  or  frequently  meet 
together  for  some  common  object,  it  is  an  association. 
Associations  are  therefore  political,  religious,  commer- 
cial, and  literary ; a society  is  an  association  for  some 
specifick  purpose,  moral  or  religious,  civil  or  political; 
a company  is,  in  this  application  of  the  term,  an  asso- 
ciation of  n'any  for  the  purpose  of  trade  ; a partner- 
ship is  an  association  of  a few  for  the  same  olqect. 

Whenever  association  is  tised  in  distinction  from 
the  others,  it  denotes  that  which  is  partial  in  its  ob- 
ject and  temporary  in  its  duration.  It  is  founded  on 
unity  of  sentiment  as  well  as  unity  of  object;  but  it 
’8  mostly  unorganized,  and  kept  together  only  by  the 
spirit  which  gives  rise  to  it.  It  is  not,  however,  the 
less  dangerous  on  this  account;  and  when  politicks  are 
the  subject,  it  commoidy  breathes  a spirit  hostile  to 
the  established  order  of  things ; as  the  last  thirty  years 
have  evinced  to  us  by  wnful  experience;  ‘For  my  own 
Dart  T covOd  wisli  that  all  ln>nest  men  would  enter  into 


an  association  for  the  support  of  one  another  against 
the  endeavours  of  those  whom  they  ought  to  Jook  upon 
as  their  common  enemies,  whatever  side  they  may  be- 
long to.’ — Addison. 

A society  requires  nothing  but  unity  of  object,  which 
is  permanent  in  its  nature  ; it  is  well  organized,  and 
commonly  set  on  foot  to  promote  the  cause  of  humanity, 
literature,  or  religion.  No  country  can  boast  such  nu- 
merous and  excellent  societies,  whether  of  a charitable, 
a religious,  or.a  literary  description,  as  England ; ‘ What 
I humbly  propose  to  the  publick  is,  that  there  may  be  a 
society  erected  in  London  to  consist  of  the  most  skilful 
persons  of  both  sexes,  for  the  inspection  of  modes  and 
fashions.’ — Budgell 

Companies  are  brought  together  for  the  purposes  of 
interest,  and  are  dissolved  when  that  object  ceases  to 
exist;  their  duration  depends  on  the  contingencies  of 
profit  and  loss.  The  South  Sea  Company,  which  was 
founded  on  an  idle  speculation,  was  formed  for  the  ruin 
of  many,  and  dispersed  almost  as  soon  as  it  was  formed 
The  East  India  Company,  on  the  other  hand,  which  is 
one  of  the  grandest  that  ever  was  raised,  promises  as 
much  permanency  as  is  commonly  allotted  to  human 
transactions ; ‘ The  nation  is  a company  of  players.* 
Addison. 

Partnerships  are  altogether  of  an  individual  and  pri- 
vate nature.  As  they  are  without  organization  and 
system,  they  are  more  precarious  than  any  other  asso- 
ciation. Their  duration  depends  not  only  on  the 
chances  of  trade,  but  the  compatibility  of  individuals 
to  co-operate  in  a close  point  of  union.  They  are 
often  begun  rashly  and  end  ruinously;  ‘Gay  wasths 
general  favourite  of  the  whole  association  of  wits ; but 
they  regarded  him  as  a playfellow  rather  than  a part- 
ner, and  treated  him  with  more  fondness  than  respect.’ 
— Johnson.  The  term  partnership  is  sometimes  used 
figuratively,  in  reference  to  other  objects;  ‘ Society  is 
di  partnership  in  all  science;  a partnership  in  every 
virtue  and  in  all  perfection.’ — Burke 

ASSOCIATION,  COMBINATION. 

Association,  v.  Associate;  combination,  frcfn  the 
Latin  combino,  or  con  and  binus,  signifies  tying  two 
into  one. 

An  association  is  something  less  binding  than  acont- 
bination;  associations  are  formed  for  purposes  of 
convenience;  combinations  are  formed  to  serve  either 
the  interests  or  passions  of  men.  The  word  associa- 
tion is  therefore  always  taken  in  a good  or  an  indiffer 
ent  sense;  combination  m an  indifferent  or  bad  sense 
An  association  is  publick;  it  embraces  all  classes  a, 
men : a combination  is  often  private,  and  includes  only 
a particular  description  of  persons.  Associations  are 
formed  for  some  general  purpose;  ‘In  my  yesterday’s 
paper  I proposed  that  the  honest  men  of  all  parties 
should  enter  into  a kind  of  association  for  the  defence 
of  one  another.’^ADDisoN.  Combinations  are  fre- 
quently formed  for  particular  puriioses,  which  respect 
the  interest  of  the  few,  to  the  injury  of  many;  ‘The 
cry  of  the  [leople  in  cities  and  towns,  though  unfortu- 
nately (from  a fear  of  their  nuiltilude  nnA  combination) 
the  most  regarded,  ought  in  fact  to  be  the  least  regarded, 
on  the  subject  of  monopoly.’ — Burke.  Associations 
are  formed  by  good  citizens  ; combinations  by  discon- 
tented mechanicks,  or  low  persons  in  general.  The  lat- 
ter term  may,  however,  be  used  in  a good  sense  when 
taken  for  the  general  act  of  combining,  \\\  which  case 
it  expresses  a closer  union  than  association  ; ‘ There 
is  no  doubt  but  all  the  safety,  happiness,  and  conve- 
nience that  men  enjoy  in  this  life,  is  from  ihe  combina 
tion  of  particularpersons  into  societies  or  corporation.s 
— South. 

When  used  for  things,  association  is  a natural  ac- 
tion ; combination  an  arbitrary  action.  Things  asso- 
ciate of  themselves,  but  combinations  are  formed  eithei 
by  design  or  accident.  Nothing  will  associate  bul 
what  harmonizes:  things  the  most  opposite  in  theii 
nature  are  cowiimcd  together.  We  associate  persoiu 
with  places,  or  events  with  names;  discordant  proper 
ties  combined  in  the  same  body.  With  the  namf 
of  one’s  birthplace  are  associated  pleasurable  recol 
lections;  virtue  and  vice  are  often  so  combined  in  the 
same  character  as  to  form  a contrast.  The  association 
of  ideas  is  a remarkable  phenomenon  of  the  human 
mind,  but  it  can  never  be  admitted  as  solving  any  dif 
ficulty  respecting  the  structure  and  composition  of  tho 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


4«9 


•oul’.  ‘ Meekness  an^ courtesy  will  always  recommend 
tlie  first  address,  but  soon  pall  and  nauseate  unless 
they  are  associated  with  more  sprightly  qualities.’ — 
JojiNSON.  The  combination  of  letters  forms  syllables, 
and  that  of  syllables  forms  words;  ‘Before  the  time 
of  Dryden,  those  happy  combinations  of  words  which 
distinguish  poetry  from  prose  had  Iteen  rarely  at- 
tempted.’— JOHNSOX. 

COMBINATION,  CABAL,  PLOT,  CONSPIRACY. 

Combination^  v.  Association,  combination;  cabal, 
in  French  cabalc,  conies  from  the  Hebrew  kabala. 
Signifying  a secret  science,  pretended  to  by  the  Jewish 
Rabbi,  vehence  it  is  applied  to  any  association  tliat  has 
a pretended  secret;  in  French  complot,  is  derived, 
like  the  word  coiw/rZrcflte,  from  the  Latin  plico  to  en- 
tangle, signifying  any  intricate  or  dark  concern;  con- 
spiracy, in  French  conspiration,  from  con  and  spiro 
to  breatlie  together,  signifies  the  having  one  spirit. 

An  association  for  a bad  purpose  is  the  idea  common 
to  all  these  terms,  and  peculiar  to  combination.  A 
combination  may  be  either  secret  or  open,  but  secrecy 
forms  a necessary  [lart  in  the  signification  of  the  other 
terms;  a.  cabal  is  secret  as  to  its  end;  nplot  and  con- 
spiracy are  secret  both  as  to  the  means  and  the  end. 

Combination  is  the  close  adherence  of  many  for 
their  mutual  defence  in  obtaining  their  demands,  or 
resisting  the  claims  of  others.  A cabal  is  the  in- 
trigue of  a party  or  faction,  formed  by  cunning  prac- 
tices in  order  to  give  a turn  to  tlie  course  of  things  to 
its  own  advantage : tlie  natural  and  ruling  idea  of  cabal 
ia  that  of  assembling  a number,  and  manoeuvring  se- 
cretly with  address.  A plot  is  a clandestine  union  of 
some  persons  for  the  purpose  of  mischief:  the  ruling 
idea  in  aplot  is  that  of  a complicated  enterprise  formed 
in  secret,  by  two  or  more  persons.  A conspiracy  is  a 
general  intelligence  among  persons  united  to  effect 
some  serious  change;  the  ruling  and  natural  idea  in 
this  word  is  that  of  unanimity  and  concert  in  the  pro- 
secution of  a plan. 

A combination  is  seldom  of  so  serious  a nature  as  a 
cabal  or  a plot,  though  always  objectionable;  a com- 
bination may  have  many  or  few.  A cabal  requires  a 
number  of  persons  sufficient  to  form  a party,  it  gains 
strength  by  numbers;  a plot  is  generally  confined  to  a 
few,  it  diminishes  its  security  by  numbers;  a con- 
spiracy  mostly  requires  many  for  the  fulfilment  of  its 
purposes,  although  it  is  thereby  the  more  exposed  to 
discovery. 

Selfishness,  insubordination,  and  laxity  of  morals 
give  rise  to  combinations;  they  are  peculiar  to  me- 
chanicks,  and  the  lower  orders  of  society;  ‘The  pro- 
tector, dreading  combinations  between  the  parliament 
and  the  malecontents  in  the  army,  resolved  to  allow  no 
leisure  for  forming  conspiracies  against  him.’ — Hume. 
Restless,  jealous,  ambitious,  and  little  minds  are  ever 
forming  cabals ; they  are  peculiar  to  courtiers; 

I see  you  court  the  crowd. 

When  with  the  shouts  of  the  rebellious  rabble, 

I see  you  borne  on  shoulders  to  cabals. — Dryden. 
Malignity,  revenge,  and  every  foul  passion  is  concerned 
in  forming  plots; 

Oh!  think  what  anxious  moments  pass  between 
The  birth  of  plots,  and  their  last  fatal  periods. 

Addison. 

Disaffected  subjects  and  bad  citizens  form  con- 
spiracies, which  are  frequently  set  on  foot  by  disap- 
pointed ambition ; 

O Conspiracy! 

Sham’stthou  to  show  thy  dangerous  brow  by  night. 
When  evils  are  most  free. — Shakspeare. 

The  object  of  a combination,  aWhongh  not  less  formi- 
dable than  the  others,  is  not  always  so  criminal ; it 
rests  on  a question  of  claims  which  it  proposes  to  de- 
cide by  force  ; the  end  is  commonly  as  unjustifiable  as 
the  means;  to  this  description  are  the  combinations 
formed  by  journeymen  against  their  masters,  which 
are  expressly  contrary  to  law.  The  object  of  a cabal 
is  always  petty,  and  mostly  contemptible  ; its  end  is  to 
gain  favour,  credit,  and  influence ; to  be  the  distributor 
of  places,  honours,  emoluments,  reputation,  and  all 

* Vide  Raubaud:  “ Cabale,  complot,  conspiration, 

tonjuratior 


such  contingencies  as  are  eagerly  sought  lor  by  the 
great  mass  of  mankind  : at  court  it  makes  and  unmakes 
ministers,  generals,  and  officers ; in  the  republick  of 
letters  it  destroys  the  reputation  of  authors,  and  blasts 
the  success  of  their  works ; in  publick  societies  it  stops 
the  course  of  equity,  and  nips  merit  in  the  bud  ; in  the 
world  at  large  it  is  the  never-ending  souice  of  vexation, 
broils,  and  animosities.  A plot  has  always  the  object 
of  committing  some  atrocity,  whether  of  a private  or 
publick  nature,  as  the  murder  or  plunder  of  individu 
als,  the  traitorous  surrender  of  a town,  or  the  destrue 
tion  of  somerhing  very  valuable.  Astarba  in  Telema- 
chus  is  represented  as  having  formed  a plot  for  tlu 
poisoning  of  Pygmalion:  the  annihilation  of  the  Eng 
lish  government  was  the  object  of  that  plot  which  re 
ceived  the  name  of  gunpowder  treason.  The  object 
of  a conspiracy  is  oftener  to  bring  about  some  evi' 
change  in  publick  than  in  private  concerns;  it  is  com 
monly  directed  against  the  governour,  in  order  to  over 
turn  the  government:  in  a xepxxhWck,  conspiracies  are 
justified  and  hailed  as  glorious  events  when  sanctioned 
by  success:  the  conspiracy  of  Brutus  against  Caesar  is 
always  represented  by  the  favourers  of  a republick  as 
a magnanimous  exploit.  Where  every  man  can  rule, 
there  will  always  be  usurpers  and  tyrants,  and  where 
every  man  has  an  equal  right  to  set  himself  up  against 
his  ruler,  there  will  never  be  wanting  conspiracies  to 
crush  the  usurpers;  hence  usurpations  auA  conspira- 
cies succeed  each  other  as  properly  and  naturally  in 
republicks  as  cause  and  effect;  the  right  of  the  strongest, 
the  most  daring,  or  the  most  unprincipled,  is  the  only 
right  which  can  be  acknowledged  upon  the  principles 
of  republican  equality;  on  the  contrary,  in  a monarchy, 
where  the  person  of  the  sovereign  and  his  authority 
are  alike  sacred,  every  conspirator  to  his  country,  and 
every  conspiracy,  does  no  less  violence  to  the  laws  of 
God,  than  to  those  of  man. 


FELLOWSHIP,  SOCIETY. 

Both  these  terms  are  employed  to  denote  a close  in 
tercourse;  hal  fellowship  is  said  of  men  as  individu 
als,  society  of  them  collectively  : we  should  be  carefu 
not  to  hold  fellowship  with  any  one  of  bad  character 
or  to  join  the  society  of  those  who  profess  bad  prin 
ciples ; 

111  becomes  it  me 

To  wear  at  once  thy  garter  and  thy  chains ; 
Though  by  my  former  dignity  I swear, 

That  were  I reinstated  in  my  throne. 

Thus  to  be  join'd  \n  fellowship  with  thee 
Would  be  the  first  ambition  of  my  soul. 

Gilbert  West 

Unhappy  he!  who  from  the  first  of  joys. 

Society,  cut  off,  is  left  alone. 

Amid  this  world  of  death. — Thomson. 


TO  ASSEMBLE,  MUSTER,  COLLECT. 

Assemble,  in  French  assembler,  Latin  adsimulare 
or  assimulare,  from  similis  like  and  simul  together, 
signifies  to  make  alike  or  bring  together;  muster,  ii, 
German  mustern  to  set  out  for  inspection,  comes  from 
the  Latin  mnnstror  to  show  or  display;  collect,  in 
Latin  collectus,  participle  of  colligo,  compounded  of 
col  or  con  and  lego  to  bind,  signifies  to  bring  together, 
or  uito  one  point. 

Assemble  is  said  of  persons  only;  muster  and  colled 
of  persons  or  things.  To  assemble  is  to  bring  together 
by  a call  or  invitation ; to  muster  is  to  bring  togethe* 
by  an  act  of  authority,  into  one  point  of  view,  at  one 
time,  and  from  one  quarter ; to  collect  is  to  bring  to- 
gether at  diflTerent  times,  and  from  different  quarters: 
the  parliament  is  assembled:  soWiers  are  mustered 
every  day  in  order  to  ascertain  thev  numbers; 
Assemble  all  their  choirs,  and  with  their  notes, 
Salute  and  welcome  up  the  rising  sun. — Cty/ay. 
An  army  is  collected  in  preparation  for  wa’-;  r,  king 
assembles  his  council  ki  order  to  consult  wAh  them  or 
publick  measures;  a genera!  musters  his  forves  before 
he  undertakes  an  expedition,  und  collects  ;iiore  troop* 
if  he  finds  himself  too  weak. 

Collect  is  used  for  every  thing  which  can  be  brouglr 
together  in  numbers;  master  is  ufed  figuratively  fa» 
bringing  together,  f'/f  an  imrie-Late  purpose,  wh't’ 


490 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


is  in  one’s  possession : books,  coins,  curiosities,  and  the 
like,  are  collected;  a person’s  resources,  his  strength, 
courage,  resolution,  &c.,  are  viustered:  some  persons 
have  a pleasure  in  collecting  all  the  pieces  of  antiquity 
wliich  fall  in  their  way; 

Each  leader  now  his  scatter’d  force  conjoins 
In  close  array,  and  forms  the  deep’ning  lines ; 

Not  with  more  ease  the  skilful  shepherd  swain 
Collects  his  dock,  from  thousands  on  the  plain. 

Pope. 

On  a trying  occasion  it  is  necessary  to  muster  all  the 
fortitude  cf  which  we  are  master; 

Oh  I thou  hast  set  my  busy  brain  at  work! 

And  now  she  musters  up  a train  of  images. 

llOWE 


TO  ASSEMBLE,  CONVENE,  CONVOKE. 

Mssemble^v.  To  assemble,  muster  ; cowwene,  in  Latin 
conveniu,  signifies  to  come  or  bring  together;  convoke, 
in  Latin  convoco,  signifies  to  call  together. 

Tile  idea  of  collecting  many  persons  into  one  place, 
for  a specifick  purpose,  is  common  to  all  these  terms. 
Assemble  conveys  this  sense  without  any  addition ; 
convene  and  convoke  include  likew’ise  some  collateral 
idea;  people  are  assembled,  whenever  they  are  con- 
vened or  convoked,  but  not  vice  versd.  Assembling  is 
mostly  by  the  wish  of  one;  convening  by  that  of  seve- 
ral : a crowd  is  assembled  by  an  individual  in  the 
streets  ; a meeting  is  convened  at  the  desire  of  a certain 
number  of  persons:  people  are  assembled  either  on 
publick  or  private  business;  they  are  always  convened 
on  a publick  occasion.  A king  assembles  his  parlia- 
ment; a particular  individual  assembles  his  friends; 
He  ceas’d ; the  assembled  warriours  all  assent. 

All  bat  Alrides. — Cumberland. 

The  inhabitants  of  a district  are  convened : 

They  form  one  social  shade,  as  if  conven'd 
By  magick  summons  of  the  Orphean  lyre. 

CowrKR. 

Animals  also  as  well  as  men  may  be  said  to  be  assem- 
lled  or  convened; 

Where  on  the  mingling  boughs  they  sit  embowered 
All  the  hot  noon,  till  cooler  hours  arrive, 

Faint  undjrneath,  the  household  fowls  convene. 

Thomson. 

There  is  nothing  inq)ernlive  on  the  part  of  those 
that  assemble  or  convene,  and  nothing  binding  on  those 
assembled  or  convened : one  assembles  or  convenes  by 
invitation  or  request ; one  attends  to  the  notice  or  not 
at  pleasure.  To  convoke,  on  the  other  hand,  is  an  act 
of  authority : it  is  the  call  of  one  who  has  the  authority 
to  give  the  call;  it  is  heeded  by  those  who  feel  them- 
selves bound  to  attend.  Assembling  and  convening 
are  always  for  domestick  or  civil  purposes:  convoking 
is  always  employed  in  civil  or  spiritual  matters:  a 
dying  man  assembles  his  friends  round  his  death-bed; 
a meeting  is  convened  in  order  to  present  an  address; 
the  dignitaries  in  the  church  are  convoked  by  the  su- 
preme authority,  or  a king  convokes  his  council ; 

Here  cease  thy  fury,  and  the  chiefs  and  kings. 
Convoke  to  council,  weigh  the  sum  of  things. 

Pope. 

ASSEMBLY,  ASSEMBLAGE,  GROUP,  * 
COLLECTION. 

Assembly,  assemblage,  are  collective  terms  derived 
from  the  verb  assemble ; group  comes  from  the  Italian 
gruppo,  which  among  painters  signifies  an  assemblage 
of  figures  in  one  place;  collection  expresses  he  act  of 
collecting,  or  the  body  collected  (v.  To  assemble, 
viuster). 

Assembly  respects  persons  only ; assemblage,  things 
only;  group  and  collection,  persons  or  things:  an  as- 
sembly is  any  number  either  brought  together,  or  come 
together  of  themselves;  an  assemblage  is  any  number 
standing  together:  a group  is  come  together  by  acci- 
dent, or  put  together  by  design ; a collection  is  mostly 
put  or  brought  together  by  design. 

A general  alarm  will  cause  an  assembly  to  disperse; 

Love  and  marriage  are  the  natural  effects  of  these 

Itnivcrsary  assemblies' — Budgell.  An  agreeable 


assemblage  of  rural  objects,  whedier  in  nature  oi  ta 
representation,  constitutes  a landscape ; 

O Hertford  .'  fitted  or  to  shine  in  courts 
With  unaffected  grace,  or  walk  the  plain 
With  innocence  and  meditation  join’d 
In  soft  assemblage,  listen  to  my  song. 

Thomson. 

A painting  will  sometimes  consist  only  of  a group  o. 
figures,  but  if  they  be  well  chosen  it  will  sometimes 
produce  a wonderful  effect:  a collection  of  evil-minded 
persons  ought  to  be  immediately  dispersed  by  the  an 
thority  of  the  magistrate.  In  a large  assembly  you 
may  sometimes  observe  a singular  assemblage  of  cha- 
racters, countenances,  and  figures;  when  people  come 
together  in  great  numbers  on  any  occasion,  they  wih 
often  form  themselves  into  distinct  groups ; 

A lifeless  group  the  blasted  cattle  lie. 

Thomson 

The  collection  of  scarce  books  and  curious  editions  has 
become  a passion,  which  is  justly  ridiculed  under  the 
title  of  bibliomania ; ‘ There  is  a manuscript  at  Oxford 
containing  the  lives  of  a hundred  and  thirty-five  of  the 
finest  Persian  poets,  most  of  whom  left  very  ample  col- 
lections of  their  poems  behind  them.’ — Sir  W.  Jones 


ASSEMBLY,  COMPANY,  MEETING,  CONGRE 

GATION,  PARLIAMENT,  DIET,  CONGRESS, 

CONVENTION,  SYNOD,  CONVOCATION, 

COUNCIL. 

An  assembly  (v.  To  assemble,  muster)  is  simply  the 
assembling  together  of  any  number  of  persons,  or  the 
persons  so  assemWed:  this  idea  is  common  to  all  the 
rest  of  these  terms,  which  differ  in  the  object,  mode, 
and  other  collateral  circumstances  of  tlie  action; 
company,  a body  linked  together  (».  To  accompany), 
is  an  assembly  for  purposes  of  amusement;*  Tneet- 
ing,  a body  met  together,  is  an  assembly  for  general 
purposes  of  business;  congregation,  a body  flocked  or 
gathered  together,  from  the  Latin  grex  a flock,  is  an 
assembly  brought  together  from  congeniality  of  senti- 
ment, and  community  of  purpose ; parliament,  in 
French  parlement,  from  parler  to  speak,  signifies  an 
assem/z/y  for  speaking  or  debating  on  important  mat- 
ters; diet,  from  the  Greek  Inairdio  to  govern,  is  an  as 
sembly  for  governing  or  regulating  affairs  of  state; 
congress,  from  the  Latin  congredior  to  march  in  a 
body,  is  an  assembly  coming  together  in  a formal  man 
ner  from  distant  parts  for  the  special  purposes;  con- 
vention, from  the  Latin  convenio  to  come  together,  is 
an  assembly  coming  together  in  an  unformal  and  pro- 
miscuous manner  from  a neighbouring  quarter;  synod, 
in  Greek  cuveJof,  compounded  of  avv  and  signi- 
fies literally  going  the  same  road,  and  has  been  em- 
ployed to  signify  an  assembly  for  consultation  on  mat 
ters  of  religion ; convocation  is  an  assembly  convokea 
for  an  especial  purpose;  council  is  an  assembly  for 
consultation  either  on  civil  or  ecclesiastical  affairs. 

An  assembly  is,  in  its  restricted  sense,  publick,  and  * 
under  certain  regulations ; ‘ Lucan  was  so  exasperated 
with  the  repulse,  that  he  muttered  something  t»o  him- 
self, and  was  heard  to  say,  “that  since  he  could  not 
have  a seat  among  them  himself,  he  would  bring  in 
one  who  alone  had  more  merit  than  their  whole  as- 
sembly;"  upon  which  he  went  to  the  door  and  brought 
in  Cato  of  LTtica.’ — Addison.  A company  is  private, 
and  confined  to  friends  and  acquaintances;  ‘As  I am 
insignificant  to  the  company  in  publick  places,  and  aa 
it  is  visible  I do  not  come  thither  as  most  do  to  show 
myself,  I gratify  the  vanity  of  all  who  pretend  to  make 
an  appearance.’ — Steele.  A meeting  is  either  pub 
lic’/c  or  private:  a congregation  is  always  publick 
Meetings  are  held  by  all  who  have  any  common  busi 
ness  to  arrange  or  pleasure  to  enjoy;  ‘It  is  very  na 
tural  for  a man  who  is  not  turned  for  mirthful  meetings 
of  men,  or  assemblies  of  the  fair  sex,  to  delight  in  tlfat 
sort  of  conversation  which  we  meet  with  in  coffee- 
houses.’— Steele.  A congregation  in  its  limited 
sense  consists  of  those  who  follow  the  same  form  of 
doctrine  and  discipline;  ‘As  all  innocent  means  are  to 
be  used  for  the  propagation  of  truth,  I would  not  deter 
those  who  are  employed  in  preaching  to  common  con 
gre.gatierzs  from  any  practice  which  they  may  find 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


491 


•ejBuasivfc.' — Johnson,  But  tlie  term  may  be  ex- 
ended  to  bodies  either  of  men  or  brutes  congregated 
for  some  common  purpose; 

Their  tribes  adjusted,  clean’d  their  vig’rous  wings, 
And  many  a circle,  many  a sliort  essay, 

Wheel’d  round  and  round : in  congregation  full 
The  figur’d  flight  ascends. — Thomson. 

All  these  different  kinds  of  assemblies  are  formed  by 
individuals  in  their  private  capacity;  the  other  terms 
designate  assemblies  that  come  together  for  national 
purposes,  with  the  exception  of  the  word  convention, 
wliich  may  be  either  domestick  or  political. 

A parliament  and  diet  are  popular  assemblies  under 
a monarchical  form  of  government;  congress  and  con- 
ventionme  assemblies  under  a republican  government: 
of  the  first  description  are  the  parliaments  of  England 
and  France,  the  diets  of  Germany  and  Poland,  which 
consisted  of  subjects  assembled  by  the  monarch,  to 
deliberate  on  the  affairs  of  the  nation;  ‘The  word 
parliament  was  first  applied  to  general  assemblies  of 
the  states  under  Louis  VII.  in  France,  about  the 
middle  of  the  twelfth  century.’ — Blackstone.  ‘ What 
further  provoked  their  indignation  was  that  instead  of 
twenty-five  pistoles  formerly  allowed  to  each  member 
for  their  charge  in  coming  to  the  diet,  he  had  presented 
them  with  six  only.’ — Steele.  Of  the  latter  descrip- 
tion are  the  congress  of  the  United  Provinces  of 
Holland,  and  that  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
and  the  late  national  convention  of  France : but  there 
is  this  difference  observable  between  a congress  and  a 
convention,  that  the  former  consists  of  deputies  or 
delegates  fiorn  higher  authorities,  that  is,  from  inde- 
pendent governments  already  established  ; but  a con- 
vention is  a self-constituted  ctssembbj,  which  has  no 
power  but  what  it  assumes  to  itself ; ‘ Prior  had  not, 
however,  much  reason  lo  complain;  for  he  came  to 
London,  and  obtained  such  notice,  that  (in  1691)  he 
was  sent  to  the  congress  at  the  Hague,  as  secretary 
to  the  embassy.’ — Johnson.  ‘The  office  of  conser- 
vators of  the  peace  was  newly  erected  in  Scotland ; 
and  these,  instigated  by  the  clergy,  were  resolved,  since 
they  could  not  obtain  the  king’s  consent,  lo  summon 
in  his  name,  but  by  their  own  authority,  a convention 
of  states.’ — Hume. 

A synod  and  convocation  are  in  religious  matters 
what  a diet  and  convention  are  in  civil  matters:  the 
former  exist  only  under  an  episcopal  form  of  govern- 
ment; the  latter  may  exist  under  any  form  of  church 
discipline,  even  where  the  authority  lies  in  the  whole 
body  of  the  ministry;  ‘A  synod  of  the  celestials  was 
convened,  in  which  it  was  resolved  that  patronage 
should  descend  to  the  assistance  of  the  sciences.’ — 
Johnson.  ‘The  convocation  is  the  miniature  of  a 
parliament,  wherein  the  archbishop  presides  with 
regal  state.’ — Blackstone. 

A council  is  more  important  than  all  other  species 
of  assembly;  it  consists  of  persons  invested  with  the 
highest  authority,  who,  in  their  consultations,  do  not 
so  much  transact  ordinary  concerns,  as  arrange  the 
forms  and  fashions  of  things.  Religious  councils  used 
to  determine  matters  of  faith  and  discipline;  political 
councils  frame  laws  and  determine  the  fate  of  em- 
pires ; 

Inspir’d  by  Juno,  Thetis’  godlike  son 
Conven’d  to  council  all  the  Grecian  train. 

Pope. 


GUEST,  VISITER,  OR  VISITANT. 

Guest,  from  the  northern  languages,  signifies  one 
who  is  entertained : visiter  is  the  one  who  pays  the 
visit.  The  guest  is  to  the  visiter  as  a species  to  the 
genus : every  guest  is  a visiter,  but  every  visiter  is 
not  a guest.  The  visiter  simply  comes  to  see  the 
person,  and  enjoy  social  intercourse;  but  the  guest 
also  partakes  of  hospitality.  We  are  visiters  at  the 
tea-table,  at  the  card-table,  and  round  the  fire:  we  are 
guests  at  the  festive  board ; 

Some  great  behest  from  heav’n 
To  us  perhaps  he  brings,  and  will  vouchsafe 
This  day  to  be  our  ^uest.— Milton. 

No  palace  with  a lofty  gate  he  wants, 

T’  admit  the  tides  of  early  uIsRants.— Dryden. 


COLLEAGUE,  PARTNER,  COADJUTOR, 
ASSISTANT. 

Colleague,  in  French  colligue,  Latin  tollega,  com 
pounded  of  col  or  con  and  legatus  sent,  signifies  sent 
or  employed  upon  the  same  business ; partner,  from 
the  word  part,  signifies  one  having  h part  or  share. 

Colleague  is  more  noble  than  partner  . men  in  the 
highest  offices  are  colleagues ; tradesmen,  meclMinicks, 
and  subordinate  persons  are  partners:  every  Roman 
consul  had  a colleague;  every  workman  has  com 
monly  u partner. 

Colleague  is  used  only  with  regard  to  community  of 
office;  partner  \s  most  generally  used  with  regard  to 
community  of  interest : whenever  two  persons  are 
employed  to  act  together  or  the  same  business  they 
stand  in  the  relation  of  ctlleagues  to  each  other; 
whenever  two  persons  unite  their  endeavours  either 
in  trade  or  in  games  they  are  denominated  partners: 
ministers,  judges,  commissioners,  and  plenipotentia- 
ries are  colleagues ; 

But  from  this  day’s  decision,  from  the  choice 
Of  his  first  colleagues,  shall  succeeding  times 
Of  Edward  judge,  and  on  his  frame  pronounce 

West. 

Bankers,  merchants,  chess-players,  card-players,  and 
the  like,  have  partners ; 

And  lo!  sad  partner  of  the  genovnl  care. 

Weary  and  faint  I drive  my  gu.. .oar. 

Warton 

Coadjutor,  compounded  of  co  or  con  and  adjutor  a 
helper,  signifying  a fellow-labourer,  is  more  noble  than 
assistant,  which  signifies  properly  one  that  assists  or 
takes  a part ; the  latter  being  mostly  in  a subordinate 
station,  but  the  former  is  an  eqAial. 

The  assistant  performs  menial  offices  in  the  minor 
concerns  of  life,  and  a subordinate  part  at  all  times; 
the  coadjutor  labours  conjointly  in  some  concern  of 
common  interest  and  great  importance.  An  assistant 
is  engaged  for  a compensation ; a coadjutor  is  a volun- 
tary fellow-labourer.  In  every  publick  concern  where 
the  purposes  of  charity  or  religion  are  to  be  promoted, 
coadjutors  often  effect  more  than  the  original  pro- 
moters; ‘Advices  from  Vienna  import  that  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Saltzburg  is  dead,  who  is  succeeded  by  Count 
Harrach,  formerly  bishop  of  Vienna,  and  for  these 
last  three  years  coadjutor  to  the  said  Archbishop.’— 
Steele.  In  the  medical  and  scholastick  professions 
assistants  are  indispensable  to  relieve  the  pressure  of 
business ; ‘As  for  you,  gentlemen  and  ladies,  my  as- 
sistants and  grand  juries,  I have  made  choice  of  you 
on  my  right-hand,  because  I know  you  to  be  very 
jealous  of  your  honour;  and  you  on  my  left,  because 
I know  you  are  very  much  concerned  for  the  reputa- 
tion of  others.’ — Addison.  Coadjutors  ought  to  be 
zealous  and  unanimous;  assistants  ought  to  be  assi 
duous  and  faithful. 


ALLY,  CONFEDERATE,  ACCOMPLICR 

Although  the  terms  ally  and  confederate  are  derived 
from  the  words  alliance  and  confederacy  {v.  Alliance), 
they  are  used  only  in  part  of  their  acceptations. 

An  ally  is  one  who  forms  an  alliance  in  the  political 
sense ; a confederate  is  one  who  forms  confederacies 
in  general,  but  more  particularly  when  such  confede- 
racies are  unauthorized. 

The  Portuguese  and  English  are  allies;  ‘We  could 
hinder  the  accession  of  Holland  to  France,  either  as 
subjects  with  great  immunities  for  the  encouragement 
of  trade,  or  as  an  inferiour  and  dependent  ally  under 
their  protection.’ — Temple.  William  Tell  had  some 
few  particular  friends  who  were  his  confederates ; 
‘Having  learned  by  experience  that  they  must  expect 
a vigorous  resistance  from  this  warlike  prince,  they 
entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  Britons  of  Cornwall, 
and  landing  two  years  after  in  that  country  made  an 
inroad  with  their  confederates  into  the  county  of 
Devon.’— Hume.  This  latter  term  is  however  used 
with  more  propriety  in  its  worst  sense,  for  an  associate 
in  a rebellious  faction,  as  in  speaking  of  Cromwell 
and  his  confederates  who  were  concerned  in  the  deatil 
of  the  king. 

Confederate  and  accomplice  both  imply  a partner  in 
some  proceeding,  but  they  differ  as  to  the  nature  of 
. the  proceeding : in  the  former  case  it  may  be  lawful  oi 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


4^2 


r.nlawful;  in  the  latter  unlawful  only.  In  this  latter 
sense  a confederate  is  a partner  in  a plot  or  secret  asso- 
ciation : an  accomjdice  is  a partner  in  some  active  vio- 
lation of  the  laws.  Guy  Fawkes  retained  his  resolu- 
tion tili  the  last  extremity,  not  to  reveal  the  names  of 
lua  confederates : it  is  the  common  refuge  of  all  rob- 
bers and  desperate  characters  to  betray  their  aecom- 
plices  in  order  to  screen  themselves  from  punishment; 
Now  march  the  bold  confed'rates  through  the  plain, 
Well  hors'd,  well  clad,  a rich  and  shining  train. 

Drvden. 

It  is  not  improbable  that  the  Lady  Mason  (the  grand- 
motl.'er  of  Savage)  might  persuade  or  compel  his  mother 
to  desist,  or  perhaps  she  could  not  easily  find  aecom- 
pHccs  wicked  enough  to  concur  in  so  cruel  an  action, 
as  that  of  banishing  him  to  the  American  plantations.’ 
— Johnson. 


ALLIANCE,  LEAGUE,  CONFEDERACY. 

Alliance,  in  French  alliance,  from  the  Latin  alligo  to 
knit  or  tie  together,  signifies  the  moral  state  of  being 
tied;  league,  in  French  ligue,  comes  from  the  same 
verb  ligo  to  bind;  confederacy  or  confederation,  in 
Latin  confederatio,  from  con  and  fmdus  an  agreement, 
or  fides  faith,  signifies  a joining  together  under  a cer- 
tain pledge. 

* Relationship,  friendship,  the  advantage  of  a good 
understanding,  the  prospect  of  aid  in  case  of  necessity, 
are  the  ordinary  motives  for  forming  alliances.  A 
league  is  a union  of  plan,  and  a junction  of  force,  for 
the  purpose  of  effectuating  some  common  enterprise, 
or  obtaining  some  common  object.  A confederacy  is  a 
union  of  interest  and  support  on  particular  occasions, 
for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a redress  of  supposed 
wrong,  or  of  defending  right  against  usurpation  and 
oppression. 

Treaties  of  alliance  are  formed  between  sovereigns ; 
it  is  a union  of  friendship  and  convenience  concluded 
upon  precise  terms,  and  maintained  by  honour  or  good 
faith.  Leagues  are  mostly  formed  between  parties  or 
email  communities  ; as  they  are  occasioned  by  circum- 
stances of  an  imperative  nature,  they  are  in  this  man- 
ner rendered  binding  on  each  party.  Confederacies 
are  formed  between  individuals  or  communities ; 
they  continue  while  the  impelling  cause  that  set  them 
in  motion  remains;  and  every  individual  is  bound 
more  by  a common  feeling  of  safety,  than  by  any  ex- 
press contract 

History  mentions  frequent  alliances  which  have 
been  formed  between  the  courts  of  England  and  Por- 
tugal ; 

Who  but  a fool  would  wars  with  Juno  choose, 

And  such  alliances  and  such  gifts  refuse  1 

Drydkn. 

The  cantons  of  Switzerland  were  bound  to  each  other 
by  a famous  league,  which  was  denominated  the  Hel- 
vetic league,  and  which  took  its  rise  in  a confederacy 
formed  .against  the  Austrian  government  by  William 
Tell  and  his  companions; 

Rather  in  leagues  of  endless  peace  unite. 

And  celebrate  the  liymenial  rite. — Addison. 

The  history  of  mankind  informs  us  that  a single 
power  is  very  seldom  broken  by  a confederacy.' — 
Johnson. 

Confederacy  is  always  taken  in  a civil  or  political 
sense  : alliance  and  league  are  sometimes  employed  in 
amoral  sense;  the  former  being  applied  to  marriage, 
the  latter  to  plots  or  factions.  Alliance  is  taken  only" in 
a good  acceptation;  league  and  confederacy  frequently 
in  relation  to  that  which  is  bad.  Alliances  are  formed 
for  the  mutual  advantage  of  the  parties  concerned ; 
‘Though  domestick  misery  must  follow  an  alliance 
with  a gamester,  matches  of  this  sort  are  made  every 
day.’ — Cumberland.  Leagues  may  have  plunder  for 
their  object,  and  confederacies  may  be  treasonable; 
Tiger  with  tiger,  bear  with  bear,  you  ’ll  find 
In  leagues  offensive  and  defensive  join’d. 

Tate. 

When  Babel  was  confounded,  and  the  great 
Confederacy  of  projectors  wild  And  vain 

“^Vide  Girard  and  Roubaud;  “Alliance,  ligue,  con- 
federaUon  ” 


Was  si)lit  into  diversity  of  tongues, 
Then,  as  a shepherd  separates  his  flock, 
These  to  the  upland,  to  the  valley  thost, 
God  drave  asunder. — Cowpkr, 


ALLIANCE,  AFFINITY. 

Alliance,  v-  Alliance,  league;  affinity,  in  Latin 
nitas,  from  af  or  ad  a.nd  finis  a border  signifies  a con- 
tiguity of  borders. 

Alliance  is  artificial : affinity  is  natural ; an  alliance  is 
formed  either  by  persons  or  by  circumstances ; an  affinity 
exists  of  itself:  an  alliance  subsists  between  persona 
only  in  the  proper  sense,  and  between  things  figura- 
tively ; ‘ Religion  (in  England)  has  maintained  a pro- 
per alliance  with  the  state.’— Blair.  An  affinity  exists 
between  things  as  well  as  persons;  ‘It  cannot  be 
doubted  but  that  signs  were  invented  originally  to  ex- 
press the  several  occupations  of  their  owners;  and  to 
bear  some  affinity,^  in  their  external  designations,  with 
the  wares  to  be  disposed  of.’— Bathurst.  The  alii 
ance  between  families  is  matrimonial ; 

Ohorrour!  honour!  after  this  alliance 
Let  tigers  match  with  hinds,  and  wolves  with  sheep, 
And  every  creature  couple  with  its  foe.— Dryden. 
The  affinity  arises  from  consanguinity 


BAND,  COMPANY,  CREW,  GANG. 

Band,  in  French  bande,  in  German,  &c.  band,  from 
Mnden  to  bind,  signifies  the  thing  bound  ; company,  v. 
To  accompany ; crew,  from  the  French  cru,  participle 
of  croitre,  and  the  Latin  cresco  to  grow  or  gather,  sig- 
nifies the  thing  grown  or  formed  into  a mass  ; gan<T,  fn 
Saxon,  German,  &c.  gang  a walk,  from  gehen  to  go, 
Signifies  a body  going  the  same  way. 

All  these  terms  denote  a small  association  for  a par- 
ticular object:  a band  is  an  association  where  men  are 
bound  together  by  some  strong  obligation,  whether 
taken  in  a good  or  bad  sense,  as  a band  of  soldiers,  a 
band  of  robbers ; 

Behold  a ghastly  band 
E.ach  a torch  in  his  hand ! 

These  are  Grecian  ghosts  that  in  battle  were  slain. 
And  nnbury’d  remain. 

Inglorious  in  the  plain. — Dryden. 

A company  marks  an  association  for  convenience  with- 
out any  particular  obligation,  as  a company  of  travel- 
lers, a cowipany  of  strolling  players;  ‘ Chaucer  supposes 
in  his  prologue  to  his  tales  that  a company  of  pilgrims 
going  to  Canterbury  .assemble  at  an  Inn  in  Southwark, 
and  agree  that  for  their  common  amusement  on  the  road 
each  of  them  shall  tell  at  lea.st  one  tale  in  going  to  Can 
terbury,  and  another  in  coining  back  from  thence.’— 
Tyrwhit. 

Crew  marks  an  association  collected  together  by  some 
external  power,  or  by  coirjcidence  of  plan  and  motive: 
in  the  former  case  it  is  used  for  a ship’s  crem  ; in  the 
latter  and  bad  sense  of  the  word  it  is  employed  for 
any  number  of  evil-minded  persons  met  together 
from  different  quaiters,  and  co-operating  for  some  bad 
purpose ; 

7'he  clowns,  a boist’rous,  rude,  ungovern’d  crew, 
With  furious  haste  to  the  loud  summons  flew. 

Dryden. 

Gang  is  mostly  used  in  a bad  sense  for  an  association 
of  thieves,  murderers,  and  depredators  in  general;  for 
such  an  association  is  rather  a casual  meeting  from  the 
similarity  of  pursuits,  than  an  organized  body  under 
any  leader;  it  is  more  in  common  use  than  band:  the 
robbers  in  Germany  used  to  form  themselves  into  bands 
that  set  the  government  of  the  country  at  defiance; 
housebreakers  and  pickpockets  commonly  associate 
now  in  gangs  ; 

Others  again  who  form  a gang,"' 

Yet  take  due  measures  not  to  hang  • i 

In  magazines  their  forces  join,  ‘ 

By  legal  methods  to  purloin.— Mallet. 

TROOP,  COMPANY. 

In  a military  sense  a troop  is  among  the  herse  what 
a company  is  among  the  foot;  but  this  is  onlv  a par- 
tial acceptation  of  thr:lerms.  Troop,  in  French 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  493 


Spanish  tropa^  Latin  turha^  signifies  an  indiscriminate  ' 
multitude;  company  {v.  To  accompany)  is  any  number 
joined  together,  and  bearing  each  other  company: 
hence  we  speak  of  a troop  of  hunters,  a company  of 
players;  a troop  of  horsemen,  a company  of  travellers. 

ACCOMPANIMENT,  COMPANION, 
CONCOMITANT. 

Accompaniment  is  properly  a collective  term  to  ex- 
press what  goes  in  cotnpany,  and  is  applied  only  to 
things;  comjjamon,  which  also  signifies  what  is  in  the 
company,  is  applied  either  to  persons  or  to  things;  con- 
comitant, from  the  intensive  syllable  con  and  comes  a 
companion,  implies  what  is  attached  to  an  object,  or 
goes  in  its  train,  and  is  applied  only  to  things. 

When  said  in  relation  to  things,  accompaniment  im 
plies  a necessary  connexion , companion  an  incidental 
connexion ; the  former  is  as  a part  to  a whole,  the  latter 
is  as  one  whole  to  another : the  accompaniment  belongs 
to  the  thing  accompanied,  inasmuch  as  it  serves  to  ren- 
der it  more  or  less  complete  ; the  companion  belongs  to 
the  thing  accompanied,  inasmuch  as  they  correspond : 
in  this  manner  singing  is  an  accompaniment  in  instru- 
mental musick ; subordinate  ceiemonies  are  the  accom- 
paniments \n  any  solemn  service;  ‘We  may  well  be- 
lieve that  the  ancient  heathen  bards,  who  were  chiefly 
Asiatick  Greeks,  performed  religious  rites  and  ceremo- 
nies in  metre  with  accompaniments  of  musick,  to 
which  they  were  devoted  in  the  extreme.’ — Cumbkr- 
L.iND.  A picture  may  be  the  companion  of  another 
picture  from  their  fitness  to  stand  together;  ‘ Alas,  my 
soul:  thou  pleasing  companion  oi  this  body,  thou  fleet- 
ing thing  that  art  now  deserting  it,  whither  art  thou 
flying  T — Steele. 

The  concomitant  is  as  much  of  an  appendage  as  the 
accompaniment,  bat  it  is  applied  only  to  moral  objects: 
thus  morality  is  a concomitant  to  religion ; ‘ As  the 
beauty  of  the  body  accompanies  the  health  of  it,  so  cer- 
tainly is  decency  concomitant  to  virtue.’ — Hughes. 


TO  ACCOMPANY,  ATTEND,  ESCORT, 
WAIT  ON. 

Accompany,  in  French  accompagner,  is  compounded 
Os'  ac  or  ad  and  compagner,  in  Latin  compagino  to  put 
m join  together,  signifying  to  give  one’s  company  and 
presence  to  any  object,  to  join  one’s  self  toitscomiiany ; 
attend,  in  French  attendre,  compounded  of  at  or  ad  and 
tendo  to  tend  or  incline  towards,  signifies  to  direct 
one’s  notice  or  care  towards  any  object;  escort,  in 
French  escorter,  from  the  Latin  cohors  a cohort  or 
band  of  soldiers  that  attended  a magistrate  on  his  going 
into  a province,  signifies  to  accompany  by  way  of 
safeguard. 

We  accompany*  those  with  whom  we  wish  to  go; 
we  a«ewd  those  whom  we  wish  to  serve;  we  escort 
those  whom  we  are  called  upon  to  protect  or  guard. 
We  accompany  oiir  equals,  we  attend  our  superiours, 
and  escort  superiours  or  inferiours.  The  desire  of 
pleasing  or  being  pleased  actuates  in  the  first  case ; the 
desire  of  serving  or  being  served,  in  the  second  case; 
he  fear  of  danger  or  the  desire  of  security,  in  the  last 
llace. 

One  is  said  to  have  a numerous  company,  a crowd 
:f  attendants,  and  a strong  escort;  but  otherwise  one 
terson  only  may  accompany  or  attend,  though  several 
are  wanting  for  an  escort.  Friends  accompany  each 
•»ther  in  their  excursions;  ‘This  account  in  some 
measure  excited  our  curiosity,  and  at  the  entreaty  of 
rhe  ladies  I was  prevailed  upon  to  accompany  them  to 
he  playhouse,  which  was  no  other  than  a barn.’— 
Goldsmith.  Princes  are  attended  with  a considerable 
retinue  whenever  they  appear  in  publick,  and  with  a 
strong  escort  when  they  travel  through  unfrequented 
and  dangerous  roads , ‘ When  the  Marquis  of  Whar- 
ton was  appointed  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  Addi- 
son attended  him  as  his  secretary.’— Johnson.  Creusa 
the  wife  of  .^neas  accompanied  her  husband  on  his 
eaving  Troy  ; Socrates  was  attended  by  a number  of 
his  illustrious  pupils,  whom  he  instructed  by  his  ex- 
ample and  his  doctrines;  St.  Paul  was  escorted  as  a 
prisoner  by  a band  of  three  hundred  men;  ‘ He  very 
prudently  called  up  four  or  five  of  the  hostlers  that  be- 
onged  to  the  yard,  and  engaged  them  to  enlist  utider 

* Vide  Girard:  “Accompagner,  escorter  ” 


his  command  as  an  escort  lO  the  coach. —Haw XEg 

WORTH. 

Accompany  and  attend  may  likewise  be  said  of  per 
sons  as  weil  as  things.  In  this  case  the  former  is  ap- 
' plied  to  what  goes  with  an  object  so  as  to  form  a part 
of  it;  the  latter  to  that  which  follows  an  object  as  a 
dependant  upon  it;  ‘The  old  English  plainness  and 
sincerity,  that  generous  integrity  of  nature  and  honesty 
of  disposition,  which  always  argues  true  greatness  of 
mind,  and  is  usually  accompanied  with  undaunted 
courage  and  resolution,  is  in  a great  measure  lost  among 
us.’ — Tillotson.  ‘ Humility  lodged  in  a worthy  mind 
is  always  attended  with  a certain  homage,  which  ni; 
haughty  soul,  with  all  the  arts  imaginable,  can  pm 
chase.’— Hughes.  Pride  is  often  accompanied  wi  o 
meanness,  and  attended  with  much  inconvenience  .0 
the  possessor;  ‘ The  practice  of  religion  will  notot.ly 
be  attended  wtih  that  pleasure  which  naturally  acc  m- 
panies  those  actions  to  which  we  are  habituated,  out 
with  those  supernumerary  joys  that  rise  from  the  eon- 
sciousness  of  such  a pleasure.’ — Addison. 

Attend  (.v  To  attend  to)  is  here  employed  in  the 
improper  sense  for  the  devotion  of  the  person  to  an 
object.  To  wait  on  is  the  same  as  to  wait  for  or  ex 
pect  the  wishes  of  another. 

Attendance  is  an  act  of  obligation ; wailing  on  that 
of  choice.  A physician  attends  his  patient;  a member 
attends  in  parliament ; one  gentleman  waits  on  an- 
other. We  attend  a person  at  the  time  and  place  ap 
pointed;  we  wait  on  those  with  whom  we  wish  to 
speak.  Those  who  dance  attendance  on  the  great 
must  expect  every  mortification ; it  is  wiser,  therefore 
only  to  wait  on  those  by  whom  we  can  be  received 
upon  terms  of  equality. 

Attend  and  wait  on  are  likewise  used  for  being 
about  the  person  of  any  one ; to  attend  is  to  bear  com 
pany  or  be  in  readiness  to  serve;  to  wait  on  is  actually 
to  perform  some  service.  A nurse  attends  a patient  in 
order  to  afford  him  assistance  as  occasion  requires; 
the  servant  waits  on  him  to  perform  the  menial  duties 
Attendants  about  the  great  are  always  near  the  person 
but  men  and  women  in  waiting  are  always  at  call 
People  of  rank  and  fashion  have  a crowd  of  attend 
ants. 

At  length,  her  lord  descends  upon  the  plain 

In  pomp,  attended  with  a num'rous  train. — Drvde*. 

Those  of  the  middle  classes  have  only  those  who  wail 
on  them  ; ‘ One  of  Pope’s  constant  demands  was  of 
coffee  in  the  night;  and  to  the  woman  that  teazfed  en 
him  in  his  chamber  he  was  very  burdensome;  but 
he  was  careful  to  recom’-ense  her  want  of  sleep.’ — 
Johnson. 


PROCESSION,  TRAIN,  RETINUE. 

Procession,  from  the  verb  proceed,  signifies  the  act  of 
going  forward  or  before,  that  is,  in  the  present  instance, 
of  going  before  others,  or  one  before  another;  train  in 
all  probability  comes  from  the  Latin  traho  to  draw, 
signifying  the  thing  drawn  after  another,  and  in  the 
present  instance  the  persons  who  are  led  after,  or  fol- 
low, any  object;  retinue,  from  the  verb  to  retain,  signL 
fies  those  who  are  retained  as  attendants. 

All  these  terms  are  said  of  any  number  of  persons 
who  follow  in  a certain  order;  but  this,  which  is  the 
leading  idea  in  the  word  procession,  is  but  collateral 
in  the  terms  train  and  retinue:  on  the  other  hand, 
the  procession  may  consist  of  persons  of  all  ranks  and 
stations ; but  the  train  and  retinue  apply  only  to  such  a., 
follow  some  person  or  thing  in  a subordinate  capacity, 
the  former  in  regard  to  such  as  make  up  the  conclud 
ing  part  of  some  procession;  the  latter  only  in  tegart 
to  the  servants  or  attendants  on  the  great.  At  funeraL 
there  is  frequently  a long  train  of  coaches  belonging  u 
the  friends  of  the  deceased,  which  close  the  procession 
princes  and  nobles  never  go  out  on  state  or  publick  oc 
casions,  without  a numerous  retinue. 

The  beauty  of  every  procession  consists  in  the  orde 
with  which  every  one  keeps  his  place,  and  the  regu 
larity  with  which  the  whole  goes  forward ; 

And  now  the  priests,  Potitius  at  their  head, 

In  skins  of  beasts  involv’d,  the  long  procession  led. 

Dryden. 

The  length  of  the  train  is  what  renders  it  most  worth, 
of  notice; 


494 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


My  train  are  men  of  choice  and  rarest  parts, 

That  in  the  most  exact  regard  support 
The  worships  of  their  names. — Shakspeare. 

Tram  is  also  applied  to  other  objects  besides  persons; 
The  moon,  and  all  the  starry  train, 

Hung  the  vast  vault  of  heav’n. — Gay. 

The  number  of  \iie  retinue  in  Eastern  nations  is  one 
criterion  by  whicti  the  wealth  of  the  individual  is  esti- 
mated ; 

Him  and  his  sle  :ping  slaves,  he  slew ; then  spies 
Where  Remus  with  his  rich  retinue  lies.— Drydkn. 


MULTITUDE,  CROWD,  THRONG,  SWARM. 

The  idea  of  many  is  common  to  all  these  terms,  and 
peculiar  to  that  ol  mwZtittrtZe,  from  the  Latin  multus ; 
crowd,  from  the  verb  to  crowd,  signifies  the  many  that 
crowd  together;  throng,  from  the  German  drangen  to 
press,  signifies  the  many  that  press  together ; and  swarm, 
from  the  German  schwarmen  to  fly  about,  signifies 
running  together  in  numbers. 

These  terms  vary,  either  in  regard  to  the  object,  or 
the  circumstance:  multitude  is  applicable  to  any  ob- 
ject; crowd,  throng,  awA  swarm  are  in  the  proper  sense 
applicable  only  to  animate  objects : the  first  two  in 
regard  to  persons;  the  latter  to  animals  in  general,  but 
particularly  brutes.  A multitude  may  be  either  in  a 
stagnant  or  a moving  state;  all  the  rest  denote  a mul- 
titude in  a moving  state ; 

A multitude  is  incapable  of  framing  orders. 

Temple. 

A crowd  is  always  pressing,  generally  eager  and  tu- 
multuous; 

The  crowd  shall  Ca:sar’s  Indian  war  behold. 

Dryden. 

A throng  may  be  busy  and  active,  but  not  always 
pressing  or  incommodious.  This  term  is  best  adapted 
to  poetry  to  express  a multitude  of  agreeable  objects ; 

I shone  amid  the  heavenly  throng. — Mason. 

It  is  always  inconvenient,  sometimes  dangerous,  to 
go  into  a crowd;  it  is  amusing  to  see  the  throng  that 
is  perpetually  passing  in  the'streets  of  the  city:  the 
swarm  is  more  active  than  either  of  the  two  others ; 
U is  commonly  applied  to  bees  which  fly  together  in 
numbers,  but  sometimes  to  human  beings,  to  denote 
their  very  great  numbers  when  scattered  about;  thus 
the  children  of  the  poor  in  low  neighbourhoods  swarm 
in  the  streets ; 

Numberless  nations,  stretching  far  and  wide. 

Shall  (I  foresee  it)  soon  with  Gothick  swarms  come 
forth. 

From  ignorance's  universal  North. — Swift. 

MEETING,  INTERVIEW. 

Meeting,  from  to  meet,  is  the  act  of  meeting  or 
coming  into  company ; interview  compounded  oi  inter 
between,  and  view  to  view,  .s  a personal  view  of  each 
other.  The  meeting  is  an  ordinary  concern,  and  its 
purpose  familiar;  meetings  are  daily  taking  place  be- 
tiVeen  friends; 

I have  not  joy’d  an  hour  since  you  departed. 

For  publick  miseries  ind  private  fears; 

But  this  bless’d  .nesting  has  o’erpaid  them  all. 

Dryden. 

The  interview  rs  extraordinary  and  formal;  its  object 
is  commonly  business  ; an  interview  sometimes  takes 
place  between  princes  or  commanders  of  armies', 

His  fears  were,  that  the  interview  between 

England  and  France  might  through  their  amities 

Breed  him  some  prejudice. — Shakspeare. 

TO  FREQUENT,  RESORT  TO,  HAUNT. 

Frequent  comes  from  frequent,  in  Latin  frequens 
crowded,  signifying  to  come  in  numbers,  or  come  often 
to  the  same  place ; resort,  in  French  resortir,  com- 
pounded of  re  and  sortir,  signifies  to  go  backward  and 
forward  ; haunt  comes  from  the  French  hanter  which 
IS  of  uncertain  original. 

Frequent  is  more  commonly  used  for  an  individual 
who  di>“«  often  to  a nlace  resort  and  haunt  for  a 


number  of  individuals.  A man  is  said  to  frequent  a 
publick  place ; but  several  persons  may  reeert  to  a pri 
vate  place:  men  who  are  not  fond  of  home  frequent 
taverns;  in  the  first  ages  of  Christianity,  wJiile  per 
secution  raged,  the  disciples  used  to  resort  to  private 
places  for  purposes  of  worship. 

Frequent  and  resort  are  indifferent  actions;  but 
haunt  is  always  used  in  a bad  sense.  A man  may 
frequent  a theatre,  a club,  or  any  other  social  meeting, 
innocent  or  otherwise ; ‘ For  my  own  part  I have  ever 
regarded  our  inns  of  court  as  nurseries  of  statesmen 
and  lawgivers,  which  makes  me  often  frequent  that 
part  of  the  town.’— Budge  ll.  People  from  different 
quarters  may  resort  to  a fair,  a church,  or  any  othei 
place  where  they  wish  to  meet  for  a common  purpose ; 

Home  is  the  resort 

Of  love,  of  joy,  of  peace,  and  plenty,  where. 
Supporting  and  supported,  polish’d  friends 
And  dear  relations  mingle  into  bliss. — Thomson. 
Those  who  haunt  any  place  go  to  it  in  privacy  for  some 
bad  or  selfish  purpose ; 

But  harden’d  by  affronts,  and  still  the  same. 

Lost  to  all  sense  of  honour  and  of  fame, 

Thou  yet  canst  love  to  haunt  the  great  man’s  board, 
And  think  no  supper  good  but  with  a lord. — Lewis. 

Our  Saviour /rc^Mcnfed  the  synagogues:  the  followers 
of  the  prophet  Mahomet  resort  to  his  tomb  at  Mecca ; 
thieves  Afflwnt  the  darkest  and  most  retired  parts  of  the 
city  in  order  to  concert  their  measures  for  obtaining 
plunder. 

PEOPLE,  NATION. 

People,  in  Latin  popufus,  comes  from  the  Greek  Xoos 
people,  TtXqdvs  a multitude,  and  troXiis  many.  Hence 
the  simple  idea  of  numbers  is  expressed  by  the  word 
people;  but  the  term  nation,  from  natus,  marks  the 
connexion  of  numbers  by  birth:  peopfe  is,  therefore,  the 
generick,  and  nation  the  specilick  term.  A nation  is  a 
people  connected  by  birth;  there  cannot,  therefore, 
strictly  speaking,  be  a nation  without  & people;  but 
there  may  be  a people  where  there  is  not  a nation. 
*The  Jews  are  distinguished  as  a people  or  a nation, 
according  to  the  different  aspects  under  which  they  are 
viewed:  when  considered  as  an  assemblage,  underthe 
special  direction  of  the  Almighty,  they  are  termed  the 
people  of  God  ; but  when  considered  in  regard  to  their 
common  origin,  they  are  denominated  the  Jewish  na- 
tion. The  Americans,  when  spoken  of  in  relation  to 
Britain,  are  a distinct  people,  because  they  have  each 
a distinct  government;  but  they  are  not  a distinct  na 
tion,  because  they  have  a common  descent.  On  this 
ground  the  Romans  are  not  called  the  Roman  nation, 
because  their  origin  was  so  various,  but  the  Roman 
people,  that  is,  an  assemblage  living  under  one  form  of 
government. 

In  a still  closer  application  people  is  taken  for  a part 
of  the  state,  namely,  that  part  of  a state  which  consists 
of  a multitude,  in  distinction  from  its  government; 
whence  arises  a distinction  in  the  use  of  the  terms ; 
for  we  may  speak  of  the  British  people,  the  French 
or  the  Dutch  people,  when  we  wish  meiely  to  talk  of 
the  mass,  but  we  speak  of  the  British  nation,  the 
French  nation,  and  the  Dutch  nation,  when  publick 
measures  are  in  question,  which  emanate  from  the  go- 
vernment, or  the  whole  people.  The  English  people 
have  ever  been  remarkable  for  their  attachment  to 
liberty ; ‘ It  is  too  flagrant  a demonstration  how  much 
vice  is  the  darling  of  any  people,  when  many  among 
them  are  preferred  for  those  practices  for  which  in 
other  places  they  can  scarce  he  pardoned.’ — South. 
The  abolition  of  the  slave  trade  is  one  of  the  most  glo- 
rious acts  of  publick  justice,  which  was  ever  performed 
by  the  British  nation;  ‘When  we  read  the  history  of 
nations,  what  do  we  read  but  the  crimes  and  follies  of 
men  V — Blair.  The  impetuosity  and  volatility  of  the 
French  people  render  them  peculiarly  unfit  to  legislate 
for  themselves;  the  military  exploits  of  the  French 
nation  have  rendered  them  a highly  distinguished  pev 
pie  in  the  annals  of  history.  Upon  the  same  gro*un« 
republican  states  are  distinguished  by  the  name  of 
people:  but  kingdoms  are  commonly  spoken  of  in  his 
tory  as  nations.  Hence  we  say,  the  Spartan  ptopU 

* Vidr  Roubaud : “ Nation,  peool*  ’’ 


ENGLISH  SYNONYM ES. 


the  Athenian  people,  the  people  jf  Genoa,  the  people 
of  Venice;  but  tlie  nations  of  Europe,  the  African 
nations,  the  English,  French,  German,  and  Italian 
nations. 


PEOPLE,  POPULACE,  MOB,  MOBILITY. 

People  and  populace  are  evidently  changes  of  the 
fame  word  to  express  a number.  Tlie  signification  oif 
♦7)ese  terms  is  tliat  of  a number  gathered  together. 
People  is  said  of  any  body  supposed  to  be  assembled, 
as  well  as  really  assembled; 

The  people  like  a headlong  torrent  go. 

And  every  dam  they  break  or  overflow. 

Shakspeare. 

Populace  is  said  of  a body  only,  when  actually  as- 
sembled ; 

The  pliant  populace. 

Those  dupes  of  novelty,  will  bend  before  us. 

Mallet. 

The  voice  of  the  people  cannot  always  be  disregarded ; 
the  populace  of  England  are  fond  of  dragging  their  fa- 
vourites in  carriages. 

Mob  and  mobility  are  from  the  Latin  mobilis,  signi- 
fying moveableness,  which  Is  the  characteristickof" the 
multitude;  hence  Virgil’s  TOoirVerrMljgMs.  These  terms, 
therefore,  designate  not  only  what  is  low,  but  turnult- 
oous.  A mob  is  at  all  times  an  object  of  terrour:  the 
mobility,  whether  high  or  low,  are  a fluttering  order 
that  mostly  run  from  bad  to  worse ; ‘ By  the  senseless 
and  insignificant  clink  of  misapplied  words,  some  rest- 
less demagogues  had  inflamed  the  mind  of  the  sottish 
mobile  to  a strange,  unaccountable  abhorrence  of  the 
oest  of  men.’—SouTH. 


PEOPLE,  PERSONS,  FOLKS. 

The  term  people  has  already  been  considered  in  two 
acceptations  {v.  People,  notion ; People,  populace), 
under  the  general  idea  of  an  assembly  ; but  in  the  pre- 
sent case  it  is  employed  to  express  a small  number  of 
individuals;  the  word  people,  however,  is  always  con- 
sidered-as  one  undivided  body,  and  the  word 
may  be  distinctly  used  either  in  the  singular  or  plural ; 
as  we  cannot  say  one,  two,  three,  or  four  people;  but 
we  may  say  one,  two,  three,  or  four  persons:  yet  on 
the  other  hand,  we  may  indifferently  say,  such  people 
or  persons ; mnr\y  people  or  persons  ; some  people  or 
persons,  and  the  like. 

With  regard  to  the  use  of  these  terms,  which  is  al- 
together colloquial,  people  is  employed  in  general  pro- 
positions ; and  persons  in  those  which  are  specifick  or 
referring  directly  to  some  particular  individuals:  peo- 
ple are  generally  of  that  opinion;  some  pedple  think  so; 
some  people  attended ; 

Performance  is  even  the  duller  for 
His  act;  and,  but  in  the  plainer  and  simple 
Kind  of  the  people,  the  deed  is  quite  out  of 
Use. — Shakspeare. 

There  were  but  few /lersons  present  at  the  entertain- 
ment; the  whole  company  consisted  of  six  persons; 
‘ You  may  observe  many  honest,  inotfensive  person’s 
strangely  run  down  by  an  ugly  word.’ — South. 

As  the  term  people  is  employed  to  designate  a pro- 
miscuous multitude,  it  lias  acquired  a certain  mean- 
ness of  acceptation  which  makes  it  less  suitable  than 
the  word  persons,  when  people  of  respectability  are 
referred  to;  were  I to  say,  of  any  individuals,  I do  not 
know  who  those  people  are,  it  would  not  be  so  respect- 
ful as  to  say,  I do  not  know  who  those  persons  «re : in 
like  manner,  one  says,  from  people  of  that  stamp  bet- 
ter is  not  to  be  expected ; persons  of  their  appearance 
do  not  frequent  such  places. 

Folks,  through  the  medium  of  the  northern  lan- 
guages, comes  from  the  Latin  vulgus,  the  common 
people:  it  is  not  unusual  to  say  good  people,  or  good 
folks;  and  in  speaking  jocularly  to  one’s  friends,  the 
latter  term  is  likewise  admissible:  but  in  the  serious 
style  it  is  never  employed  except  in  a disrespectful 
^•anner:  such  /o;A:,s'  (speaking  of  gamesters)  are  often 
put  to  sorry  shifts;  ‘ I paid  some  compliments  to  great 
folks  who  like  to  be  comnlimented.’ — Hkrrino 


495 

GENTILE,  HEATHEN,  PAGAN.  - 
• The  Jews  comprehended  all  strangers  under  tl» 
name  of  nations  or  ^entiZes ; among  the  Greeks 

and  Romans  they  were  designated  by  the  name  of  bar- 
barians. By  the  name  Gentile  was  understood  espe 
cially  those  who  were  not  of  the  Jewish  religion,  in 
eluding,  in  the  end,  even  the  Christians;  for,  as  Fleury 
remarks,  there  were  some  among  these  uncircurncised 
Gentiles,  who  worshipped  the  true  God,  and  were  per- 
mitted to  dwell  in  the  holy  land,  provided  they  ob- 
served the  law  of  nature  and  abstinence;  ‘ 'I'here 
might  be  several  among  the  Gentiles  in  the  same  con 
dition  that  Cornelius  was  before  he  became  a Chris- 
tian.’— Tillotson. 

Some  learned  men  pretend  that  the  Gentiles  were 
so  named  from  their  having  only  a natural  law,  and 
such  as  they  imposed  on  themselves,  in  oppo.sition  to 
the  Jews  and  Christians,  who  have  a positive  revealed 
law  to  which  they  are  obliged  to  submit. 

Frisch  and  others  derive  the  word  heathen  from  the 
Greek  Wvoi,  a nation,  which  derivation  is  corroborated 
by  the  translation  in  the  Anglo-saxon  law  of  the  word 
haethne  by  the  Greek  edvog-  Adelung,  however,  thinks 
it  to  be  more  probably  derived  from  the  word  heide  a 
field,  for  the  same  reason  as  pagan  is  derived  from 
pagus  a village,  because  when  Constantine  banished 
idolaters  from  the  towns  they  repaired  to  the  villages, 
ana  secretly  adhered  to  their  religious  worship,  whence 
they  were  termed  by  the  Christians  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury Pagani,  which,  as  he  supposes,  was  translated 
literally  into  the  German  heidener  a villager  or  wor- 
shipper in  the  field.  Be  this  as  it  may,  it  is  evident 
that  the  word  Heathen  is  in  our  language  more  appli- 
cable than  Pagan,  to  the  Greeks,  the  Romans,  and  the 
cultivated  nations  who  practised  idolatry ; and,  on  the 
other  hand.  Pagan  is  more  properly  employetl  for  any 
rude  and  uncivilized  people  who  worship  false  gc ds. 

The  Gentile  does  not  expressly  believe  in  a Livine 
Revelation ; but  he  either  admits  of  the  truth  in  jiart, 
or  is  ready  to  receive  it : the  Heathen  adopts  a posi 
tively  false  system  that  is  opposed  to  the  true  faith : thf 
Pagan  is  the  species  of  Heathen  who  obstinately  per- 
sists in  a worship  which  is  merely  the  fruit  of  his  own 
imagination.  The  Heathens  or  Pagans  are  Gentiles  ; 
but  the  Gentiles  are  notrall  either /featAews  or  Pagans 
Confucius  and  Socrates,  who  rejected  the  plurality  of 
gods,  and  the  followers  of  Mahomet,  who  adore  the 
true  God,  are,  properly  speaking,  Gentiles.  The  wor- 
shippers of  Jupiter,  Juno,  Minerva,  and  all  the  deitip 
of  the  ancients,  are  termed  Heathens.  The  worship- 
pers of  Fo,  Brama,  Xaca,  and  all  the  deities  of  savage 
nations,  are  termed  Pagans. 

The  Gentiles  were  called  to  the  true  faith,  and 
obeyed  the  call;  many  of  the  illustrious  Heathens 
would  have  doubtless  done  the  same,  had  they  enjoyed 
the  same  privilege;  ‘Not  that  I believe  that  all  the 
virtues  of  the  Heathens  were  counterfeit,  and  destitute 
of  an  inward  principle  of  goodness.  God  forbid  we 
should  pass  so  hard  a judgement  upon  those  excellent 
men,  Socrates,  and  Epictetus,  and  Antoninus.’ — Til 
lotson. 

There  are  many  Pagans  to  this  day  who  reject  this 
advantage,  to  pursue  their  own  blind  imaginations; 

And  nations  laid  in  blond  ; dread  sacrifice 

'fo  Christian  pride  ! which  had  with  horror  shock 

The  darkest  Pagans,  offered  to  their  gods. — Young 


FAMILY,  HOUSE,  LINEAGE,  RACE. 

Divisions  of  men,  according  to  some  rule  of  rela- 
tionship or  connexion,  is  the  common  idea  in  thea* 
terms. 

Family,  from  the  'LnWri  f amilia  a family,  riTod  famu- 
lus a servant,  in  Greek  hpiXia  an  assembly,  and  the 
Hebrew  Sd  to  labour,  is  the  most  general  term,  being 
applicable  to  those  who  are  bound  together  upon  the 
principle  of  dependence;  house  figuratively  denotes 
those  who  live  in  the  same  house,  and  is  commonly  ex 
tended  in  its  signification  to  all  that  passes  under  the 
same  roof:  hence  we  rather  say  that  a woman  ma- 
nages her  family ; that  a man  rules  his  house. 

The  family  is  considered  as  to  its  relationships^ 
the  number,  union,  condition,  and  quality  of  its  riem 

* Vide  Roubaud;  “Gemils,  palens” 


490 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


bers : the  house  is  considered  more  as  to  what  is  trans- 
acted within  its  walls.  We  speak  of  a numerous 
family,  a united  or  affectionate  family,  a mercantile 
house;  the  Aoitse  (meaning  the  members  of  the  house 
of  parliament).  If  a man  cannot  find  happiness  in 
the  bosom  of  his  family,  he  will  seek  for  it  in  vain 
elsewhere  ; ‘ To  live  in  a.  family  where  there  is  but  one 
heart  and  as  many  good  strong  heads  as  persons,  and 
to  have  a place  in  that  enlarged  single  heart,  is  such  a 
state  of  happiness  as  I cannot  hear  of  without  feeling 
the  utmost  pleasure.’— Fielding.  The  credit  of  a 
iouse  is  to  be  kept  up  only  by  prompt  payments,  or,  in 
a general  sense  of  the  term,  the  business  of  the  house 
is  performed  by  the  domesticks ; ‘They  two  together 
rule  the  house.  The  house  1 call  here  the  man,  the 
vvonian,  their  children,  their  servants.’ — Smith. 

In  an  extended  application  of  these  words  they  are 
made  to  designate  the  quality  of  the  individual,  in 
which  case  family  bears  the  same  familiar  and  indis- 
criminate sense  as  before:  house  is  employed  as  a term 
of  grandeur. 

* When  we  consider  the  family  in  its  domeslick  re- 
lations; in  its  habits,  manners,  connexions,  and  cir- 
cumstances; we  speak  of  a genteel  family,  a respect- 
■6.\i\e  family,  the  royal  family ; ‘ An  empty  man  of  a 
great  family  is  a creature  that  is  scarce  conversible.’ 
— Addison.  When  we  consider  the  family  with  re- 
gard to  its  political  and  civil  distinctions,  its  titles,  and 
its  power,  then  we  denominate  it  a house,  as  an  illus- 
trious/loi/se;  the /ioxse  of  Bourbon,  of  Brunswick,  or 
of  Hanover;  the  imperial  house  of  Austria.  Any  sub- 
ject may  belong  to  an  ancient  or  noble /amiZy.  Princes 
are  said  to  be  descended  from  ancient  houses  ; ‘ The 
princes  of  the  house  of  Tudor,  partly  by  the  vigour  of 
their  administration,  partly  by  the  concurrence  of  fa- 
vourable circumstances,  had  been  able  to  establish  a 
more  regular  system  of  government.’ — Hume.  A man 
is  said  to  be  of  a family  or  of  no  family : we  may  say 
likewise  that  he  is  of  a certain  house;  but  to  say  that 
he  is  of  no  house  would  be  superfluous.!  In  republicks 
there  are  families  but  not  houses,  because  there  is  no 
nobility;  in  China  likewise,  where  the  private  virtues 
only  distinguish  the  individual  or  his  family,  the  term 
\ouse  is  altogether  inapplicable. 

Family  includes  in  it  every  circumstance  of  connex- 
ion and  relationship;  lineage  respects  only  consan- 
guinity: family  is  employed  mostly  for  those  who  are 
coeval ; Uncage  is  generally  used  for  those  who  have 
gone  before.  When  the  Athenian  general  Iphicrates, 
son  of  a shoemaker,  was  reproached  by  Hermodius 
with  his  birth,  he  said,  I had  rather  be  the  first  than 
the  last  of  my  family.  David  was  of  the  lineage  of 
Abraham,  and  our  Saviour  was  of  the  lineage  of 
David ; 

We  want  not  cities,  nor  Sicilian  coasts, 

AVliere  king  Acestes  Trojan  lineage  boasts. 

Dryden. 

Race,  from  the  Latin  radix  a root,  denotes  the  origin 
or  that  which  constitutes  their  original  point  of  resem- 
blance. A //imZZy  supposes  the  closest  alliance;  a race 
supposes  no  closer  connexion  than  what  a common 
property  creates.  Family  is  confined  to  a compara- 
tively small  number:  ‘A  nation  properly  signifies  a 
great  number  of  families  derived  from  the  same  blood, 
born  in  the  same  country,  and  living  under  the  same 
government  and  civil  constitutions.’ — Temple.  Race 
vs  a term  of  extensive  import,  including  all  mankind, 
as  the  human  race;  or  particular  nations,  as  the  race 
of  South  Sea  islanders;  or  a particular  family,  as  the 
race  of  the  Heraclides  ; from  Hercules  sprung  a race 
of  heroes ; 

Nor  knows  our  youth  of  noblest  race. 

To  mount  the  manag’d  steed  or  urge  the  chase ; 
More  skill’d  in  the  mean  arts  of  vice. 

The  whirling  troque  or  law-forbidden  dice. 

Francis. 


NATAL,  NATIVE,  mDIGENOUS. 

Jfatal,  in  Latin  natalis,  from  natus,  signifies  be- 
.onging  to  one’s  birth,  or  the  act  of  one’s  being  born; 
but  native,  in  Latin  nativus,  likewise  from  natus, 
signifies  having  the  origin  or  beginning ; indigenous,  in 

* Vide  Abbe  Giiard  : “ Famille,  maison.” 
f Ati»e  Roubaud-  “Race  lineage,  famille, maison.” 


Latin  indigena,  from  inde  and  jenitus,  signifies  sprung 
from  a particular  place. 

The  epithet  natal  is  applied  only  to  the  circumstaTice 
of  a man’s  birth,  as  his  natal  day ; his  natal  hour 
a natal  song ; a natal  star ; 

Safe  in  the  hand  of  one  disposing  pow’r, 

Or  in  the  natal  or  the  mortal  hour. — Pope. 

J^Tative  has  a more  extensive  meaning,  as  it  compro 
bends  the  idea  of  one’s  relationship  by  origin  to  an 
object;  .as  one’s  native  country,  one’s  native  soil, 
native  village,  or  native  place,  native  language,  and 
the  like; 

Nor  can  the  grov’ling  mind 
In  the  dark  dungeon  of  the  limbs  confin’d. 

Assert  the  native  skies  or  own  its  heav’nly  kind. 

Dryden. 

Indigenous  is  the  same  with  regard  to  plants,  as  native 
in  regard  to  human  beings  or  animals  ; but  it  is  some- 
times applied  to  people  when  taken  in  a collective 
sense , ‘ Negroes  were  all  transported  from  Africa,  and 
are  not  indigenous  or  proper  natives  of  America  ’ 

NATIVE,  NATURAL. 

JVative  (v.JVatal)  is  to  natural  as  a species  to  the 
genus:  every  thing  native  is  according  to  its  strict  sig- 
nification natural;  but  many  things  are  natural  which 
are  not  native.  Of  a person  we  may  say  that  his 
worth  is  native,  to  designate  that  it  is  some  valuable 
property  which  is  born  with  him,  not  foreign  to  him, 
or  ingrafted  upon  his  character:  but  we  say  of  his 
disposition,  that  it  is  natural,  as  opposed  to  that  which 
is  acquired  by  habit.  iN’ative  is  always  employed  in  a 
good  sense,  in  opposition  to  what  is  artful,  assumed, 
and  unreal ; ‘In  heaven  we  shall  pass  Oom  the  dark- 
ness of  our  native  ignorance  into  the  broad  light  of 
everlasting  day.’— South.  Ji'attcral  is  used  in  an  in- 
different sense,  as  opposed  to  whatever  is  the  effect  of 
Jiabit  or  circumstances ; ‘ Scripture  ought  to  be  under 
stood  according  to  the  familiar,  natural  way  of  con 
struction.’ — South.  When  children  display  them 
selves  with  all  their  native  simplicity,  they  are  inte- 
resting objects  of  notice : when  they  display  their  natu 
ral  turn  of  mind,  it  is  not  always  that  which  tends  tr 
raise  human  nature  in  our  esteem. 


RELATION,  RELATIVE,  KINSMAN, 
KINDRED. 

Relation  is  here  taken  to  express  the  person  relatea, 
and  is  the  general  term  both  in  sense  and  application; 
relative  is  employed  only  as  respects  the  particular  in- 
dividual to  whom  one  is  related;  Ainsman  designates 
the  particular  kind  of  relation ; and  kindred  is  a col- 
lective term  to  comprehend  all  one’s  relations,  or  those 
who  are  akin  to  one.  In  abstract  propositions  we 
speak  of  relations ; a man  who  is  without  relations 
feels  himself  an  outcast  in  society;  ‘You  are  not  to 
imagine  that  I think  myself  discharged  from  the  duties 
of  gratitude,  only  because  my  relations  do  not  adjust 
their  looks  to  my  expectation.’ — Johnson.  I»i  desig- 
nating one’s  close  and  intimate  connexion  with  personx 
we  use  the  term  relative;  our  near  and  dear  relatives 
are  the  first  objects  of  our  regard;  ‘It  is  an  evil  un- 
dulifulness  in  friends  and  relatives,  to  suffer  one  to 
perish  without  reproof.’ — Taylor.  In  designating 
one’s  relationship  and  connexion  with  persons,  kins- 
man is  preferable  ; when  a man  has  not  any  childreii 
he  frequently  adopts  one  of  his  kinsmen  as  his  heir: 
when  the  ties  of  relationship  are  to  be  specified  in  the 
persons  of  any  particular  family,  they  are  denominated 
kindred;  a man  cannot  abstract  himself  from  his  Am- 
dred  while  he  retains  any  spark  of  human  feeling; 
‘Herod  put  all  to  death  whom  lie  found  in  Trechoritia 
of  the  families  and  kindred  of  any  of  those  at  Repta  ’ 
— Prideaux 

KIND,  SPECIES,  SORT. 

Kind  comes  most  probably  from  the  Teutonick  kind 
a child,  signifying  related,  or  of  the  same  family;  spe- 
cies, in  Latin  species,  from  specio  to  behold,  signifie 
literally  the  form  or  appearance,  and  in  an  extended 
sense  that  which  comes  under  a particular  form  ; sort, 
in  Latin  sors  a lot,  signifies  that  which  consiitutea 
particular  lot  or  parcel. 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


497 


Eind  and  apettet  are  both  employed  in  their  proper 
lense;  soi-t  has  been  diverted  from  its  original  mean- 
tng  by  colloquial  use ; kind  is  properly  employed  for 
animate  objects,  particularly  for  mankind,  and  impro- 
perly for  moral  objects ; species  is  a term  used  by  phi- 
losophers, classing  things  according  to  their  external  or 
Internal  properties.  Kind,  as  a term  in  vulgar  use,  has 
a less  detinite  meaning  than  species,  which  serves  to 
form  the  groundwork  of  science;  we  discriminate 
things  in  a loose  or  general  manner  by  saying  that  they 
are  of  the  animal  or  vegetable  kind,  of  the  canine  oi 
feline  kind;  but  we  discriminate  them  precisely  if  we 
say  that  they  are  a species  of  the  arbutus,  of  the 
pomegranate,  of  the  dog,  the  horse,  and  the  like.  By 
the  same  rule  we  may  speak  of  a species  of  madness, 
a species  of  fever,  and  the  like ; ‘If  the  French  should 
succeed  in  what  they  propose,  and  establish  a demo- 
cracy in  a country  circumstanced  like  France,  they  will 
establish  a very  bad  government,  a very  bad  species  of 
tyranny.’ — Burke.  Because  diseases  have  been 
brought  under  a systematick  arrangement  ; but,  on  the 
other  hand,  we  should  speak  of  a kind  of  language,  a 
kind  of  feeling,  a kind  of  influence;  and  in  similar 
cases  where  a general  resemblance  is  to  be  expressed; 
‘An  ungrateful  person  is  a kind  of  thoroughfare  or 
common  shore  for  the  good  things  of  the  world  to  pass 
into.’ — South. 

Sort  may  be  used  for  either  kind  or  species  ; it  does 
not  necessarily  imply  any  affinity,  or  common  property 
in  the  objects,  but  simple  assemblage,  produced  as  it 
were  by  sors,  chance ; hence  we  speak  of  such  sort  of 
folks  or  people ; such  sort  of  practices ; different  sorts 
of  grain ; the  various  sorts  of  merchandises ; and  in 
similar  cases  where  things  are  sorted  or  brought  to- 
gether, rather  at  the  option  of  the  person,  than  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  thing;  ‘The  French  made  and 
recorded  a sort  of  institute  and  digest  of  anarchy, 
called  the  rights  of  man.’— Burke. 


KINDRED,  RELATIONSHIP,  AFFINITY 

CONSANGUINITY.  i 

The  idea  of  a state  in  which  persons  are  placed  with  ’ 
regard  to  each  other  is  common  to  all  these  terms, 
which  differ  principally  in  the  nature  of  this  state. 
Kindred  signifies  that  of  being  of  the  same  kind  (v. 
Kind);  relationship  signifies  that  of  holding  a nearer 
relation  than  others  (v.  To  connect) ; affinity  {v.  Alli- 
ance) signifies  that  of  being  affined  or  coming  close  to 
each  other’s  boundaries ; consanguinity,  from  sanguis 
the  blood,  signifies  that  of  having  the  same  blood. 

The  kindred  is  the  most  general  state  here  expressed ; 
It  may  embrace  all  mankind,  or  refer  to  particular 
families  or  communities;  it  depends  upon  possessing 
the  common  nroperty  of  humanity,  or  of  being  united 
by  some  family  tie; 

Like  her,  of  equal  kindred  to  the  throne. 

You  keep  her  conquests,  and  extend  your  own 
Drydkn. 

The  philanthropist  claims  kindred  with  all  who  are 
unfortunate,  when  it  is  in  his  power  to  relieve  them. 
The  term  kindred  is  likewise  distinguished  from  the 
rest,  as  it  expresses  not  only  a state,  but  the  persons 
collectively  who  are  in  that  state  ; ‘Though  separated 
from  my  kindred  by  little  more  than  half  a century  of 
miles,  I know  as  little  of  their  concerns  as  if  oceans 
and  continents  were  between  us.’— Covvpkr. 

Relationship  is  a state  less  general  than  kindred,  but 
more  extended  than  either  affinity  or  consanguinity ; 
i‘  apriies  to  particular  families  only,  but  it  applies  to 
all  of  the  same  family,  whether  remotely  or  distantly 
related  ; ‘ Herein  there  is  no  objection  to  the  succession 
of  a relation  of  the  half-blood,  that  is,  where  the  rela- 
tionship proceeds  not  from  the  same  couple  of  ances- 
tors (which  constitutes  a kinsman  of  the  whole  blood), 
but  from  a single  ancestor  only.’ — Blackstonk.  The 
term  relationship  is  likewise  extended  to  other  subjects 
besides  that  of  lamilies.  Men  stand  in  different  rela- 
tions to  each  other  in  society ; ‘ The  only  general  pri- 
vate relation  now  remaining  to  be  discussed  is  that  of 
guardian  and  ward. — In  examining  this  species  of  re- 
lationship I shall  first  consider  the  different  kind  of 
guardians.’ — Blackstone. 

Affinity  denotes  a close  relationship,  whether  of  an 
artificial  or  a natural  kind . tliere  is  an  affinity  between 
the  husband  and  the  wife  in  consequence  of  the  mar- 

32 


riage  lie ; and  there  is  an  affinity  between  those  who 
descend  from  the  same  parents  or  relations  in  a direct 
line.  Consanguinity  is,  strictly  speaking,  this  latter 
species  of  descent;  and  the  term  is  mostly  employed 
in  all  questions  of  law  respecting  descent  and  inherit- 
ance; ‘ Consanguinity  ox  relation  by  blood,  and  affinity 
or  relation  by  marriage,  are  canonical  disabilities  (to 
contract  a marriage).’ — Blackstone. 

RACE,  GENERATION,  BREED. 

Race,  V.  Family ; generation,  in  Latin  ge%eratio 
from  genera,  and  the  Greek  ytvvdo),  to  engender  or 
beget,  signifies  the  thing  begotten ; breed  signifies  that 
which  is  bred  {v.  To  breed.) 

These  terms  are  all  employed  in  regard  to  a number 
of  animate  objects  which  have  the  same  origiii ; the 
former  is  said  only  of  human  beings,  the  latter  only  of 
brutes;  the  term  is  employed  in  regard  to  the  dead  as 
well  as  the  living ; generation  is  employed  only  in  re 
gard  to  the  living;  hence  we  speak  of  the  race  of  the 
HeraclidiB,  the  race  of  the  Bourbons,  the  race  of  the 
Stuarts,  and  the  like  ; but  Ihe  present  generation,  the 
whole  generation,  a worthless  generation,  and  the  like  ; 
‘ Where  races  are  thus  numerous  and  thus  combined, 
none  but  the  chief  of  a clan  is  thus  addressed  by  his 
name.’ — Johnson. 

Like  leaves  on  trees  the  race  of  man  is  found. 

Now  green  in  youth,  now  with’ring  on  Iheground, 
So  generations  in  their  course  decay, 

So  fiourish  these  when  those  are  pass’d  away. 

Pope. 

Breed  \s  said  of  those  animals  which  are  bi ought  forth 
and  brought  up  in  the  same  manner.  Hence  we  deno- 
minate some  domestick  animals  as  of  a good  breed, 
where  particular  care  is  taken  not  only  as  to  the  am 
mals  from  which  they  come,  but  also  of  tliose  which 
are  brought  forth ; 

Nor  last  forget  thy  faithful  dogs,  but  feed 
With  fatt’ning  whey  the  mastiff’s  gen’rous 

Drydkn 


TO  BREED,  ENGENDER. 

Breed,  in  Saxon  breetan,  is  probably  connected  with 
braten  to  roast,  being  an  operation  principally  per 
formed  by  fire  or  heat;  engender,  con)pounded  of  en 
and  gender,  from  genitus  participle  of  gigno,  signifies 
to  lay  or  communicate  the  seeds  for  production. 

These  terms  are  figuratively  employed  for  the  act  of 
procreation. 

To  breed  is  to  bring  into  existence  by  a slow  opera- 
tion; to  engender  is  to  be  the  author  or  prime  cause 
of  existence.  So,  in  the  metaphorical  sense,  frequent 
quarrels  are  apt  to  breed  hatred  and  animosity ; the 
levelling  and  inconsistent  conduct  of  the  higher  classes 
in  the  present  age  serves  to  engender  a spirit  of  in.«ob 
ordination  and  assumption  in  the  inferiour  order. 

Whatever  breeds  acts  gradually  ; whatever  engen 
ders  produces  immediately,  as  cause  and  effect.  Un 
cleanliness  breeds  diseases  of  the  body;  want  of  occu 
pation  breeds  those  of  the  mind  ; ‘ The  strong  desire  of 
fame  breeds  several  vicious  habits  in  the  mind.’ — Ad- 
dison. Playing  at  chance  games  engenders  a love  of 
money  ; ‘ Eve’s  dream  is  full  of  those  high  conceits  en- 
gendering pride,  whicli,  we  are  told,  the  Devil  en 
deavoured  to  instil  into  her.’ — Addison. 


LAND,  COUNTRY. 

Land,  in  German  land,  &c.  from  lean  and  line,  sig- 
nifies an  open,  even  space,  and  refers  strictly  to  the 
earth  ; country,  \n  French  contree,  from  con  and  terra, 
signifies  lands  adjoining  so  as  to  form  one  portion. 
The  term  land,  therefore,  properly  excludes  the  idea  of 
habitation  ; the  term  country  excludes  that  of  tlie  earth, 
or  the  parts  of  which  it  is  composed . hence  we  speak 
of  the  land,  as  rich  or  poor,  according  to  wliat  it 
yields  ; of  a country,  as  rich  or  poor,  according  to  what 
its  inhabitants  possess;  so,  in  like  manner,  we  say,  the 
land  is  ploughed  or  prepared  for  receiving  the  grain ; 
but  the  country  is  cultivated ; the  country  is  under  a 
good  government;  or,  a man’s  country  is  dear  to  him 
In  an  exlended  ap[)lication,  however,  these  words  may 
be  put  lor  one  another;  the  word  land  may  sometimos 
be  put  for  any  portion  of  land  that  is  under  a govern 


498 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES 


ment,  as  the  land  of  liberty ; ‘ You  are  still  in  the  land 
of  the  living,  and  have  all  the  means  that  can  be  de- 
sired, whereby  to  prevent  your  falling  into  condemna- 
tion.’— Bkvkridge.  Country  may  be  put  for  the  soil, 
as  a rich  country ; ‘ We  love  our  country  as  the  seat  of 
religion,  liberty,  and  laws.’ — Blair. 

NEIGHBOURHOOD,  VICINITY. 

Neighbourhood,  from  nigh,  signifies  the  place  which 
is  niglf,  that  is,  nigh  to  one’s  habitation ; vicinity,  from 
vicus  a village,  signifies  the  place  which  does  not  ex- 
ceed in  distance  the  extent  of  a village. 

Neighbourhood,  which  is  of  Saxon  origin,  and  first 
admitted  into  our  language,  is  employed  in  reference  to 
the  inhabitants,  or  in  regard  to  inhabited  places ; that 
is,  it  signifies  either  a community  of  neighbours,  or  the 
place  they  occupy;  but  vicinity,  which  in  Latin  bears 
the  same  acceptation  as  neighbourhood,  is  employed  in 
English  for  the  place  in  general,  that  is,  near  to  the  per- 
son speaking,  whether  inhabited  or  otherwise:  hence 
the  propriety  of  saying,  a populous  neighbourhood,  a 
quiet  neighbourhood,  a respectable  neighbourhood,  and 
a pleasant  neighbourhood,  either  as  it  respects  the  peo- 
ple or  the  country ; to  live  in  the  vicinity  of  a man  - 
factory,  to  be  in  the  vicinity  of  the  metropolis  or  of  the 
sea;  ‘Though  the  soul  be  not  actually  debauched,  yet 
it  is  something  to  be  in  the  neighbourhood  of  destruc- 
tion.’— South.  ‘ The  Dutch,  by  the  vicinity  of  their 
settlements  to  the  coast  of  Caraccas,  gradually  en- 
grossed the  greatest  pait  of  the  cocoa  trade.’ — Ro- 
bertson. 

DISTRICT,  REGION,  TRACT,  QUARTER. 

District,  in  Latin  districtus,  from  distringo  to  bind 
separately,  signifies  a certain  part  marked  off  specifi- 
cally ; region,  in  Latin  regio  from  rego  to  rule,  signifies 
a portion  that  is  within  rule;  tract,  in  Latin  tractus, 
from  traho  to  draw,  signifies  a part  drawn  out ; quarter 
signifies  literally  a fourth  part. 

These  terms  are  all  applied  to  country ; the  former 
two  comprehending  divisions  marked  out  on  political 
grounds ; the  latter  a geographical  or  an  indefinite  divi- 
sion; district  is  smaller  than  a region;  the  former 
refers  only  to  part  of  a country,  the  latter  frequently 
applies  to  a whole  country : a quarter  is  indefinite,  and 
may  be  applied  either  to  a quarter  of  the  world  or  a 
particular  neighbourhood ; a tract  is  the  smallest  por- 
tion of  all,  and  comprehends  frequently  no  more  than 
what  may  fall  within  the  compass  of  the  eye.  We 
consider  a district  only  with  relation  to  government; 
every  magistrate  acts  within  a certain  district ; ‘ The 
very  inequality  of  representation,  which  is  so  foolishly 
complained  of,  is  perhaps  the  very  thing  which  pre- 
vents us  from  thinking  or  acting  as  members  for  dis- 
tricts.'— Burke.  We  speak  of  a region  when  con- 
sidering the  circumstances  of  climate,  or  the  natural 
properties  which  distinguish  different  parts  of  the 
earth,  as  the  regions  of  heat  and  cold  ; 

Between  those  regions  and  our  upper  light 
Deep  forests  and  impenetrable  night 
Possess  the  middle  space. — Dryden. 

Wc  speak  of  a tract  to  designate  the  land  that  runs  on 
in  a line,  as  a mountainous  tract;  so  likewise  figura- 
tively to  pursue  a tract  or  a line  of  thinking ; 

My  timorous  muse 

Unambitious  tracts  pursues.— Cowley. 

We  speak  of  the  simply  to  designate  a point  of 

the  compass;  as  a person  lives  in  a certain  quarter  of 
the  town  that  is  north,  or  south-east,  or  west,  &c.  and 
so  also  in  an  extended  application,  we  say,  to  meet 
with  opposition  in  an  unexpected  quarter;  ‘ There  is  no 
man  in  any  rank  who  is  always  at  liberty  to  act  as  he 
would  incline.  In  some  quarter  ox  other  he  is  limited 
ay  circumstances.’— Blair. 

TO  FOUND,  GROUND,  REST,  BUILD. 

Found,  in  French  fonder,  Latin /uredo,  comes  from 
fundus  the  ground,  and,  like  the  verb  ground,  properly 
eignifies  to  make  firm  in  the  ground,  to  make  the 
ground  the  support. 

To  found  implies  the  exercise  of  art  and  contrivance 
in  making  a support;  to  ground  signifies  to  lay  a thing 
•0  deep  that  it  may  not  totter ; it  is  merely  in  the  moral 


sense  that  they  are  here  considered,  as  the  verb  w 
ground  with  this  signification  is  never  used  otherwise 
Found  is  applied  to  outward  circumstances ; ground  to 
what  passes  inwardly:  a man  founds  liis  charge 
against  another  upon  certain  facts  that  are  come  to  hia 
knowledge;  he  grounds  his  belie!  upon  the  mo.st  sub- 
stantial evidence:  a man  should  be  cautious  not  to 
make  any  accusations  which  are  not  weW  founded; 
nor  to  indulge  any  expectations  which  are  net  well 
grounded:  monarchs  commonly  found  their  claims  to 
a throne  upon  the  right  of  primogeniture;  ‘The  only 
sure  principles  we  can  lay  down  for  regulating  ourcon- 
duct  must  be  founded  on  the  Christian  religion. ’- 
Blair.  Christians  ^rownd  their  hopes  of  immortality 
on  the  word  of  God  ; ‘ 1 know  there  are  persons  wlic 
look  upon  these  wonders  of  art  (in  ancient  history)  as 
fabulous  ; but  I cannot  find  any  ground  for  such  asus-^ 
pieion,’ — Addison. 

To  found  and  ground  are  said  of  things  which  de 
maud  the  full  e.xercise  of  the  mental  powers  ; to  rest  is 
an  action  of  less  importance;  whatever  is  founded  re- 
quires and  has  the  utmost  support;  whatever  is  rested 
is  more  by  the  will  of  the  individual:  a man  founds 
his  reasoning  upon  some  unequivocal  fact;  he  rests  his 
assertion  upon  mere  hearsay;  ‘Our  distinction  must 
rest  upon  a steady  adherence  to  rational  religion,  when 
the  multitude  are  deviating  into  licentious  and  crimi- 
nal conduct.’ — Blair.  The  words  found,  ground,  and 
rest  have  always  an  immediate  reference  to  the  tiling 
that  supports;  to  build  has  an  especial  reference  to 
that  which  is  supported,  to  the  superstructure  that  is 
raised : we  should  not  say  that  a person  founds  an 
hypothesis,  without  adding  something,  as  observa- 
tions, experiments,  and  the  like,  upon  which  it  was 
founded;  but  we  may  speak  of  liis  simply  building  sys- 
tems, supposing  them  to  be  the  mere  fruit  of  his  dis- 
tempered imagination  ; or  we  may  say  that  a system 
of  ristronomy  has  been  built  upon  the  discovery  of  Co- 
pernicus respecting  the  motion  of  the  earth  ; ‘ They 
w'ho  fiom  a mistaken  zeal  for  the  honour  of  Divine 
revelation,  either  deny  the  existence,  or  vilify  the  au- 
thority, of  natural  religion,  are  not  aw'are,  that  by  dis- 
allowing the  sense  of  obligation,  they  undermine  'he 
foundation  on  which  revelation  builds  its  power 
commanding  the  heart.’ — Blair. 


FOUNDATION,  GROUND,  BASIS. 

Foundation  and  ground  derive  their  meaning  and 
application  from  the  preceding  article  ; a report  is  sala 
to  be  without  any  foundation,  which  has  taken  its  rise 
in  mere  conjecture,  or  in  some  arbitrary  cause  indepen- 
dent of  all  fact ; ‘ If  the  foundation  of  a high  name 
be  virtue  and  service,  all  that  is  offered  against  it  is  but 
rumour,  which  is  too  short  lived  to  stand  up  in  compe- 
tition with  glory,  which  is  everlasting.’ — Steele.  A 
man’s  suspicion  is  said  to  he  without  ground,  which  is 
not  supported  by  the  shadow  of  external  evidence: 
unfounded  clamours  are  frequently  raised  against  the 
measures  of  government;  jealousies  fre- 

quently arise  between  families,  to  disturb  the  harmony 
of  their  intercourse;  ‘ Every  subject  of  the  British  go- 
vernment has  good  grounds  for  loving  and  respecting 
his  country.’ — Blai»r. 

Foundation  and  basis  may  be  compared  with  each 
other,  either  in  the  proper  or  the  improper  significa 
tion  ; both  foundation  and  basis  are  the  lowest  parta 
of  any  structure ; but  the  former  lies  under  ground, 
the  latter  stands  above:  the  foundation  supports  some 
large  and  artificially  erected  pile;  the  basis  supports  a 
simple  pillar:  hence  we  speak  of  the  foundation  of 
St.  Paul’s,  and  the  base  or  basis  of  the  monument; 
this  distinction  is  likewise  preserved  in  the  moral  ap- 
plication of  the  terms:  disputes  have  too  often  their 
foundation  in  frivolous  circumstances;  treaties  have 
commonly  their  basis  in  acknowledged  general  prin 
ciple;  with  governments  that  are  at  war  pacifick  ne- 
gotiations may  be  commenced  on  the  basis  of  the  uti 
possidetis;  ‘ It  is  certain  that  the  basis  of  all  lastinf 
reputation  is  laid  in  moral  worth.’ — Blair. 


TO  BUILD,  ERECT,  CONSTRUCT 
Build,  in  Saxon  bytlian,  French  iatir,  Germao 
bauen,  Gothick  boa,  bua,  bygga,  to  erect  houses,  from 
the  Hebrew  ^"*3  a habitation ; erect,  in  French  trtger. 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES 


Laifn  erectk!,  participle  of  erigo,  compounded  of  e 
nnd  rego,  comes  from  the  Greek  to  stretch  or 

extend,  signifies  literally  to  carry  upward  ; construct, 
in  Latin  constructus,  participle  of  construe,  com- 
pounded of  con  together,  and  struo  to  put,  in  Greek 
^ptavvvut  to  strow,  in  Hebrew  to  dispose  or  put 
in  order,  signifies  to  form  together  into  a mass 

The  word  build  by  distinction  expresses  the  purpose 
of  the  action ; erect  indicates  the  mode  of  the  action ; 
construct  indicates  contrivance  in  the  action. 

What  is  built  is  employed  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
ceiving, retaining,  or  confining ; what  is  erected  is 
placed  in  an  elevated  situation  ; what  is  constructed  is 
put  together  with  ingenuity. 

All  that  is  built  may  be  said  to  be  erected  or  con- 
structed; but  ail  that  is  erecicfZ  or  constructed  is  not 
said  to  be  built;  likewise  what  is  erected  is  mostly 
constructed,  though  not  vice  versd.  We  build  from 
necessity;  we  erect  for  ornament;  we  construct  for 
utility  and  convenience.  Houses  are  built,  monuments 
erected,  machines  are  constructed  ; ‘ Montesquieu  wit-: 
tily  observes,  that  by  building  professed  madhouses, 
men  tacitly  insinuate  that  all  who  are  out  of  their 
senses  are  to  be  found  only  in  those  places.’ — Warton. 
‘ It  is  as  rational  to  live  in  caves  till  our  own  hands 
have  erected  a palace,  as  to  reject  all  knowledge  of  ar- 
chitecture which  our  understandings  will  not  supply.’ 
—Johnson.  ‘ From  the  raft  or  canoe,  which  first 
served  to  carry  a savage  over  the  river,  to  the  construc- 
tion of  a vessel  capable  of  conveying  a numerous  crew 
with  safety  to  a distant  coast,  the  progress  in  improve- 
ment is  immense.  — Robertson. 


ARCHITECT,  BUILDER. 

Architect,  from  architecture,  in  Latin  architectas, 
from  architectura,  Greek  ap^tTficrovoc?),  compounded 
of  dpxi?  the  chief,  and  rexvn  ai't  o'"  contrivance,  sig- 
nifies the  chief  of  contrivers ; builder,  from  the  verb 
to  build,  denotes  the  person  concerned  in  buildings, 
who  causes  the  structure  of  houses,  either  by  his 
money  or  his  personal  service. 

An  architect  is  an  artist  employed  only  to  form  the 
plans  for  large  buildings;  ‘Rome  will  bear  witness 
that  the  English  artists  are  as  superiour  in  talents  as 
they  are  in  numbers  to  those  of  all  nations  besides.  I 
reserve  the  mention  of  her  architects  as  a separate 
elass.’ — Cumberland.  A builder  is  a simple  trades- 
man, or  even  workman,  who  iw/Zds  common  dwelling- 
houses;  ‘ With  his  ready  money,  the  ZiwiZder,  mason, 
and  carpenter  are  enabled  to  make  their  market  of 
gentlemen  in  his  neighbourhood  who  inconsiderately 
employ  them.’ — Steele. 

EDIFICE,  STRUCTURE,  FABRICK. 

Edifice,  in  Latin  eedificium,  from  oedifico  or  cedes  and 
‘ado,  to  make  a house,  signifies  properly  the  house 
made  ; structure,  from  the  Latin  structura  and  struo 
jO  raise,  signifies  the  raising  a thing,  or  the  thing 
•aised  \ fabrick,  from  the  Latin  fabrico,  signifies  the 
fabricating  or  the  thing  fabricated. 

Edifice  in  its  proper  sense  is  always  applied  to  a 
wilding;  structure  awA  fabrick  are  either  employed 
.<s  abstract  actions,  or  the  results  and  fruits  of  actions : 
hi  the  former  case  they  are  ap|)Iied  to  many  objects  be- 
ddes  buildings;  structure  referring  to  the  act  of  raising 
or  setting  up  together;  fabrick  to  that  of  framing  or 
contriving. 

As  the  edfice  bespeaks  the  thing  itself,  it  requires  no 
modification,  since  it  conveys  of  itself  the  idea  of 
something  superiour;  ‘The  levellers  only  pervert  the 
natural  order  of  things;  they  load  the  edifice  of  so- 
ciety, by  setting  up  in  the  air  what  the  solidity  of  the 
structure  requires  to  be  on  the  ground.’ — Burke.  The 
word  structure  must  always  be  qualified ; it  is  em- 
ployed only  to  designate  the  mode  of  action  ; ‘In  the 
whole  structure  and  constitution  of  things,  God  hath 
4h3wii  himself  to  be  favourable  to  virtue,  and  inimical 
:o  vice  and  guilt.’ — Blair.  The  fabrick  is  itself  a 
ipecies  af  epithet;  it  designates  the  object  as  something 
oi  T ved  by  the  power  of  art  or  by  design ; 

By  destiny  compell’d,  and  in  despair. 

The  Greeks  grew  weary  of  the  tedious  war. 

And,  by  Minerva’s  aid,  a fabrick  rear’d. 

Dryden. 

32* 


49Ji 

The  edifices  dedicated  to  the  service  of  religion  have 
in  all  ages  been  held  sacred : it  is  the  business  of  the 
architect  to  estimate  the  merits  or  dements  of  the 
structure:  when  we  take  a survey  of  the  \ast  fabrick 
of  the  universe,  the  mind  becomes  bewildered  with 
contemplating  the  infinite  power  of  its  Divine  Author. 

When  employed  in  the  abstract  sense  of  actions, 
structure  is  limited  to  objects  of  magnitude,  or  such  as 
consist  of  complicated  fabrick  is  e.\tended  to 

every  thing  in  which  art  or  contrivance  is  requisite; 
hence  we  may  speak  of  the  structure  of  vessels,  and 
the  fabrick  of  cloth,  iron  ware,  and  the  like. 

CORNER,  ANGLE. 

Corner  answers  to  the  French  coin,  and  Greek  ywvta, 
which  signifies  either  a corner  or  a hidden  place  ; an- 
gle, in  Latin  angulus,  comes  in  all  probability  from 
dyKOiv  the  elbow. 

Tlie  vulgar  use  of  corner  in  the  ordinary  concerns 
of  life,  and  the  technical  use  of  angle  in  the  science 
of  mathematicks,  is  not  the  only  distinction  between 
these  terms. 

Corner  properly  implies  the  outer  extreme  point  of 
any  solid  body  ; angle,  on  the  contrary,  the  inner  ex- 
tremity produced  by  the  meeting  of  two  right  lines. 
When  speaking  therefore  of  solid  bodies,  corner  and 
angle  may  be  both  employed;  but  in  regard  to  simple 
right  lines,  the  word  angle  only  is  applicable : in  tlie 
former  case  a corner  is  produced  by  the  meeting  of  the 
different  parts  of  a body  whether  inwardly  or  out 
wardly;  but  an  angle  is  produced  by  tlie  meeting  ol 
two  bodies:  one  house  has  many  corners;  two  houses 
or  two  walls,  at  least,  are  requisite  to  make  an  angle; 
‘ Jewellers  grind  their  diamonds  with  many  sides  and 
angles,  that  their  lustre  may  appear  many  ways.’ — 
Derham. 

We  likewise  speak  of  making  an  angle  by  the  di 
rection  that  is  taken  in  going  either  by  land  or  sea, 
because  such  a course  is  equivalent  to  a right  line;  in 
that  case  the  word  corner  could  not  be  substituted: 
on  the  other  hand,  the  word  corner  is  often  used  for  a 
place  of  secrecy  or  obscurity,  agreeably  to  the  deriva- 
tion of  the  term ; ‘ Some  men,  like  pictures,  are  fitte» 
for  a corner  than  for  a full  light.’— Pop« 

PILLAR,  COLUMN. 

Pillar,  in  French  pilier,  in  all  probability  comes 
from  pile,  signifying  any  thing  piled  up  in  an  artificial 
manner.  Column,  in  Latin  columna,  comes  from  colu- 
men a prop  or  support.  In  their  original  meaning, 
therefore,  it  is  obvious  that  these  words  differ  essen- 
tially, although  in  their  present  use  they  refer  to  the 
same  object.  The  pillar  mostly  serves  as  a column  or 
support,  and  the  column  is  always  a pillar ; but  some 
times  a pillar  does  not  serve  as  a prop,  and  then  it  is 
called  by  its  own  name ; but  when  it  supplies  the  place 
of  a prop,  then  it  is  more  properly  denominated  a 
column  ; 

Whate’er  adorns 

The  princely  dome,  the  column,  and  the  arch. 

The  breathing  marbles,  and  the  sculptur’d  gold. 
Beyond  the  proud  possessor’s  narrow  claim, 

His  tuneful  breast  enjoys. — Akenside. 

Hence  the  monument  is  a pillar,  and  not  a column  ; 
but  the  pillars  on  which  the  roofs  of  churches  arc 
made  to  rest,  may  with  more  propriety  be  termed  co 
lumns.  Pillar  is  more  frequently  employed  in  a moral 
application  than  column,  and  in  that  case  it  always  im- 
plies a prop;  ‘ Withdraw  religion,  and  you  shake  all 
the  pillars  of  morality.’ — Blair.  Government  is  the 
pillar  on  which  all  social  order  rests. 


LODGINGS,  APARTMENTS. 

A lodging;,  or  a place  to  lodge  or  dwell  in,  compre 
hends  single  rooms,  or  many  rooms,  or  in  fact  any 
place  which  can  be  made  to  serve  the  purpose;  apart 
ments  respect  only  suits  of  rooms:  apartments,  there 
fore,  are,  in  the  strict  sense,  lodgings ; but  all  lodgings 
are  not  apartments : on  the  other  hand,  the  word 
lodgings  is  mostly  used  for  rooms  that  are  let  out  tc 
hire,  or  that  serve  a temporary  purpose;  but  the  word 
apartments  may  be  applied  to  the  suits  of  rooms  in 
any  large  house:  hence  the  word  lodging  becomes  op 


500 


LNGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


i>ne  ground  restrictea  in  its  ust,  and  apartments  on  the  | 
other : all  apartments  to  let  out  for  hire  are  lodgings , 
but  apartments  not  to  let  out  for  hire  are  not  lodgings. 

MONUMENT,  MEMORIAL,  REMEMBRANCER. 

Monument,  in  Latin  monumentum  or  monimentum, 
Irom  moneo  to  advise  or  remind,  signifies  that  which 
puts  us  in  mind  of  something ; memorial,  from  memory, 
signifies  the  thing  that  helps  the  memory ; and  remem- 
brancer, from  remember  [v.  Memory),  the  thing  that 
causes  to  remember. 

From  the  above  it  is  clear  that  these  terms  have,  in 
their  original  derivation,  precisely  the  same  significa- 
tion, and  differ  only  in  their  collateral  acceptations: 
monument  is  applied  to  that  which  is  purposely  set  up 
to  keep  a thing  in  mind ; memorials  and  remembrancers 
are  any  things  which  are  calculated  to  call  a thing  to 
mind . a monument  is  used  to  preserve  a publick  object 
of  notice  from  being  forgotten ; a memorial  serves  to 
keep  an  individual  in  mind:  the  monument  is  com- 
monly understood  to  be  a species  of  building;  as  a 
tomb  which  preserves  the  memory  of  the  dead,  or  a 
pillar  which  preserves  the  memory  of  some  publick 
event : the  memorial  always  consists  of  something 
which  was  the  property,  or  in  the  possession,  of  an- 
other; as  his  picture,  his  handwriting,  his  hair,  and 
the  like.  The  Monument  at  London  was  built  to  com- 
memorate the  dreadful  fire  of  the  city  in  the  year  1666: 
friends  who  are  at  a distance  are  happy  to  have  some 
token  of  each  other’s  regard,  which  they  likewise  keep 
as  a memorial  of  their  former  intercourse. 

The  monument,  in  its  proper  sense,  is  always  made 
of  wood  or  stone  for  some  specifick  purpose ; but,  in 
the  improper  sense,  any  thing  may  be  termed  a monu- 
ment when  it  serves  the  purpose  of  reminding  the 
publick  of  any  circumstance:  thus,  the  pyramids  are 
monuments  of  antiquity;  the  actions  of  a good  prince 
are  more  lasting  monuments  than  either  brass  or  mar- 
ble ; ‘ If  (in  the  Isle  of  Sky)  the  remembrance  of  papal 
superstition  is  obliterated,  the  monuments  of  papal 
piety  are  likewise  effaced.’— Johnson. 

Memorials  are  always  of  a private  nature,  and  at 
the  same  time  such  as  remind  us  naturally  of  the  object 
to  which  they  have  belonged ; this  object  is  generally 
some  person,  but  it  may  likewise  refer  to  some  thing, 
if  it  be  of  a personal  nature:  our  Saviour  instituted 
the  Sacrament  of  the  Lord’s  Supper  as  a memorial  of 
his  death;  ‘Any  memorial  of  your  good-nature  and 
friendship  is  most  welcome  to  me.’ — Pope. 

A memorial  respects  some  object  external  of  our- 
selves ; the  remembrancer  is  said  of  that  which  directly 
concerns  ourselves  and  our  particular  duty ; a man 
leaves  memorials  of  himself  to  whomsoever  he  leaves 
his  property ; but  the  remembrancer  is  that  which  we 
acquire  for  ourselves:  the  memorial  carries  us  back  to 
another ; the  remembrancer  brings  us  back  to  ourselves : 
the  memorial  revives  in  our  minds  w'hat  we  owe  to 
another;  the  remembrancer  puts  us  in  mind  of  what 
we  owe  to  ourselves;  it  is  that  which  recalls  us  to  a 
sense  of  our  duty:  a gift  is  the  best  memorial  we  can 
give  of  ourselves  to  another : a sermon  is  often  a good 
'remembrancer  of  the  duties  which  we  have  neglected 
to  perform;  ‘When  God  is  forgotten,  his  judgements 
are  his  remembrancers.'' — Cowper. 


GRAVE,  TOMB,  SEPULCHRE. 

All  these  terms  denote  the  place  where  bodies  are 
deposited.  Grave,  from  the  German to  dig,  has 
a reference  to  the  hollow  made  in  the  earth;  tomb, 
from  tumulus  and  tumeo  to  swell,  has  a reference  to  the 
rising  that  is  made  above  it;  sepulchre,  from  sepelio 
to  bury,  has  a reference  to  the  use  for  which  it  is  em- 
ployed. From  this  explanation  it-is  evident,  that  these 
terms  have  a certain  propriety  of  application;  ‘to  sink 
into  the  grave'  is  an  expression  that  carries  the  thoughts 
where  the  body  must  rest  in  death ; 

The  path  of  glory  leads  but  to  line  grave. — Gray. 
To  inscribe  on  the  tomb,  or  to  encircle  the  tomb  with 
flowers,  carries  our  thoughts  to  the  external  of  that 
place  in  which  the  body  is  interred ; 

Nor  you,  ye  proud,  impute  to  these  the  fatilt, 

If  mem’ry  o’er  their  tomis  no  trophies  raise. — Gray. 
T o inter  in  a sepulchre,  or  to  visit  or  enter  a sepulchre, 
reminds  us  of  a place  in  which  bodies  are  deposited ; 


‘ The  Lay  itself  is  either  lost  or  horled,  ntrhapB  fcl 
ever,  in  one  of  those  sepulchres  of  MS5.  vshich  bg 
courtesy  are  called  libraries.’ — PsRWHin 


TO  ADORN,  DECORATE,  EMBELLISH. 

Adorn,  in  Latin  adorno,  is  compounded  of  the  in- 
tensive syllable  ad  and  orno,  in  Greek  wpaiia  to  make 
beautiful,  signifying  to  dispose  for  the  purpose  of  orna 
ment ; decorate,  in  Latin  decoratus,  participle  of  decora., 
from  decorus  becoming,  signifies  to  make  becoming; 
embellish,  in  French  embellir,  is  compounded  of  the 
intensive  syllable  em  or  in  and  bellir  or  bel,  in  Latin 
bellus  handsome,  signifying  to  make  handsome. 

One  adorns  by  giving  the  best  external  appearance 
to  a thing : 

As  vines  the  trees,  as  grapes  the  vines  adorn. 

Dryden. 

One  decorates  by  annexing  something  to  improve  its 
appearance;  ‘ A few  years  afterward  (1751),  by  the 
death  of  his  father,  LordLyttleton  inherited  a baronet’s 
title,  with  a large  estate,  which,  though  perhaps  he  did 
not  augment,  he  was  careful  to  adorn  by  a house 
great  elegance,  and  by  much  attention  to  the  decoration 
of  his  park.’ — Johnson.  One  embellishes  by  gi*  irg  a 
finishing  stroke  to  a thing  that  is  well  execu»ed;  ‘I 
shall  here  present  my  reader  with  a letter  from  a pro- 
jector, concerning  a new  office  which  he  thinks  may 
very  much  contribute  to  the  embellishment  of  the  city.’ 
— Addison.  Females  adorn  their  persons  jy  the  choice 
and  disposal  of  their  dress:  a headdress  is  decorated 
with  flowers,  or  a room  with  paintings ; fine  writing  is 
embellished  by  suitable  flourishes. 

Adorn  and  embellish  are  figuratively  employed;  de 
corate  oidy  in  the  proper  sense.  The  mind  is  adorned 
by  particular  virtues  which  are  implanted  in  it;  a nar- 
rative is  embellished  by  the  introduction  of  some  strik- 
ing incidents. 


OBLONG,  OVAL. 

Oblong,  in  Latin  ohlongus,  from  the  intensive  sylla- 
ble ob,  signifies  very  long,  longer  than  it  is  broad  ; oval 
from  the  Latin  ovum  an  egg,  signifies  egg-shaped. 

The  oval  is  a species  of  the  oblong : what  is  oTsal  is 
oblong;  but  what  is  oblong  is  not  always  oval.  Ob- 
long is  peculiarly  applied  to  figures  formed  by  right 
lines,  that  is,  all  rectangular  parallelograms,  except 
squares,  are  oblong ; but  the  oval  is  applied  to  curvi- 
linear oblong  figures,  as  ellipses,  which  are  distin 
giiished  from  the  circle : tables  are  oftener  oblong  than 
oval;  garden  beds  are  as  frequently  oval  as  they  are 
oblong. 


GLOBE,  BALL. 

Globe,  in  Latin  globus,  comes  probably  from  the 
Greek  yy)^o(l)og  a hillock  of  earth;  ball,  in  Teutonick 
ball,  is  doubtless  connected  with  the  words  bowl,  bow, 
bend,  and  the  like,  signifying  that  which  is  turned  or 
rounded. 

Globe  is  to  ball  as  the  species  to  the  genus;  a globe 
is  a ball,  but  every  ball  is  not  a globe.  The  globe  does 
not  in  its  strict  sense  require  to  be  of  an  equal  rotun- 
dity in  all  its  parts;  it  is  properly  an  irregularly  round 
body  ; ‘ It  is  said  by  modern  philosophers,  that  not  only 
the  great  globes  of  matter  are  thinly  scattered  through 
the  universe,  but  the  hardest  bodies  are  so  porous,  that 
if  all  matter  were  compressed  to  perfect  solidity,  it 
might  be  contained  in  a cube  of  a few  feet.’ — Johnson. 
A ball  on  the  other  hand  is  generally  any  round  body 
but  particularly  one  that  is  entirely  regularly  round ; 
the  earth  itself  is  therefore  properly  denominated  a 
globe,  from  its  unequal  rotundity ; and  for  the  same 
reason  the  mechanical  body  which  is  made  to  repre- 
sent the  earth  is  also  denominated  a globe;  but  in  the 
higher  style  of  writing  the  earth  is  frequently  deno 
minated  a ball,  and  in  familiar  discourse  every  solid 
body  which  assumes  a circular  form  is  entitled  a baU  j 

What  though  in  solemn  silence  all 
Move  round  the  dark  terraqueous  ball. 

In  reason’s  ear  they  all  rejoice, 

And  utter  fortfi  a glorious  voice.— Adwsok. 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


60’ 


TO  EMIT,  EXHALE,  EVAPORATE 
FMit,  from  the  Latin  emitto,  expresses  properly  the 
act  of  sending  out.  exhale,  from  halitus  the  breatn, 
and  exmporate,  from  vapor  vapour  or  steam,  are  both 
modes  of  emitting. 

Emit  IS  used  to  express  a more  positive  effort  to  send 
out ; exhale  and  evaporate  designate  the  natural  and 
progressive  process  of  things:  volcanoes  emit  fire  and 
flames ; 

Full  in  trie  blazing  sun  great  Hector  shin’d 
Like  Mars  commission’d  to  confound  mankind; 

His  nodding  helm  emits  a streamy  ray. 

His  piercing  eyes  through  all  the  battle  stray. — Pope. 
The  earth  exhales  the  damps,  or  flowers  exhale  per- 
fumes : 

Here  paus’d  a moment,  while  the  gentle  gale 
Convey’d  that  freshness  the  cool  seas  exhale. 

Pope. 

Liquids  evaporate;  ‘After  allowing  the  first  fumes 
and  heat  of  their  zeal  to  evaporate,  she  (Elizabetli) 
called  into  her  presence  a certain  number  of  each 
house.’ — Robertson. 

Animals  may  emit  by  an  act  of  volition  ; things  ex- 
hale or  evaporate  by  an  external  action  upon  them : 
they  exhale  that  which  is  foreign  to  them ; they  eva- 
porate that  which  constitutes  a part  of  their  substance. 

The  pole-cat  is  reported  to  emit  such  a stench  from 
itself  when  pursued,  as  to  keep  its  pursuers  at  a dis- 
tance from  itself : bogs  and  fens  exhale  their  moisture 
when  acted  upon  by  the  heat:  water  evaporates  by 
means  of  steam  when  put  into  a state  of  ebullition. 

ERUPTION,  EXPLOSION. 

The  eruption,  from  e and  rumpo,  signifies  the  break- 
ing forth,  that  is,  the  coming  into  view  by  a sudden 
bursting;  explosion,  from  ex  and  plaudo,  signifies 
bursting  out  with  a noise:  hence  of  flames  there  will 
be  properly  an  eruption,  but  of  gunpowder  an  explo- 
sion ; volcanoes  have  their  eruptions  at  certain  inter- 
vals, which  are  sometimes  attended  with  explosions : 
on  this  account  the  term  eruption  is  applied  to  the 
human  body,  for  whatever  comes  out  as  the  effects  of 
humour,  and  may  be  applied  in  the  same  manner  to 
any  indications  of  humour  in  the  mind ; the  term  ex- 
plosion is  also  applied  to  the  agitations  of  the  mind 
which  burst  out;  ‘ Sin  may  truly  reign  where  it  does 
not  actually  rage  and  pour  itself  forth  in  continual 
eruptions.' — South.  ‘ A burst  of  fury,  an  exclama- 
tion seconded  by  a blow,  is  the  first,  natural  explosion 
of  a soul  so  stung  by  scorpions  as  Macbeth’s.’— Cu.m- 

BBRLAND. 

BREACH,  BREAK,  GAP,  CHASM. 

Breach  and  break  are  both  derived  from  the  same 
verb  break  {v.  To  break),  to  denote  what  arises  froiij 
being  broken,  in  the  figurative  sense  of  the  verb  itself ; 
gap,  from  the  English  gape,  signifies  the  thing  that 
gapes  or  stands  open;  chasm,  in  Greek  xdrr/ra  from 
XaiVu,  and  the  Hebrew  to  be  open,  signifies  the 
thing  that  has  opened  itself. 

The  idea  of  an  opening  is  common  to  these  terms, 
but  they  differ  in  the  nature  of  the  opening.  A breach 
and  a gap  are  the  consequence  of  a violent  removal 
which  destroys  the  connexion ; a break  and  a chasm 
may  arise  from  the  absence  of  that  which  would  form 
a connexion.  A breach  in  a wall  is  made  by  means  of 
cannon ; 

A mighty  breach  is  made ; the  rooms  conceal’d 
Appear,  and  all  the  palace  is  reveal’d.— Dryden. 
Gaps  in  fences  are  commonly  the  effects  of  some  vio- 
lent effort  to  pass  through  ; 

Or  if  the  order  of  the  world  below 
Will  not  the  gap  of  one  whole  day  allow. 

Give  me  that  minute  when  she  made  her  vow. 

Drydex. 

A break  is  made  in  a page  of  printing  by  leaving  off  in 
the  middle  of  a line ; ■ Considering  probably,  how  much 
Homer  had  been  disfigured  by  the  arbitrary  compilers 
of  his  work.«i.  Virgil,  by  his  will,  obliged  Tucca  and 
Variusto  add  nothing,  nor  so  much  as  fill  up  the  breaks 
he  had  left  in  liis  poem.’ — Walsh.  A chasm  is  left  in 
wUing  when  inv  words  in  the  sentence  are  omitted; 


‘ The  whole  chasm  in  nature,  from  a plant  to  a man.  Is 
filled  up  with  diverse  kinds  of  creatures.’ — Addison. 

A breach  and  a chasm  always  imply  a larger  open 
ing  than  a break  or  gap.  A gap  may  be  made  m a 
knife;  a breach  is  always  made  in  the  walls  of  a build 
ing  or  fortification  : the  clouds  sometimes  separate  so 
as  to  leave  small  tireafcs ; the  ground  is  sometimes  so 
convulsed  by  earthquakes  as  to  leave  frightful  chasms 
Breach  and  chasm  are  used  morally  ; break  and  gap 
seldom  otherwise  than  in  application  to  natural  ob- 
jects. Trifling  circumstances  occasion  wide  breaches 
in  families; 

When  breach  of  faith  join’d  hearts  docs  disengage. 
The  calmest  temper  turns  to  wildest  rage. — Lee. 
The  death  of  relatives  often  produces  a sad  chasm  in 
the  enjoyments  of  individuals; 

Some  lazy  ages,  lost  in  ease. 

No  action  leave  to  busy  chronicles; 

Such,  whose  supine  felicity  but  makes 
In  story  chasms,  in  epochas  mistakes. — Dryden 

TO  BREAK,  RACK,  REND,  TEAR. 

Break,  in  Saxon  brecan,  Danish  and  Low  Germari 
breken.  High  German  brechen,  Latin  frango,  Greek 
Ppr^yvvpi,  ^prixvvo),  Chaldee  p‘^3  to  separate;  rack 
comes  from  the  same  source  as  break ; it  is  properly 
the  root  of  this  word,  and  an  ononiatopeia,  conveying 
a sound  correspondent  with  what  is  made  by  breaking; 
rak  in  Swedish,  and  racco  in  Icelandish,  signifies  a 
breaking  of  the  ice;  rend  is  in  Saxon  hrendan,  kred- 
dan.  Low  German  ritan,  High  German  reissen  to  split, 
Greek  pi/crau),  Hebrew  to  break  in  pieces ; tear,  in 
Saxon  taeran.  Low  German  tiren.  High  German  zer 
ren,  is  an  intensive  verb  from  ziehen  to  pull,  Greek 
rpww,  reipcii  to  bruise,  Hebrew  to  split,  divide,  oi 
cleave. 

The  forcible  division  of  any  substance  is  the  com 
mon  characteristick  of  these  terms. 

Break  is  the  generick  term,  the  rest  specifick:  every 
thing  racked,  rent,  or  torn  is  broken,  but  notBJce  versa. 
Break  has  however  a specifick  meaning,  in  which  it  is 
comparable  with  the  others.  Breaking  requires  less 
violence  than  either  of  the  others : brittle  things  may 
be  broken  with  the  slightest  touch,  but  nothing  can  be 
racked  without  intentional  violence  of  an  extraordinary 
kind.  Glass  is  quickly  broken;  a table  is  racked. 
Hard  substances  only  are  broken  or  racked;  but  every 
thing  of  a soft  texture  and  composition  may  be  rent 
or  torn. 

Breaking  is  performed  by  means  of  a blow ; racking 
by  that  of  a violent  concussion ; but  rending  and  tear- 
ing are  the  consequences  of  a pull.  Any  thing  of 
wood  or  stone  is  broken ; any  thing  of  a complicated 
structure,  with  hinges  and  joints,  is  racked;  cloth  is 
rent,  paper  is  torn.  Rend  is  sometimes  used  for  what 
is  done  by  design;  a tear  is  always  faulty.  Cloth  is 
sometimes  rent  rather  than  cut  when  it  is  wanted  to 
be  divided ; but  when  it  is  torn  H is  injured.  These 
terms  are  similarly  distinguished  in  their  figurative 
application ; 

Cutout  affection! 

All  bond  and  privilege  of  nature  break. 

Shakspeark 

Long  has  this  secret  struggl’d  in  my  breast; 

Long  has  it  rack'd  and  rent  rny  tortur'd  bosom. 

Smith 

The  people  rend  the  skies  with  loud  applause. 

And  heaven  can  hear  no  other  name  but  yours. 

Dryden. 

She  sigh’d,  she  sobb’d,  and,  furious  with  despair. 

She  rent  her  garments,  and  she  tore  her  hair. 

Dryden. 

Who  would  not  bleed  with  transport  for  his  country 
Tear  every  tender  passion  from  his  heart  1 

Thomson. 

TO  BREAK,  BRUISE,  SQUEEZE,  POUND, 
CRUSH. 

Break,  V.  To  break,  rack,  bruise,  in  French  briser 
Saxon  brysed,  not  improbably  fro.m  the  same  source  at 
nress;  squeeze,  in  Sa.xon  cwysin.  Low  German  quiet  sen. 


602 


Ex\GLISH  SYNONYMES. 


quoesai,  Swedish  qucesa,  Latin  qtatio  to  shake,  or  pro- 
duce a concussion ; pound,  in  Saxon  is  not  im- 

probably derived  by  a change  of  letters  from  the  Latin 
mndo  to  bruise ; crush,  in  French  ecraser,  is  most  pro- 
bably only  a variation  of  the  word  squeeze,  like  crash, 
or  squash. 

Break  always  implies  the  separation  of  the  compo- 
nent parts  of  a body;  bruise  denotes  simply  the  de- 
itroying  the  continuity  of  the  parts.  Hard,  brittle 
substances,  as  glass,  are  broken ; 

Dash  my  devoted  bark!  ye  surges,  break  it! 

’T  is  for  my  ruin  that  the  tempest  rises.— Rowk. 
Soft,  pulpy  substances,  as  flesh  or  fruits,  are  bruised; 

Yet  lab’ring  well  his  little  spot  of  ground. 

Some  scatl’ring  potherbs  here  and  there  he  found ; 

Which,  cultivated  with  his  daily  care. 

And,  bruis'd  with  vervain,  were  his  daily  fare. 

Dryden. 

The  operation  of  bruising  is  performed  either  by  a 
violent  blow  or  by  pressure ; that  of  squeezing  by 
compression  only.  Metals,  particularly  lead  and  silver, 
may  be  bruised;  fruits  may  be  either  bruised  or 
squeezed.  In  this  latter  sense  bruise  applies  to  the 
harder  substances,  or  indicates  a violent  compression ; 
squeeze  is  used  for  soft  substances  or  a gentle  com- 
pression. The  kernels  of  nuts  are  bruised;  oranges 
or  apples  are  squeezed; 

He  therefore  first  among  the  swains  was  found, 

To  reap  the  produce  of  his  labour’d  ground. 

And  squeeze  the  combs  with  golden  liquor  crown’d. 

Dryden. 

To  pound  is  properly  to  bruise  in  a mortar  «o  as  to 
produce  a separation  of  parts ; 

And  where  the  rafters  on  the  columns  meet. 

We  push  them  headlong  with  our  arms  and  feet: 

Down  goes  the  top  at  once ; the  Greeks  beneath 

Are  piecemeal  torn,  or  pounded  hito  death. 

Dryden. 

To  crush  is  the  most  violent  and  destructive  of  all 
operations,  which  amounts  to  the  total  dispersion  of  all 
the  parts  of  a body;  ‘Such  were  the  sufferings  of  our 
Lord,  so  great  and  so  grievous  as  none  of  us  are  in  any 
degree  able  to  undergo.  That  weight  under  which  he 
crouched,  would  crush  us.’— ’J'illotson. 

What  is  broken  may  be  made  whole  again;  what  is 
bruised  or  squeezed  may  be  restored  to  its  former  tone 
and  consistency ; what  is  pounded  is  only  reduced  to 
smaller  parts  for  convenience ; but  what  is  crushed  is 
destroyed.  When  tlie  wheel  of  a carriage  passes  over 
any  body  that  yields  to  its  weight,  it  crushes  it  to 
powder ; thus  in  the  figurative  sense  this  term  marks 
a total  annihilation;  if  a conspiracy  be  not  emsAed  in 
the  bud,  it  will  prove  fatal  to  the  power  which  has  suf 
fered  it  to  grow ; 

To  crush  rebellion  every  way  is  just.— Darcy. 

TO  BREAK,  'BURST,  CRACK,  SPLIT. 

Break,  v.  To  break,  rack;  burst,  in  Saxon  beorstan, 
bersten,  byrsien.  Low  German  baisten,  basten.  High 
German  bersten.  Old  German  bresten,  Swedish  brysta. 
Is  but  a variation  of  break;  crack  is  in  Saxon  cearcian, 
French  cracquer,  High  German  krachen.  Low'  German 
kraken,  Danish  krakke,  Greek  KptKeiv,  which  are  in  all 
probability  but  variations  of  break,  &.c. , split,  in 
Dutch  split,  Danish  splitter.  Low  German  splieten. 
High  German  spalten.  Old  German  spilten,  Swedish 
splita,  which  are  all  connected  with  the  German  plat- 
zen  to  burst,  from  the  Greek  anaXvaaopai  to  tear  or 
split,  and  the  Hebrew/^eZaA  to  separate,  palect  or  palety 
to  cut  in  pieces. 

Break  denotes  a forcible  separation  of  the  consti- 
tuent parts  of  a body.  Burst  and  crack  are  onoma- 
topelas  or  imitations  of  the  sound  which  are  made  in 
bursting  and  cracking.  Splitting  is  a species  of 
cracking  that  takes  place  in  some  bodies  in  a similar 
manner  without  being  accompanied  with  the  noise. 

Breaking  is  generally  the  consequence  of  some  ex- 
ternal violence ; every  thing  that  is  exposed  to  violence 
may  without  distinction  be  broken; 

Ambitious  thence  the  manly  river  breaks. 

And  gathering  many  a flood,  and  copious  fed 
With  all  the  mellowed  treasures  of  the  sky. 

Winds  in  progressive  majesty  along. — Thomson. 


Bursting  arises  mostly  from  an  extreme  tension:  coi 
low  bodies,  when  over-filled,  burst; 

Off,  traitors!  Off  ! or  my  distracted  soul 
Will  burst  indignant  from  this  jail  of  nature. 

Thomson. 

Cracking  is  caused  by  the  application  of  excessive 
heat,  or  the  defective  texture  of  the  substance ; glass 
cracks;  the  earth  cracks;  leather  c?-acAs ; 

And  let  the  weighty  roller  run  the  round. 

To  smooth  the  surface  of  th’  unequal  ground , 
Lest  crack'd  with  summer  heats  the  flooring  flies, 
Or  sinks,  and  through  the  crannies  weeds  arise. 

Dryden 

Splitting  may  arise  from  a combination  of  external 
and  internal  causes:  wood  in  particular  is  liable  to 
split; 

Is ’t  meet  that  he 

Should  leave  the  helm,  and  like  a fearful  lad. 
With  tearful  eyes,  add  water  to  the  sea  1 
While  in  his  mean,  the  ship  splits  on  the  rock, 
Which  industry  and  courage  might  have  saved. 

Shakspeark. 

A thing  may  be  broken  in  any  shape,  form,  and  degree. 
bursting  leaves  a wide  gap;  cracking  and  splitting 
leave  a long  aperture ; the  latter  of  which  is  commonly 
wider  than  that  of  the  former. 


RUPTURE,  FRACTURE,  FRACTION 
Rupture,  from  rumpo  to  break  or  burst,  anA  fracture 
or  fraction,  from  frango  to  break,  denote  different 
kinds  of  breaking,  according  to  the  objects  to  which 
the  action  is  applied.  Soft  substances  may  suffer  a 
rupture ; as  the  rupture  of  a blood-vessel : hard  sub- 
stances a fracture;  as  the  fracture  of  a bone.  Rup- 
ture and  fraction,  though  not  fracture,  are  used  in  an 
improper  a[)plication ; as  the  rupture  of  a treaty,  or  the 
fraction  of  a unit  into  parts;  ‘To  be  an  enemy,  and 
once  to  have  been  a friend,  does  it  not  inibitter  the 
rupt  ure? ' — S o uth  . 

And  o’er  the  high- pil’d  hills  of  fractur'd  earth, 
Wide  dash’d  the  waves.— Thomson. 


FRAGILE,  FRAIL,  BRITTLE. 

Fragile  and  frail,  in  French /reZe,  both  come  from  the 
'Latin  fragilis,  signifying  breakable;  but  the  former  ia 
used  in  the  proper  sense  only,  and  the  latter  more  gene- 
rally in  the  improper  sense:  man,  corporeally  consi 
dered,  is  a fragile  creature.,  his  frame  is  composed  of 
fragile  materials;  mentally  considered,  he  is  a fraii 
creature,  for  he  is  liable  to  every  sort  oi  frailty; 

What  joys,  alas!  could  this /rat  > oeing  give. 
That  I have  been  so  covetous  tc Live.— Dryden 
Brittle  comes  from  the  Saxon  brittan  to  break,  and 
by  the  termination  le  or  Us,  denotes  likewise  a capacity 
to  break,  that  is,  properly  breakable ; but  it  conveys  a 
stronger  idea  of  this  quality  than  fragile:  the  latter 
applies  to  whatever  will  break  from  the  effects  of  time ; 
brittle  to  that  which  will  not  bear  a temporary  violence  ; 
in  this  sense  all  the  works  of  men  axe  fragile,  and  in 
fact  all  sublunary  things;  ‘ An  appearance  of  delicacy, 
a.nd  even  of  fragility,  is  almost  essential  to  beauty.’— 
Burke.  But  glass,  stone,  and  ice  are  peculiarly  de- 
nominated brittle;  and  friendships  are  sometimes 
termed  brittle;  ‘The  brittle  chain  of  this  world’s 
friendships  is  as  effectually  broken  when  one  is  “obli- 
tus  tneorum,”  as  when  one  is  “ obliviscenduset  illis.’’ 
— Croft. 


SAP,  UNDERMINE. 

Sap  signifies  the  juice  which  springs  from  the  lojn 
of  a tree;  hence  to  sap  signifies  to  come  at  the  root  of 
any  thing  by  digging : to  undermine  signifies  to  form  a 
mine  under  the  ground,  or  under  whatever  is  upon  the 
ground : we  may  sap,  therefore,  without  undermining; 
and  undermine  without  sapping:  we  may  sap  the 
foundation  of  a house  without  making  any  mine  un- 
derneath; and  in  fortifications  we  may  undermine 
either  a mound,  a ditch,  or  a wall,  without  striking 
immediaiely  at  the  foundation:  hence,  in  the  moral 
applicatPin,  to  sap  is  a more  direct  and  decisive  mode 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


503 


of  destruction  , underviinc  is  a gradual,  and  may  be  a 
partial,  action.  Infidelity  saps  the  morals  of  a nation ; 
With  morning  drams, 

A filthy  custom  which  he  caught  from  thee. 

Clean  from  his  former  practice,  now  he  saps 
His  youthful  vigour. — Cumberland. 

Courtiers  undermine  one  another’s  interests  at  court; 
‘ To  be  a man  of  business  is,  in  other  words,  to  be  a 
plague  anrf  spy,  a treacherous  supplanter  and  under- 
miner Df  the  peace  of  families.’— South. 


TO  ERADICATE,  EXTIRPATE,  EXTERMINATE. 

To  eradicate,  from  radix  the  root,  is  to  get  out  by  the 
root ; extirpate,  from  ex  and  stirps  the  stem,  is  to  get 
out  the  stock,  to  destroy  it  thoroughly.  In  the  natural 
sense  we  may  eradicate  noxious  weeds  whenever  we 
pull  them  from  the  ground ; but  we  can  never  extirpate 
all  noxious  weeds,  as  they  always  disseminate  their 
seeds  and  s[)ring  up  afresh.  These  words  are  seldomer 
used  in  the  physical  than  in  the  moral  sense , where 
the  former  is  applied  to  such  objects  as  are  conceived 
to  be  plucked  up  by  the  roots,  as  habits,  vices,  abuses, 
evils  ; and  the  latter  to  whatever  is  united  or  supposed 
to  be  united  into  a race  or  family,  and  is  destroyed 
root  and  branch.  Youth  is  the  season  when  vicious 
habits  may  be  thoroughly  eradicated;  ‘It  must  be 
every  man’s  care  to  begin  by  eradicating  those  corrup- 
tions which,  at  different  times,  have  temided  him  to 
violate  conscience.’ — Blair.  By  the  universal  deluge 
the  whole  human  race  was  extirpated,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Noah  and  his  family  ; 

Go  thou,  inglorious,  from  th’  embattled  plain  ; 
Ships  thou  hast  store,  and  nearest  to  the  main ; 

A nobler  c?re  the  Grecians  shall  employ, 

To  combat,  conquer,  and  extirpate  'Proy.— Pope. 
Exterminate,  in  Latin  exterminatus,  participle  of 
extermino,  *'rom  ex  or  extra,  and  terminus,  signifies  to 
expel  beyond  a boundary  (of  life),  that  is,  out  of  exist- 
ence. Ir  is  used  only  in  regard  to  such  things  as  have 
life,  and  designates  a violent  and  immediate  action ; 
extirpate,  on  the  other  hand,  may  designate  a progres- 
siv®  acdon:  the  former  may  be  said  of  individuals, 
but  the  atter  is  employed  in  the  collective  sense  only. 
Plague,  pestilence,  famine,  extirpate:  the  sword  exter- 
rninates ; ‘So  violent  and  black  were  Hainan’s  pas- 
sions, that  he  resolved  to  exterminate  the  whole  nation 
to  which  Mordecai  belonged.’— Blair. 

TO  DEFACE,  DISFIGURE,  DEFORM. 
Deface,  disfigure,  and  deform  signify  literally  to 
spoil  i\w  face,  figure,  and/erw. 

Deface  expresses  more  than  either  deform  or  dis- 
figure. ’Po  deface  is  an  act  of  destruction  ; it  is  the 
actual  destruction  of  that  which  has  before  existed:  to 
disfigure  is  either  ati  act  of  destruction  or  an  erroneous 
execution,  which  takes  away  the  figure:  to  deform 
is  altogether  an  imperfect  execution,  which  renders  the 
form  what  it  should  not  be.  A thing  is  defaced  by 
design  ; it  is  di.figurcd  either  by  design  or  accident; 
it  is  deformed  either  by  an  err  our  or  by  the  nature  of  the 
thing. 

Persons  only  deface;  persons  or  things  dhfigure ; 
things  are  most  commonly  deformed  of  themselves. 
That  may  be  defaced,  the  face  or  external  surface  of 
which  may  be  injured  or  destroyed  ; 

Yet  she  had  heard  an  ancient  rumour  fly 
(Long  cited  by  the  people  of  the  sky). 

That  times  to  come  should  see  the  Trojan  race 
Her  Carthage  ruin,  and  her  tow’rs  deface.— Bryden. 
That  may  be  disfigured  or  deformed,  the  figure  or  form 
of  which  is  imperfect  or  may  be  rendered  irnjierfect ; 
‘It  is  but  too  obvious  that  errours  are  committed  in  this 
part  of  religion  (devotion).  These  frequently  dis- 
figure its  appearance  before  the  world,  and  subject  it 
to  unjust  repruich.’— Blair. 

A beauteous  maid  above ; but  magick  art 
With  barking  dogs  deform'd  her  nether  part. 

Drydkn. 

A fine  painting  or  piece  of  waiting  is  defaced  which  is 
torn  or  besmeared  with  dirt:  a fine  building  is  dis- 
figured by  any  want  of  symmetry  in  its  parts:  a build- 
ing is  deformed  that  is  made  contrary  to  all  foim.  A 


statue  may  be  defaced,  disfigured,  and  dej  rmed:  it  is 
defaced  when  any  violence  is  done  to  the  face  or  any 
outward  part  of  the  body  ; it  is  disfigured  by  the  loss 
of  a limb  ; it  is  deformed  if  made  contrary  to  the  per 
feet  form  of  a person  or  thing  to  be  represented. 

Inanimate  objects  are  defaced  or  disfigured, 

but  SG\Aom  deformed  ; animate  objects  are  either  dis- 
figured or  deformed,  but  not  defaced.  A person  may 
disfigure  himself  by  his  dress;  he  is  deformed  by  the 
hand  of  nature. 

BANE,  PEST,  RUIN. 

Dune,  in  its  proper  sense,  is  the  name  of  a poisonou 
plant; /test,  in  French  peste,  Latin  pratrs  a plague, 
ixom  pastum,  participle  of  pasco  to  feed  upon  or  con- 
sume; ruin,  \n  French  mine,  Latin  ruina,  from  rwo 
to  rush,  signifies  the  falling  into  a ruin,  or  the  cause 
of  ruin. 

These  terms  borrow  their  figurative  signification 
from  three  of  the  greatest  evils  in  the  world  ; namely, 
poison,  plague,  and  destruction.  Bane  is  said  ot 
things  only  ; pest  of  persons  only  : whatever  produces 
a deadly  corruption  is  the  bane ; whoever  is  as  ob- 
noxious as  the  plague  is  a pest:  luxury  is  the  bane  of 
civil  society  ; gaming  is  the  bane  of  all  youth ; syco- 
phants are  ihe/iests  of  society  ; 

First  dire  Chimaera’s  conquest  was  enjoined  ; 

Thisj»est  he  slaughter’d  (for  he  read  the  skies). 

And  trusted  heaven’s  informing  prodigies. — Pope. 

Be  this,  O mother ! your  religious  care ; 

I go  to  rouse  soft  Paris  to  the  war. 

Oh  ! would  kind  earth  the  hateful  wretch  embrace, 

That  pest  of  Troy,  that  ruin  of  our  race. 

Beep  to  the  dark  abyss  might  he  descend, 

Troy  yet  should  flourish,  and  my  sorrows  end. 

Pope. 

Bane  when  compared  with  ruin  does  not  convey  sti 
strong  a meaning;  the  former  in  its  positive  sense  is 
that  which  tends  to  mischief ; 

Pierc’d  througli  (he  dauntless  heart  then  tumbles  slain, 
And  from  his  fatal  courage  finds  his  bane. — Pope. 
Ruin  is  that  which  actually  causes  ruin:  a love  of 
pleasure  is  the  Ziane  of  all  young  men  whose  fortune 
depends  on  the  exercise  of  their  talents : drinking  is 
the  ruin  of  all  who  indulge  themselves  in  it  to  excess 


POISON,  VENOM. 

Poison,  in  French  poison,  comes- from  the  Latin 
potia  a potion  or  drink ; venom,  in  French  venin, 
Latin  venenum,  comes  probably  from  vevee  the  veins, 
because  it  circulates  rapidly  through  the  veins,  and 
infects  the  blood  in  a deadly  manner. 

Poison  is  a general  term  ; in  its  original  meaning  it 
signifies  any  potion  which  acts  destructively  upon  the 
system  ; venom  is  a species  of  deadly  or  malignant 
poison:  a poison  may  be  either  slow  or  quick;  a 
tiewora  is  always  most  active  in  its  nature:  a poison 
must  be  administered  inwardly  to  have  its  effect ; a 
venom  will  act  by  an  external  application:  the  juice 
of  the  hellebore  is  a poison  ; the  tongue  of  the  adder 
and  the  tooth  of  the  viper  contain  venom  : many 
plants  are  unfit  to  be  eaten  on  account  of  the  poisonous 
quality  which  is  in  them  ; the  Indians  are  in  the  habit 
of  dipidng  the  tips  of  their  arrows  in  a venomous  juice, 
which  renders  the  slightest  wound  mortal. 

The  moral  application  of  these  terms  is  clearly 
drawn  from  their  proper  acceptation  : Xhe  poison  must 
be  infused  or  injected  into  the  subject;  the  venom  acts 
upon  him  externally:  bad  principles  are  justly  com- 
pared to  a poison,  which  some  are  so  unhappy  as  to 
suck  in  with  their  mothers’ milk ; ‘The  Devil  can  con- 
vey ihe  poison  of  his  suggestions  quicker  than  the  agi- 
tation of  thought  or  the  strictures  of  fancy.’ — South. 
The  shafts  of  envy  are  peculiarly  venomous  when 
directed  against  those  in  elevated  situations; 

As  the  venom  spread 

Frightful  convulsions  writh’d  his  tortur’d  limbs. 

Fenton. 


TO  OVERTURN,  OVERTHROW,  SUBVERT 
INVERT,  REVERSE. 

To  overturn  is  simply  to  turn  over,  which  may  be 
more  or  less  gradual;  but  to  overthrow  is  to  threw 


504 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


over,  wliich  will  bt  more  or  less  violent.  To  overturn 
is  to  turn  a thing  either  with  its  side  or  its  bottom 
upv.  ard;  but  to  subvert  is  to  turn  that  under  which 
sliould  be  upward;  to  reverse  is  to  turn  that  before 
which  should  be  behind  ; and  to  invert  is  to  place  that 
on  its  head  which  should  rest  on  its  feet.  These  terms 
differ  accordingly  in  their  application  and  circum- 
stances : things  are  overturned  by  contrivance  and 
gradual  means ; infidels  attempt  to  overturn  Chria- 
liauity  by  tiie  arts  of  ridicule  and  falsehood  ; 

An  age  is  rip’ning  in  revolving  fate, 

When  Troy  shall  overturn  the  Grecian  state. 

Dryden. 

The  French  revolutionists  overthrew  their  lawful 
government  by  every  act  of  violence  ; 

Thus  prudes,  by  characters  o'erthrown, 

Imagine  that  they  raise  their  own.— Gay. 

To  overturn  is  said  of  small  matters ; to  subvert  only 
of  national  or  large  concerns : domesMck  economy  may 
be  overturned}  religious  or  political  establishments  may 
oe  subverted ; ‘ Others,  from  publick  spirit,  laboured 
to  prevent  a civil  war,  which,  whatever  party  should 
prevail,  must  shake,  and  perhaps  subvert,  the  Spanish 
power.’ — Robertson.  That  may  be  overturned 
which  is  simply  set  up  ; that  is  subverted  which  has 
been  established : an  assertion  may  be  overturned  ; the 
best  sanctioned  principles  may  by  artifice  be  subverted. 

To  overturn,  overthrow,  and  subvert  generally  in- 
volve the  destruction  of  the  thing  so  overturned,  over- 
thrown, or  subverted,  or  at  least  render  it  for  the  time 
useless,  and  are,  therefore,  mostly  unallowed  acts ; 
but  reverse  and  invert,  which  have  a more  particular 
application,  have  a less  specifick  character  of  propriety : 
we  may  reverse  a proposition  by  taking  the  negative 
instead  of  the  affirmative  ; a decree  may  be  reversed 
80  as  to  render  it  nugatory ; but  both  of  these  acts  may 
be  right  or  wrong,  according  to  circumstances;  ‘Our 
ancestors  affected  a ceitain  pomp  of  style,  and  this 
affectation,  I su.spect,  was  the  true  cause  of  their  so 
frequently  inverting  the  natural  order  of  their  words, 
especially  in  poetry.’— Tyrrwhitt.  The  order  of 

particular  things  may  be  inverted  to  suit  the  con- 
venience of  parties  ; but  the  order  of  society  cannot 
be  inverted  without  subverting  all  the  principles  on 
which  civil  society  is  built ; ‘ He  who  walks  not  up- 1 
rightly  has  neither  from  the  presumption  of  God’s 
mercy  reversing  the  decree  of  his  justice,  nor  from  his 
own  purposes  of  a future  repentance,  any  sure  ground 
to  set  his  foot  upon.’— South. 

TO  OVERWHELM,  CRUSH. 

To  overwhelm  (».  To  overbear)  is  to  cover  with  a 
heavy  body,  so  that  one  should  sink  under  it  • to  crush 
is  to  destroy  the  consistency  of  a thing  by  violent  pres- 
sure. A thing  may  be  crushed  by  being  overwhelmed^ 
hut  it  may  be  overwhelmed  without  being  crushed  ; 
and  it  may  be  crushed  without  being  overichelmed. 
7'he  girl  Tarpeia,  who  betrayed  the  Capitoline  hill  to 
the  Sabines,  is  said  to  have  been  overwhelmed  with 
their  arms,  by  which  she  W'as  crushed  to  death.  When 
many  persons  fall  on  one,  he  may  be  overwhelmed, 
Dut  not  necessarily  crushed}  when  a wagon  goes  over 
a body,  it  may  be  crushed,  but  not  overwhelmed  ‘Let 
not  the  political  metaphysicks  of  Jacobins  break  prison, 
to  burst  like  a Levanter,  to  sweep  the  earth  with  their 
hurricane,  and  to  break  up  the  fountains  of  the  great 
Jeep  to  overwhelm  us.’ — Burke. 

Melt  his  cold  heart,  and  wake  dead  nature  in  him. 
Crush  him  in  thy  arms. — Otway. 

TO  ROT,  PUTREFY,  CORRUPT. 

The  dissolution  of  bodies  by  an  internal  process  is 
implied  by  all  these  terms ; but  the  first  two  are  applied 
to  natural  bodies  only;  the  last  to  all  bodies  natuial 
and  moral.  Rot  is  the  strongest  of  all  these  terms  ; it 
denotes  the  last  stage  in  the  progress  of  dissolution ; 
putrefy  expresses  the  progress  towards  rottenness ; and 
corruption  the  commencement.  After  fruit  has  ar- 
rived at  its  maturity  or  proper  state  of  ripeness,  it  rots ; 
Debate  destroys  despatch,  as  fruls  we  see 
Rot  when  they  hang  too  long  upon  the  tree. 

Denham. 

Meal  which  Is  kept  too  long  putrefies  ; 


And  draws  the  copious  stream  from  swampy  feiia. 
Where  putrefaction  into  life  ferments. — Thomson 
There  is  a tendency  in  all  bodies  to  corruption;  iron 
and  wood  corrupt  with  time;  whatever  is  made,  oi 
done,  or  wished  by  men,  is  equally  liable  to  be  corrupt 
or  to  grow  corrupt; 

After  that  they  again  returned  beene, 

That  in  that  gardin  planted  be  agayne 
And  grow  afresh,  as  they  had  never  seene 
Fleshy  corruption  nor  mortal  payne.— Spenser 


DESTRUCTION,  RUIN. 

Destruction,  from  destroy,  and  the  Latin  destnim, 
signifies  literally  to  unbuild  that  which  is  raised  up ; 
ruin,  from  the  Latin  ruo  to  fall,  signifies  to  fall  into 
pieces : destruction  is  an  act  of  immediate  violence ; 
ruin  is  a gradual  process : a thing  is  destroyed  by  some 
external  action  upon  it;  a thing  falls  to  ruin  of  itself. 
We  witness  destruction  wherever  war  or  the  adverse 
elements  rage ; we  witness  ruin  whenever  the  works 
of  man  are  exposed  to  the  effects  of  time.  Neverthe 
less,  if  destruction  be  more  forcible  and  rapid,  ruin  is 
on  the  other  hand  more  sure  and  complete.  What  is 
destroyed  may  be  rebuilt  or  replaced ; but  what  is 
ruined  is  lost  for  ever ; it  is  past  recovery. 

When  houses  or  towns  are  destroyed,  fresh  ones 
rise  up  in  their  place;  but  when  commerce  is  ruined, 
it  seldom  returns  to  its  old  course. 

Z)esfrucffore  admits  of  various  degrees;  rwr/iissome- 
thing  positive  and  general.  The  property  of  a man 
may  be  destroyed  to  a greater  or  less  extent  without 
necessarily  involving  his  ruin; 

Destruction  hangs  o’er  yon  devoted  wall. 

And  nodding  Ilion  waits  th’  impending  fall.— Pope. 
The  ruin  of  a whole  family  is  oftentimes  the  consw 
quence  of  destruction  by  fire ; 

The  day  shall  come,  that  great  avenging  day. 

Which  Troy’s  proud  glories  in  the  dust  shall  lay, 

When  Priam’s  pow’rs,  and  Priam’s  self,  shall  fall, 

And  one  prodigious  ram  swallow  all.— Pope. 

The  health  is  destroyed  by  violent  exercise  or  some 
other  active  cause;  it  is  ruined  by  a course  of  impru 
dent  conduct. 

The  happiness  of  a family  is  destroyed  by  broils  and 
discord;  the  morals  of  a young  man  are  ruined  by  a 
continued  intercourse  with  vicious  companions. 

Destruction  may  be  used  either  in  the  proper,  or  the 
improper  sense;  ruin  has  mostly  a moral  application. 

'J'iie  destruction  of  both  body  and  soul  is  the  con- 
sequence of  sin ; the  ruin  of  a man,  whether  in  hia 
temporal  or  spiritual  concerns,  is  inevitable,  if  he  follow 
the  dictates  of  misguided  passion. 

DESTRUCTIVE,  RUINOUS,  PERNICIOUS. 

Destructive  signifies  producing  destruction  (v.  D»- 
struction) ; ruinous,  either  having  or  causing  (® 
Destruction) ; pernicious,  from  the  Latin  pernicies  or 
per  and  neco  to  kill  violently,  signifies  causing  violent 
and  total  dissolution. 

Destructive  and  ruinous,  as  the  epithets  of  the  pre- 
ceding terms,  have  a similar  distinction  in  their  sense 
and  application ; fire  and  sword  are  destructive  things ; 
a poison  is  destructive ; consequences  ave  ruinous;  a 
condition  or  state  is  ruinous;  intestine  commotiona 
are  ruinous  to  the  prosperity  of  a state ; 

’T  is  yours  to  save  us  if  you  cease  to  fear ; 

Flight,  more  than  shameful,  is  destructive  here. 

Pope 

‘ There  have  been  found  in  history  few  conquests  mors 
ruinous  than  that  of  the  Saxons.’ — Hume. 

Pernicious  ap[)roaches  nearer  to  destructive  than  to 
ruinous;  both  the  former  imply  tendency  to  dissolu 
tion,  which  may  be  more  or  less  gradual;  but  the  latter 
refers  us  to  the  result  itself,  to  the  dissolution  as  already 
having  taken  place;  hence  we  speak  of  the  instrument 
or  cause  as  being  destructive  or  pernicious,  and  the 
action  or  event  as  ruinous  ; destructive  is  tipplied  in 
the  most  extended  sense  to  every  object  which  has 
been  created  or  supposed  to  be  so;  pernicious  is  appli 
cable  only  to  such  objects  as  act  only  in  a limited  way 
sin  is  equally  destructive  to  both  body  and  soul;  cev 
*ain  food  is  pernicious  to  life  body;  certain  books  are 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


50£ 


»ttrmeious  to  the  mind  ; ‘ The  effetts  of  divisions  (In 
a state)  ave  pernicious  to  the  last  degree,  not  only  with 
regard  to  those  advantages  which  they  give  the  com- 
mon enemy ; but  to  those  private  evils  which  they  pro- 
duce in  the  heart  of  almost  every  particular  person.’— 
Addison. 

TO  CONSUME,  DESTROY,  WASTE. 

Consume,  in  French  consumer,  Latin  consumo,  com- 
pounded of  con  and  sumo,  signifies  to  take  away  alto- 
gether, destroy,  in  Latin  <Zest?'Mo,  compounded  of  de 
privative  and  struo  to  build,  signifies  to  undo  or  scat- 
ter that  whicff  has  been  raised ; waste,  from  the  adjec- 
tive waste  or  desert,  signifies  to  make  waste  or  naked. 

The  idea  of  bringing  that  to  nothing  which  has  been 
fftmething  is  common  to  all  the.se  terms. 

What  is  consumed  is  Jest  for  any  future  purpose ; 
what  is  destroyed  is  rendered  unfit  for  any  purpose 
whatever:  consume  may  therefore  be  to  destroy  as  the 
means  to  the  end;  things  are  often  destroyed  by  being 
consumed:  when  food  is  consumed  it  serves  the  in- 
tended purpose;  but  when  it  is  destroyed  it  serves  no 
purpose,  and  is  likewise  unfit  for  any. 

When  iron  is  consumed  by  rust,  or  the  body  by  dis- 
ease, or  a house  by  the  flames,  the  things  in  these  cases 
are  literally  destroyed  by  consumption:  on  the  other 
hand,  when  life  or  health  is  taken  away,  and  when 
things  are  either  worn  or  torn  so  as  to  be  useless,  they 
are  destroyed; 

Let  not  a fierce  unruly  joy 

The  settled  quiet  of  the  mind  destroy. — Addison. 

In  the  figurative  signification  consume  is  synonymous 
with  waste:  the  former  implies  a reducing  to  nothing; 
the  latter  conveys  also  the  idea  of  misuse;  to  waste  is 
to  consume  uselessly  ; much  time  is  consumed  in  com- 
plaining, which  might  be  employed  in  remedying  the 
evils  complained  of;  ‘ Mr.  Boyle,  speaking  of  a certain 
mineral,  tells  us  that  a man  may  consume  his  whole 
life  in  the  study,  without  arriving  at  the  knowledge  of 
its  qualities.’ — Addison.  Idlers  waste  their  time  be- 
cause they  do  not  properly  estimate  its  value:  those 
w ho  consume  their  strength  and  their  resources  in  fruit- 
less endeavours  to  eftect  what  is  impracticable,  are 
unfitted  for  doing  what  might  be  beneficial  to  them- 
selves ; it  is  an  Idle  waste  of  one’s  pow'ers  fo  employ 
them  in  building  up  new  systems,  and  making  men  dis- 
satisfied w'ith  those  already  established; 

For  this  I mourn,  till  grief  or  dire  disease, 

Shall  waste  the  form  whose  crime  it  was  to  please. 

POPK. 

TO  DEMOLISH.  RAZE,  DISMANTLE, 
DESTROY. 

The  throwing  down  what  has  been  built  up  is  the 
common  idea  included  in  all  these  terms. 

Demolish,  from  the  Latin  demolior,  and  moles  a 
mass,  signifies  to  decompound  what  has  been  in  a mass ; 
raze  like  erase  (w.  To  blot  out)  signifies  the  making 
smooth  or  even  with  the  ground;  dismantle,  in  French 
demanteler,  signifies  to  deprive  of  the  mantle  or 
guard  ; destroy,  from  the  Latin  desfriro,  compounded  of 
the  mivative  de  and  struo  to  build,  signifies  properly  to 
pull  down. 

A fabrick  is  demolished  by  scattering  all  its  compo- 
nent parts;  it  is  mostly  an  unlicensed  act  of  caprice; 
it  is  • razed  by  way  of  punishment,  that  it  may  be  left 
as  a monument  of  publick  vengeance;  a fortress  is  dis- 
mantled from  motives  of  prudence,  in  order  to  render 
it  defenceless  ; places  are  destroyed  by  various  means 
and  from  various  motives,  that  they  may  not  exist  any 
longer. 

Individuals  may  demolish;  justice  causes  a r azure; 
a general  orders  towers  to  be  dismantled  and  fortifica- 
tions to  be  destroyed  ; 

From  the  demolish'd  tow’rs  the  Trojans  throw 

Huge  heaps  of  stones,  that  falling  crush  the  foe. 

Drydkn. 

Great  Diomede  has  compass’d  round  with  walls 

The  city  which  Argyripa  he  calls. 

From  his  own  Argos  nam’d ; we  touch’d  with  joy 

The  royal  hand  that  raz'd  unhappy  Troy. — Dryden. 

• Vide  Abbe  Girard ' “ Demolvr,  raser,  demanteler, 
detruire  ” 


O’er  the  drear  spot  see  desolation  spread. 

And  the  dismantled  walls  in  ruin  lie.— Moore. 
We,  for  myself  I speak,  and  all  the  name 
Of  Grecians  who  to  Troy’s  destruction  came. 

Not  one  but  suffered  and  too  dearly  bought 
The  prize  of  honour  which  in  arms  he  sought. 

Dryden 


TO  BEREAVE,  DEPRIVE,  STRIP. 

Bereave,  in  Saxon  bereafian,  German  berauben,  &c 
is  compounded  of  be  and  reave  or  rob,  Saxon  reajian, 
German  rauben.  Low  German  roofen,  &c.  Latin  ra- 
pina  and  rapio  to  catch  or  seize,  signifying  to  take 
away  contrary  to  one’s  wishes;  deprive,  compounded 
of  de  and  prive,  French  priver,  Latin  privo,  from  pri- 
vus  private,  signifies  to  make  that  one’s  own  which 
was  another’s;  strip  is  in  German  streifen.  Low  Ger- 
man streipen,  stroepen,  Swedish  strOfva,  probably 
changed  from  the  Latin  surripio  to  snatch  by  stealth. 

To  bereave  expresses  more  than  deprive,  but  less 
than  strip,  which  in  this  sense  is  figurative,  and  de- 
notes a total  bereavement ; one  rsbereawedoi  children, 
deprived  of  pleasures,  and  stripped  of  property ; we 
are  bereaved  of  that  on  which  we  set  most  value; 
the  act  of  bereaving  does  violence  to  our  inclination; 
we  are  deprived  of  the  ordinary  comforts  and  conve- 
niences of  life ; they  cease  to  be  ours : we  are  stripped 
of  the  things  which  we  mostAvant ; we  are  thereby 
rendered  as  it  were  naked.  Deprivations  are  prepara 
tory  to  bereavements;  if  we  cannot  bear  the  one  pa 
tiently,  we  may  expect  to  sink  under  the  other;  coin 
mon  prudence  should  teach  us  to  look  with  unconcern 
on  our  deprivations : Christian  faith  should  enable  us 
to  consider  every  bereavement  as  a step  to  perfection  ; 
that  when  stripped  of  all  worldly  goods  we  may  be 
invested  with  those  more  exalted  and  lasting  honours 
which  await  the  faithful  disciple  of  Christ. 

We  are  bereaved  of  our  dearest  hopes  and  enjoy- 
ments by  the  dispensations  of  Providence; 

O first-created  Being,  and  thou  great  Word, 

Let  there  be  light,  and  light  was  over  all ; 

Why  am  I thus  bereav'd  thy  prime  decree? 

Milton 

Casualties  deprive  us  of  many  little  advantages  oi 
gratifications  which  fall  in  our  way  ; 

Too  daring  bard  ! whose  unsuccessful  pride 
Th’  immortal  muses  in  their  art  defied ; 

Th’  avenging  niu.^es  of  the  light  of  day 
Depriv'd  his  eyes,  and  snatch’d  his  voice  away. 

Pope. 

Men  are  active  in  stripping  each  other  of  their  jus 
rights  and  privileges;  ‘From  the  uncertainty  of  life, 
moralists  have  endeavoured  to  sink  the  estimation  of 
its  pleasures,  and  if  they  could  not  strip  the  seductions 
of  vice  of  their  present  enjoyment,  at  least  to  load 
them  with  the  fear  of  their  end.’ — Mackenzie. 


DEPREDATION,  ROBBERY. 

Depredation,  in  Latin  depreedatio,  finm  prwda  a 
prey,  signifies  the  act  of  spoiling  or  laying  waste,  as 
well  as  taking  away ; robbery,  on  the  other  hand,  sig 
nifies  simply  the  removal  or  taking  away  from  another 
by  violence.  Every  depredation,  therefore,  includes  a 
robbery,  but  not  vice  versa.  A depredation  is  always 
attended  with  mischief  to  some  one,  though  not  always 
with  advantage  to  the  depredator;  but  the  robber 
always  calculates  on  getting  something  for  himself. 
Depredations  are  often  committed  for  the  indulgence 
of  private  animosity;  robbery  is  always  committed 
from  a thirst  for  gain. 

Depredation  is  either  the  publick  act  of  a commu- 
nity, or  the  private  act  of  individuarls ; robbery  mostly 
the  private  act  of  individuals.  Depredations  are  com- 
mitted wherever,  the  occasion  offers  ; in  open  or  covert 
places:  robberies  are  committed  either  on  the  persons 
or  houses  of  individuals.  In  former  times  neighbour 
ing  states  used  to  commit  frequent  depredations  on 
each  other,  even  when  not  in  a state  of  open  hostility; 
robberies  were,  however,  then  less  frequent  than  at 
present;  ‘ As  the  delay  of  making  war  may  sometimes 
be  detrimental  to  individuals,  who  have  suffered  by 
depredations  from  foreign  potentates,  our  laws  have 


506 


ENGLISH  SYNONVMES. 


in  some  respects,  armed  the  subject  with  powers  to 
impel  the  prerogative,  by  directing  the  ministers  to 
issue  letters  of  marque.’— Blackstone.  ‘ From  all 
this,  what  is  my  inference  1 Tliat  this  new  system  of 
robbery  in  France  cannot  be  rendered  safe  by  any  art.’ 
—Burke 

Depredation  is  used  in  the  proper  and  bad  sense, 
for  animals  as  well  as  for  men  ; robbery  may  be  em- 
ployed figuratively  and  in  the  indifferent  sense.  Birds 
are  great  depredators  in  the  cornfields ; bees  may  be 
said  to  plunder  or  rob  the  flowers  of  their  sweets. 


TO  DEPRIVE,  DEBAR,  ABRIDGE. 

Deprive  (v.  To  bereave)  conveys  the  idea  of  either 
taking  away  that  which  one  has,  or  withholding  that 
which  one  may  have;  debar,  from  de  and  bar,  signify- 
ng  to  prevent  by  means  of  a bar,  conveys  the  idea 
only  of  withholding;  abridge  {v.  To  abridge)  conveys 
that  also  of  taking  away.  Depriving  is  a coercive 
measure;  debar  and  abridge  are  merely  acts  of  autho- 
rity. We  are  deprived  of  that  which  is  of  the  first 
necessity  ; we  are  debarred  of  privileges,  enjoyments, 
opportunities,  &c. ; we  are  abridged  of  comforts,  plea- 
sures, conveniences,  &c.  Criminals  are  deprived  of 
their  liberty ; their  friends  are  in  extraordinary  cases 
deftarret/ the  privilege  of  seeing  them;  thus  men  are 
often  abridged  of  their  comforts  in  consequence  of 
their  own  faults. 

Deprivation  and  debarring  sometimes  arise  from 
thit)gs  as  well  as  persons ; abridging  is  always  the 
voluntary  act  of  conscious  agents.  Misfortunes  some- 
times deprive  a person  of  tlie  means  of  living  ; the 
poor  are  often  debarred,  by  tiieir  poverty,  of  the  op- 
portunity to  learn  their  duty ; it  may  sometimes  be 
necessary  to  abridge  young  people  of  their  pleasures 
when  they  do  not  know  liow  to  make  a good  use  of 
them.  Religion  teaches  men  to  be  resigned  under  the 
severest  deprivations ; it  is  painful  to  be  debarred  the 
society  of  those  we  love,  or  to  abridge  others  of  any 
advantage  which  they  have  been  in  the  habit  of  en- 
joying. 

When  used  as  reflective  verbs  they  preserve  the 
same  analogy  in  their  signification.  An  extravagant 
person  deprives  himself  of  the  power  of  doing  good  ; 
‘Of  what  small  moment  to  your  real  liapi)iness  are 
many  of  those  injuries  which  draw  forth  your  resent- 
ment? Can  they  deprive  you  of  peace  of  conscience, 
of  the  saiisfaction  of  having  acted  a right  part?’ — 
Blair.  A person  may  debar  himself  of  any  pleasure 
from  particular  motives  of  prudence;  ‘Active  and 
masculine  spirits,  in  the  vigour  of  youth,  neither  can 
nor  ought  to  remain  at  rest.  If  they  debar  themselves 
from  aiming  at  a noble  object,  their  desires  will  move 
downward.’ — Hughes.  A miser  abridges  himself  of 
every  enjoyment  in  order  to  gratify  his  ruling  passion  ; 
‘The  personal  liberty  of  individuals  in  this  kingdom 
cannot  ever  be  abridged  at  the  mere  discretion  of  tlie 
magistrate.’ — Blackstone. 


CAPTURE,  SEIZURE,  PRIZE. 

Capture,  in  French  capture,  Latin  captura,  from 
eaptus,  participle  of  capio  to  take,  signifies  either  the 
act  of  taking,  or  the  thing  taken,  but  mostly  the  for- 
mer; seizure,  from  seize,  in  French  saisir,  signifies 
only  the  act  of  seizing;  prize,  in  French  prise,  from 
pris,  participle  of  prendre  to  take,  signifies  only  the 
thing  taken. 

Capture  and  seizure  differ  in  the  mode;  a capture  is 
made  by  force  of  arms;  a seizure  by  direct  and  per- 
sonal violence.  The  capture  of  a town  or  an  island 
requires  an  army ; the  seizure  of  property  is  effected 
by  the  exertions  of  an  individual.  A senm-e  always 
requires  some  force,  which  a capture  does  not.  A 
capture  may  be  made  on  an  unresisting  object;  it  is 
merely  the  taking  into  possession;  a seizure  supposes 
much  eagerness  for  possession  on  the  one  hand,  and 
reluctance  to  yield  on  the  other  Merchant  vessels  are 
captured  which  are  not  in  a state  to  make  resistance; 
contraband  goods  are  seized  by  the  police  officers. 

Acipturchus  always  something  leeitimate  in  it;  it  is 
a publick  measure  flowing  from  authority,  or  in  the 
course  of  lawful  warfare;  ‘The  late  Mr.  Robert  Wood, 
in  his  essay  on  the  original  genius  and  writings  of 
Homer,  inclines  to  think  the  liiad  and  Odyssey  were 


finished  about  half  a century  after  ihecapture  ofTtny. 
— Cumberland.  A seizure  is  a private  measure,  fre 
quently  as  unlawful  and  unjust  as  it  is  violent;  it  de 
pends  on  the  will  of  the  individual;  ‘Many  of  iti< 
dangers  imputed  of  old  to  exorbitant  wealth  are  now 
at  an  end.  The  rich  are  neither  waylaid  by  robbers, 
nor  watched  by  informers;  there  is  nothing  to  he 
dreaded  from  proscriptions  or  seizures.’— Johnson.  A 
capture  is  general,  it  respects  the  act  of  taking;  a 
prize  is  particular,  it  regards  the  object  taken,  and  its 
value  to  the  captor:  many  captures  are  made  by  sea 
which  never  become  prizes;  ‘ Sensible  of  their  own 
force,  and  allured  by  the  prospect  of  so  rich  a prize, 
the  northern  barbarians,  in  the  reign  of  Arcadirts  and 
Honorius,  assailed  at  once  all  the  frontiers  of  the  Ro- 
man empire.’ — Hume. 

? 

BOOTY,  SPOIL,  PREY. 

These  words  mark  a species  of  capture. 

Booty,  in  French  butin,  Danish  butte,  Dutch  buyt, 
Teutonick  beute,  probably  comes  frorh  the  Teutonick 
bat  a useful  thing,  denoting  the  thing  taken  for  its  use; 
spoil,  fti  French  depouilli,  Latin  spolium,  in  Greek 
(TKvXov,  signifies  the  things  stripped  off  from  the  dead, 
from  cv\dw,  Hebrew  ^*70  to  spoil ; prey,  in  French 
proie,  Latin  preeda,  is  not  improbably  changed  from 
prmndo,prendo,  ox  prehendo  Xo  lay  hold  of,  signifying 
the  thing  seized. 

The  first  twm  are  used  as  military  terms  or  in  attacks 
on  an  enemy,  the  latter  in  cases  of  particular  violence. 
The  soldier  gets  his  booty ; the  combatant  his  spoils  ; 
the  carnivorous  animal  his  prey.  Booty  respects  what 
is  of  personal  service  to  the  captor ; spoils  whatever 
serves  to  designate  his  triumph  ; prey  includes  what- 
ever gratifies  the  appetite  and  is  to  be  consumed. 
When  a town  is  taken,  soldiers  are  too  busy  in  the 
work  of  destruction  and  mischief  to  carry  away  much 
booty ; in  every  battle  the  arms  and  personal  property 
of  the  slain  enemy  are  the  lawful  spoils  of  the  victor; 
the  hawk  pounces  on  his  prey,  and  carries  him  up  to 
his  nest; 

’T  was  in  the  dead  of  night,  w'hen  sleep  repairs 
Our  bodies  worn  with  toils,  our  minds  with  cares, 
When  Hector’s  ghost  before  my  sight  appears ; 

A bloody  shroud  he  seem’d,  and  bath’d  in  tears, 
Unlike  that  Hector  who  return’d  from  toils 
Of  war,  triumphant  in  zEacian  spoils. — Drvden. 
Greediness  stimulates  to  take  booty;  ambition  pro 
duces  an  eagerness  for  spoils ; a ferocious  appetite 
impels  to  a search  for  prey.  Among  the  ancients  the 
prisoners  of  war  who  w'ere  made  slaves  constituted  a 
part  of  x\\e\x  booty ; and  even  in  later  periods  such  a 
capture  was  good  booty,  when  ransom  w'as  paid  for 
those  who  could  liberate  themselves.  Among  isonie 
savages  the  head  or  limb  of  an  enemy  constituted  part 
of  their  spoils.  Among  cannibals  the  prisoners  of  war 
are  the  prey  of  the  conquerors. 

Booty  and  prey  are  often  used  in  an  extended  and 
figurative  sense.  Plunderers  obtain  a rich  booty ; the 
diligent  bee  returns  loaded  with  its  booty;*  ‘When 
they  (the  French  National  Assembly)  had  finally  de- 
termined on  a stale  resource  from  church  booty,  they 
came  on  the  14th  of  April,  1790,  to  a solemn  lesolu 
tion  on  the  subject.’ — Burke.  It  is^necessary  tha> 
animals  should  become  a prey  to  man,  in  order  that 
man  may  not  become  a prey  to  them;  every  thing  in 
nature  becomes  a prey  to  another  thing,  which  in  its 
turn  falls  a prey  to  something  else.  All  is  change  but 
order.  Man  is  a prey  to  the  diseases  of  his  body  or 
his  mind,  and  after  death  to  the  worms ; 

The  wolf,  who  from  the  nightly  ford 

Forth  drags  the  bleating  prey,  ne’er  drank  her  milk. 

Nor  wore  her  warming  fleece. — Thomson. 


RAVAGE,  DESOLATION,  DEVASTATION. 

Ravage  comes  from  the  Latin  rapio,  and  the  Greek 
dpEd^o),  signifying  a seizing  or  tearing  away;  desola- 
tion, from  solus  alone,  signifies  made  solitary  or  re 
duced  to  solitude;  devastation,  in  Latin  devastatio, 
from  devasto  to  lay  waste,  signifies  reducing  to  a waatt 
or  desert. 

Vide  Roubaud . “ Proie,  butin  ” 


ENGLISH  STNONYMES. 


507 


Ravage  expresses  ess  than  eitlier  desolation  or  de- 
vastation: a breaking,  tearing,  or  destroying  is  im- 
plied in  the  word  ra»a^e;  but  the  desolation  goes  to 
the  entire  unpeopling  a land,  and  the  devastation  to  the 
entire  clearing  away  of  every  vestige  of  cultivation. 
Torrents,  flames,  tempests,  and  wild  beasts  ravage; 
Beasts  of  prey  retire,  that  all  night  long. 

Urg’d  by  necessity,  had  rang’d  the  dark, 

As  if  their  conscious  ravage  shunn’d  the  light, 
Asharn’d. — Thomson. 

War,  plague,  and  famine  desolate; 

Amid  thy  bow’rs  the  tyrant’s  hand  is  seen, 

And  desolation  saddens  all  thy  green. 

Goldsmith. 

Armies  of  barbarians,  who  inundate  a country,  carry 
devastation  with  them  wherever  they  go ; ‘ How  much 
the  strength  of  the  Roman  republick  is  impaired,  and 
what  dreadful  devastation  has  gone  forth  into  all  its 
provinces!’ — Melmoth  {^Letters  of  Cicero).  ’•'No- 
thing resists  ravages,  they  are  rapid  and  terrible; 
nothing  arrests  desolation,  it  is  cruel  and  unpitying; 
devastation  spares  nothing,  it  is  ferocious  and  inde- 
fatigable. Ravages  spread  alarm  and  terrour;  deso- 
lation, grief  and  despair;  devastation,  dread  and 
horrour. 

Ravage  is  employed  likewise  in  the  moral  applica- 
tion ; desolation  and  devastation  only  in  the  proper  ap- 
plication to  countries.  Disease  makes  its  ravages  on 
beauty;  death  makes  its  ravages  among  men  in  a more 
terrible  degree  at  one  time  than  at  another; 

Would  one  think  ’twere  possible  for  love 
To  make  such  ravage  in  a noble  soul  7 — Addison. 


OVERSPREAD,  OVERRUN,  RAVAGE. 

To  overspread  signifies  simply  to  cover  the  whole 
surface  of  a body ; but  to  overrun  is  a mode  of  spread- 
ing, namely,  by  running;  things  in  general,  therefore, 
are  said  to  overspread  which  admit  of  extension;  no- 
thing can  be  said  to  overrun  but  what  literally  or 
figuratively  runs : the  face  is  overspread  with  spots ; 
the  ground  is  overrun  with  weeds.  To  ai/errun  and 
to  ravage  are  both  employed  to  imply  the  active  and 
extended  destruction  of  an  enemy  ; but  the  former  ex- 
presses more  than  the  latter ; a small  body  may  ravage 
in  particular  parts ; but  immense  numbers  are  said°to 
overrun,  as  they  run  into  every  part : the  Barbarians 
overran  ali  Europe,  and  settled  in  different  countries  ; 
detachments  are  sent  out  to  ravage  the  country  or 
neighbourhood;  ‘The  storm  of  hail  and  fire,  with  the 
darkness  that  overspread  the  land  for  three  days,  are 
described  with  great  strength.’— Addison.  ‘ Most  des- 
potick  governments  are  naturally  overrun  with  igno- 
rance and  barbarity.’ — Addison.  ‘ While  Herod  was 
absent,  the  thieves  of  Trachonites  ravaged  with  their 
depredations  all  the  parts  of  Judea  and  Coelo-Syria 
that  lay  within  their  reach.’— Prideaux. 


RAPINE,  PLUNDER,  PILLAGE. 

The  idea  of  property  taken  from  another  contrary  to 
his  consent  is  included  in  all  these  terms : but  the  term 
rapine  includes  most  violence ; pZirnder  includes  most 
removal  or  carrying  away ; pillage  most  search  and 
scrutiny  after.  A soldier,  who  makes  a sudden  incur- 
sion into  an  enemy’s  country,  and  carries  away  what- 
ever comes  within  his  reach,  is  guilty  of  rapine ; 

Upon  the  banks 

Of  Tweed,  slow  winding  thro’  the  vale,  the  seat 
Of  war  and  rapine  once. — Somerville. 

Robbers  frequently  carry  away  much  plunder  when 
they  break  into  houses ; ‘ Ship-money  was  pitched  upon 
as  fit  to  be  formed  by  excise  and  taxes,  and  the  burden 
of  the  subjects  took  off  by  plunderings  and  sequeslra- 
tions.’— South.  When  an  army  sack  a town  they 
strip  it  of  every  thing  that  is  to  be  found,  and  go  away 
loaded  with  pillage;  ‘Although  the  Eretrians  for  a 
time  stood  resolutely  to  the  defence  of  their  city,  it  was 
given  up  by  treachery  on  the  seventh  day,  and  pillaged 
and  destroyed  in  a most  barbarous  manner  by  the  Per- 

*  Vide  Roubaud : “Ravager,  desoler  de vaster,  sac- 
cager.” 


sians.’ — Cumberland.  Mischief  and  bloodshed  attend 
rapine;  \oss  aiienAs  plunder ; distress  and  ruin  follow 
wherever  there  has  been  pillage. 

RAPACIOUS,  RAVENOUS,  VORACIOUS. 

Rapacious,  in  Latin  rapax,  from  rapio  to  seize, sig- 
nifies seizing  or  grasping  a thing  with  an  eager  desire 
to  liaA’e;  ravenous,  from  the  Latin  rabies  a fury,  and 
rapio  to  seize,  signifies  the  same  as  rapacious  ; vora 
cious,  from  voro  to  devour,  signifies  an  eagerness  to 
devour. 

The  idea  of  greediness,  which  forms  the  leading 
features  in  the  .signification  of  all  these  terms,  is  varied 
in  the  subject  and  the  object:  rapacious  is  the  quality 
peculiar  to  beasts  of  prey,  or  of  men  who  are  actuated 
by  a similar  spirit  of  plunder;  ‘A  display  of  our 
wealth  before  robbers  is  not  the  way  to  restrain  their 
boldness,  or  to  lessen  their  rapacity.' — Burke.  Ra 
venous  and  voracious  are  common  to  all  animals, 
when  impelled  by  hunger.  The  beasts  of  the  forest 
are  rapacious  at  all  limes ; all  animals  are  more  or  less 
ravenous  or  voracious,  as  circumstances  may  make 
them : the  rapacious  applies  to  the  seizing  of  other 
animals  as  food ; the  ravenous  applies  to  the  seizing  of 
any  thing  which  one  takes  for  one’s  food ; 

Ar'-ain  the  holy  fires  on  altars  burn. 

And  once  again  the  rav'nous  birds  return. 

Drvdkn. 

A lion  is  rapacious  when  it  seizes  on  its  prey;  it  is 
ravenous  in  the  act  of  consuming  it.  The  word 
ravenous  respects  the  haste  with  which  one  eats;  the 
word  voracious  respects  the  quantity  which  one  con- 
sumes ; 

Ere  you  remark  another’s  sin. 

Bid  thy  own  conscience  look  within  ; 

Control  thy  more  voracious  bill. 

Nor  for  a breakfast  nations  kill. — Gay. 

A ravenous  person  is  loath  to  wait  for  the  dressing  of 
his  food ; he  consumes  it  without  any  preparation  : a 
voracious  person  not  only  eats  i-n  haste,  but  lie  con 
sumes  great  quantities,  and  continues  to  do  so  for  8 
long  time.  Abstinence  from  food,  for  an  unusua' 
length,  will  make  any  healthy  creature  r-avenoMs;  habit 
uarintemperance  in  eating,  or  a diseased  appetite,  wife 
produce  voracity. 

As  the  leading  idea  in  the  term  rapacious  is  that  of 
plunder,  it  may  be  extended  to  things  figuratively 
‘Any  of  these,  without  regarding  the  pains  of  church 
men,  grudge  them  those  small  remains  of  ancient  piety, 
which  the  rapacity  of  some  ages  has  scarce  left  to  the 
church.’— Sprat. 


SANGUINARY,  BLOODY,  BLOOD-THIRSTY. 

Sanguinary,  from  sanguis,  is  employed  both  in  the 
sense  of  bloody  or  having  blood;  blood-thirsty,  or  the 
thirsting  after  blood:  sanguinary,  in  the  first  case,  re- 
lates only  to  blood  shed,  as  a sanguinary  engagement, 
or  a sanguinary  conflict;  ‘They  have  seen  the  French 
rebel  against  a mild  and  lawful  monarch  with  more 
fury  than  ever  any  people  has  been  known  to  rise 
against  the  most  illegal  usurper  or  the  most  sanguinary 
tyrant.’- Burke.  Bloody  is  used  in  the  familiar  ap- 
plication, to  denote  the  simple  presence  of  blood,  as  a 
bloody  coal,  or  a bloody  sword  ; 

And  from  the  wound. 

Black  bloody  drops  distill’d  upon  the  ground. 

Dryden. 

In  the  second  case,  sanguinary  is  employed  to  cha 
racterize  the  tempers  of  persons  only ; blood-thirsty  to 
characterize  the  tempers  of  persons  or  animals:  the 
French  revolution  has  given  us  many  specimens  how 
sanguinary  men  may  become  who  are  abandoned  to 
their  own  furious  passions;  tigers  are  by  nature  the 
most  blood-thirsty  of  all  creatures;  ‘The  Peruvians 
fought  not  like  the  Mexicans,  to  glut  blood-thirsty  divi* 
nities  with  human  sacrifices.’ — Robertson. 


TO  ENCROACH,  INTRENCH,  INTRUDE, 
INVADE,  INFRINGE. 

Encroach,  in  French  encrocher,  is  compounded  of  cn 
or  in  and  croucA cringe  or  creep,  signifying  to  creep  into 
anything;  intrench,  compounded  of  in  and  trench, 9\g 


108 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


niflps  tc  trench  or  dig  beyond  one’s  own  into  another’s 
ground , intrude,  from  the  Latin  intrude,  signifies  lite- 
rally to  thrust  upon ; and  invade,  from  invado,  signifies 
to  march  in  upon;  infringe,  from  the  Latin  infringo, 
compounded  of  in  and  frango,  signifies  to  break  in 
upon. 

All  these  terms  denote  an  unauthorized  procedure ; 
but  the  two  former  designate  gentle  or  silent  actions, 
the  latter  violent  if  not  noisy  actions. 

Encroach  is  often  an  imperceptible  action,  performed 
with  such  art  as  to  elude  observation  ; it  is,  according 
to  its  derivation,  an  insensible  creeping  into:  intrench  , 
is  in  fact  a species  of  encroachment,  namely,  that  per- 
ceptible species  which  consists  in  exceeding  the  bound- 
aries in  marking  out  the  ground  or  space : it  should  be 
one  of  the  first  objects  of  a parent  to  check  the  first  in- 
dications of  an  encroaching  disposition  in  their  chil- 
dren ; according  to  the  building  laws,  it  is  made  action- 
able for  any  one  to  intrench  upon  the  street  or  publick 
road  with  their  houses  or  gardens. 

In  an  extended  application  of  these  terms  we  may 
speak  of  encroaching  on  a person’s  time,  or  intrench- 
ing on  the  sphere,  &c.  of  another  : intrude  and  invade 
designate  an  unauthorized  entry;  the  former  in  viola- 
tion of  right,  equity,  or  good  manners;  the  latter  in 
violation  of  publick  law : the  former  is  more  commonly 
applied  to  individuals;  the  latter  to  nations  or  large 
communities  : unbidden  guests  intrude  themselves 
sometimes  into  families  to  their  no  small  annoyance; 
an  army  never  invades  a country  without  doing  some 
mischief:  nothing  evinces  a greater  ignorance  and  im- 
pertinence than  to  intrude  one’s  self  into  any  company 
where  we  may  of  course  expect  to  be  unwelcome  ; in 
the  feudal  times,  when  civil  power  was  invested  in  the 
hands  of  the  nobility  and  petty  princes,  they  were  in- 
cessantly invading  each  other’s  territories ; ‘ It  is  ob- 
served by  one  of  the  fathers  that  he  who  restrains  him- 
self in  the  use  of  things  lawful  will  never  encroach 
upon  things  forbidden.’ — Johnson.  ‘Religion  in- 
trenches upon  none  of  our  privileges,  invades  none  of 
our  pleasures.’— South.  ‘ One  of  the  chief  character- 
isticks  of  the  golden  age,  of  the  age  in  which  neither 
care  nor  danger  had  intruded  on  mankind,  is  the  com- 
munity of  possessions.’— Johnson. 

Invade  has  likewise  an  improper  as  well  as  a proper 
»oceptation ; in  the  former  case  it  bears  a close  analogy 
to  infringe:  we  speak  of  invading  rights, or  infring- 
ing rights , but  the  former  is  an  act  of  greater  violence 
than  the  latter:  by  an  authorized  exercise  of  power 
the  rights  of  a people  may  be  invaded;  by  gradual 
steps  and  imperceptible  means  their  liberties  may  be 
infringed:  invade  is  used  only  for  publick  privileges  ; 
infringe  is  applied  also  to  those  which  belong  to  indi- 
viduals. 

King  John  of  England  invaded  the  rights  of  the 
Barons  in  so  senseless  a manner  as  to  give  them  a 
colour  for  their  resistance;  it  is  of  importance  to  the 
peace  and  well-being  of  society  that  men  should,  in 
their  different  relations,  stations,  and  duties,  guard 
against  any  infringement  on  the  sphere  or  depart- 
ment of  such  as  come  into  the  closest  connexion  with 
them ; 

No  sooner  were  his  eyes  in  slumber  bound, 

When  from  above  a more  than  mortal  sound 

Invades  his  ears. — Dryden. 

‘ The  King’s  partisans  maintained  that,  while  the  prince 
commands  no  military  force,  he  will  in  vain  by  violence 
attempt  an  infringement  of  laws  so  clearly  defined  by 
means  of  late  disputes.’— Hume. 


TO  INFRINGE,  VIOLATE,  TRANSGRESS. 
Infringe,  v.  To  encroach;  violate,  from  the  Latin 
vis  force,  signifies  to  use  force  towards ; transgress,  v. 
Offence. 

Civil  and  moral  laws  are  infringed  by  those  who  act 
in  opposition  to  them ; ‘ I hold  friendship  to  be  a very 
holy  league,  and  no  less  than  a piacle  to  infringe  it.’ 
— Howell.  Treaties  and  engagements  are  violated 
by  those  who  do  not  hold  them  sacred ; 

No  violated  leagues  with  sharp  remorse 
Shall  sting  the  conscious  victor.— Somervii  le. 

The  bounds  which  are  prescribed  by  the  moral  law  are 
transgressed  by  those  who  are  guilty  of  any  excess ; 


Why  hast  thou,  Satan,  broke  the  bounds  prescrib’d 
To  thy  transgressions? — Milton. 

It  is  the  business  of  government  to  see  that  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  individuals  or  particular  bodies  be 
not  infringed:  policy  but  too  frequently  runs  counter 
to  equity;  where  the  particular  interests  of  princes  are 
more  regarded  than  the  dictates  of  conscience,  treaties 
and  compacts  are  first  violated  and  then  justified : the 
passions,  when  not  kept  under  proper  control,  will 
ever  hurry  men  on  to  transgress  the  limits  of  right 
reason. 


INFRINGEMENT,  INFRACTION. 

Infringement  and  infraction,  which  are  both  de 
rived  from  the  Latin  verb  infringo  or  frango  (v.  To 
infringe),  are  employed  according  to  the  different 
senses  of  the  verb  ; thaformer  being  applied 

to  the  rights  of  individuals,  either  in  their  domestick 
or  publick  capacity ; and  the  latter  rather  to  national 
transactions.  Politeness,  which  teaches  us  what  is 
due  to  every  man  in  the  smallest  concerns,  conside*‘3 
any  unasked-for  interference  in  the  private  affairs  of 
another  as  an  infringemerd ; ‘We  see  with  Orestes 
(or  rather  with  Sophocles),  that  “ it  is  fit  that  such 
gross  infringements  of  the  moral  law  (as  parricide) 
should  be  punished  with  death.”’ — Mackenzie. 
Equity,  which  enjoins  on  nations  as  well  as  individu- 
als, an  attentive  consideration  to  the  interests  of  the 
whole,  forbids  the  infraction  of  a treaty  in  any  case ; 
‘No  people  can,  without  the  infraction  of  the  universal 
league  of  social  beings,  incite  those  practices  in  an 
other  dominion  which  they  would  themselves  punish 
in  their  own.’— Johnson. 


INVASION,  INCURSION,  IRRUPTION, 
INROAD. 

The  idea  of  making  a forcible  entrance  into  a foreign 
territory  is  common  to  all  these.  Invasion,  from  vado 
to  go,  expresses  merely  this  general  idea,  without  any 
particular  qualification  ; incursion,  from  curro  to  run, 
signifies  a hasty  and  sudden  invasion  ; irruption,  from 
rumpo  to  break,  signifies  a particularly  violent  invasiora; 
inroad,  from  in  and  road,  signifies  a making  a road  or  • 
way  for  one’s  self,  which  includes  invasion  and  occu- 
pation. Invasion  is  said  of  that  which  passes  in  dis- 
tant lands ; Alexander  invaded  India ; Hannibal  crossed 
the  Alps,  and  made  an  invasion  into  Italy; 

The  nations  of  the  Ausonian  shore 
Shall  hear  the  dreadful  rumour,  from  afar. 

Of  arm’d  invasion,  and  embrace  the  war. 

Dryden 

Incursion  is  said  of  neighbouring  states;  the  bor 
derers  on  each  side  the  Tweed  used  to  make  frequent 
incursions  into  England  or  Scotland  ; ‘ Britain  by  its 
situation  was  removed  from  the  fury  of  these  bar 
barous  incursions.' — Hume.  Invasion  is  the  act  of  a 
regular  army;  it  is  a systematick  military  movement: 
irruption  is  the  irregular  and  impetuous  movement  of 
undisciplined  troops.  The  invasion  of  France  by  the 
allies  was  one  of  the  grandest  military  movements  that 
the  world  ever  witnessed  ; the  irruption  of  the  Goths 
and  Vandals  into  Europe  has  been  acted  over  again  by 
the  late  revolutionary  armies  of  France;  ‘The  study 
of  ancient  literature  was  interrupted  in  Europe,  by  tho 
irruption  of  the  northern  nations.’ — Johnson. 

An  invasion  may  be  partial  and  temporary ; one  in- 
vades from  various  causes,  but  not  always  from  hos- 
tility to  the  inhabitants:  an  inroad  is  made  by  a con- 
queror who  determines  to  dispossess  the  existing  oc- 
cupier of  the  land : invasion  is  therefore  to  inroad  only 
as  a means  to  an  end.  He  who  invades  a country,  and 
gets  possession  of  its  strong  places  so  as  to  have  an 
entire  command  of  the  land,  is  said  to  make  inroads 
into  that  country ; but  since  it  is  possible  to  get  forcible 
possession  of  a country  by  other  means  besides  that  of  ; 
a military  entry,  there  may  be  an  inroad  where  there 
is  no  express  invasion  ; ‘ From  Scotland  we  have  had 
in  former  times  some  alarms,  and  inroads  into  the 
northern  parts  of  this  kingdom.’ — Bacon.  Alexander 
made  such  inroads  into  Persia,  as  to  become  master  of 
the  whole  country;  but  the  French  republick,  and  all 
its  usurped  authorities,  made  inroads  into  diflVrenl 
countries  by  means  of  spies  and  revolutionary  incen 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


509 


iia.-ieSj  who  effected  more  than  the  sword  in  subjecting 
them  to  the  power  of  France. 

These  terms  bear  a similar  distinction  in  the  im- 
proper sense.  In  this  case  invasion  is  figuratively  em- 
ployed to  express  a violent  seizure,  in  general  of  what 
belongs  to  individuals,  particularly  that  which  he 
enjoys  by  civil  compact,  namely,  his  rights  and  privi- 
leges. The  term  may  also  be  extended  to  other  objects, 
as  when  we  speak  of  invading  a person’s  province, 
&.C. ; ‘ Encouraged  with  success,  he  invades  the  pro- 
vince of  philosophy.’ — Dkvdkn.  Things  OiUy  like- 
wise be  said  to  invade; 

Far  off  we  hear  the  waves,  which  surly  sound. 

Invade  the  rocks ; the  rocks  their  groans  rebound. 

Dryden. 

In  like  manner  we  speak  of  the  inroads  which  dis- 
ease makes  on  the  constitution;  of  the  incursion  or 
irruption  of  unpleasant  thoughts  in  the  mind ; ‘ Rest 
and  labour  equally  perceive  their  reign  of  short  dura- 
tion and  uncertain  tenure,  and  their  empire  liable  to 
inroads  from  those  who  are  alike  enemies  to  both.’— - 
Johnson. 

I refrain,  too  suddenly. 

To  utter  what  will  come  at  last  too  soon : 

Lest  evil  tidings,  with  too  rude  irruption^ 

Hitting  thy  aged  ear  should  pierce  too  deep. 

Milton. 

Sins  of  daily  incursion,  and  such  as  human  frailty  is 
unavoidably  liable  to.’— South. 

INTRUDER,  INTERLOPER. 

An  intruder  {v.  To  intrude)  thrusts  himself  in;  an 
interloper,  from  laufen,  runs  in  between  and  takes  his 
station.  The  intruder  may  be  so  only  for  a short  space 
of  time,  in  an  unimportant  degree;  or  may  intrude 
only  in  unimportant  matters;  the  interloper  abridges 
another  of  his  essential  rights  and  for  a permanency. 
A man  is  an  intruder  who  is  an  unbidden  guest  at  the 
table  of  another; 

Will  you,  a bold  intruder,  never  learn 
To  know  your  basket  and  your  bread  discern  1 
Dryden. 

A man  is  an  interloper  when  he  joins  any  society  in 
such  manner  as  to  obtain  its  privileges,  without  sharing 
its  burdens;  ‘Some  proposed  to  vest  the  trade  to 
America  in  exclusive  companies,  which  interest  would 
render  the  most  vigilant  guardians  of  the  Spanish 
commerce,  against  the  encroachments  of  interlopers.' 
— Robertson.  The  term  intruder  may,  however,  be 
applied  to  any  who  takes  violent  or  unauthorized  pos- 
session of  what  belongs  to  another;  ‘I  would  not  have 
you  to  offer  it  to  the  doctor,  as  eminent  physicians  do 
not  love  intruders' — Johnson.  ‘ They  were  but  in- 
truders upon  the  possession  during  the  minority  of  the 
heir ; they  knew  those  lands  w ere  the  rightful  inherit- 
ance of  that  young  lady.’— Davies. 

TO  INTRUDE,  OBTRUDE. 

To  intrude  is  to  thrust  one’s  self  into  a place;  to 
obtrude  is  to  thrust  one’s  self  in  the  way.  It  is  in- 
trusion to  go  into  any  society  unasked  and  undesired  ; 
it  is  obtruding  to  join  any  company  and  take  a part  in 
the  conversation  without  invitation  or  consent.  We 
violate  the  rights  of  .another  when  we  intrude;  we  set 
up  ourselves  hy  obtruding : one  intrudes  with  one’s 
person  in  the  place  which  does  not  belong  to  one’s  self; 
one  obtrudes  with  one’s  person,  remarks,  &c.,  upon 
another:  a person  intrudes  out  of  curiosity  or  any 
other  personal  gratification;  he  obtrudes  out  of  vanity. 

Politeness  denominates  it  intrusion  to  pass  the 
threshold  of  another,  without  having  first  ascertained 
that  we  are  perfectly  welcome;  modesty  denominates 
it  obtruding  to  offer  an  opinion  in  the  presence  of  an- 
other, unle.ss  we  are  expressly  invited  or  authorized  by 
our  relationship  and  situation.  There  is  no  thinking 
man  who  docs  not  feel  the  value  of  having  some  place 
of  retirement,  which  is  free  from  the  intrusion  of  all 
impertinent  visitants;  it  is  the  fault  or  young  persons, 
who  have  formed  any  opinions  for  themselves,  to  ob- 
trude them  upon  every  one  who  will  give  them  a 
hearing 

In  the  moral  acceptation  they  preserve  the  same  dis- 
tinction. In  moments  of  devotion  the  serious  man 
endeavours  to  prevent  the  intrusion  of  improper  ideas 


ia  his  mind : ‘ The  intrusion  of  scruples,  and  the  re 
collection  of  better  notions,  will  not  suffer  some  to  live 
contented  with  their  own  conduct.’ — Johnson.  The 
stings  of  conscience  obtrude  themselves  upon  the  guilty 
even  in  the  season  of  their  greatest  merriment;  Artists 
are  sometimes  ready  to  talk  to  an  incidental  inquirer 
as  they  do  to  one  another,  and  to  make  their  know- 
ledge ridiculous  by  injudicious  obtrusion' — Johnson. 

TO  ABSORB,  SWALLOW  UP,  INGULF, 
ENGROSS. 

Msorb,  in  French  absorber,  Latin  absorbeo,  is  com 
pounded  of  ab  and  sorbeo  to  sup  up,  in  distinction  from 
swallow  up;  the  former  denoting  a gradual  consump 
tion ; the  latter  a sudden  envelopement  of  the  whole 
object.  The  excessive  heat  of  the  sun  absorbs  all  the 
nutritious  fluids  of  bodies  animal  and  vegetable. 
The  gaming  table  is  a vortex  in  which  the  principle  of 
every  man  is  swallowed  up  with  his  estate;  ‘Surely 
the  bare  remembrance  that  a man  was  formerly  rich  or 
great  cannot  make  him  at  all  happier  there,  where  an 
infinite  happiness  or  an  infinite  misery  shall  equally 
swallow  up  the  sense  of  these  poor  felicities.’ — South 
Ingulf,  compounded  of  in  and  gulf,  signifies  to  be  en- 
closed in  a great  gulf,  which  is  a strong  figurative  re- 
presentation for  being  swallowed  up.  As  it  applies  to 
grand  and  sublime  objects,  it  is  used  only  in  the  higher 
style ; 

Ingulf'd,  all  helps  of  art  we  vainly  try 

To  weather  leeward  shores,  alas ! too  nigh. 

Falconer. 

Engross,  which  is  compounded  of  the  French  words 
en  gros  in  whole,  signifies  to  purchase  wholesale,  so  as 
to  swallow  up  the  profits  of  others.  In  the  moral  ap- 
plication, therefore,  it  is  very  analogous  to  absorb. 

The  mind  is  absorbed  in  the  contemplation  of  any 
subject,  when  all  its  powers  are  so  bent  upon  it  as  not 
to  admit  distraction ; 

Absorbed  in  that  immensity  I see, 

I shrink  abased,  and  yet  aspire  to  thee. — CowrsR 
The  mind  is  engrossed  by  any  subject  when  th» 
thoughts  of  it  force  themselves  upon  its  contemplation 
to  the  exclusion  of  others  which  should  engage  the 
attention.  ‘Those  two  great  things  that  so  engross 
the  desires  and  designs  of  both  the  nobler  and  ignobler 
sort  of  mankind,  are  to  be  found  in  religion,  namely 
wisdom  and  pleasure.’ — South.  The  term  engross 
may  also  convey  the  idea  of  taking  from  another,  as 
well  as  taking  to  ourselves,  which  it  is  still  more  dis- 
tinguished from  the  other  terms ; ‘This  inconvenience 
the  politician  must  expect  from  others,  as  w'ell  as  they 
have  felt  from  him,  unless  he  thinks  that  he  can  en 
gross  this  principle  to  himself,  and  that  others  cannot 
be  as  false  and  atheistical  as  himself.’ — South. 


TO  MUTILATE,  MAIM,  MANGLE. 

Mutilate,  in  Latin  mutilatus,  from  mutilo  and  mu- 
tilus,  Greek  piiTiAos  or  //tTuAof  without  horns,  signifies 
to  take  off  any  necessary  part;  maim  and  mangle  are 
in  all  probability  derived  from  the  Latin  mancus, 
which  comes  from  manus,  signifying  to  deprive  of  a 
hand,  or  to  wound  in  general. 

Mutilate  has  the  most  extended  meaning ; it  implies 
the  abridgingof  any  limb:  mangle  is  applied  to  irregu- 
lar wounds  in  any  part  of  the  body : maim  is  confined 
to  wounds  in  the  hands.  Men  are  exposed  to  be  mu 
tilated  by  means  of  cannon  balls  ; they  are  in  danger 
of  being  mangled  when  attacked  promiscuously  with 
the  sword  ; they  frequently  get  maimed  when  boarding 
vessels  or  storming  places.  One  is  mutilated  and 
mangled  by  active  means;  one  becomes  maimed  by 
natural  infirmity. 

They  are  similarly  distinguished  in  the  moral  appli- 
cation, but  maiming  is  the  effect  of  a direct  efibrt 
whereby  aq  object  loses  its  value ; ‘ I have  shown  the 
evil  of  maiming  splitting  religion.* — Blair.  Man- 
gling is  a much  stronger  term  than  mutilating,  the  lat- 
ter signifies  to  lop  off  an  essential  part ; to  mangle  is 
to  mutilate  a thing  to  such  r degree  as  to  render  it 
useless  or  worthless.  Every  sect  of  Christians  is  fond 
ol mutilating  the  by  setting  aside  such  parts  as 

do  not  favour  their  own  ideas,  so  that  among  them  the 
sacred  Scriptures  have  been  literally  mangled , and 
stripped  of  all  their  most  important  doctrines ; ‘ How 


610 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


Hales  would  have  borne  the  mutilations  which  his 
Plea  of  the  Crown  has  suffered  from  the  editor,  they 
who  know  his  character  will  easily  conceive.’ — John- 
son. ‘ What  have  they  (the  French  nobility)  done 
that  they  should  be  hunted  about,  mangled^ 
lured  Y — Burkb. 


TO  KILL,  MURDER,  ASSASSINATE,  SLAY 
OR  SLAUGHTER. 

Kill.,  which  is  in  Saxon  cyelan,  and  Dutch  kelan,  is 
of  uncertain  origin  ; murder,  in  German  mord,  &c.  is 
connected  with  the  Latin  mors  death ; assassinate 
rignifies  to  kill  after  the  manner  of  an  assassin}  which 
word  probably  comes  from  the  Levant,  where  a prince 
of  the  Arsacides  or  assassins,  who  was  called  the  old 
man  of  the  mountains,  lived  in  a castle  between  An- 
tioch and  Damascus,  and  brought  up  young  men  to  lie 
in  wait  for  passengers  ; slay  or  slaughter,  in  German 
schlagen,  &c.  is  probably  connected  with  liegen  to  lie, 
signifying  to  lay  low. 

To  kilt  is  the  general  and  indefinite  term,  signifying 
simply  to  take  away  life ; to  murder  is  to  kill  with 
open  violence  and  injustice  ; to  assassinate  is  to  mur- 
der by  surprise,  or  by  means  of  lying  in  wait;  to  slay 
is  to  kill  in  battle  ; to  kill  is  applicable  to  men,  animals, 
and  also  vegetables ; to  murder  and  assassinate  to 
men  only;  to  slay  mostly  to  men,  but  sometimes  to 
animals ; to  slaughter  only  to  animals  in  the  proper 
sense,  but  it  may  be  applied  to  men  in  the  improper 
sense,  when  they  are  killed  like  brutes,  either  as  to  the 
numbers  or  to  the  manner  of  killing  them;  ‘The 
fierce  young  hero  who  had  overcome  the  Curiatii, 
being  upbraided  by  his  sister  for  having  slain  her 
lover,  in  the  height  of  his  resentment  kills  her.’ — Addi- 
»ON.  ‘ Murders  and  executions  are  always  transacted 
behind  the  scenes  in  the  French  theatre.’ — Addison. 
The  women  interposed  with  so  many  prayers  and 
entreaties,  that  they  prevented  the  mutual  slaughter 
which  threatened  the  Romans  and  the  Sabines.’ — Ad- 

OISON. 

On  this  vain  hope,  adulterers,  thieves  rely. 

And  to  this  altar  vile  assassins  fly. — Jenyns. 

CARNAGE,  SLAUGHTER,  MASSACRE, 
BUTCHERY. 

Carnage,  from  the  Latin  caro  carnis  flesh,  implies 
properly  a collection  of  dead  flesh,  that  is,  the  reducing 
to  tile  state  of  dead  flesh  ; slaughter,  from  slay,  is  the 
act  of  taking  away  life;  massacre,  in  French  massacre, 
comes  from  the  Latin  mactare,  to  kill  for  sacrifice ; 
butchery,  from  to  butcher,  signifies  Ihe  act  of  butcher- 
ing ; in  French  boucherie,  from  bouche  the  mouth,  sig- 
nifies the  killing  for  food. 

Carnage  respects  the  number  of  dead  bodies  made; 
ii  may  be  said  either  of  men  or  animals,  but  more 
commonly  of  the  former  ; slaughter  respects  the  act 
of  taking  away  life,  and  the  circumstances  of  the 
agent ; massacre  and  butchery  respect  the  circum- 
stances of  the  objects  who  are  the  sufferers  of  the 
action  : the  three  latter  are  said  of  human  beings  only. 

Carnage  is  the  consequence  of  any  impetuous  attack 
from  a powerful  enemy.  Soldiers  who  get  into  a be- 
sieged town,  or  a wolf  who  breaks  into  a sheepfold, 
commonly  make  a dreadful  carnage  ; 

The  carnage  Juno  from  the  skies  survey’d. 

And,  touch’d  with  grief,  bespoke  the  blue-ey’d  maid. 

Pope. 

Slaughter  is  the  consequence  of  warfare.  In  battles 
the  slaughter  will  be  very  considerable  where  both 
parties  defend  themselves  pertinaciously ; 

Yet,  yet  a little,  and  destructive  slaughter 

Shall  rage  around  and  mar  this  beauteous  prospect. 

Rowe. 

A massacre  is  the  consequence  of  secret  and  personal 
resentment  between  bodies  of  people.  ItJs  always  a 
stain  upon  the  nation  by  whom  it  is  practised,  as  it 
cannot  be  effected  without  a violent  breach  of  confi- 
dence, and  a direct  act  of  treachery  ; of  this  description 
was  the  massacre  of  the  Danes  by  the  original  Britons, 
and  the  massacre  of  the  Hugenots  in  France  ; 

Our  groaning  country  bled  at  every  vein  ; 

When  murders,  rapes,  and  massacret  prevail’d. 

Rowe. 


Butchery  ]s  the  general  accompaniment  ot  a massacrv, 
defenceless  women  and  children  are  commonly  but 
chered  by  the  savage  furies  who  are  most  active  in 
this  work  of  blood  ; 

Let  us  be  sacrificers,  but  not  ftutcAers.— Shakspkare. 

BODY,  CORPSE,  CARCASS . 

Body  is  here  taken  in  the  improper  sense  for  a dead 
body ; corpse,  from  the  Latin  corpus  a body,  has  also 
been  turned  from  its  derivation  to  signify  a dead  body 
carcass,  in  French  carcasse,  is  compounded  of  car* 
and  cassa  vita,  signifying  flesh  without  life. 

Body  is  applicable  to  either  men  or  brutes,  corpse  to 
men  only,  and  carcass  to  brutes  only,  unless  when 
taken  in  a contemptuous  sense.  When  speaking  of 
any  particular  person  who  is  deceased  we  should  use 
the  simple  term  body ; the  body  was  suffered  to  lie  too 
long  unburied  : when  designating  its  condition  as  life- 
less, the  term  corpse  is  preferable ; he  was  taken  up 
as  a corpse ; when  designating  the  body  as  a lifeless 
lump  separated  from  the  soul,  it  may  be  characterized 
(though  contemptuously)  as  a carcass;  the  fowls 
devour  the  carcass  ; 

A groan,  as  of  a troubled  ghost,  renew’d 

My  fright,  and  then  these  dreadful  words  ensued ; 

Why  dost  thou  thus  my  buried  body  rend. 

Oh ! spare  the  corpse  of  thy  unhappy  friend. 

Dryden. 

On  the  bleak  shore  now  lies  th’  abandon’d  king, 

A headless  carcass,  and  a nameless  thing. 

Dryden. 


EMBRYO,  FCETUS. 

Embryo,  in  French  embrion,  Greek  epPpvov,  from 
jSpWd)  to  germinate,  signifies  the  thing  germinated ; 
foetus,  in  French  fetus,  Latin  foetus,  from  foveo  to 
cherish,  signifies  the  thing  cherished,  both  words  re- 
ferring to  what  is  formed  in  the  womb  of  the  mother ; 
but  embryo  properly  implies  the  first  fruit  of  concep- 
tion, and  the  fatus  that  which  is  arrived  to  a maturity 
of  formation.  Anatomists  tell  us  that  the  embryo  in 
the  human  subject  assumes  the  character  of  the  foetus 
about  the  forty-second  day’after  conception. 

Foetus  is  applicable  only  ir  its  proper  sense  to 
animals  ; embryo  has  a figurative  application  to  plants 
and  fruits  when  they  remain  in  a confused  and  imper- 
fect state,  and  also  a moral  application  to  plans,  or 
whatever  is  roughly  conceived  in  the  mind. 

CORPORAL,  CORPOREAL,  BODILY. 

Corporal,  corporeal,  and  bodily,  as  their  origin  be- 
speaks, have  all  relation  to  the  same  object,  the  body ; 
but  the  two  former  are  employed  to  signify  relating  or 
appertaining  to  the  body;  the  latter  to  denote  containing 
or  forming  part  of  the  body.  Hence  we  say,  corporal 
punishment,  bodily  vigour  or  strength,  corporecd  sub 
stances ; the  Godhead  bodily,  the  corporeal  frame, 
bodily  exertion  ; ‘ Bettesworth  was  so  little  satisfied 
with  this  account,  that  he  publickly  professed  his 
resolution  of  a violent  and  corporal  revenge,  but  the 
inhabitants  of  St.  Patrick’s  district  imbodied  them- 
selves in  the  Dean’s  (Swift’s)  defence.’ — Johnson. 

Corporal  is  only  employed  for  the  animal  frame  in 
its  proper  sense ; corporeal  is  used  for  animal  sub- 
stance in  an  extended  sense  ; hence  we  speak  of  cor- 
poral sufferance  and  corporeal  agents ; ‘ When  the 
soul  is  freed  from  all  corporeal  alliance  then  it  truly 
exists.’ — Hughes.  Corporeal  is  distinguished  from 
spiritual  ;'  bodily  from  mental.  It  is  impossible  to 
represent  spiritual  beings  any  other  way  than  under  a 
corporeal  form  ; bodily  pains,  however  severe,  are  fre- 
quently overpowered  by  mental  pleasures  ; ‘ The  soul 
is  beset  with  a numerous  train  of  temptations  to  evil 
which  arise  from  bodily  appetites.’ — Blair. 

CORPOREAL,  MATERIAL. 

Corporeal  is  properly  a species  of  material;  what 
ever  is  corporeal  is  material,  but  not  vice  versa.  Cor 
poreal  respects  aidrnate  bodies ; material  is  used  foi 
every  thing  WHICH  can  act  on  the  senses,  animate  or 
inanimate.  The  world  contains  corporeal  beings  and 
consists  of  maleriut  nubstances ; 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


611 


Graiii  that  corporeal  is  the  human  mind, 

[t  must  have  parts  in  infinitum  join'd  ; 

Ami  each  of  these  must  will,  perceive,  design. 

And  draw  confus’diy  in  a difi  ’rent  line.— Jenyns. 

‘ In  the  present  material  system  in  which  we  live,  and 
where  the  objects  that  surround  us  are  continually  ex- 
posed to  the  examination  of  our  senses,  how  many 
things  occur  that  are  mysterious  and  unaccountable.’— 
Slair. 

CORPULENT,  STOUT,  LUSTY. 
Corpulent  from  corpus  the  body,  signifies  having 
fulness  of  body ; sloiit,  in  Dutch  stott,  is  no  doubt  a 
variation  of  the  German  statig  steady,  signifying  able 
to  stand,  solid,  firm ; lusty,  in  German,  &c.  lustig 
merry,  cheerful,  implies  here  a vigorous  state  of  body. 

Corpulent  respects  the  fleshy  state  of  the  body;  stout 
respects  also  the  state  of  the  muscles  and  bones:  cor- 
pulence is  therefore  an  incidental  property ; stoutness 
IS  a natural  property ; corpulence  may  come  i pon  a 
person  according  to  circumstances;  ‘ Mallet’s  stature 
was  diminutive,  but  he  was  regularly  formed  ; his  ap- 
pearance, till  he  grew  corpulent,  was  agreeable,  and 
he  suffered  it  to  want  no  recommendation  that  dress 
could  give  it.’ — Johnson.  Stoutness  is  the  natural 
make  of  the  body  which  is  born  with  us ; 

Hence  rose  the  Marsian  and  Sabellian  race. 

Strong  limb’d  and  stout,  and  to  the  wars  inclin’d. 

Dryden. 

Corpulence  and  lustiness  are  both  occasioned  by  the 
state  of  the  health ; but  the  former  may  arise  from 
disease ; the  latter  is  always  the  consequence  of  good 
health  ; corpulence  consists  of  an  undue  proportion  of 
fat ; lustiness  consists  of  a due  and  full  proportion  of 
all  the  solids  in  the  body ; 

Though  I look  old,  yet  I am  strong  and  lusty^ 

For  in  my  youth  I never  did  apply 
Hot  and  rebellious  liquors  to  my  blood. 

Shakspeare. 


LEAN,  MEAGRE. 

Lean  is  in  all  probability  connected  with  line,  lank, 
and  long,  signifying  that  which  is  simply  long  without 
any  other  dimension;  meagre,  in  Latin  macer,  Greek 
os  small. 

ean  denotes  want  of  fat;  meagre  want  of  flesh: 
what  is  ieari  is  not  always  meagre;  but  nothing  can 
be  meagre  without  being  lean.  Brutes  as  well  as  men 
are  lean,  but  men  only  are  said  to  be  meagre:  lean- 
ness is  frequently  connected  with  the  temperament; 
meagreness  is  the  consequence  of  starvation  and  dis- 
ease. There  are  some  animals  by  nature  inclined  to 
be  lean ; a meagre  pale  visage  is  to  be  seen  perpetually 
in  trie  haunts  of  vice  and  poverty; 

Who  ambles  time  withal 
With  a priest  that  lacks  Latin, 

And  with  a rich  man  that  hath  not  the  gout, 

The  one  lacking  the  burthen  of  lean  and 
Wasteful  learning;  the  other  knowing  nor 
Burthen  of  heavy  tedious  penury. — Shakspeare. 
So  thin,  so  ghastly  meagre,  and  so  wan. 

So  bare  of  flesh,  he  scarce  resembled  man. 

Dryden. 


MEMBER,  LIMB. 

Member,  in  Latin  membrum,  probably  from  the 
Hrreek  pipos  a part,  because  a member  is  properly  a 
part;  limb  is  connected  with  the  word  lame. 

Member  is  a general  term  applied  either  to  the  ani- 
mal body  or  to  other  bodies,  as  a member  of  a family, 
ora  member  of  a community:  limb  is  applicable  to 
animal  bodies;  limb  is  therefore  a species  of  member; 
for  every  limb  is  a member,  but  every  member  is  not  a 
limb. 

The  members  of  the  body  comprehend  every  part 
which  is  capable  of  performing  a distinct  oflice,  but 
the  limbs  are  those  jointed  members  that  are  distin- 
guished from  the  head  and  the  body:  the  nose  and 
the  eyes  are  members  but  not  limbs;  the  arms  and  legs 
are  properly  denominated  limbs  ; ‘ A man’s  limbs  (by 
which  for  the  present  we  only  understand  thos«  mem- 
bers the  loss  of  which  only  amounts  to  mayhem  by  the 


common  law)  are  the  gifts  of  the  wise  Creator  to  ena 
ble  him  to  protect  himself  from  external  injuries.’— 
Blackstone. 


ANIMAL,  BRUTE,  BEAST. 

Animal,  in  French  animal,  Latin  animal,  from  am- 
ma  life,  signifies  the  thing  having  life;  brute  is  in 
French  brute,  Latin  brutus  dull,  Greek  Papirrjsj  Chal- 
dee nn3  foolishness;  beast,  in  French  bete,  Latin 
hestia,  changed  from  bosterna,  Greek  ^ooK/jpa  a beast 
of  burden,  and  jSdo-xca  to  feed,  signilies  properly  the 
thing  that  feeds. 

Animal  is  the  generick,  brute  and  beast  are  the  spe- 
cifick  terms.  The  animal  is  the  thing  that  lives  and 
moves.  If  animal  be  considered  as  thinking,  willing, 
reflecting,  and  acting,  it  is  confined  in  its  signification 
to  the  human  species;  if  it  be  regarded  as  limited  in 
all  the  functions  which  mark  intelligence  and  will,  if 
it  be  divested  of  speech  and  reason,  it  belongs  to  the 
brute;  if  animal  be  considered,  moreover,  as  to  its  ap- 
petites, independent  of  reason,  of  its  destination,  and 
consequent  dependence  on  its  mental  powers ; it  de- 
scends to  the  beast. 

Man  and  brute  are  opposes!.  To  man  an  immortal 
soul  is  assigned  ; but  we  are  not  authorized  by  Scrip- 
ture to  extend  this  dignity  to  the  brutes.  “ The  brutes 
♦hat  perish”  is  the  ordinary  mode  of  distinguishing  that 
partof  the  animal  crjation  from  the  superiour  order  of 
terrestrial  beings  who  are  destined  to  exist  in  a future 
world.  Men  cannot  be  exposed  to  a greater  degradation 
than  to  be  divested  of  their  particular  characteristicks, 
and  classed  under  the  general  name  of  animal,  unless 
we  except  that  which  assigns  to  them  the  epithet  of 
brute  ox  beast,  which,  as  designating  peculiar  atrocitj 
of  conduct,  does  not  always  carry  with  it  a reproach 
equal  to  the  infamy  of  a thing;  the  perversion  of  th,=- 
rational  faculty  is  at  all  times  more  shocking  and  dis- 
graceful than  the  absence  of  it  by  nature ; ‘ Sonie  would 
be  apt  to  say,  he  is  a conjurer;  for  he  has  found  that  a 
republick  is  not  made  up  of  every  body  of  animals,  bu! 
is  composed  of  men  only  and  not  of  horses.’ — Steele 
‘As  nature  has  framed  the  several  species  of  beings  as 
it  were  in  a chain ; so  man  seems  to  be  placed  as  tht 
middle  link  between  angels  and  Addison. 

Whom  e’en  the  savage  beasts  had  spar’d  they  kill’  . 

And  strew’d  his  mangled  limbs  about  the  field. 

Dryden, 


SOUND,  TONE. 

Sound,  in  Latin  sonus,  and  tone,  in  Latin  tonus 
may  probably  both  come  from  the  Greek  reivo)  to  stretch 
or  exert,  signifying  simply  an  exertion  of  the  voice  ; but 
I should  rather  derive  sound  from  the  Hebrew 

Sotind  is  that  which  issues  from  any  body,  ^ as  to 
become  audible;  tone  is  a species  of  sound,  which  is 
produced  from  particular  bodies:  the  sound  may  be 
accidental ; we  may  hear  the  sounds  of  waters  or 
leaves,  of  animals  or  men  : tones  are  those  particular 
sounds  which  are  made  either  to  express  a particular 
feeling,  or  to  produce  harmony ; a sheep  will  cry  for 
its  lost  young  in  a tone  of  distress;  an  organ  is  so 
formed  as  to  send  forth  the  inost  solemn  tones ; ‘ The 
sounds  of  the  voice,  according  to  the  various  touches 
which  raise  them,  form  themselves  into  an  acute  or 
grave,  quick  or  slow,  loud  or  soft,  tone.' — Hughes 

SMELL,  SCENT,  ODOUR,  PERFUME, 
FRAGRANCE. 

Smell  and  melt  are  in  all  probability  connected  to 
gether,  because  smells  arise  from  the  evapoiation  of 
bodies ; scent,  changed  from  sent,  comes  from  the  Latin 
sentio,  to  perceive  or  feel ; odour,  in  Latin  odor,  comes 
from  oleo,  in  Greek  h%(a  to  smell ; perfume,  com- 
pounded of  per-  or  pro  and/umo  or  fumus  a smoke  or 
vapour,  that  is,  the  vapour  that  issues  forth  ; fragi  ance, 
in  Latin  fragrantia,  comes  from  fragro,  ancientl7 
frago,  that  is,  to  perfume  or  smell  like  the  f^aga  cr 
strawberry. 

Smell  and  scent  are  said  either  of  that  which  re- 
ceives, or  that  which  gives  the  smell;  the  odour,  the 
perfume,  and  fragrance  of  that  which  communicates 
the  smelt.  In  the  first  case,  smell  is  said  generally  of 
all  living  things  without  distinction ; scent  is  said  onh’ 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


klZ 

of  such  animals  as  have  this  peculiar  faculty  of  tracing 
cljiects  by  their  sviell;  some  persons  have  a much 
quicker  smell  than  others,  and  some  have  an  acuter 
smell  of  particular  objects  than  they  have  of  things  in 
general ; dogs  are  remarkable  for  their  quickness  of 
scent,  by  which  they  can  trace  their  masters  and  other 
objects  at  an  immense  distance:  other  animals  are 
gifted  with  thus  faculty  to  a surprising  degree,  which 
serves  them  as  a means  of  defence  against  their  ene- 
mies; 

Then  curses  his  conspiring  feet,  whose  scent 
Betrays  that  safety  which  their  swiftness  lent. 

Denham. 

In  the  second  case,  smell  is  compared  with  odour, 
perfume,  and  fragrance,  either  as  respects  the  objects 
communicating  the  smell,  or  the  nature  of  the  syncll 
which  is  communicated.  Smell  is  indefinite  in  its 
sense,  and  universal  in  its  application ; odour, perfume,, 
and  fragrance  are  species  of  smells : every  object  is 
said  to  smell  which  acts  on  the  olfactory  nerves ; flow- 
ers, fruits,  woods,  earth,  v/ater,  and  the  like,  have  a 
smell;  but  odour  is  said  of  that  which  is  artificial; 
the ;)cr/(me  and  fragrance  o^  that  which  is  natural: 
the  burning  of  things  produces  an  odour ; 

So  flowers  are  gathered  to  adorn  a grave. 

To  lose  their  freshness  among  bones  and  rottenness. 
And  have  their  odours  stifled  in  the  dust. — Rowe. 
The  perfume  and  fragrance  arise  from  flowers  or 
sweet  smelling  herbs,  spices,  and  the  like.  The  terms 
smell  and  odour  do  not  specify  the  exact  nature  of  that 
which  issues  from  bodies;  they  may  both  be  either 
pleasant  or  unpleasant;  but  smell,  if  taken  in  certain 
connexions,  signifies  a bad  smell,  and  odour  signifies 
that  which  is  sweet:  meat  which  is  kept  too  long  will 
have  a smell,  that  is,  of  course,  a bad  smell ; the  odours 
from  a sacrifice  are  acceptable,  that  is,  the  sweet  odours 
ascend  to  heaven.  Perfume  is  properly  a wide-spread- 
ing smeZi,  and  when  taken  without  any  epithet  signi- 
fies a pleasant  smell; 

At  last  a soft  and  solemn  breathing  sound 
Rose  like  a steam  of  rich  distill’d  perfumes. 

Milton. 

Fragrance  never  signifies  any  thing  but  what  is  good ; 
«t  is  the  sweetest  and  most  powerful  perfume:  the 
perfume  from  flowers  and  shrubs  is  as  grateful  to  one’s 
gense  as  their  colours  and  conformation  are  to  the  other; 
Jie  fragrance  from  groves  of  myrtle  and  orange  trees 
surpasses  the  beauty  of  their  fruits  or  foliage; 

Soft  vernal /raoTcnce  clothe  the  flow’ring  earth. 

Mason. 


TO  SOAK,  DRENCH,  STEEP. 

Soak  is  a variation  of  suck ; drench  is  a variation  of 
drink;  steep,  in  Saxon  steapan,  &c.  from  the  Hebrew 
satep,  signifies  to  overflow  or  overwhelm. 

The  idea  of  communicating  or  receiving  a liquid  is 
common  to  these  terms.  We  soak  things  in  water 
when  we  wish  to  soften  them ; animals  are  drenched 
with  liquid  as  a medicinal  operation.  A person’s 
clothes  are  soaked  in  rain  when  the  water  has  pene- 
trated every  thread ; he  himself  is  drenched  in  the  rain 
when  it  has  penetrated  as  it  were  his  very  body; 
drench  therefore  in  this  case  only  expresses  the  idea  of 
soak  in  a stronger  manner.  To  steep  is  a species  of 
Mating"  employed  as  an  artificial  process;  to  soak\s 
however  a permanent  action  by  which  hard  things  are 
rendered  soft ; to  steep  is  a temporary  action  by  which 
soft  bodies  become  penetrated  with  a liquid : thus  salt 
meat  requires  to  be  soaked;  fruits  are  sometimes 
steeped  in  brandy ; 

Drill’d  through  the  sandy  stratum,  every  way 
The  waters  with  the  sandy  stratum  rise. 

And  clear  and  sweeten  as  they  soak  along. 

Thomson. 

And  deck  with  fruitful  trees  the  fields  around. 

And  with  refreshing  waters  drench  the  ground. 

Dryden. 

O sleep,  O gentle  sleep. 

Nature’s  soft  nurse ! How  have  I frighted  thee, 

That  thou  no  more  wilt  weigh  my  eyelids  down, 
And  steep  my  senses  in  forgetfulness? 

Shaespevre 


TASTE,  FLAVOUR,  RELISH,  SAVOUR. 

Taste  comes  from  the  Teutonick  tasten  to  touck 
lightly,  and  signifies  either  the  organ  which  is  easily 
affected,  or  the  act  of  discriminating  by  a light  touch 
of  the  organ,  or  the  quality  of  the  object  which  affects 
the  organ  ; in  this  latter  sense  it  is  ciosely  allied  to  the 
other  terms;  flavour  most  probably  comes  from  the 
Latin  flo  to  breathe,  signifying  the  rarefied  essence  of 
bodies  which  affect  the  organ  of  taste;  relish  is  de- 
rived by  Minshew  from  reUcher  io  lick  again,  signify 
ing  that  which  pleases  the  palate  so  as  to  tempt  to  a 
renewal  of  the  act  of  tasting ; savour,  in  Latin  sapor 
and  sapio  to  smell,  taste,  or  be  sensible,  most  probably 
comes  from  the  Hebrew  naiy  the  mouth  or  palate, 
which  is  the  organ  of  taste. 

Taste  is  the  most  general  and  indefinite  of  all  these ; 
it  is  applicable  to  every  object  that  can  be  applied  to 
the  organ  of  taste,  and  to  every  degree  and  manner  in 
which  the  organ  can  be  affected:  some  things  are 
tasteless,  other  things  have  a strong  taste,  and  others 
a mixed  taste; 

Ten  thousand  thousand  precious  gifts 
My  daily  thanks  employ! 

Nor  is  the  least  a cheerful  heart. 

That  tastes  those  gifts  with  joy. — Addison. 

The  flavour  is  the  predominating  taste,  and  consf 
quently  is  applied  to  such  objects  as  may  have  a dif- 
ferent kind  or  degree  of  taste ; an  apple  may  not  only 
have  the  general  taste  of  apple,  but  also  a flavour 
peculiar  to  itself : the  flavour  is  commonly  said  of  that 
which  is  good,  as  a fine  flavour,  a delicious  flavour ; 
but  it  may  designate  that  which  is  not  always  agree- 
able, as  the  flavour  of  fish,  which  is  unpleasant  in 
things  that  do  not  admit  of  such  a taste ; ‘ The  Phi- 
lippick  islands  give  a flavour  to  our  European  bowls.' 
—Addison.  The  relish  is  also  a particular  taste ; but 
it  is  that  which  is  artificial,  in  distinction  from  the 
flavour,  which  may  be  the  natural  property.  We  find 
the  flavour  such  as  it  is ; we  give  the  relish  such  as  it 
should  be,  or  we  wish  it  to  be : milk  and  butter  receii  e 
a flavour  from  the  nature  of  the  food  with  which  the 
cow  is  supplied ; sauces  are  used  in  order  to  give  a 
relish  to  the  food  that  is  dressed ; 

I love  the  people. 

But  do  not  like  to  stage  me  to  their  eyes. 

Though  it  do  well,  I do  not  relish  well 
Their  loud  applause.— Shakspeare. 

Savour  is  a term  in  less  frequent  use  than  the  others, 
but,  agreeable  to  the  Latin  derivation,  it  is  employea 
to  designate  that  which  smells  as  well  as  tastes,  a 
sw'eet  smelling  savour  ; 

The  pleasant  savoury  smell 
So  quicken’d  appetite,  that  I methought 
Could  not  but  taste.- Milton. 

So  likewise,  in  the  moral  application,  a man’s  actions 
or  expressions  may  be  said  to  savour  of  vanity.  Taste 
and  relish  may  be  moreover  compared  as  the  act  of 
persons : we  taste  whatever  affects  our  taste;  but  we 
relish  that  only  which  pleases  our  taste;  we  taste 
fruits  in  order  to  determine  whether  they  are  good  or 
bad ; we  relish  fruits  as  a dessert,  or  at  certain  seasons 
of  the  day.  So  likewise,  in  the  moral  application,  we 
have  a relish  for  books,  for  learning,  for  society,  and 
the  like. 


PALATE,  TASTE. 

Palate,  in  Latin  palatum,  comes  either  from  the 
Greek  Trdw  to  eat,  or,  which  is  more  probable,  from  the 
Etruscan  word  farlantum,  signifying  the  roof  or  arch 
of  Heaven,  or,  by  an  extended  application,  the  roof  of 
the  mouth ; taste  comes  from  the  German  tasten  to 
touch  lightly,  because  the  sense  of  taste  requires  but 
the  slightest  touch  to  excite  it. 

Palate  is,  in  an  improper  sense,  employed  for  taste, 
because  it  is  the  seat  of  taste ; but  taste  is  never  em- 
ployed for  palate:  a person  is  said  to  have  a nice 
palate  when  he  is  nice  in  what  he  eats  or  drinks;  but 
his  taste  extends  to  all  matters  of  sense,  as  weh  as 
those  which  are  intellectual ; 

No  fruit  o\fc  palate  courts,  or  flow’r  our  smell 

iKNYWa 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


513 


A man  of  taste,  or  of  a nice  taste,  conveys  much  more 
ac  a characieristick,  than  a man  of  a nice  palate:  the 
former  is  said  only  in  a good  sense ; but  the  latter  is 
particularly  applicable  to  the  epicure; 

In  more  exalted  joys  to  fix  our  taste. 

And  wean  us  from  delights  that  cannot  last. 

Jknyns. 


INSIPID,  DULL,  FLAT. 

A want  of  spirit  in  the  moral  sense  is  designated  by 
these  epithets,  which  borrow  their  figurative  meaning 
from  different  properties  in  nature;  the  taste  is  refer- 
red to  in  the  word  insipid,  from  the  Latin  sapio  to 
taste;  the  properties  of  colours  are  considered  under 
the  word  dull  (v.  Dull) ; the  property  of  surface  is  re- 
ferred to  by  the  \v  ox  A fiat  [v.  Flat).  As  the  want  of 
flavour  in  any  meat  constitutes  it  insipid,  and  renders 
it  worthless,  so  does  the  want  of  mind  or  character  in 
a man  render  him  equally  insipid,  and  devoid  of  the 
distinguishing  characteristick  of  his  nature  : as  the 
beauty  and  perfection  of  colours  consist  in  their  bright- 
ness, and  the  absence  of  this  essential  property,  which 
constitutes  dulness,  renders  them  uninteresting  objects 
to  the  eye,  so  the  want  of  spirit  in  a moral  composition, 
which  constitutes  its  dulness,  deprives  it  at  the  same 
time  of  that  ingredient  which  should  awaken  attention : 
as  in  the  natural  world  objects  are  either  elevated  or 
flat,  so  in  the  moral  world  the  spirits  are  either  raised 
or  depressed,  and  such  moral  representations  as  are 
calculated  to  raise  the  spirits  are  termed  spirited, 
while  those  which  fail  in  this  object  are  termed 
An  insipid  writer  is  without  sentiment  of  any  kind  or 
degree ; a didl  writer  fails  in  vivacity  and  vigour  of 
pentiment;  a performance  is  wanting  in  the  pro- 
perty of  provoking  mirth,  which  should  be  its  peculiar 
ingredient ; ‘ To  a covetous  man  all  other  things  but 
wealth  are  insipid.' — South. 

But  yet  beware  of  councils  when  too  full. 

Number  makes  long  disputes  and  graveness  dull. 

Denham. 

The  senses  are  disgusted  with  their  old  entertain- 
ments, and  existence  turns  flat  and  insipid.' — Grove. 

FEAST,  BANQUET,  CAROUSAL,  ENTER- 
TAINMENT, TREAT. 

As  feasts,  in  the  religious  sense,  from  festus,  are 
always  days  of  leisure,  and  frequently  of  publick  re- 
joicing, this  word  has  been  applied  to  any  social  meal 
for  the  purposes  of  pleasure : this  is  the  idea  common 
to  the  signification  of  all  these  words,  of  which  feast 
seems  to  be  the  most  general ; and  for  all  of  which  it 
may  frequently  be  substituted,  although  they  have 
each  a distinct  application : feast  conveys  the  idea 
merely  of  enjoyment:  bHiquet  is  a.  splendid  feast,  at- 
tended with  pomp  and  stftle ; it  is  a term  of  noble  use, 
particularly  adapted  to  pcttry  and  the  high  style ; ca- 
rousal, in  French  carou&c,  in  German  geruusch.  ox 
rausch  intoxication,  from  rauschen  to  intoxicate,  is  a 
drunken  feasi:  entertainment  and  treat  convey  the 
idea  of  hospitality. 

A feast  may  be  given  «y  princes  or  their  subjects, 
by  nobility  or  commonalty; 

New  purple  hangings  clothe  the  palace  walls, 

And  sumptuous  feasts  are  made  in  splendid  halls. 

Dryds.v. 

The  banquet  is  confined  to  uien  of  high  estate ; and 
more  commonly  spoken  of  in  former  times,  when  ranks 
and  distinctions  were  less  blended  than  they  are  at 
present;  the  dinner  which  the  Lord  Mayor  of  London 
annually  gives  is  properly  denominated  a feast;  the 
mode  in  which  Cardinal  Wolsey  received  the  French 
ambassadors  might  entitle  every  meal  he  gave  to  be 
denominated  a banquet ; 

With  hymns  divine  the  joyous  banquet  ends. 

The  paeans  lengthen’d  till  the  sun  descends. — Pope. 

A feast  supposes  indulgence  of  the  appetite,  both  in 
eating  and  drinking,  but  not  intemperately ; a carousal 
is  confined  mostly  to  drinking,  and  that  for  the  most 
part  to  an  excess ; 

This  game,  these  carousals,  Ascanius  taught. 

And,  building  Alba,  to  the  Latins  brought. 

Drydkn. 

33 


A feast,  therefore,  is  always  a good  thing,  unless  it 
ends  in  a carousal : a feast  may  be  given  by  one  or 
many,  at  private  or  publick  expense;  but  an  entertain- 
ment and  a treat  are  altogether  personal  acts,  and  the 
terms  are  never  used  but  in  relation  to  the  agents: 
every  entertainment  is  a feast  as  far  as  respects  enjoy 
ment  at  a social  board ; but  no  feast  is  an  entertain 
ment  unless  there  be  some  individual  who  specifically 
provides  for  the  entertainment  of  others : we  may  all 
be  partakers  of  a feast,  but  we  are  guests  at  an  enter- 
tainment: the  Lord  Mayor’s  feast  is  not  strictly  an 
entertainment,  although  that  of  Cardinal  Wolsey  was 
properly  so : an  entertainment  is  given  between  friends 
and  equals,  to  keep  alive  the  social  afl'ections;  a treat 
is  given  by  way  of  favour  to  those  whom  one  wishes 
to  oblige:  a nobleman  provides  an  entertainment  for  a 
particular  party  whom  he  has  invited  ; ‘ I could  not 
but  smile  at  the  account  that  was  yesterday  given  me 
of  a modest  young  gentleman,  who,  being  invited  to  an 
entertainment,  though  he  was  not  used  to  drink,  had 
not  the  confidence  to  refuse  his  glass  in  his  turti.’ — 
Addison.  A nobleman  may  give  a treat  to  his  ser- 
vants, his  tenants,  his  tradespeople,  or  the  poor  of  his 
neighbourhood;  ‘1  do  not  insist  that  you  spread  your 
table  with  so  unbounded  a profusion  as  to  furnish  out 
a splendid  treat  with  the  remains.’ — Melmotii  {Let 
ters  of  Cicero). 

Feast,  entertainment,  and  treat  ate  taken  in  a more 
extended  sense,  to  express  other  jtleasures  besides  those 
of  the  table:  feast  retains  its  signification  of  a vivid 
pleasure,  such  as  voluptuaries  derive  from  delicious 
viands ; entertainment  and  treat  retain  the  idea  of 
being  granted  by  way  of  courtesy:  we  speak  of  a thing 
as  being  a /cost  or  high  delight;  ‘ Beattie  is  the  only 
author  I know,  whose  critical  and  philosophical  re- 
searches are  diversified  and  embellished  by  a poetical 
imagination,  that  makes  even  the  driest  subject  and  the 
leanest  a feast  for  an  epicure  in  books.’— Cowpbr. 
And  of  a person  contributing  to  one’s  entertainment, 
or  giving  one  a treat ; ‘Let  us  consider  to  whom  we 
are  indebted  for  all  these  entertainments  of  sense.’— 
Addison. 

Sing  my  praise  in  strain  sublime. 

Treat  not  me. with  flogg're.  rhyme. — Swift 
To  an  envious  man  the  sight  of  wretchedness,  in  a 
once  prosperous  rival,  is  a feast;  to  a benevolent  mind 
the  spectacle  of  an  afflicted  man  relieved  and  com- 
forted is  a feast;  to  a mind  ardent  in  the  pursuit  of 
knowledge,  an  easy  access  to  a well- stocked  library  is 
a continual  feast : men  of  a happy  temper  give  an4 
receive  entertainment  with  equal  facility;  they  afford 
entertainment  to  their  guests  by  the  easy  cheerfulness 
which  they  imi)art  to  every  thing  around  them  ; they 
in  like  manner  derive  entertainment  from  every  thing 
they  see,  or  hear,  or  observe;  a treat  is  given  ot  re- 
ceived only  on  particular  occasions ; it  depends  on  the 
relative  circumstances  and  tastes  of  the  giver  and  re 
ceiver ; to  one  of  a musical  turn  one  may  give  a treat 
by  inviting  him  to  a musical  party;  and  to  one  of  an 
intelligent  turn  it  will  be  equally  a treat  to  be  of  the 
party  which  consists  of  the  enlightened  and  con 
versible. 


FARE,  PROVISION. 

Fare,  from  the  German  fahren  to  go  or  be,  signifies 
in  general  the  condition  or  thing  that  comes  to  one  ; 
provision,  from  signifies  the  thing  provided  foer 

one. 

These  terms  are  alike  employed  for  the  ordinary 
concerns  of  life,  and  may  either  be  used  in  the  limited 
sense  for  the  food  one  procures,  or  in  general  for  what 
everts  necessary  or  convenient  to  be  procured:  to  Ifin 
term  fare  is  annexed  the  idea  of  accident;  provision 
includes  that  of  design:  a traveller  on  the  contineiu 
must  frequently  be  contented  with  humble  fare,  unlese 
he  has  the  precaution  of  carrying  his  provisions  with 
him; 

This  night  at  least  with  me  forget,  your  care, 

Chesnuts,  and  curds,  and  cream  shall  be  your  /an 

Dryden. 

The  winged  nation  wanders  through  the  skies, 

And  o’er  the  plains  and  shady  forest  flies; 

They  breed,  they  brood,  instruct,  and  educaH. 

And  make  provision  for  the  future  stale. — Dryda. 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


hH 


FOOD,  DIET,  REGIMEN. 

Food  signifies  the  thing  which  one  feeds  upon,  in 
Saxon  fodr,  Low  German  fade  or  foder,  Greek  ; 

diet  comes  from  JtatTdw  to  live  medicinally,  signifying 
any  particular  mode  of  living;  regimen,  in  Latin  re- 
gimen, from  rego  to  regulate,  signifies  a system  or 
practice  by  rule. 

All  these  terms  refer  to  our  living,  or  that  by  which 
we  live ; food  is  here  the  general  term ; the  others  are 
specifick.  Food  specifies  no  circumstance:  whatever 
is  taken  to  main-tain  life  \s  food ; diet  is  properly  a 
prescribed  or  regular  food.  It  is  the  hard  lot  of  some 
■jmong  the  poor  to  obtain  with  difficulty  food  and 
tloihing  for  themselves  and  their  families;  an  atten- 
tion to  the  diet  of  children  is  an  important  branch  of 
their  early  education;  their  diet  can  scarcely  be  too 
simple:  no  one  can  be  expected  to  enjoy  his  food  who 
is  not  in  a good  state  of  health  ; we  cannot  expect  to 
find  a healthy  population  where  there  is  a spare  and 
unwholesome  diet,  attended  with  hard  labour. 

Food  is  a term  applicable  to  all  living  creatures,  and 
also  used  figuratively  for  what  serves  to  nourish; 
The  poison  of  other  states  (that  is,  bankruptcy) 
is  the  food  of  the  new  republick.’— Burke.  Diet  is 
employed  only  with  regard  to  human  beings  who  make 
choice  of  their  food:  corn  is  as  much  the  natural  food 
of  some  animals  as  of  men  ; the  diet  of  the  peasantry 
consists  mostly  of  bread,  milk,  and  vegetables;  ‘The 
diet  of  men  in  a state  of  nature  must  have  been  con- 
fined almost  wholly  to  the  vegetable  kind.’ — Burke. 

Diet  and  regimen  are  both  particular  modes  of 
living;  but  the  former  respects  the  quality  of  food;  the 
latter  the  quantity  as  well  as  quality:  diet  is  confined 
to  modes  of  taking  nourishment;  regimen  often  re- 
spects the  abstinence  from  food,  bodily  exercise,  and 
whatever  may  conduce  to  health  : diet  is  generally  the 
consequence  of  an  immediate  prescription  from  a phy- 
sician, and  during  the  period  of  sickness;  regimen 
commonly  forms  a regular  part  of  a nixin’s  system  of 
living:  diet  is  in  certain  cases  of  such  importance  for 
the  restoration  of  a patient  that  a single  deviation  may 
defeat  the  best  medicine;  it  is  the  misfortune  of  some 
people  to  be  troubled  with  diseases,  from  which  they 
cannot  get  any  exemption  but  by  observing  a strict  re- 
gimen ; ‘ Prolongation  of  life  is  rather  to  be  expected 
from  stated  diets  than  from  any  common  regimen.' — 
Bacon.  ‘ I shall  always  be  abie  to  entertain  a friend  of 
a philosophical  re^-mcn.’— Shenstone. 


FEMALE,  FEMININE,  EFFEMINATE. 

Female  is  said  of  the  sex  itself,  and  feminine  of  the 
characteristicks  of  the  sex.  Female  is  opposed  to  male, 
feminine  to  masculine. 

In  the  female  character  we  expect  to  find  that  which 
is  feminine.  The  female  dress,  manners,  and  habits 
have  engaged  the  attention  of  all  essayists,  from  the 
time  of  Addison  to  the  present  period ; 

Cnee  more  her  haughty  soul  the  tyrant  bends. 

To  prayers  and  mean  submissions  she  descends; 
No  female  arts  or  aids  she  left  untried. 

Nor  counsels  unexplor’d,  before  she  died. 

Dryden. 

The  feminine  is  natniial  to  the  female;  the  effemi- 
nate is  unnatural  to  the  male.  A feminine  air  and 
voice,  which  is  truly  grateful  to  the  observer  in  the  one 
sex,  is  an  odious  mark  of  effeminacy  in  the  other. 
Beauty  and  delicacy  are  feminine  properties; 

Her  heav’nly  form 
Angelick:  but  more  soft  and  feminine 
Her  graceful  innocence. — Milton. 

Robustness  and  vigour  are  masculine  properties  ; the 
former  therefore  when  discovered  in  a man  entitle 
him  to  the  epithet  of  effeminate;  ‘Our  martial  an- 
cestors, like  some  of  their  modern  successors,  had  no 
other  amusement  (but  hunting;  to  entertain  their 
vacant  hours;  despising  all  arts  as  effeminate.' — 
Blackstone 


GENDER,  SEX. 

Gender,  in  Latin  genus,  signifies  properly  a genus 
or  kind  ; sex,  in  French  sexe,  Latin  sexvs,  comes  from 
the  Creek  signifying  the  habit  or  nature.  The 
gender  ifi  tha  di«tinclion  in  words  which  marks  the 


distinction  of  sex  in  things ; there  are  therefere  thrfr 
genders,  but  only  two  sexes.  By  the  inflections  of 
words  are  denoted  whether  things  are  of  this  or  that, 
sex,  or  of  no  sex.  The  genders,  therefore,  are  divided 
in  gramm  ar  inlo  masculine,  feminine,  and  neuter ; and 
animals  are  divided  into  male  and  female  sex. 


GOLD,  GOLDEN. 

These  terms  are  both  employed  as  epithets,  but  goid 
is  the  substantive  used  in  composition,  and  golden  the 
adjective,  in  ordinary  use.  The  former  is  strictly  ap- 
plied to  the  metal  of  which  the  thing  is  made,  as  a 
gold  cup,  or  a gold  coin ; but  the  latter  to  whatever  ap- 
pertains to  whether  properly  or  figuratively  : as 
the  golden  lion,  the  golden  crown,  the  golden  age,  or  3 
golden  harvest. 

COOL,  COLD,  FRIGID. 

In  the  natural  sense,  cool  is  simply  the  lasence  of 
warmth;  cold  and  frigid  are  positively  contrary  to 
warmth  ; the  former  in  regard  to  objects  in  general,  the 
latter  to  moral  objects : in  the  physicaf  sense  the 
analogy  is  strictly  preserved.  Cool  is  used  as  it  re- 
spects the  passions  and  the  affections ; cold  only  with 
regard  to  the  affections  ; frigid  only  in  regard  to  the 
inclinations. 

With  regard  to  the  passions,  tool  designates  a free- 
dom from  agitation,  which  is  a desirable  quality 
Coolness  in  a time  of  danger,  and  coolness  in  an  argu 
ment,  are  alike  commendable. 

As  cool  and  cold  respect  the  affections,  the  cool  is  op 
posed  to  the  friendly,  the  cold  to  the  waim-hearted,the 
frigid  to  the  animated ; the  former  is  but  a degree  of 
the  latter.  A reception  is  said  to  be  cool;  an  embrace 
to  be  cold ; a sentiment  frigid.  Coolness  is  an  enemy 
to  social  enjoyments ; coldness  is  an  enemy  to  every 
moral  virtue;  frigidity  Aestroys  all  force  of  character. 
Coolness  is  engendered  by  circumstances ; it  supposes 
the  previous  existence  of  warmth  ; coldness  lies  often 
in  the  temperament,  or  is  engendered  by  habit;  it  is 
always  something  vicious;  frigidity  is  occasional,  and 
is  always  a defect.  Trifling  differences  produce  cool- 
ness sometimes  between  the  best  friends ; ‘ The  jealous 
man’s  disease  is  of  so  malignant  a nature,  that  it  con- 
verts all  it  takes  into  its  own  nourishment.  A coo/ be- 
haviour is  interpreted  as  an  instance  of  aversion  : a 
fond  one  raises  his  suspicions.’— Addison.  Trads 
sometimes  engenders  a cold  calculating  temper  in  some 
minds;  ‘It  is  wondrous  that  a man  can  get  over  the 
natural  existence  and  possession  of  his  own  mind,  so 
far  as  to  take  delight  either  in  paying  or  receiving  cold 
and  repeated  civilities.’ — Steele.  Those  who  are  re- 
markable for  apathy  will  often  express  themselves 
with  frigid  indifference  on  the  most  important  sub- 
jects ; ‘The  religion  of  the  moderns  abounds  in  topicks 
so  incomparably  noble  and  exalted,  as  might  kindle  the 
flames  of  genuine  oratory  in  the  most  frigid  anJ  bar 
ren  genius.’ — Wharton. 


CHILL,  COLD. 

Chill  and  cold  are  but  variations  of  the  same  woro, 
in  German  kalt.  Sec. 

Chill  expresses  less  than  cold,  that  is  to  say,  it  ex- 
presses a degree  of  cold.  The  weather  is  often  chilly 
in  glimmer;  but  it  is  cold  in  winter. 

We  speak  of  taking  the  chill  off  water  when  the  cold 
is  in  part  removed  ; and  of  a chill  running  through  the 
frame  when  the  cold  begins  to  penetrate  the  frame  that 
is  in  a state  of  warmth ; 

When  men  once  reach  their  autumn,  fickle  joys 
Fall  off  apace,  as  yellow  leaves  from  trees; 

Till  left  quite  naked  of  their  happiness. 

In  the  chill  blasts  of  winter  they  expire. 

YoUNtr 

‘ Thus  ease  after  torment  is  pleasure  for  a time,  and  we 
are  very  agreeably  recruited  when  the  body,  chillea 
with  the  weather,  is  gradually  recovering  its  natural 
tepidity ; but  the  joy  ceases  when  we  have  forgot  the 
coM.’— Johnson. 

TO  STAIN,  SOIL,  SULLY,  TARNISH. 

Stain,  V.  Blemish;  soil  and  sully,  frem  soL  Qirt,sig 
nify  to  smear  with  dirt;  tarnish  in  French  temir 
comes  probably  from  the  Latin  tero  to  bruis« 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  515 


All  these  terms  imply  the  act  of  diminishing  the 
brightness  of  an  object;  but  the  term  stain  denotes 
Boinetliing  grosser  than  the  other  ter^ns,  and  is  applied 
to  inferiour  objects;  things  which  are  not  remarkable 
^or  purity  or  brightness  may  be  stained,  as  hands  when 
stained  with  blood,  or  a wall  stained  with  chalk ; 
Thou,  rather  than  thy  justice  should  be  stained. 
Didst  stain  t!ie  crosS.—YouNO. 

Nothing  is  sullied  or  tarnished,  but  what  has  some  in- 
trinsick  value ; a fine  picture  or  piece  of  writing  may 
be  easily  soiled  by  a touch  of  the  finger;  cannot 
endure  to  be  mistaken,  or  suffer  my  purer  affections  to 
be  soiled  with  the  odious  attribulesof  covetousness  and 
ambitious  falsehood.’ — Lord  Wkntworth.  "‘le 
finest  glass  is  the  soonest  tarnished : lienee,  in  the 
moral  application,  a man’s  life  may  be  stained  by  the 
commission  of  some  gross  immorality : his  honour  may 
be  sullied,  or  his  glory  tarnished; 

Oaths  would  debase  the  dignity  of  virtue. 

Else  I could  swear  by  him,  the  power  who  clothed 
The  sun  with  light,  and  gave  yon  starry  host 
Tlieir  chaste,  unsullied  lustre. — Francis. 

I am  not  now  what  I once  was ; for  since  I parted 
from  thee  fate  has  tarnished  my  glories.’ — Trapp. 

TO  SMEAR,  DAUB. 

To  smear  is  literally  to  do  over  with  smear,  in  Saxon 
smer,  German  sc/tmeer,  in  Greek /iuposasalve.  To  daub, 
from  do  and  ub  uber  over,  signifies  literally  to  do  over 
with  any  thing  unseemly,  or  in  an  unsightly  manner. 

To  smear  in  the  literal  sense  is  applied  to  such  sub- 
stances as  may  be  rubbed  like  grease  over  a body ; if 
said  of  grease  itself  it  may  be  proper,  as  coachmen 
smear  the  coach  wheels  with  tar  or  grease;  but  if  said 
of  any  thing  else  it  is  an  improper  action,  and  tends  to 
disfigure,  as  children  smear  their  hands  with  ink,  or 
smear  their  clothes  with  dirt.  To  smear  and  daub  a;-e 
both  actions  which  tend  to  disfigure ; but  we  smear  by 
means  of  rubbing  over;  we  daub  by  rubbing,  throw 
ing,  or  any  way  covering  over-  thus  a child  smears 
the  window  with  his  finger,  or  he  daubs  the  wall  with 
dirt.  By  a figurative  application,  smear  is  applied  to 
bad  writing,  and  daub  to  bad  painting  : indifferent  wri- 
ters who  wish  to  excel  are  fond  of  retouching  their  let- 
ters until  they  make  their  performance  a sad  smear; 
bad  artists,  who  are  injudicious  in  the  use  of  their 
pencil,  load  their  paintings  with  colour,  and  convert 
them  into  daubs. 


MOISTURE,  HUMIDITY,  DAMPNESS. 

Moisture,  from  the  French  mnite  moist,  is  probably 
eontracted  from  the  Latin  humidus,  fiorn  which  hu- 
midity \s  immediately  derived ; dawjjness  comes  from 
the  German  damp/  a vapour. 

Moisture  is  used  in  general  to  l;xpress  any  small  de- 
gree of  infusion  of  a liquid  ir/o  a body;  humidity  is 
employed  scientifically  to  describe  the  state  of  having 
any  portion  of  such  liquid:  hence  we  speak  of  the 
moisture  of  a table,  the  moisture  of  [laper,  or  the 
moisture  of  a floor  that  has  been  wetted ; but  of  the 
humidity  of  the  air,  or  of  a wall  that  lias  contracted 
moisture  of  itself.  Dampness  is  that  species  of  moist- 
ure that  arises  from  the  gradual  contraction  of  a liquid 
in  bodies  capable  of  retaining  it;  in  this  manner  a 
cellar  is  damp,  or  linen  that  has  lain  long  by  may 
become  damp ; 

The  plumy  people  streak  their  wings  with  oil, 

To  throw  the  lucid  moisture  trickling  off. 

Thomson. 

Now  from  the  town 

Buried  in  smoke,  and  sleep,  and  uoisome  damps, 

Oft  let  me  wander. — Thomson. 


NASTY,  wIETHY,  FOUL. 

Masty  is  connected  -vith  nauseous,  and  the  German 
nass  w'et;  filthy  and  foul  are  variations  from  the 
Greek  (fiav'Xoi. 

The  idea  of  dirtiness  is  common  to  these  terms,  but 
m different  degrees,  and  with  different  modifications. 
Whatever  dirt  is  offensive  to  any  of  the  senses,  renders 
that  ining  nasty  which  is  soiled  with  it;  the  filthy  ex- 
ceeofl  the  nasty,  not  only  in  the  quantity  but  in  the 


offensive  quality  of  the  dirt;  and  the  foul  exceeds  the 
filthy  in  the  same  proportion  ; 

We  took  behind,  then  view  his  shaggy  beard, 

His  clothes  were  tagg’d  with  thorns,  and  filth  hn 
limbs  besmear’d. — Drydkn. 

Only  our  foe 

Tempting  affronte  us  with  his  foul  esteem. 

Milton 

DREGS,  SEDIMENT,  DROSS,  SCUM,  REFUSE. 

Dregs,fxom  the  German  dreck  dirt,  signifies  the  dirty 
part  which  separates  from  a liquor;  sediment,  from 
sedeo  to  sit,  signifies  that  which  settles  at  the  bottom ; 
dross  is  probably  but  a variation  of  dregs ; scum,  from 
the  German  schaum,  signifies  the  same  as  foam  or 
froth,  or  that  which  rises  on  the  surface  of  any  liquor; 
refuse  signifies  literally  that  which  is  refused  or  tin  own 
away. 

All  these  terms  designate  the  worthless  part  of  any 
body ; but  dregs  is  taken  in  a worse  sense  than  sedi- 
ment: for  the  dregs  are  that  which  is  altogether  of  no 
value ; but  the  sediment  may  sometimes  form  a neces- 
sary part  of  the  body.  The  dregs  are  mostly  a sedi- 
ment in  liquors,  but  many  things  are  a sediment  which 
are  not  dregs.  After  the  dregs  are  taken  away,  there 
will  frequently  remain  a sediment;  Xht dregs  are  com- 
monly the  corrupt  part  which  separates  from  compound 
liquids,  as  wine  or  beer;  the  sediment  consists  of  the 
heavy  particles  w-hich  belong  to  all  simple  liquids,  not 
excepting  water  itself.  The  dregs  and  sediment  sepa- 
rate of  themselves,  but  the  scum  and  dross  are  forced 
out  by  a process ; the  former  from  liquids,  and  the  latter 
from  solid  bodies  rendered  liquid  or  otherwise. 

Refuse,  as  its  derivation  implies,  is  always  said  of 
that  which  is  intentionally  separated  to  be  thrown 
away,  and  agrees  with  the  former  terms  only  inasmuch 
as  they  express  what  is  worthless. 

Of  these  terms,  dregs,  scum,  and  refuse  admit  like- 
wise of  a figurative  application.  The  dregs  and  scum 
of  the  people  are  the  corruptest  part  of  any  society; 
and  the  refuse  is  that  which  is  most  worthless  and  unfit 
for  a respectable  community;  ‘Epitomes  of  history 
are  the  corruptions  and  moths  that  have  fretted  and 
corroded  many  sound  and  excellent  bodies  of  history 
and  reduced  them  to  base  and  unprofitable  dregs' — 
Bacon.  ‘ For  it  is  not  bare  agitation,  but  the  sediment 
at  the  bottom  that  troubles  and  defiles  the  water.’ — 
South.  ‘For  the  composition  too,  I admit  the  Alge- 
rine community  resemble  that  of  France,  being  formed 
out  of  the  very  scum,  scandal,  disgrace,  and  pest  of  the 
Turkish  Asia.’— Burke. 

Now  cast  your  eyes  around,  while  I dissolve 
The  mist  and  film  that  mortal  eyes  involve; 

Purge  from  your  sight  the  dross,  and  make  you  see 
'Pile  shape  of  each  avenging  deity. — Dryden. 

Next  of  his  men  and  ships  he  makes  review, 

Draws  out  the  best  and  ablest  of  the  crew ; 

Down  with  the  falling  stream  the  ref  use  run 
To  raise  with  joyful  news  his  drooping  son. 

Drydkn 

TO  GLOSS,  VARNISH,  PALLIATE. 

Gloss  and  varnish  are  figurative  terms,  which 
borrow  their  signification  from  the  act  of  rendering  the 
outer  surface  of  any  physical  object  shining.  To  gloss, 
which  is  connected  with  to  glaze,  is  to  give  a gloss  or 
brightness  to  any  thing  by  means  of  friction,  as  in  the 
case  of  japan  or  mahogany : to  varnish  is  to  give  an 
artificial  gloss,  by  means  of  api  lying  a foreign  sub- 
stance. Hence,  in  the  figurative  use  of  the  terms,  to 
gloss  is  to  put  the  best  face  upon  a thing  by  various 
little  distortions  and  artifices  ; hut  to  varnish  is  to  do 
the  same  thing  by  means  of  direct  falsehood  ; to  pal 
Hate,  which  likewise  signifies  to  give  the  best  possible 
outside  to  a thing  {v.  To  extenuate),  requires  still  less 
artifice  than  either.  One  glosses  over  that  which  is 
bad,  by  giving  it  a soft  name;  as  when  a man’s  vices 
are  glossed  ouox  with  the  name  of  indiscretion,  or  a 
man’s  mistress  is  termed  his  good  friend  ; ‘ If  a jealous 
man  once  finds  a false  put  upon  any  single  action 
he  quickly  suspects  all  the  rest.’— Addison.  One  var- 
nishes a bad  character  by  ascribing  good  motives  t* 
his  bad  actions,  by  withholding  many  facts  that  are  U 
his  discredit,  and  fabricating  other  circumstances  in  hi, 
favour  an  unvurnishid  tale  contains  nothing  but  tb 


S16 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


simplt  truth ; the  varnuhed  tale  on  the  other  hand 
contains  a great  mixture  of  falsehood ; the  French  ac 
counts  of  their  victories  in  the  time  of  the  revolution 
were  mostly  varnished; 

The  waiting  tears  stood  ready  for  command, 

And  now  they  flow  to  varnish  the  false  tale. 

Rowe. 

To  palliate  is  to  diminish  the  magnitude  of  an  offence, 
by  making  an  excuse  in  favour  of  the  offender;  as 
when  an  act  of  theft  is  palliated  by  considering  the 
starving  condition  of  the  thief;  ‘A  man’s  bodily  de- 
fects should  give  him  occasion  to  exert  a noble  spirit, 
and  to  palliate  those  imperfections  which  are  not  in 
his  power,  by  those  perfections  which  are.’ — Addison. 


CLOAK,  MASK,  BLIND,  VEIL. 

These  are  figurative  terms,  expressive  of  different 
modes  of  intentionally  keeping  something  from  the 
view  of  others.  They  are  borrowed  from  those  fami- 
liar objects  which  serve  similar  purposes  in  common 
life.  Cloak  and  mask  express  figuratively  and  pro- 
perly more  than  blind  or  veil.  The  two  former  keep 
the  whole  object  out  of  sight ; the  two  latter  only  par- 
tially intercept  the  view.  In  this  figurative  sense  they 
are  all  employed  for  a bad  purpose. 

The  cloak,  the  mask,  and  the  blind  serve  to  deceive 
others ; the  veil  serves  to  deceive  one’s  self. 

The  whole  or  any  part  of  a character  may  be  con- 
cealed by  a blind;  a part,  though  not  the  whole,  may 
be  concealed  by  a mask.  A blind  is  not  only  em- 
ployed to  conceal  the  character  but  the  conduct  or  pro- 
ceedings. We  carry  a cloak  and  a mask  about  with 
us ; but  a blind  is  something  external. 

The  cloak,  as  the  external  garment,  is  the  most  con- 
venient of  all  coverings  for  entirely  keeping  concealed 
what  we  do  not  wish  to  be  seen;  a good  outward  de- 
portment serves  as  a cloak  to  conceal  a bad  charac- 
ter; ‘When  this  severity  of  manners  is  hypocritical, 
and  assumed  as  a cloak  to  secret  indulgence,  it  is  one 
of  the  worst  prostitutions  of  religion  ’— Blair.  A 
mask  only  hides  the  face ; a mask  therefore  serves  to 
conceal  only  as  much  as  words  and  looks  can  effect; 

Thou  art  no  ruffian,  who,  beneath  the  mask 

Of  social  commerce,  coin’s!  to  rob  their  w’ealth. 

Thomson. 

A blind  is  intended  to  shut  out  the  light  and  prevent 
observation ; whatever,  therefore,  conceals  the  real 
truth,  and  prevents  suspicion  by  a false  exteriour,  is  a 
blind;  ‘Those  who  are  bountiful  to  crimes  will  be 
rigid  to  merit,  and  penurious  to  service.  Their  penury 
is  even  held  out  as  a blind  and  cover  to  their  prodi- 
gality.’— Burke.  A veil  prevents  a person  from  seeing 
as  well  as  being  seen ; whatever,  therefore,  obscures 
the  mental  sight  acts  as  a veil  to  the  mind’s  eye;  ‘ As 
soon  as  that  mysterious  veil  which  covers  futurity  was 
lifted  up,  all  the  gayety  of  life  would  disappear;  its 
flattering  hopes,  its  pleasing  illusions  would  vanish, 
and  nothing  but  vanity  and  sadness  remain.’— Blair. 

Religion  may  unfortunately  serve  to  cloak  the  worst 
of  purposes  and  the  worst  of  characters . its  importance, 
in  the  eyes  of  all  men,  makes  it  the  most  effectual  pass- 
port to  their  countenance  and  sanction ; and  its  ex- 
ternal observances  render  it  the  most  convenient  mode 
of  presenting  a false  profession  to  the  eyes  of  the 
world : those,  therefore,  who  set  an  undue  value  on 
the  ceremonial  part  of  religion,  do  but  encourage  this 
most  heinous  of  all  sins,  by  suffering  themselves  to  be 
imposed  upon  by  a cloak  of  religious  hypocrisy.  False 
friends  always  wear  a masA ; they  cover  a malignant 
heart  under  the  smiles  and  endearments  of  friendship. 
Illicit  traders  mostly  make  use  of  some  blind  to  facili- 
tate the  carrying  on  their  nefarious  practices.  Among 
the  various  arts  resorted  to  in  the  metropolis  by  the 
needy  and  profligate,  none  is  so  bad  as  that  which  is 
made  to  be  a blind  for  the  practice  of  debauchery. 
Prejudice  and  passion  are  the  ordinary  veils  which 
obscure  tiie  judgement,  and  prevent  it  from  distinguish- 
ing tire  truth. 


TO  COLOUR,  DYE,  TINGE,  STAIN. 
Colour,  ,n  Liatin  color,  comes  probably  from  colo  to 
adorn;  dye,  in  Saxon  deagen,  is  a variation  of  tinge; 
tinge  is  in  Latin  tingo  from  the  Greek  Tfyvw  to 


sprinkle ; stain,  like  the  French  desteindrt  Is  but 
variation  of  tinge. 

To  colour  is  to  put  colour  on ; to  dye  is  to  dip  in  any 
colour;  to  tinge  is  to  touch  lightly  with  a colour;  to 
stain  is  to  put  on  a bad  colour  or  in  a bad  manner : we 
colour  a drawing,  we  dye  clothes  of  any  colour  we 
tinge  a painting  with  blue  by  way  of  intermixture  we 
stain  a painting  when  we  put  blue  instead  of  red; 

‘ That  childish  colouring  of  her  cheeks  is  now  as  un- 
graceful as  that  shape  would  have  been  when  her  face 
wore  its  real  countenance.’ — Steele. 

Now  deeper  blushes  ting'd  the  glowing  sky. 

And  eveninf  rais’d  her  silver  lamp  on  high. 

Sir  Wm.  Jones. 

‘ We  had  the  fortune  to  see  what  may  be  supposed  to 
be  the  occasion  of  that  opinion  which  Lucian  relates 
concerning  this  river  (Adonis),  that  is,  that  this  stream 
at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  is  of  a bloody  colour ; 
something  like  this  we  actually  saw  come  to  pass,  for 
the  water  was  stained  with  redness.’ — Maundrei.l. 

They  are  taken  in  a moral  acceptation  with  a similar 
distinction : we  colour  a description  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  strong  figures,  strong  facts,  and  strong  expres- 
sions ; ‘ All  these  amazing  incidents  to  the  inspired 
historians  relate  nakedly  and  plainly,  without  any  of 
the  colourings  and  heightenings  of  rhetorick.’ — West. 
Hence  the  term  is  employed  to  denote  the  giving  a 
false  or  exaggerated  representation;  ‘He  colours  the 
falsehood  oi  ^Eneas  by  an  express  command  from 
Jupiter  to  forsake  the  queen.’ — Dryden.  A person  is 
represented  as  dying  his  hands  in  blood,  who  is  so 
engaged  in  the  shedding  of  blood  as  that  he  may 
change  the  colour  of  his  skin,  or  the  soil  may  be  dyed 
in  blood ; 

With  mutual  blood  the  Ausonian  soil  is  dyed, 

While  on  its  borders  each  their  claim  decide. 

Dryden 

A person’s  mind  is  tinged  with  melancholy  or  enthu 
siasm ; ‘ Sir  Roger  is  something  of  a humorist,  and 
his  virtues  as  well  as  imperfections  are  tinged  by  a 
certain  extravagance,  which  makes  them  particularly 
his.’ — Addison.  A man’sch  aracter  may  be  said  to  b« 
stained  with  crimes ; 

Of  honour  void,  of  innocence,  of  faith,  of  purity, 

Our  wonted  ornaments,  now  soil’d  and  stain'd. 

Milton 

COLOUR,  HUE,  TINT. 

Colour  {v.  To  colour)  is  here  the  generick  term : hut, 
which  is  probably  connected  with  eye  and  view,  and 
tint,  from  tinge,  are  but  modes  of  colour ; the  former 
of  which  expresses  a faint  or  blended  colour;  the  latter 
a shade  of  colour.  Between  the  colours  of  black  and 
brown,  as  of  all  other  leading  colours,  there  are  various 
hues  and  tints,  by  the  due  intermixture  of  which, 
natural  objects  are  rendered  beautiful ; 

Her  colour  chang’d,  her  face  was  not  the  same. 

And  hollow  groans  from  her  deep  spirit  came. 

Dryden 

Infinite  numbers,  delicacies,  smells. 

With  hues  on  hues,  expression  cannot  paint 

The  breath  of  nature,  and  her  endless  bloom. 

Thomson. 

Among  them  shells  of  many  a tint  appear. 

The  heart  of  Venus  and  her  pearly  ear. 

Sir  Wm.  Jones. 

COLOURABLE,  SPECIOUS,  OSTENSIBLE, 
PLAUSIBLE,  FEASIBLE. 

Colourable,  from  to  colour  or  tinge,  expresses  tha 
quality  of  being  able  to  give  a fair  appearance ; spe- 
cious, from  the  Latin  specio  to  see,  signifies  the  quality 
of  looking  as  it  ought ; ostensible,  from  the  Latin 
ostendo  to  show,  signifies  the  quality  of  being  able  or 
fit  to  be  shown  or  seen ; plausible,  from  plaudo  to  clap 
or  make  a noise,  signifies  the  quality  of  sounding  as  it 
ought ; feasible,  from  the  French  faire,  and  Latin 
f ado  to  do,  signifies  literally  doaiZe;  but  here  it  denotes 
seemingly  practicable. 

The  first  three  of  these  are  figures  of  speech  drawn 
from  what  naturally  pleases  the  eye;  plausible  is  drawn 
from  what  pleases  the  ear:  feasible  takes  its  significa* 
tion  from  what  meets  the  judgement  or  conviction. 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES, 


517 


What  IS  colourable  has  an  aspect  or  face  upon  it  that 
"Ulls  suspicion  and  afioi  ds  satisfaction ; wliat  is  spe- 
cious has  a fair  outside  when  contrasted  with  that 
which  it  may  possibly  conceal ; what  is  ostensible  is 
that  which  presents  such  an  appearance  as  may  serve 
for  an  indication  of  something  real ; what  is  plausible 
is  that  which  meets  the  understanding  merely  through 
he  ear;  that  which  is  feasible  recommends  itself  from 
ts  intrinsick  value  rather  than  from  any  representation 
given  of  it. 

A pretence  is  colourable  when  it  has  the  colour  of 
truth  impressed  upon  it;  it  is  specious  when  its  fallacy 
8 easily  discernible  through  the  thin  guise  it  wears  ; a 
motive  is  ostensible  which  is  the  one  soonest  to  be 
discovered ; an  excuse  is  plausible  when  the  well- 
connected  narrative  of  the  maker  impresses  a belief  of 
ts  justice  ; an  account  is  feasible  which  contains 
nothing  improbable  or  singular. 

It  is  necessary,  in  order  to  avoid  suspicion,  to  have 
come  colourable  grounds  for  one’s  conduct  when  it  is 
marked  by  eccentricity  or  directed  to  any  bad  object; 
All  his  James  I.  of  Scotland’s)  acquisitions,  however 
fatal  to  the  body  of  the  nobles,  had  been  gamed  by 
attacks  upon  individuals;  and  being  founded  on  cir- 
cumstances peculiar  to  the  persons  who  suffered,  might 
excite  murmurs  and  apprehensions,  but  afforded  no 
colourable  pretext  for  a general  rebellion.’ — Robert- 
son. Sophists  are  obliged  to  deal  in  specious  argu- 
ments for  want  of  more  substantial  ones  in  support  of 
their  erroneous  opinions ; ‘ The  guardian  directs  one 
of  his  pupils  to  think  with  the  wise,  but  speak  with  the 
vulgar.  This  is  a precept  specious  enough,  but  not 
always  practicable.’ — Johnson.  Men  who  have  no 
ostensible  way  of  supporting  themselves,  naturally  ex- 
cite the  suspicion  that  they  have  some  illicit  source  of 
gain ; ‘ What  is  truly  astonishing,  the  partisans  of 
those  two  opposite  systems  were  at  once  prevalent  and 
at  once  employed,  the  one  ostensibly,  the  other  secretly, 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.’ — 
Burke.  Liars  may  sometimes  be  successful  in  invent- 
ing a plausible  tale,  but  they  must  not  scruple  to  sup- 
port one  lie  by  a hundred  more  as  occasion  requires; 
In  this  superficial  way  indeed  the  mind  is  capable  of 
more  variety  of  plausible  talk,  but  is  not  enlarged  as 
it  should  be  in  its  knowledge.’ — Locke.  If  what  an 
accused  person  has  to  say  in  justification  of  himself  be 
no  more  than  feasible,  it  will  always  subject  him  to 
unpleasant  imputations;  ‘It  is  some  years  since  I 
thought  the  matter  feasible,  that  if  I could  by  an  exact 
time-keeper  find  in  any  part  of  the  world  what  o’clock 
it  is  at  Dover,  and  at  the  same  time  where  the  ship  is, 
the  problem  is  solved.’ — Arbuthnot. 


TO  COVER,  HIDE. 

Cover,  in  French  couvrir,  is  contracted  from  contra 
and  ouvrir,  signifying  to  do  the  contrary  of  open,  to 
put  out  of  view  ; hide,  v.  To  conceal. 

Cover  is  to  hide  as  the  means  to  the  end  ; we  com- 
monly hide  by  covering ; but  we  may  easily  cover 
without  hiding,  as  also  hi({e  without  covering.  The 
rii.jng  idea  in  the  word  cover  is  that  of  throwing  or 
putting  something  over  a body  ; in  the  word  hide  is 
that  of  keeping  carefully  from  observation. 

To  cover  is  an  indifferent  action,  springing  from  a 
variety  of  motives,  of  convenience,  or  comfort;  to  hide 
is  an  action  that  springs  from  one  specifick  intent,  from 
care  and  concern  for  the  thing,  and  the  (ear  of  foreign 
intrusion.  In  most  civilized  countries  it  is  common  to 
cover  the  head  ; in  the  eastern  countries  females  com- 
monly wear  veils  to  hide  the  face.  There  are  many 
things  which  decency  as  well  as  health  require  to  be 
covered;  and  others  which  from  their  very  nature 
must  always  be  hidden.  Houses  must  be  covered  with 
roofs,  and  bodies  with  clothing ; the  earth  contains 
many  treasures,  which  in  all  probability  will  always  be 
hidden ; 

VJr  lead  me  to  some  solitary  place 

And  cover  my  retreat  from  human  race. — Drvdkn. 

Hide  me  from  the  face 

Of  God,  whom  to  behold  was  then  my  height 

Of  happiness.— Milton. 

In  a moral  application,  cover  may  be  used  in  the  good 
leiwe  of  iheltering , 


Thou  mayst  repent. 

And  one  bad  deed  with  many  deeds  v;ell  done 

Mayst  cover. — Milton. 

And  also  in  the  bad  sense  of  hiding  by  means  of  false 
hood; 

Specious  names  are  lent  to  cover  vice. — Spectator. 

COVER,  SHELTER,  SCREEN. 

Cover  properly  denotes  what  serves  as  a cover,  and 
in  the  literal  sense  of  the  verb  from  which  it  is  der  ved 
{v.  To  cover) ; shelter,  like  the  word  shield,  comes 
from  the  German  schild,  old  German  schelen,  to  cover; 
screen,  from  the  Latin  secerno,  signifies  to  keep  off  or 
apart. 

Cover  is  literally  applied  to  many  particular  things 
which  are  employed  in  covering;  but  in  the  general 
sense  which  makes  it  analogous  to  the  other  terms,  it 
includes  the  idea  of  concealing:  s/teZter  comprehends 
that  of  protecting  from  some  immediate  or  impending 
evil : screen  includes  that  of  warding  off  some  trouble 
A caver  always  supposes  something  which  can  extend 
over  the  whole  surface  of  a body ; a shelter  or  a screen 
may  merely  interpose  to  a sufficient  extent  to  serve 
the  intend^  purpose.  Military  operations -are  some- 
times carried  on  undercover  of  the  night;  a bay  is  a 
convenient  shelter  for  vessels  against  the  violence  of 
the  winds ; a chair  may  be  used  as  a screen  to  prevent 
the  violent  action  of  the  heat,  or  the  external  air. 

In  the  moral  sense,  a cover  may  be  employed  allow 
ably  to  diminish  an  imperfection  or  deformity;  ‘There 
are  persons  who  cover  their  own  rudeness  by  calling 
their  conduct  honest  bluntness.’ — Richardson.  But 
is  for  the  most  part  taken  in  the  bad  sense  of  an  en- 
deavour to  conceal  the  truth : a fair  reputation  is  some- 
times made  the  cover  for  the  commission  of  gross 
irregularities  in  .secret;  ‘The  truth  and  reason  of 
things  may  be  artificially  and  effectually  insinuated 
under  the  cover  either  of  a real  fact,  or  of  a supposed 
one.’ — L’Estrange.  When  a person  feels  himself 
unable  to  withstand  the  attacks  of  his  enemies,  be 
seeks  a shelter  under  the  sanction  and  authority  of  a 
great  name ; 

When  on  a bed  of  straw  we  sink  together. 

And  the  bleak  winds  shall  whistle  round  our  reads  j 

Wilt  thou  then  talk  to  me  thus  1 

Thus  hush  my  cares,  and  shelter  me  with  love  r 

O r vvAY. 

Bad  men  sometimes  use  wealth  and  power  to  screeu 
them  from  the  punishment  which  is  due  to  their 
offences;  ‘It  is  frequent  for  men  to  adjudge  that  in 
an  art  impossible,  which  they  find  that  art  does  not 
effect;  by  which  means  they  screen  indolence  and 
ignorance  from  the  reproach  they  merit.’— Bacon. 

TO  HARBOUR,  SHELTER,  LODGE. 

The  idea  of  giving  a resting  place  is  common  to 
these  terms : but  harbour  {v.  To  foster)  is  used  mostly 
in  a bad  sense,  at  least  in  its  ordinary  use : shelter 
(v.  Asyhim)  in  an  indefinite  sense ; lodge,  in  French 
loge,  from  the  German  liegen  to  lie,  in  an  indifferent 
sense.  One  harbours  that  which  ought  not  or  cannot 
find  room  any  where ; ‘ My  lady  bids  me  tell  you, 
that  though  she  harbours  'you  as  her  uncle,  she  is 
nothing  allied  to  your  disorders.’ — Shakspeare.  As 
the  word  harbour  does  not,  in  its  original  sense,  mean 
any  thing  more  than  affording  entertainment,  or  re- 
ceiving into  one’s  house  for  a time,  it  may  be  employed 
in  a good  sense  to  imply  an  act  of  hospitality  ; ‘ We 
owe  this  old  house  the  same  kind  of  gratitude  that  we 
do  to  an  old  friend,  who  harbours  us  in  his  declining 
condition,  nay,  even  in  his  last  extremities.’ — Pope. 
One  shelters  that  which  cannot  find  security  elsewhere. 
It  is  for  the  most  part  an  act  of  charity,  obligation,  or 
natural  feeling;  ‘The  hen  shelters  her  first  brood  of 
chickens  with  all  the  prudence  that  she  ever  attains 
— Johnson.  One  lodges  that  which  wants  a resting 
place  ; it  is  an  act  of  discretion.  Thieves,  traitors,  oi 
conspirators  are  harboured  by  those  who  have  an  in' 
terest  in  securing  them  from  detection ; cither  the 
wicked  or  the  unfortunate  may  be  sheltered  from  th« 
evil  with  which  they  are  tlireatened : travellers  ar« 
lodged  as  occasion  may  require. 

In  the  moral  sense,  a man  harbours  resentment,  iU 
will,  evil  thoughts,  and  the  like; 


^18 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


Sho  harbours  in  her  breast  a furious  hate 
(And  thou  shall  find  the  dire  eflects  too  late), 

Fix’d  on  revenge,  and  obstinate  to  die.— Drydkn. 

A man  shelters  himself  from  a charge  by  retorting  it 
upon  his  adversary ; 

In  vain  I strove  to  check  my  growing  flame. 

Or  shelter  passion  under  friendship’s  name ; 

You  saw  my  heart.— Prior. 

A person  lodges  a complaint  or  information  against 
any  one  with  the  magistrate,  or  a particular  passion 
may  be  lodged  in  the  breast,  or  ideas  lodged  in  the 
nind  ; ‘In  viewing  again  the  ideas  that  are  lodged  in 
the  memory,  the  mind  is  more  than  passive.’ — Locke. 

They  too  are  tempered  high, 

With  hunger  stung,  and  wild  necessity, 

N or  lodges  pity  in  their  shaggy  breast. — Thomson. 
All  these  terms  may  be  employed  also  as  the  acts  of 
inconscious  agents.  Beds  and  bed-furniture  harbour 
vermin ; trees,  as  well  as  houses,  shelter  from  a storm : 
a ball  from  a gun  lodges  in  the  human  body,  or  any 
other  solid  substance. 


HARBOUR,  HAVEN,  PORT. 

The  idea  of  a resting  place  for  vessels  is  common  to 
these  terms,  of  which  harbour  is  general,  and  the  two 
others  specifick  in  their  signification. 

Harbour^  from  the  Teutonick  herbenger  to  shelter, 
carries  with  it  little  more  than  the  common  idea  of 
affording  a resting  or  anchoring  place ; haven,  from 
the  Teutonick  haben  to  have  or  hold,  conveys  the  idea 
of  security;  port,  from  the  Latin  portus  and  porla  a 
gate,  conveys  the  idea  of  an  enclosure.  A haven  is  a 
natural  Aarftoj/r ; a;?ortisan  artificial  AarioMr.  We 
characterize  a harbour  as  commodious;  a haven  as 
snug  and  secure;  a poi-t  as  safe  and  easy  of  access. 
A commercial  country  profits  by  the  excellence  and 
number  of  its  harbours  ; it  values  itself  on  the  security 
of  its  havens,  and  increases  the  number  of  its  ports 
accordingly.  A vessel  goes  into  a harbour  only  for  a 
season ; it  remains  in  a haven  for  a permanency ; it 
seeks  a port  as  the  destination  of  its  voyage.  Mer- 
chantmen are  perpetually  going  in  and  out  of  a har- 
bjxr; 

But  here  she  comes, 

In  the  calm  harbour  of  whose  gentle  breast. 

My  tempest -beaten  soul  may  safely  rest. — Drvden. 
A distressed  vessel,  at  a distance  from  home,  seeks 
some  haven  in  which  it  may  winter; 

Safe  through  the  war  her  course  the  vessel  steers. 

The  haven  gain’d,  the  pilot  drops  his  fears. 

Shirley. 

The  weary  mariner  looks  to  the  port  not  as  the  termi- 
nation of  his  labour  but  as  the  commencement  of  all 
his  enjoyments ; ‘What  though  our  passage  through 
this  world  be  never  so  stormy  and  tempestuous,  we 
shall  arrive  at  a saieport.' — Tillotson. 


ASYLUM,  REFUGE,  SHELTER,  RETREAT. 

Jisylum,  in  Latin  asylum,  in  Greek  aav\iv,  com- 
pounded of  a privative  and  cv\ri  plunder,  signified  a 
place  exempt  from  plunder,  and  exactions  of  every  kind, 
and  also  a privileged  place  where  accused  persons  were 
permitted  to  reside  without  molestation:  refuge,  in 
Latin  refugium,  from  refugio  to  fly  away,  signifies  the 
place  which  one  may  fly  away  to:  shelter  comes  from 
shell,  in  High  German  scAalera,  Saxon  sceala,  &c.  from 
the  Hebrew  xSjD  to  hide,  signifying  a cover  or  hiding- 
place  ; retreat,  in  French  retraite,  Latin  retractus, 
from  retraho  or  re  and  traho  to  draw  back,  signifies 
the  place  that  is  situated  behind  or  in  the  back  ground. 

Jisylum,  refuge,  and  shelter  a\l  denote  a place  of  safe- 
ty ; but  the  former  is  fixed,  the  two  latter  are  occa- 
sional : the  retreat  is  a place  of  tranquillity  rather  than 
of  safety.  An  asylum  is  chosen  by  him  who  has  no 
home,  a refuge  by  him  who  is  apprehensive  of  danger: 
the  French  emigrants  found  a refuge  in  England,  but 
very  few  will  make  it  an  asylum.  The  inclemencies 
of  the  weather  make  us  seek  a shelter.  The  fatigues 
and  toils  of  life  make  us  seek  a retreat. 

It  is  the  part  of  a Christian  to  afford  an  asylum  to 
ihe  helpless  orphan  and  widow.  The  terrified  pas- 


senger takes  refuge  in  the  first  hoise  he  cornea  to, 
when  assailed  by  an  evil-disposed  mob.  The  vessel 
shattered  in  a storm  takes  shelter  in  the  nearest  haven 
'I'he  man  of  business,  wearied  with  the  anxieties  and 
cares  of  the  world,  disengages  himself  from  the  whole, 
and  seeks  a retreat  suited  to  his  circumstances.  In  a 
moral  or  extended  application  they  are  distinguished 
in  the  same  manner;  ‘ The  adventurer  knows  he  has 
not  far  to  go  before  he  will  meet  with  some  fortress 
that  has  been  raised  by  sophistry  for  the  asylum  of 
errour.’ — Hawkesworth.  ‘ Superstition,  now  retiring 
from  Rome,  may  yet  find  refuge  in  the  mountains  ol 
Tibet.’ — Cumberland. 

In  rueful  gaze 

The  cattle  stand,  and  on  the  scowling  heavens 

Cast  a deploring  eye,  by  man  forsook  ; 

Who  to  the  crowded  cottage  hies  him  fast. 

Or  seeks  the  shelter  of  the  downward  cave. 

Thomson. 

TEGUMENT,  COVERING. 

Tegument,  in  Latin  tegumentum,  from  tego  to  covei, 
is  properly  but  another  word  to  express  covering,  yet 
it  is  now  employed  in  cases  where  the  latter  tern,  is  in- 
admissible. Covering  signifies  mostly  that  which  ig 
artificial;  but  tegument  is  employed  for  that  which  is 
natural  : clothing  is  the  covering  for  the  body ; the 
skin  of  vegetable  substances,  as  seeds,  is  called  the 
tegument.  The  covering  is  said  of  that  which  covers 
the  outer  surface  : the  tegument  is  said  of  that  which 
covers  the  inner  surface ; the  pods  of  some  seeds  are 
lined  with  a soft  tegument. 

SKIN,  HIDE,  PEEL,  RIND. 

Shin,  which  is  in  German  schin,  Swedish  sKinn 
Danish  skirfd,  probably  comes  from  the  Greek  oKrjvoi 
a tent  or  covering;  hide,  in  Saxon  hyd,  German  haut, 
Low  German  huth,  Latin  cutis,  comes  from  the  Greek 
Kevdeiv  lo  hide,  cover  : peel,  in  German  fell,&.c.  Latin 
pcllis  a skin,  in  Greek  <peX\bi  or  tpXoibs  bark,  comes 
from  ^Xaw  to  burst  or  crack,  because  the  bark  is  easily 
broken  ; rind  is  in  all  probability  changed  from  round, 
signifying  that  which  goes  round  and  envelopes. 

Skin  is  the  term  in  most  genera!  use,  it  is  applicable 
both  to  human  creatures  and  to  animals  ; hide  is  used 
only  for  the  skins  of  large  animals : we  speak  of  the 
s/ans  of  birds  or  insects;  but  of  the  hides  oi  oxen  or 
horses,  and  other  animals,  which  are  to  be  separated 
from  the  body  and  converted  into  leather.  Skin  is 
equally  applied  to  the  inanimate  and  the  animate 
world;  but  jseeZ  and  Wwd  belong  only  to  inanimate  ob- 
jects ; the  skin  is  generally  said  of  that  which  is  inte 
riour,  in  distinction  from  the  exleriour,  which  is  the 
peel:  an  orange  has  both  its  peel  and  its  thin  skin  un- 
derneath ; an  apple,  a pear,  and  the  like,  has  a peel 
The  peel  is  a soft  substance  on  the  outside ; the  rind  is 
generally  interiour,  and  of  a harder  substance : in  re- 
gard lo  a stick,  we  speak  of  its  peel  and  the  inner  skin  ; 
in  regard  to  a tree,  we  speak  of  its  bark  and  its  rind, 
hence,  likewise,  the  term  rind  is  applied  to  cheese,  and 
other  incrusted  substances ^hal  envelope  bodies. 

TO  PEEL,  PARE. 

Peel,  from  the  Latin  pellis  a skin,  is  the  same  as  to 
skin  or  to  takeoff  the  skin;  to  pare,  from  the  Latin 
paro  to  trim  or  make  in  order,  signifies  to  smooth. 
The  former  of  these  terms  denotes  a'natural,  the  latter 
an  artificial  process:  the  former  excludes  the  idea  of  a 
forcible  separation ; the  latter  includes  the  idea  of  se- 
paration by  means  of  a knife  or  sharp  instrument; 
potatoes  and  apples  are  peeled  after  they  are  boiled ; 
they  are  pared  before  they  are  boiled:  an  orange  and 
a walnut  are  always but  not  pared:  a cucum- 
ber must  be  pared  and  not  peeled:  in  like  manner  the 
skin  may  sometimes  be pceZfid  from  the  flesh,  and  the 
nails  axe  pared. 

GUISE,  HABIT. 

Guise  and  wise  are  both  derived  from  the  northern 
languages,  and  denote  the  manner;  but  the  former  it 
employed  for  a particular  or  distinguished  manner  ol 
dress;  AaJiZ,  from  the  Latin  habitus  a habit,  fashion 
or  form,  is  taken  for  a settled  or  permanent  mode  ot 
dress. 


fc:rsGLlSH  SYiNONYMES. 


519 


rue  guise  is  that  which  is  unusual,  and  often  only 
occasional ; the  habit  is  that  which  is  usual  ainoni! 
particular  classes;  a person  sometimes  assumes  the 
guise  of  a peasant,  in  order  the  better  to  conceal  him- 
self; he  who  devotes  himself  to  the  clerical  profession 
puts  on  the  habit  of  a clergyman ; 

Anubis,  Sphinx, 

Idols  of  antique  guise,  and  horned  Pan, 

Terrifick,  monstrous  shapes ! — Dyer. 

For ’t  is  the  mind  that  makes  the  body  rich, 

And  as  the  sun  breaks  through  the  darkest  cloud, 

So  honour  appeareth  in  the  meanest  habit. 

Shakspeark. 


TO  CONCEAL,  HIDE,  SECRETE. 

Conceal,  v.  To  conceal ; hide,  from  the  German  hii- 
thenio  guard  against,  and  the  Old  German  hedan  to 
conceal,  and  the  Greek  KciQui  to  cover  or  put  out  of 
sight;  secrete,  in  Latin  secretus,  participle  of  secerno, 
or  sc  and  cevno,  to  see  or  know  by  one’s  self,  signifies 
to  put  in  a place  known  only  to  one's  self. 

Concealing  conveys  simply  the  idea  of  not  letting 
come  to  observation;  hiding  that  of  puttitig  under 
cover ; secreting  that  of  setting  at  a distance  or  in  un- 
frequented places : whatever  is  not  seen  is  concealed, 
but  whatever  is  hidden  or  secreted  is  intentionally  put 
out  of  sight:  a person  conceals  himself  behiiiAa  hedge ; 
he  hides  his  treasures  in  the  earth  ; he  secretes  what  he 
has  stolen  under  his  cloak. 

Conceal  is  more  general  than  either  hide  or  secrete; 
all  things  are  concealed  which  are  hidden  or  secreted, 
but  they  are  not  always  hidden  or  secreted  when  they 
are  concealed : both  mental  and  corporeal  objects  are 
concealed;  corporeal  objects  mostly  and  sometimes 
mental  ones  are  hidden;  corporeal  objects  only  are 
secreted;  we  conceal  in  the  mind  whatever  we  do  not 
make  known : that  is  hidden  which  may  not  be  dis- 
covered or  cannot  be  discerned ; that  is  secreted  which 
may  not  be  seen.  Facts  are  concealed,  truths  are  hid- 
ien,  goods  are  secreted. 

Children  should  never  attempt  to  conceal  from  their 
parents  or  teachers  any  errour  they  have  committed, 
when  called  upon  for  an  acknowledgment ; 

Be  secret  and  discreet ; Love’s  fairy  favours 

Are  lost  when  not  conceal'd. — Drydkn. 

We  are  told  in  Scripture  for  our  consolation  that  no- 
thing is  hidden  which  shall  not  be  revealed  ; 

Yet  to  be  secret  makes  not  sin  the  less, 

’T  is  only  hidden  from  the  vulgar  view. — Dryden. 
People  seldom  wish  to  secrete  any  thing  but  with  the 
intention  of  concealing  it  from  those  who  have  a right 
to  demand  it  back;  ‘ The  whole  thing  is  too  manifest 
to  admit  of  any  doubt  in  any  man  how  long  this  thing 
has  been  working;  how  many  tricks  have  been  played 
with  the  Dean’s  (Swift’s)  papers;  how  they  were  se- 
ereted  from  time  to  time.’ — Pope. 


CONCEALMENT,  SECRECY. 

Concealment  {v.  To  conceal)  is  itself  an  action; 
secrecy,  ftom  secret,  is  the  quality  of  an  action:  con- 
cealment may  respect  the  state  of  things  ; secrecy  the 
conduct  of  persons;  things  may  be  concealed  so  as  to 
be  known  to  no  one ; but  secrecy  supposes  some  person 
to  whom  the  thing  concealed  is  known. 

Concealment  has  to  do  with  what  concerns  others; 
secrecy  with  that  which  concerns  ourselves:  what  is 
concealed  is  kept  from  the  observation  of  others;  what 
is  secret  is  known  only  to  ourselves:  there  may  fre- 
quently be  concealment  without  secrecy,  although  there 
ca;'inot  be  secrecy  without  concealment:  concealment 
is  frequently  practised  to  the  detriment  of  others ; se- 
crecy is  alvrays  adopted  for  our  own  advantage  or  gra- 
tification : concealment  aids  in  the  commission  of 
crimes;  secrecy  in  the  execution  of  schemes:  many 
crimes  are  committed  with  impunity  when  the  per- 
petrators are  protected  by  concealment;  ‘ There  is  but 
one  way  of  conversing  safely  with  all  men,  that  is,  not 
by  concealing  what  we  say  or  do,  but  by  saying  or 
doing  nothing  that  deserves  to  be  concealed.' — Pope. 
The  best  concerted  plans  are  often  frustrated  for  want 
of  obseiving  sKrecy; 


That ’s  not  suddenly  to  bo  perform’d 
But  with  advice  and  silent  secrecy/. — Shakspeae*. 
Secrecy  is,  however,  in  our  dealings  with  others,  fre 
quently  not  less  impolitick  than  it  is  improper.  An 
open  and  straight  forward  conduct  is  as  a rule  the  only 
proper  conduct  in  our  commerce  with  the  world  , 

Shun  secrecy,  and  talk  in  open  sight ; 

So  shall  you  soon  repair  your  present  evil  plight. 

Spenser 

When  concealment  is  taken  as  the  act  of  the  Divine 
Being,  or  as  the  state  of  things,  it  is  used  in  the  best 
sense;  ‘One  instance  of  Divine  Wisdom  is  so  illus- 
trious that  I cannot  pass  it  over  without  notice;  that 
is,  the  concealment  under  which  Providence  has  jilaced 
the  future  events  of  our  life  on  earth.’ — Blair.  When 
secrecy  respects  a man’s  own  concerns  with  himself  or 
his  Maker,  it  is  also  proper;  ‘ It  is  not  with  publick  as 
with  jirivate  prayer;  in  this,  rather  secrecy  is  com 
manded  than  outward  show.’ — Hooker. 


TO  CONCEAL,  DISSEMBLE,  DISGUISE 

Conceal,  compounded  of  con  and  ceal,  in  French 
I celer,  Latin  celo,  Hebrew  to  have  privately ; dis- 
semble, in  French  dissimuler,  compounded  of  dis  and 
simvlo  or  similis,  signifies  to  make  a thing  appear  un- 
like what  it  is;  disguise,  in  French  disguiser,  com- 
pounded of  the  privative  dis  or  de  and  guise,  in  Ger- 
man weise  a manner  or  fashion,  signifies  to  take  a form 
opposite  to  the  reality. 

'Po  conceal  is  simply  to  abstain  from  making  known 
what  we  wish  to  keep  secret ; to  dissemble  and  dis 
guise  signify  to  conceal,  by  assuming  some  false  ap- 
pearance: we  conceal  facts;  we  dissemble  feelings; 
we  disguise  sentiments. 

Caution  only  is  requisite  in  concealing;  it  may  be 
effected  by  simple  silence:  art  and  address  must  be 
employed  in  dissembling ; it  mingles  falsehood  with 
all  its  proceedings:  labour  and  cunning  are  requisite 
in  disguising ; it  has  nothing  but  falsehood  in  all  its 
movements. 

The  concealer  watches  over  himself  that  he  may  not 
be  betrayed  into  any  indiscreet  communication;  the 
I dissembler  has  an  eye  to  others  so  as  to  prevent  them 
from  discovering  the  state  of  his  heart;  disguise 
assumes  altogether  a different  face  from  the  reality,  and 
rests  secure  under  this  shelter:  it  is  sufficient  to  con 
ceal  from  those  who  either  cannot  or  will  not  see ; it  is 
necessary  to  dissemble  with  those  who  can  see  without 
being  shown ; but  it  is  necessary  to  disguise  from  those 
who  are  anxious  to  discover  and  use  every  means  to 
penetrate  the  veil  that  intercepts  their  sight. 

Concealment  is  a matter  of  prudence  often  advisa- 
ble, mostly  innocent ; when  we  have  not  resolution 
to  shake  oft’  our  vices,  it  is  wisdom  at  least  to  conceal 
them  from  the  knowledge  of  others ; ‘ Ulysses  himself 
adds,  he  was  the  most  eloquent,  and  the  most  silent  of 
men ; he  knew  that  a word  spoke  never  wrought  so 
much  good  as  a word  concealed.' — Broome.  ‘ Ridicule 
is  never  more  strong  than  when  it  is  concealed  in  gia- 
vity.’ — Spectator. 

According  to  Girard,  it  was  a maxim  with  Louis  XL, 
that  in  order  to  know  how  to  govern,  it  was  necessary 
to  know  how  to  dissemble;  this,  he  adds,  is  true  in  all 
cases  even  in  domestick  government;  but  if  the  word 
conveys  as  much  the  idea  of  falsehood  in  French  as  in 
English,  then  is  this  a French  and  not  an  English 
maxim;  there  are,  however,  many  cases  in  which  it 
is  prudent  to  dissemble  our  resentments,  if  ^y  allowing 
them  time  to  die  away  we  keep  them  from  the  know- 
ledge of  others.  Disguise  is  altogether  opposed  to 
candour:  an  ingenuous  mind  revolts  at  it;  an  honest 
man  will  never  find  it  necessary,  unless  the  Abbe 
Girard  be  right,  in  saying  that  “ when  the  necessity  of 
circumstances  and  the  nature  of  affairs  call  for  disguise 
it  is  politick.”  Yet  what  train  of  circumstances  car. 
we  conceive  to  exist  which  will  justify  policy  founded 
upon  the  violation  of  truth  1 Intriguers,  conspirators, 
and  all  who  have  dishonest  purposes  to  answer,  must 
practise  disguise  as  the  only  means  of  success ; but  true 
policy  is  as  remote  from  disguise  as  cunning  is  from 
wisdom ; 

* Vide  Abbe  Girard:  “Cacher,  dissimuler  tkV 
iMiiser  ” 


20 


ENGLISH  SYNON\MES, 


Let  school-taught  pride  dissemble  all  it  can, 

These  Irttle  things  are  great  to  little  man. 

Goldsmith. 

' Good -breeding  has  made  the  tongue  falsif}’  the  heart, 
and  acta  part  of  continual  restraint,  while  nature  has 
preserved  the  eyes  to  herself,  that  she  may  not  be  dis- 
guised or  misrepresented.’ — Steklk. 

HYPOCRITE,  DISSEMBLER. 

tiypocrite^  in  Greek  h^roKpiTijSt  from  vrrd  and  Kpivopai, 
signiries  one  appearing  under  a mask ; dissembler, 
from  dissemble,  in  Latin  dissimulo  or  dis  and  similis, 
signifies  one  who  makes  himself  appear  unlike  what  he 
really  is. 

The  hypocrite  feigns  to  be  what  he  is  not ; ‘ In  regard 
to  others,  hypocrisy  is  not  so  pernicious  as  barefaced 
irreligion.’ — Addison.  The  dissembler  conceals  what 
he  is : the  former  takes  to  himself  the  credit  of  virtues 
which  he  has  not ; the  latter  conceals  the  vices  that 
he  has ; 

So  spake  the  false  dissembler  unperceived. 

Milton. 

Every  hxjpocrite  is  a dissembler  ; but  every  dissembler 
is  not  a hypocrite ; the  hypocrite  makes  truth  serve  the 
purpose  of  falsehood;  tlie  dissembler  is  content  with 
making  falsehood  serve  his  own  particular  purpose. 

SIMULATION,  DISSIMULATION. 

Simulation,  from  similis,  is  the  making  one’s  self 
like  what  one  is  not;  and  dissimulation,  from  dissi- 
milis  unlike,  is  the  making  one’s  self  appear  unlike 
what  one  really  is.  The  hypocrite  puts  on  the  sem- 
blance of  virtue  to  recommend  himself  to  the  virtuous. 
The  dissembler  conceals  his  vices  when  he  wants  to 
gain  the  simple  or  ignorant  to  his  side;  ‘The  learned 
make  a difference  between  simulation  and  dissimula- 
tion. Simulation  is  a pretence  of  what  is  not;  and 
dissimulation  is  a concealment  of  what  is.’— Tatler. 


SECRET,  HIDDEN,  LATENT,  OCCULT, 
MYSTERIOUS. 

Secret  (v.  Clandestine)  signifies  known  to  one’s  self 
only;  hidden,  v.  To  conceal;  latent,  in  Latin  latens, 
from  lateo  to  lie  hid,  signifies  the  same  as  hidden; 
occult,  in  Latin  occultus,  participle  of  occulo,  com- 
pounded of  ec  or  ob  and  culo  or  colo  to  cover  over  by 
tilling  or  ploughing,  that  is,  to  cover  over  with  the 
earth;  mysterious,  v.  Dark. 

What  is  secret  is  known  to  some  one;  what  is  hid- 
den may  be  known  to  no  one;  it  rests  in  the  breast  of 
an  individual  to  keep  a thing  secret;  it  depends  on  the 
course  of  things  if  any  thing  remains  hidden:  every 
man  has  more  or  less  of  that  which  he  wishes  to  keep 
secret ; the  talent  of  many  lies  hidden  for  want  of  op- 
portunity to  bring  it  into  exercise;  as  many  treasures 
lie  hidden  in  the  earth  for  want  of  being  discovered  and 
brousht  to  light.  A secret  concerns  only  the  individual 
or  indivfduals  who  hold  it ; but  that  which  is  hidden 
may  concern  all  the  world  ; sometimes  the  success  of  a 
transaction  depends  upon  its  being  kept  secret;  the 
stores  of  knowledge  which  yet  remain  hidden  may  be 
much  greater  than  those  which  have  been  laid  open ; 
Ye  boys,  who  pluck  the  flow'rs  and  spoil  the  spring, 
B/:ware  the  secret  snake  that  shoots  a sting. 

Dryden 

The  blind,  laborious  mole 
'.n  winding  mazes  works  her  hidden  hole. 

Dryden. 

The  latent  is  the  secret  or  concealed,  in  cases  where 
I ought  to  be  open;  tx  latent  motive  is  that  which  a 
erson  intentionally,  though  not  justifiably,  keeps  to 
imself;  the  latent  cause  for  any  proceeding  is  that 
which  is  not  revealed ; 

Mem’ry  confus’d,  and  interrupted  thought, 

Death’s  harbingers,  lie  latent  in  the  draught. 

Prior. 

Occult  and  mysterious  are  species  of  the  hidden : 
he  former  respects  that  which  has  a veil  naturally 
Uirown  over  it;  the  latter  respects  that  mostly  which 
Is  covered  with  a suDernq’ural  veil;  an  occult  science 


is  one  that  is  hidden  from  the  \yiw  of  persons  in  gene 
ral,  which  ie  attainable  but  by  few ; occult  causes  oi 
qualities  arc  those  which  lie  too  remote  to  be  dis 
covered  by  the  inquirer;  the  operations  of  Providence 
are  said  to  be  mysterious,  as  they  are  altogether  past 
our  finding  out;  many  points  of  doctrine  in  our  rel: 
gion  are  equally  mysterious,  as  connected  with  and 
dependent  upon  the  attributes  of  the  Deity;  ‘Some 
men  have  an  occult  power  of  stealing  on  the  affections ' 
— Johnson. 

From  his  void  embrace, 

Mysterious  heaven ! That  moment  to  the  ground, 

A blackened  corse,  was  struck  the  beauteous  maid. 

Thomson. 

Mysterious  is  sometimes  applied  to  human  transac 
tions  in  the  sense  of  throwing  a veil  intentionally  ovei 
any  thing,  in  which  sense  it  is  nearly  allied  to  the  word 
secret,  with  this  distinction,  that  what  is  secret  is  often 
not  known  to  be  secret ; but  that  which  is  mysterious 
is  so  only  in  the  eyes  of  others.  Things  are  sometimes 
conducted  with  such  secrecy  that  no  one  suspects  what 
is  passing  until  it  is  seen  by  its  effects;  an  air  of  mys- 
tery is  sometimes  thrown  over  that  which  is  in  reality 
nothing  when  seen ; hence  secrecy  is  always  taken  in 
a good  sense,  since  it  is  so  great  an  essential  in  the 
transactions  of  men ; but  mystery  is  often  employed  in 
a bad  sense ; either  for  the  affected  concealment  of  that 
which  is  insignificant,  or  the  purposed  concealment  of 
that  which  is  bad;  an  expedition  is  said  to  be  secret, 
but  not  mysterious ; on  the  other  hand,  the  disappear- 
ance of  a person  may  be  mysterious,  but  is  not  said  to 
be  secret. 

MYSTERIOUS,  MYSTICK. 

Mysterious  (v.  Dark)  and  mystick  are  but  varia 
tions  of  the  same  original ; the  former  however  is  more 
commonly  applied  to  that  which  is  supernatural,  or 
veiled  in  an  impenetrable  obscurity;  the  latter  to  that 
which  is  natural,  but  in  part  concealed  from  the  view; 
hence  we  speak  of  the  mysterious  plans  of  Providence . 
mystick  schemes  of  theology  or  mystick  principles  • 
‘ As  soon  as  that  mysterious  veil,  which  now  covirs 
futurity,  was  lifted  up,  all  the  gayety  of  life  would 
disappear.’ — Blair. 

And  ye  five  other  wand’ring  fires  that  move 

In  mystick  dance  not  without  song. 

Resound  his  praise. — Milton. 

TO  ABSCOND,  STEAL  AWAY,  SECRETE 
ONE’S  SELF. 

Mscond,  in  Latin  absconds,  is  compounded  of  abs 
and  condo,  signifying  to  hide  from  the  view,  which  is 
the  original  meaning  of  the  other  words ; to  abscond 
is  to  remove  one’s  self  for  the  sake  of  not  being  dis 
covered  by  those  with  whom  we  are  acquainted ; to 
steal  away  is  to  get  away  so  as  to  elude  observation  ; to 
secrete  one's  self  is  to  get  into  a place  of  .«ecrecy  with- 
out being  perceived. 

Dishonest  men  abscond,  thieves  steal  away  when 
they  dread  detection,  and  fugitives  secrete  themselves. 
Those  who  abscond  will  have  frequent  occasion  to 
steal  away,  and  still  more  frequent  occasion  to  secrete 
themselves. 


CLANDESTINE,  SECRET. 

Clandestine,  in  Latin  clandestinus,  comes  from 
clam  secretly  ; secret,  in  French  secret,  Latin  secretus, 
participle  of  secerno  to  separate,  signifies  remote  from, 
observation. 

Clandestine  expresses  more  than  secret.  To  do  a 
thing  clandestinely  is  to  elude  observation ; to  do  a 
thing  secretly  is  to  do  it  without  the  knowledge  of  any 
one;  what  is  clandestine  is  unallowed,  which  is  not 
necessarily  the  case  vvith  what  is  secret. 

With  the  clandestine  must  be  a mi.xture  of  art ; with 
secrecy,  caution  and  management  are  requisite ; a clan 
destine  marriage  is  effected  by  a studied  plan  to  escape 
notice;  a secret  marriage  is  conducted  by  the  forbear 
ance  of  all  communication ; conspirators  have  manj 
clandestine  proceedings  and  secret  meetings;  an  un 
faithful  servant  clandestinely  conveys  his  master’s  pro 
perty  from  the  premises  of  his  master ; ‘ I went  to  this 
clandestine  lodging,  and  found  to  my  amazement  all- 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


621 


tne  ornaments  of  a fine  gentleman,  wliich  he  has  taken 
upon  credit.’ — Johnson.  A person  makes  a secret 
communication  of  his  intentions  to  another;  ‘Some 
may  place  their  chief  satisfaction  in  giving  secretly 
what  is  to  be  distributed  ; others  in  being  tlie  open  and 
avowed  instruments  of  making  such  distributions.’ — 
Atterbury. 


POLITICAL,  POLITICK 
Political  has  the  proper  meaning  of  the  word  polity, 
which,  from  the  Greek  roXirela  and  TroAtj  a city,  signi- 
fies the  government  either  of  a city  or  a country ; poli- 
tick, like  the  word  policy,  has  the  improper  meaning  of 
the  word  polity,  namely,  that  of  clever  management, 
because  the  affairs  of  stales  are  sometimes  managed 
with  considerable  art  and  finesse:  hence  we  speak  of 
political  government  as  o|)posed  to  that  which  is  ec- 
clesiastick  ; and  of  politick  conduct  as  opposed  to  that 
which  is  unwise  and  without  foresight : in  political 
questions,  it  is  not  politick  for  individuals  to  set  them- 
selves up  in  opposition  to  those  who  are  in  power ; the 
study  of  politicks,  as  a science,  may  make  a man  a 
clever  statesman ; but  it  may  not  always  enable  him 
to  discern  true  policy  m his  private  concerns;  ‘ Ma- 
chiavel  laid  down  this  for  a master  rule,  in  his  poli- 
tical scheme,  that  the  show  of  religion  was  helpful  to 
the  politician.’ — South.  ‘ A politick  caution,  a guard- 
ed circumspection,  were  among  the  ruling  principles 
of  our  forefathers.’ — Burke. 


ART,  CUNNING,  DECEIT. 

drt,  in  Latin  ars,  probably  comes  from  tlie  Greek 
apu)  to  fit  or  dispose,  Hebrew  to  contrive,  in 

which  action  the  mental  exercises  of  art  principally 
consists;  cunning  is  in  Saxon  cuning,  German  kennend 
knowing,  in  which  sense  the  English  word  was  for- 
merly used ; deceit,  from  the  Latin  deceptum,  participle 
of  dccipio  or  de  and  capio,  signifies  taking  by  surprise 
or  unawares. 

implies  a disposition  of  the  mind,  to  use  cir- 
cumvention or  artificial  means  to  attain  an  end  : cun- 
ning marks  the  disposition  to  prac  tise  disguise  in  the 
prosecution  of  a plan : deceit  leads  to  the  practice  of 
dissimulation  and  gross  falsehood,  for  the  sake  of  gra- 
tifying a desire,  ^rt  is  the  property  of  a lively  mind  ; 
cunning  of  a thoughtful  and  knowing  mind;  deceit  of 
an  ignorant,  low,  and  weak  mind. 

Art  is  practised  often  in  self-defence  ; as  a practice 
therefore  it  is  even  sometimes  justifiable,  although  not 
as  a disposition:  cunning  nas  always  self  in  view; 
the  cunning  man  seeks  his  gratification  without  regard 
to  others ; deceit  is  often  practised  to  the  express  in- 
jury of  another  : the  deceitf  ul  ma.i  adopts  base  means 
for  base  ends.  Animals  practise  art  when  opposed  to 
their  superiours  in  strength  ; but  they  are  not  artful, 
as  they  have  not  that  versatility  of  power  which  they 
can  habitually  exercise  to  their  own  advantage  like 
human  beings;  ‘It  has  been  a sort  of  maxim  that  the 
greatest  art  is  to  conceal  art ; but  I know  not  how, 
among  some  people  we  meet  with,  their  greatest  cun- 
ning is  to  appear  cunning.' — Steele.  Animals  may 
be  cunning,  inasmuch  as  they  can  by  contrivance  and 
concealment  seek  to  obtain  the  object  of  their  desire  ; 
‘ Cunning  can  in  no  circumstance  imaginable  be  a 
quality  w jrthy  a man,  except  in  his  owui  defence,  and 
merely  to  conceal  himself  from  such  as  are  so,?and  in 
such  cases  it  is  wisdom.’— Steele.  No  animal  is  de- 
ceitful except  man : the  wickedest  and  the  stupidest  of 
men  have  the  power  and  the  will  of  deceiving  and 
practising  falsehood  upon  others,  which  is  unknown 
to  the  brutes  ; ‘ Though  the  living  man  can  wear  a 
mask  and  carry  on  deceit,  the  dying  Christian  cannot 
counterfeit.’ — Cumberland. 


ARTFUL,  ARTIFICIAL,  FICTITIOUS. 

compounded  of  art  and  ful,  marks  the  qua- 
lity ot  being  full  of  art  (v.  Art) ; artificial,  in  Latin 
artificialis,  from  ars  and  facii  to  do,  signifies  done 
with  art ; fictitious,  in  Latin  fictitious,  from  fingo  to 
feign,  signifies  the  quality  of  being  feigned. 

Artful  respects  what  is  done  with  art  or  design  ; ar- 
tificial what  is  done  by  the  exercise  of  workmanship; 
fictitious  what  is  made  out  of  the  mind.  Artful  and 


artificial  are  used  e’lther  for  natural  or  moral  objects; 
fictitious  always  for  those  that  are  moral:  artful  is 
opposed  to  what  is  artless,  artificial  to  what  is  na 
l\ixa.\,  fictitious  to  what  is  real : the  ringlets  of  a lady’s 
hair  are  disposed  in  an  artful  manner;  the  hair  itself 
may  be  artificial : a tale  is  artful  which  is  told  in  a 
way  to  gain  credit;  manners  are  which  do 

not  seem  to  suit  the  person  adopting  them  ; a story  is. 
fictitious  which  tias  no  foundation  whatever  in  truth, 
and  is  the  invention  of  the  narrator. 

Children  sometimes  tell  their  stories  so  artfully  as  to 
impose  on  the  most  penetrating  and  experienced;  ‘I 
was  much  surprised  to  see  the  ants’  nest  which  I had 
destioyed,  very  artfully  repaired.’ — Addison.  Those 
who  have  no  character  of  their  own  are  induced  to 
take  an  artificial  character  in  order  to  put  themselves 
on  a level  with  their  associates;  ‘If  we  compare  two 
nations  in  an  equal  state  of  civilization,  we  may  re- 
mark that  where  the  greater  freedom  obtains,  there  the 
greater  variety  of  artr^efaZ  wants  will  obtain  also.’-~ 
Cumberland.  Beggars  deal  in  fictitious  tales  of  dis- 
tress in  order  to  excite  compassion;  ‘Among  the  nu- 
merous stratagems  by  which  pride  endeavours  to 
recommend  folly  to  regard,  there  is  scarcely  one  that 
meets  with  less  success  than  affectation,  or  a perpetual 
disguise  of  the  real  character  by  fictitious  appearances.’ 
— Johnson. 


ARTIFICE,  TRICK,  FINESSE,  STRATAGEM 

Artifice,  in  French  artifice,  Latin  artifex  an  arti 
ficer,  from  artem  facio  to  execute  an  art,  signifies  the 
performance  of  an  art;  trick,  in  French  tricher,  comes 
from  the  German  triegen  to  deceive;  ^ncsse,  a word 
directly  imported  from  France  with  all  the  meaning 
attached  to  it,  which  is  characlerisiick  of  the  nation 
itself,  means  properly  fineness;  the  word  fin  fine,  sig- 
nifying in  French,  as  well  as  in  the  northern  languages 
from  which  it  is  taken,  subtlety  or  mental  acumen ; 
stratagem,  in  French  stratagime,  from  the  Greek 
aTparyyripa  and  cTpaTyyiu)  to  lead  an  army,  signifies 
by  distinction  any  military  scheme,  or  any  scheme  con- 
ducted for  some  military  jturpose. 

All  these  terms  denote  the  exercise  of  an  art  calcu 
lated  to  mislead  others.  Artifice  is  the  generick  term; 
the  rest  specifick  : the  former  has  likewise  a particular 
use  and  acceptation  distinct  from  the  others : it  ex- 
presses a ready  display  of  art  for  the  purpose  of  extri 
eating  one’s  self  from  a difficulty,  or  securing  to  one’s 
self  an  advantage.  Trick  includes  in  it  more  of  de 
sign  to  gain  something  for  one’s  self,  or  to  act  secretly 
to  the  inconvenience  of  others :■*=  it  is  rather  a cheat 
on  the  senses  than  the  understanding.  Finesse  is  a 
species  of  artifice  in  which  art  and  cunning  are  com- 
bined in  the  management  of  a cause:  it  is  a mixture  of 
invention,  falsehood,  and  concealment.  Stratagem  is 
a display  of  art  in  plotting  and  contriving,  a disguised 
mode  of  obtaining  an  end. 

Females  who  are  not  guarded  by  fixed  principles  of 
virtue  and  uprightness  are  apt  to  practise  artifices  upon 
their  husbands.  Men  without  honour,  or  an  honour- 
able means  of  living,  are  apt  to  practise  various  tricks 
to  impose  upon  others  to  their  own  advantage:  every 
trade  therefore  is  said  to  have  its  tricks;  and  profes- 
sions are  not  entirely  clear  fiom  tliis  stigma,  which  has 
been  brought  upon  them  by  unworthy  mem'oers.  Di- 
plomatick  persons  have  most  frequent  recourse  to 
finesse,  in  which  no  people  are  more  skilful  practi- 
tioners than  those  who  have  coined  the  word.  Mili- 
tary operations  are  sometimes  considerably  forwarded 
by  well-concerted  and  well-timed  stratagems  to  sur- 
prise the  enemy. 

An  artifice  may  be  perfectly  innocent  when  it  serves 
to  afford  a friend  an  unexpected  pleasure ; ‘ Among  the 
several  artifices  which  are  put  in  practice  by  tlie  poets, 
to  fill  the  minds  of  an  audience  with  terrour,  the  first 
place  is  due  to  thunder  and  lightning.’ — Addison  A 
trick  is  childish  which  only  serves  to  deceive  or  amuse 
children ; ‘ Where  men  practise  falsehood  and  show 
tricks  with  one  another,  there  will  be  perpetual  sus 
picions,  evil  surmisings,  doubts,  and  jealousies.’— 
South.  Stratagems  are  allowable  not  in  war  only: 
the  writer  of  a novel  or  a play  may  sometimes  adopt 
a successful  stratagem  to  cause  the  reader  a surprise' 

♦Trusler  ; ‘ Cunning,  finesse  device,  artifice,  trick 
stratagem.” 


522 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


0^  others  practise  thy  Ligurian  arts ; 

The  stratagems  and  tricks  of  little  hearts 
Are  iost  on  me. — Dryden. 

One  of  the  most  successful  stratagems,  whereby 
Mahomet  became  formidable,  was  the  assurance  that 
impostor  gave  his  votaries,  that  whoever  was  slain  in 
battle  should  be  immediately  conveyed  to  that  luxuri- 
;>us  paradise  his  wanton  fancy  had  invented.’ — Steele. 
Finesse  is  never  justifiable  ; it  carries  with  it  too  much 
of  concealment  and  disingenuousness  to  be  practised 
but  for  selfish  and  un  worthy  purposes ; 

Another  can’t  forgive  the  paltry  arts 
By  which  he  makes  his  way  to  shallow  hearts, 

Mere  pieces  of  Jinesse,  traps  for  applause. 

Churchill. 


CUNNING,  CRAFTY,  SUBTLE,  SLY,  WILY. 

Cunning,  v.  Art;  crafty  signifies  having  craft,  that 
is,  according  to  the  original  meaning  of  the  word, 
having  a knowledge  of  some  trade  or  art ; hence 
figuratively  applied  to  the  character ; subtle,  in  French 
subtil,  and  Latin  subtilis  thin,  from  sub  and  tela  a 
thread  drawn  to  be  fine  ; hence  in  the  figurative  sense 
in  which  it  is  here  taken,  fine  or  acute  in  thought; 
sly  is  in  all  probability  connected  with  slow  and  sleek, 
or  smooth  ; deliberation  and  smoothness  entering  very 
much  into  the  sense  of  sly;  icjZy  signifies  disposed  to 
wiles  or  stratagems. 

All  these  epithets  agree  in  expressing  an  aptitude  to 
employ  peculiar  and  secret  means  to  the  attainment  of 
an  end ; they  differ  principally  in  the  secrecy  of  the 
means,  or  the  degree  of  circumventi.^n  that  is  em- 
ployed. The  cunning  man  shows  his  dexterity  simply 
in  concealing ; this  requires  little  more  than  reserved- 
ness and  taciturnity;  ‘There  is  still  another  secret 
that  can  never  fail  if  you  can  once  get  it  believed,  and 
which  is  often  practised  by  women  of  greater  cunning 
than  virtue.  This  is  to  change  sides  lor  awhile  with 
the  jealous  man,  and  to  turn  his  own  passion  upon 
himself.’— Addison.  The  crafty  man  goes  farther ; he 
shapes  his  words  and  actions  so  as  to  lull  suspicion: 
hence  it  is  that  a child  may  be  cunning,  but  an  old 
man  will  be  crafty ; ‘ Cunning  is  often  to  be  met  with 
in  brutes  themselves,  and  in  persons  who  are  but 
the  fewest  removes  from  them.’ — Addison.  ‘You  will 
find  the  examples  to  be  tew  and  rare  of  wicked,  un- 
principled men  attaining  fully  the  accomplishment  of 
their  crafty  designs.’ — Ulair.  A subtle  man  has  more 
acuteness  of  invention  than  either,  and  all  his  schemes 
are  hidden  by  a veil  that  is  impenetrable  by  common 
observation;  the  cunning  man  looks  only  to  the  con- 
cealment of  an  immediate  object ; the  crafty  and 
subtle  man  has  a remote  object  to  conceal : thus  men 
are  cunning  in  their  ordinary  concerns  ; politicians  are 
crafty  or  subtle ; but  the  former  is  more  so  as  to  the 
end,  and  the  latter  as  to  the  means.  A man  is  cun- 
ning and  crafty  by  deeds ; he  is  subtle  mostly  by 
means  of  words  alone,  or  words  and  actions  combined; 
‘ The  part  of  Ulysses,  in  Homer’s  Odyssey,  is  very 
much  admired  by  Aristotle,  as  perplexing  that  fable 
with  very  agreeable  plots  atid  intricacies,  not  only  by 
the  many  adventures  in  his  voyage  and  the  subtlety  of 
his  behaviour,  but  by  the  various  concealments  and 
discoveries  of  his  person  in  several  parts  of  his  poem.’ 
— Addison.  Slyness  is  a vulgar  kind  of  cunning;  the 
sly  man  goes  cautiously  and  silently  to  work  ; ‘ If  you 
or  your  corres|)ondent  had  consulted  me  in  your  dis- 
course upon  the  eye,  I could  have  told  you  that  the  eye 
of  Leonora  is  slyly  watchful  while  it  looks  negligent.’ 
—Steele.  Holiness  is  a species  of  cunning  or  craft, 
applicable  only  to  cases  of  attack  or  defence; 

Implore  his  aid  ; for  Proteus  only  knows 

The  secret  cause,  and  cure  of  all  thy  woes  ; 

But  first  the  wily  wizard  must  be  caught. 

For,  unconstrain’d,  he  nothing  tells  for  nought. 

Dryden. 

TO  DECEIVE,  DELUDE,  IMPOSE  UPON. 

Deceive,  in  French  decevoir,  Latin  decipio,  com- 
pounded of  de  privative,  and  capio  to  take,  signifies 
to  take  wrong ; delude,  in  Latin  deludo,  compounded 
of  de  and  ludo,  signifies  to  play  upon  or  to  mislead  by 
a trick ; impose,  in  Latin  imposui,  perfect  of  impono, 
tienifies  literally  to  lay  or  put  upon. 


Falsehood  is  the  leading  feature  in  all  these  leinn 
they  vary  however  in  the  circumstances  of  the  action 
To  deceive  is  the  most  general  of  the  three;  it  sig- 
nifies simply  to  produce  a false  conviction  ; Lhe  othei 
terms  are  properly  species  of  deceiving,  including 
accessory  ideas.  Deception  may  be  practised  in  va- 
rious degrees ; deluding  is  always  something  positive, 
and  considerable  in  degree.  Every  false  impression 
produced  by  external  objects,  whether  in  trifles  or 
important  matters,  is  a deception : delusion  is  con 
fined  to  errours  in  matters  of  opinion.  We  may  bf 
deceived  in  the  colour  or  the  distance  of  an  object ; we 
are  deluded  in  what  regards  our  principles  or  moral 
conduct ; ‘ I would  have  all  my  readers  take  care  how 
they  mistake  themselves  for  uncommon  geniuses  and 
men  above  rule,  since  it  is  very  easy  for  them  to  be 
deceived  in  this  particular.’ — Budge ll.  ‘ Deluded  by 
a seeming  excellence.’ — Roscommon. 

A deception  does  not  always  suppose  a fault  on  the 
part  of  the  person  deceived,  but  a delusion  does.  A 
person  is  sometimes  deceived  in  cases  where  deception 
is  unavoidable ; 

I now  believ’d 

The  happy  day  approach’d,  nor  are  my  hopes  deceiv'd. 

Dryden. 

A person  is  deluded  through  a voluntary  blindness  of 
the  understanding ; 

Who  therefore  seeks  in  these 
True  wisdom,  £nds  her  not,  or  by  delusion 
Far  worse,  her  false  resemblance  only  meets. 

Prior. 

Artful  people  are  sometimes  capable  of  deceiving  so  aa 
not  even  to  excite  suspicion ; their  plausible  tales 
justify  the  credit  that  is  given  to  them ; when  the 
ignorant  enter  into  nice  questions  of  politicks  or  re- 
ligion, it  is  their  ordinary  fate  to  be  deluded. 

Deception  is  practised  by  an  individual  on  himself 
or  others ; 

Wanton  women  in  their  eyes 

Men’s  deceivings  do  comprise. — Greene. 

A delusion  is  commonly  practised  on  one’s  self; 

I,  waking,  view'd  with  grief  the  rising  sun. 

And  fondly  mourn’d  the  dear  delusion  gone. 

Prior 

An  imposition  is  always  practised  on  another ; ‘ As 
there  seems  to  be  in  this  manuscript  some  anachronisms 
and  deviations  from  the  ancient  orthography,  I am  not 
satisfied  myself  that  it  is  authentick,  and  not  rather  the 
production  of  one  of  those  Grecian  sophislers  who 
have  imposed  upon  the  world  several  spurious  works 
of  this  nature.’ — Addison.  Men  deceive  others  from 
a variety  of  motives  ; they  always  impose  upon  them 
for  purposes  of  gain,  or  the  gratification  of  ambition. 
Men  aeceive  themselves  with  false  pretexts  and  false 
confidence ; they  delude  themselves  with  vain  hopes 
and  wishes. 

Professors  in  religion  often  deceive  themselves  as 
much  as  they  do  others : the  grossest  and  most  dan 
gerous  delusion  into  which  they  are  liable  to  fall  is 
that  of  substituting  faith  for  practice,  and  an  extrava- 
gant regard  to  the  outward  observances  of  religion 
in  lieu  of  the  mild  and  humble  temper  of  Jesus:  no 
imposition  was  ever  so  successfully  practised  upon 
mankind  as  that  of  Mahomet. 


DECEIVER,  IMPOSTOR. 

Deceiver  and  impostor,  the  derivatives  from  deceive 
dii\dimpose,  have  a farther  distinction  worthy  of  notice 

Deceiver  is  a genei  ick  term ; impostor  specifick : every 
impostor  is  a specie.^  of  deceiver:  the  words  have 
however  a distinct  use.  The  deceiver  practises  decep- 
tion on  individuals  ; the  impostor  only  on  the  publick 
at  large.  The  false  friend  and  the  faithless  lover  are 
deceivers;  the  assumed  nobleman  who  practises  frauds 
under  his  disguise,  and  the  pretended  prince  who  lays 
claim  to  a crown  to  which  he  was  never  born,  are 
impostors. 

Deceivers  are  the  most  dangerous  members  of 
society;  they  trifle  with  the  best  affections  of  our 
nature,  and  violate  the  most  sacred  obligations  ; ‘That 
tradition  of  the  Jews  that  Christ  was  stolen  out  of  the 
grave  is  ancient;  it  was  the  invention  of  the  Jews, 
and  denies  the  integrity  of  the  witnesses  of  In'*  resor- 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  52i 


recuoii.  making  them  deceicers.'— Tillotson.  Im- 
postors are  seldom  so  culpable  as  those  who  give  them 
credit ; ' Our  Saviour  wrought  his  miracles  Irequenlly, 
and  for  a long  time  together ; a time  sufficient  to  have 
detected  any  impostor  in.’ — Tillotson.  It  would 
require  no  small  share  of  credulity  to  be  deceived  by 
any  of  the  impositions  which  have  been  hitherto  prac- 
tised upon  the  inconsiderate  part  of  mankind. 

DECEIT,  DECEPTION. 

Deceit  {v.  To  deceive)  marks  the  propensity  to  de- 
ceive, or  tlie  practice  of  deceiving ; deception  the  act 
of  deceiving  {v.  To  deceive). 

A deceiver  is  full  of  deceit:  but  a deception  may 
be  occasionally  practised  by  one  who  has  not  this  habit 
of  deceiving.  Deceit  is  a characteristick  of  so  base  a 
nature,  that  those  who  have  it  practise  every  species 
of  deception  in  oxAyit  to  hide  their  characters  from  the 
observation  of  the  world. 

The  practice  of  deceit  springs  altogether  from  a 
design,  and  that  of  the  worst  kind;  but  a deception 
may  be  practised  from  indifferent,  if  not  innocent, 
motives,  or  may  be  occasioned  even  by  inanimate 
objects ; 

I mean  to  plunge  the  boy  in  pleasing  sleep, 

And  ravish’d  in  Idalian  bow’rs  to  keep, 

Or  high  Cythera,  that  the  sweet  deceit 
May  puss  unseen,  and  none  prevent  the  cheat. 

Drydkn. 

All  the  joy  or  sorrow  for  the  happiness  or  calamities 
of  others  is  produced  by  an  act  of  the  imagination 
that  realii.es  the  event  however  fictitious,  so  that  we 
feel,  while  the  deception  lasts,  whatever  emotions 
would  be  excited  by  the  same  good  or  evil  happening 
to  ourselves.’ — Johnson. 

A person  or  a conduct  is  deceitful;  an  appearance 
is  deceptive.  A deceitful  person  has  always  guile  in 
his  heart  and  on  his  tongue:  jugglers  practise  various 
deceptions  in  the  performance  of  their  tricks  for  the 
entertainment  of  tJie  populace.  Parasites  and  syco- 
phfiiUs  are  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  deceit,  in  order 
to  inveigle  themselves  into  the  favour  of  their  patrons : 
there  is  tio  setise  on  which  a deception  can  be  prac- 
tised with  greater  facility  than  on  that  of  sight;  some- 
times it  is  an  attreeable  deception,  as  in  the  case  of  a 
panoramick  exhibition. 


DECEfr,  DUPLICITY,  DOUBLE-DEALING. 

Deceit,  v.  Deceit,  deception  ; duplicity  signifies 
doubleness  in  dealing,  the  same  as  double-dealing 

The  former  two  may  be  applied  either  to  habitual 
or  particular  actions,  the  latter  only  to  particular 
actions.  There  may  be  much  deceit  or  duplicity  in  a 
person’s  character  or  in  his  proceedings ; there  is 
double-dealing  only  where  dealing  goes  forward.  The 
deceit  may  be  more  or  less  veiled  ; the  duplicity  lies 
very  deep,  and  is  always  studied  whenever  it  is  put 
into  practice.  Duplicity  in  reference  to  actions  is 
mostly  employed  for  a course  of  conduct:  double- 
dealing  is  but  another  term  for  duplicity  on  particular 
occasions.  Children  of  reserved  characters  are  fre- 
quently prone  to  deceit,  which  grows  into  consummate 
duplicity  in  riper  years:  the  wealthy  are  often  exposed 
to  much  duplicity  when  they  choose  their  favourites 
among  the  low  and  ignorant;  ‘ The  arts  of  deceit  do 
continually  grow  weaker  and  less  serviceable  to  them 
that  use  them.’ — Tillotson.  ‘ Necessity  drove  Dry- 
den  into  a duplicity  of  character  that  is  painful  to 
reflect  upon.’ — Cumberland.  Nothing  gives  rise  to 
more  double-dealing  than  the  fabrication  of  wills; 
‘Maskwell  (\n  the  Double-Dealer)  discloses  by  solilo- 
quy, that  his  motive  for  double-dealing  was  founded 
in  his  passion  for  Cynthia.’ — Cumberland. 


DECEIT,  FRAUD,  GUILE. 

Deceit  {v.  Deceit,  deception)  is  allied  to  fraud  in 
reference  to  actions;  to  guile  in  reference  to  the  cha- 
racter. 

Deceit  is  here,  as  in  the  preceding  article,  indeter- 
minate when  compared  with  fraud,  which  is  a spe- 
cifick  mode  of  deceiving  : deceit  is  practised  only  in 
private  transactions-  fraudis  practised  towards  bodies 


as  well  as  individuals,  in  publick  as  well  as  private,  a 
child  practises  deceit  towards  its  parents ; 

With  such  deceits  he  gain’d  their  easy  hearts. 

Too  prone  to  credit  his  perfidious  arts. — Dryden. 
Frauds  are  practised  upon  government,  on  the  publick 
at  large,  or  on  tradesmen  ; ‘ The  story  of  the  three 
books  of  the  Sybils  sold  to  Tarquin  was  all  a fraud 
devised  for  the  convenience  of  state.’ — Prideaux. 
Deceit  involves  the  violation  of  moral  \ow,  fraud  that 
of  the  civil  law.  A servant  may  deceive  his  master  as 
to  the  time  of  his  coming  or  going,  but  he  defrauds 
him  of  his  property  if  he  obtains  it  by  any  false  means. 
Deceit  as  a characteristick  is  indefinite  in  magnitude  ; 
guile  marks  a strong  degree  of  moral  turpitude  in  the 
individual ; 

Was  it  for  force  ox  guile. 

Or  some  religious  end  you  rais’d  this  pile  1 

Dryden. 

The  former  is  displayed  in  petty  concerns;  the  latter, 
which  contaminates  the  whole  character,  displays  itself 
in  inextricable  windings  and  turnings  that  are  sug 
gested  in  a peculiar  manner  by  the  author  of  all  evil. 
Deceitful  is  an  epithet  commonly  and  lightly  applied 
to  persons  in  general ; but  guileless  is  applied  to  cha- 
racters which  are  the  most  diametrically  opposed  to 
and  at  the  greatest  possible  distance  from,  that  which 
is  false. 


FALLACIOUS,  DECEITFUL,  FRAUDULENT. 

Fallacious  comes  from  the  Latin  fallax  and  fallo 
to  deceive,  signifying  the  property  of  misleading ; de- 
ceitful, V.  To  deceive;  fraudulent  signifies  after  the 
manner  of  a fraud. 

The  fallacious  has  respect  to  falsehood  in  opinion; 
deceitful  to  that  which  is  externally  false  : our  hope* 
are  often  fallacious ; the  appearances  of  things  are 
often  deceitful.  Fallacious,  as  characteristick  of  the 
miHd,  excludes  the  idea  of  design ; 

But  when  Ulysses,  with  fallacious  arts, 

Had  made  impression  on  the  people’s  hearts. 

And  forg’d  a treason  in  my  patron’s  name. 

My  kinsman  fell. — Dryden. 

Deceitful  excludes  the  idea  of  mistake;  fraudulent 
is  a gross  species  of  the  deceitful ; ‘ Such  is  the  power 
which  the  sophistry  of  self-love  exercises  over  us,  that 
almost  every  one  may  be  assured  he  measures  himself 
by  a deceit/uZ  scale.’ — Blair.  It  is  o fallacious  idea 
for  any  one  to  imagine  that  the  faults  of  others  can 
serve  as  any  extenuation  of  his  own ; it  is  a deceitful 
mode  of  acting  for  any  one  to  advise  another  to  do  tha! 
which  he  would  not  do  himself;  it  is  fraudulent  tc 
attempt  to  get  money  by  means  of  a falsehood ; 

111  fated  Paris!  slave  to  womankind. 

As  smooth  of  face  os  fraudulent  of  mind. — Pope. 


FALLACY,  DELUSION,  ILLUSION. 
Fallacy,  in  Latin  fallacia,  from  fallo,  has  com- 
monly a reference  to  the  act  of  some  conscious  agent, 
whose  intention  is  to  deceive;  the  delusion  {v.  To  de- 
ceive) and  illusion  may  be  the  work  of  inanimate  ob- 
jects. We  endeavour  to  detect  the  fallacy  which  lies 
concealed  in  a proposition;  ‘ There  is  indeed  no  trans- 
action which  offers  stronger  temptations  to  fallacy  and 
sophistication  than  epistolary  intercourse.’ — Johnson 
One  endeavours  to  remove  the  delusion  to  which  tha 
judgement  has  been  exposed; 

As  when  a wandering  fire. 

Hovering  and  blazing  with  delusive  light. 

Misleads  th’  amaz’d  night-wanderer  from  his  way. 

Milton. 

It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  dissipate  the  illusion  to 
which  the  senses  or  the  fancy  are  liable ; ‘ Fame,  glory, 
wealth,  honour,  have  in  the  prospect  pleasing  illusions.' 
— Steele. 

In  all  the  reasonings  of  freethnkers,  there  are  falla~ 
cies  against  which  a man  cannot  always  be  on  his 
guard.  The  ignorant  are  perpetually  exposed  to  delu- 
sions when  they  attempt  to  speculate  on  matters  of 
opinion ; among  the  most  serious  of  these  delusions  we 
may  reckon  that  of  substituting  their  own  feelings  for 
the  operations  of  Divine  grace.  The  ideas  of  ghosts 


524 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


and  apparitions  are  mostly  attributable  to  the  illusions 
of  the  senses  and  the  imagination. 


FAITHLESS,  PERFIDIOUS,  TREACHEROUS. 

Faithless  {v.  Faithless)  is  the  eenerick  term,  the 
rest  are  specifick  terms  ; a breach  of  good  faith  is  ex- 
pressed by  thetn  all,  but  faithless  expresses  no  more ; 
the  others  include  accessory  ideas  in  their  signification : 
perfidious,  in  Latin signifies  literally  break- 
ing through  faith  in  a great  degree,  and  now  implies 
the  addition  of  hostility  to  the  breach  of  faith;  trea- 
eherous,  most  probably  changed  from  traitorous,  conies 
from  the  Latin  trado  to  betray,  and  signifies  one  spe- 
cies of  active  hostile  breach  of  faith. 

A faithless  man  is  faithless  only  for  his  own  inte- 
rest; a perfidious  man  is  expressly  so  to  the  injury  of 
another.  A friend  is  faithless  who  consults  his  own 
safety  in  the  time  of  need ; he  is  perfidious  if  he  pro- 
fits by  the  confidence  reposed  in  him  to  plot  mischief 
against  the  one  to  whom  he  has  made  vows  of  friend- 
s.hip.  Faithlessness  does  not  suppose  any  particular 
efforts  to  deceive;  it  consists  of  merely  violating  that 
faith  which  the  relation  produces;  perfidy  is  never  so 
complete  as  when  it  has  most  effectually  assumed  the 
mask  of  sincerity.  Whoever  deserts  his  friend  in  need 
is  guilty  of  faithlessness  ; but  he  is  guilty  of  perfidy 
who  draws  from  him  every  secret  in  order  to  eflect  his 
ruin; 

Old  Priam,  fearful  of  the  war’s  event. 

This  hapless  Polydore  to  Thracia  sent. 

From  noise  and  tumults,  and  destructive  war. 

Committed  to  the  faithless  tyrant’s  care. — Drvden. 

When  a friend  is  turned  into  an  enemy  the  world  is 
just  enough  to  accuse  iho.  perfidiousness  of  the  friend, 
rather  than  tiie  indiscretion  of  the  person  who  confided 
in  him.’ — Addison. 

Incle  was  not  only  a.  faithless  but  a perfidious  lover. 
Faithlessness,  though  a serious  offence,  is  unhappily 
not  unfreqnent:  there  are  too  many  men  who  are  un- 
mindful of  their  most  important  engagements ; but  we 
may  hope  for  the  honour  of  humanity  that  there  are 
not  many  instances  of  perfidy,  which  exceeds  every 
other  vice  in  atrocity,  as  it  makes  virtue  itself  subser- 
vient to  its  own  base  purposes. 

Perfidy  may  lie  in  the  will  to  do  ; treachery  lies 
altogether  in  the  thing  done:  one  may  therefore  be 
perfidious  without  being  treacherous.  A friend  is  per- 
fidious whenever  he  evinces  his  perfidy ; but  he  is  said 
to  be  treacherous  only  in  the  particular  instance  in 
which  he  betrays  the  confidence  and  interests  of  an- 
other. I detect  a man's  or  his  perfidious  aims, 

by  the  manner  in  which  he  attempts  to  draw  my  se- 
crets from  me ; I am  made  acquainted  with  his  trea- 
chery not  before  1 discover  that  my  confidence  is  be- 
trayed and  my  secrets  are  divulged.  On  the  other  hand 
we  may  be  treacherous  without  being  perfidious.  Per- 
fidy is  an  offence  mostly  between  individuals ; it  is 
rather  a breach  of  fidelity  (u.  Faith,  fidelity)  than  of 
faith : treachery  on  the  other  hand  includes  breaches 
of  private  or  publick  faith.  A servant  may  be  both 
erfidious  and  treacherous  to  his  master ; a citizen  may 
e treacherous,  but  not  perfidious  toward?  his  country ; 

Shall  then  the  Grecians  fly,  oh  dire  disgrace ! 

And  leave  unpunish’d  this  perfidious  race  1— Pope. 

And  had  not  Heav’n  the  fall  of  Troy  design’d. 

Enough  was  said  and  done  t’  inspire  a better  mind: 

Then  had  our  lances  pierc’d  the  treach'rous  wood. 

And  Ilian’s  towers  and  Priam’s  empire  stood. 

Dryden. 

It  is  said  that  in  the  South  Sea  islands,  when  a chief 
wants  a human  victim,  their  officers  will  sometimes 
invite  their  friends  or  relations  to  come  to  them,  when 
they  take  the  opportunity  of  suddenly  falling  upon 
them  and  despatc-hing  them : here  is  perfidy  in  the  in- 
dividual who  acts  this  false  part;  and  treachery  in  the 
act  of  betraying  him  who  is  murdered.  When  the 
schoolmaster  of  Falerii  delivered  his  scholars  to  Ca- 
millus,  he  was  guilty  of  treachery  in  the  act,  and  of 
towards  those  who  had  reposed  confidence  in 
him  When  Romulus  ordered  the  Sabine  women  to 
be  Efe«zed,  it  was  an  act  of  treachery  but  not  of  perfidy ; 
so  in  like  manner  when  the  daughter  of  Tarpeius 
epened  the  gates  of  tlie  Roman  citadel  to  the  enemy. 


FAITHLESS,  UNFAITHFUL 
Faithless  is  mostly  employed  to  denotfe  a oreRch  of 
faith ; and  unfaithful  to  mark  the  want  of  fidelity  (e. 
Faith, fidelity f The  former  is  positive;  the  latter  i« 
rather  negative,  implying  a deficiency.  A prince,  a 
government,  a people,  or  an  individual  is  said  to  be 
/ aithless  ; 

So  spake  the  seraph  Abdiel,  faithful  found; 

Among  the  faithless,  faithful  only  he. — Milton 
A husband,  a wife,  a servant,  or  any  individual  is  said 
to  be  unfaithful.  Meff'us  Tuffetius,  the  Alban  Dicta 
tor,  was  faithless  to  the  Roman  people  when  he  with 
held  his  assistance  in  the  battle,  and  strove  to  go  over 
to  the  enemy ; 

The  sire  of  men  and  monarch  of  the  sky 
Th’  advice  approv’d,  and  bade  Minerva  fly. 

Dissolve  the  league,  and  all  her  arts  employ 
To  make  the  breach  the  faithless  act  of  Troy 

Pope. 

At  length,  ripe  vengeance  o’er  their  head  impends. 
But  Jove  liimself  the  faithless  race  defends.“PoPK 
A man  is  unfaithful  to  his  employer  who  sees  him  in- 
jured by  others  without  doing  his  utmost  to  prevent  it; 
‘ If  you  break  one  jot  of  your  promise,  I will  think  you 
the  most  atheistical  break -promise,  and  the  most  un 
worthy  that  may  be  chosen  out  of  the  gross  band  of 
the  unfaithful.' — Shakspeare.  A woman  is  faithless 
to  her  husband  who  breaks  the  marriage  vow  ; she  is 
unfaithful  to  him  when  she  does  not  discharge  the 
duties  of  a wife  to  the  best  of  her  abilities. 

The  term  unfaithful  may  also  be  applied  figura 
tively  to  things; 

If  e’er  with  life  I quit  the  Trojan  plain. 

If  e’er  I see  my  sire  and  spouse  again. 

This  bow,  unfaithful  to  my  glorious  aims. 

Broke  by  my  hands  shall  feed  the  blazing  flames 

Pop*. 

TREACHEROUS,  TRAITOROUS, 
TREASONABLE. 

These  epithets  are  all  applied  to  one  who  betrays  hla 
trust;  but  treacherous  (v.  Faithless)  respects  a man's 
private  relations ; traitorous,  his  publick  relation  to  his 
prince  and  his  country:  he  is  a treacherous  friend,  and 
a subject.  We  maybe  treacherous  to  our 

enemies  as  well  as  our  friends,  for  nothing  can  lessen 
the  obligation  to  preserve  the  fidelity  of  promise; 
‘ This  very  charge  of  folly  should  make  men  cautious 
how  they  listen  to  the  treacherous  pioposals  which 
come  from  his  own  bosom.’ — South.  We  may  be 
traitorous  to  our  country  by  abstaining  to  lend  that  aid 
which  is  in  our  power,' for  nothing  but  death  can  do 
away  the  obligation  which  we  owe  to  it  by  the  law  of 
nature;  ‘All  the  evils  of  war  must  unavoidably  be 
endured,  as  the  necessary  means  to  give  success  to  the 
traitorous  designs  of  the  rebel.’ — South.  Traitorous 
and  treasonable  are  both  applicable  to  subjects:  but 
the  former  is  extended  to  all  publick  acts;  the  latter  only 
to  those  which  affect  the  supreme  power:  a soldier  is 
traitorous  who  goes  over  to  the  side  of  the  enemy 
against  his  country ; a man  is  guilty  of  treasonable 
practices  who  meditates  the  life  of  the  king,  or  aims 
at  subverting  his  government:  a man  maybe  a traitor 
under  all  forms  of  government ;.  but  he  can  be  guilty 
of  treason  only  in  a monarchical  state ; ‘ Herod  trumped 
up  a sham  plot  against  Hyreanus,  as  if  he  held  cones 
pondence  with  Malchus  King  of  Arabia,  for  accom- 
plishing treasonable  designs  against  him.’— Prideaux 


INSIDIOUS,  TREACHEROUS. 

Insidious,  in  Latin  insidiosus,  from  insidice  strata 
gem  or  ambush,  from  insideo  to  lie  in  wait  or  ambush, 
signifies  after  the  manner  of  a stratagem,  or  prone  to 
adopt  stratagems ; treacherous  is  changed  from  traitor- 
ous, and  derived  from  trado  to  betray,  signifying  in 
general  the  disposition  to  betray. 

The  insidious  man  is  not  so  bad  as  the  treacherous 
man;  for  the  former  only  lies  in  wait  to  ensnare  us, 
when  we  are  off  our  guard;  but  the  latter  tlirows  us 
off  our  guard,  by  lulling  us  into  a state  of  security,  in 
order  the  more  effectually  to  get  us  into  his  power:  an 
enemy  is,  therefore,  denominated  insidious,  but  a friend 
is  treacherous.  The  insidious  man  has  recourse  U 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


ranous  little  artifices,  by  wliich  he  wishes  to  effect  his 
purpose,  and  gain  an  advantage  over  his  opponent; 
the  treacherous  man  pursues  a system  of  direct  false- 
hood, in  order  to  ruin  his  friend  : the  insidious  man  ob- 
jects to  a fair  and  open  contest ; but  the  treacherous 
man  assails  in  the  dark  him  whom  he  should  support. 
The  opponents  to  Christianity  are  fond  of  insidious 
attacks  upon  its  sublime  truths,  because  they  have  not 
always  courage  to  proclaim  thdir  own  shame ; ‘ Since 
men  mark  all  our  steps,  and  watch  our  haltings,  let  a 
sense  of  their  insidious  vigilance  excite  us  so  to  behave 
ourselves,  that  they  may  find  a conviction  of  the  mighty 
power  of  Christianity  towards  regulating  the  passions.’ 
— Atterbitry.  The  treachery  of  some  men  depends 
for  its  success  on  the  credulity  of  others ; as  in  the  case 
of  the  Trojans,  who  listened  to  the  tale  of  Simon,  the 
Grecian  spy ; 

The  world  must  think  him  in  the  wrong. 

Would  say  he  made  a treacherous  use 

Of  wit,  to  flatter  and  seduce.— Swift. 


TO  CHEAT,  DEFRAUD,  TRICK. 

Cheat,  in  Saxon  cettu,  in  all  probability  comes  from 
captum  and  capio,  as  deceit  comes  from  decipio  ; de- 
fraud, compounded  of  de  and  fraud,  signifies  to  prac- 
tise fraud,  or  to  obtain  by  fraud;  trick,  in  French 
tricher,  German  trugen,  signifies  simply  to  deceive,  or 
get  the  better  of  any  one. 

The  idea  of  deception  which  is  common  to  these 
terms  varies  in  degree  and  circumstance. 

One  cheats  by  a gross  falsehood ; one  defrauds  by  a 
settled  plan;  one  tricks  by  a sudden  invention:  cheat- 
ing is  as  low  in  its  ends,  as  it  is  base  in  its  means; 
cheats  are  contented  to  gain  by  any  means  : defraud- 
ing is  a serious  measure ; its  consequences  are  serious, 
both  to  the  perpetrator  and  the  sufferer.  A person 
cheats  at  play;  he  defrauds  those  who  place  confi- 
dence in  him. 

Cheating  is  not  punishable  by  laws  ; it  involves  no 
other  consequence  than  the  loss  of  character : frauds 
are  punished  in  every  form,  even  with  death,  when  the 
occasion  requires;  they  strike  at  the  root  of  all  confi- 
dence, and  affect  the  publick  security:  tricking  is  a 
species  of  dexterous  cheating;  the  means  and  the  end 
are  alike  trifling.  Dishonest  people  cheat;  villains 
defraud;  cunning  people  trick.  These  terms  pre- 
serve the  same  distitiction  in  their  extended  applica- 
tion ; 

If  e er  ambition  did  my  fancy  cheat 
With  any  wish  so  mean  as  to  be  great; 

Continue,  Heav’n,  still  from  me  to  remove 
The  humble  blessings  of  that  life  I love. 

COWLKY. 

Thou,  varlet,  dost  thy  master’s  gains  devour, 

Thou  milk’st  his  ewes,  and  often  twice  an  hour; 
Of  grass  and  fodder  thou  defraud' st  the  dams. 

And  of  the  mother’s  dugs  the  starving  lambs. 

Dryden. 

He  who  has  the  character  of  a crafty,  tricking  man  is 
entirely  deprived  of  a principal  instrument  of  business, 
trust,  whence  he  will  find  nothing  succeed  to  his  wish.’ 
“Bacon. 


COaUET,  JILT. 

There  are  many  jilts  who  become  so  from  coquets, 
but  one  may  bQB.  coquet  without  being  a jilt.  Coquetry 
is  contented  with  employing -little  arts  to  excite  notice; 
jilting  extends  to  the  violation  of  truth  and  honour,  in 
order  to  awaken  a passion  which  it  afterward  disap- 
points. Vanity  is  the  main  spring  by  which  coquets 
and  jilts  are  impelled  to  action ; but  the  former  in- 
dulges her  propensity  mostly  at  her  own  expense  only, 
while  the  latter  does  no  less  injury  to  the  peace  of 
others  than  she  does  to  her  own  reputation.  The 
coquet  makes  a traffick  of  her  own  charms  by  seeking 
a multitude  of  admirers ; the  jilt  sports  with  the  sacred 
passion  of  love,  and  barters  it  for  the  gratification  of 
any  selfish  propensity.  Coquetry  is  a fault  which  should 
be  guarded  against  by  every  female  as  a snare  to  her 
own  happiness;  jilting  is  a vice  which  cannot  be 
practised  without  some  depravity  of  the  heart;  ‘The 
coquet  is  indeed  one  degree  towards  the  jilt;  but  the 
heart  of  the  form  ?r  is  bent  upon  admiri*MS  herself,  and 


giving  false  hopes  to  her  lovers;  I ut  the  latter  is  not 
contented  to  be  extremely  amiable,  but  she  must  add  to 
that  advantage  a certain  delight  in  being  a torment  to 
others.’— Steele. 


TO  INSNARE,  ENTRAP,  ENTANGLE, 
INVEIGLE. 

The  idea  of  getting  any  object  artfully  into  one  a 
power  is  common  to  all  these  terms ; to  insnare  is  t® 
take  in  or  by  means  of  a snare;  to  entrap  is  to  take 
in  a trap  or  by  means  of  a trap ; to  entangle  is  to  take 
in  a tangle,  or  by  means  of  tangled  thread ; to  inveigle 
is  to  take  by  means  of  making  blind,  from  the  French 
aveugle  blind. 

Insnare  and  entangle  are  used  either  in  the  natural 
or  moral  sense ; entrap  mostly  in  the  natural,  inveigle 
only  in  the  moral  sense.  In  the  natural  sense  birds  are 
ensnared  by  means  of  birdlime,  nooses,  or  whatever 
else  may  deprive  them  of  their  liberty : men  j nd  beasts 
are  entrapped  in  whatever  serves  as  a trap  or  enclo- 
sure; they  may  be  entrapped  by  being  lured  into  a 
house  or  any  place  of  confinement:  all  creatures  are 
entangled  by  nets,  or  that  which  confines  the  limbs 
and  prevents  them  from  moving  forw'ard. 

In  the  moral  sense  men  are  said  to  be  ensnared  by 
their  own  passions  and  the  allurements  of  pleasure 
into  a course  of  vice  which  deprives  them  of  tlie  use 
of  their  faculties,  and  makes  them  virtually  captives ; 
‘ This  lion  (tire  literary  lion)  has  a particular  way  of 
imitating  the  sound  of  the  creature  he  would  ensnare 
— Addison.  Men  may  be  entrapped  by  promises  or 
delusive  hopes  into  measures  which  they  afterward 
repent  of ; 

Though  the  new-dawning  year  in  its  advance 
With  hope’s  gay  promise  may  entrap  the  mind. 
Let  memory  give  one  retrospective  glance. 

Cumberland. 

Men  are  entangled  by  their  errours  and  imprudencies 
in  difficulties  which  interfere  with  their  moral  freedom, 
and  prevent  them  from  acting  uprightly ; ‘ Some  men 
weave  their  sophistry  till  their  own  reason  is  entan 
gled.' — Johnson.  Men  are  inveigled  by  the  artifices 
of  others,  when  the  consequences  of  their  own  actions 
are  shut  out  from  their  view,  and  they  are  made  to 
•walk  like  blind  men;  ‘Why  the  inveigling  oi  a wo- 
man  before  she  is  come  to  years  of  discretion  should 
not  be  as  criminal  as  the  seducing  her  before  she  is  ten 
years  old,  I am  at  a loss  to  comprehend.’ — Addison 
Insidious  freethinkers  make  no  scruple  of  insnaring 
the  immature  understanding  by  the  proposal  of  such 
doubts  and  difficulties  as  shall  shake  their  faith 
When  a man  is  entangled  in  the  evil  courses  of  a 
wicked  woman,  the  more  he  plunges  to  get  his  liberty, 
the  faster  she  binds  him  in  her  toils.  The  practice  of 
inveigling  young  persons  of  either  sex  into  houses  of 
ill  fame  is  not  so”  frequent  at  present  as  it  was  in  former 
times. 


TO  COAX,  WHEEDLE,  CAJOLE,  FAWN 

Coax  probably  comes  from  coke  a simpleton,  signify 
ing  to  treat  as  a simpleton ; wheedle  is  a frequentative 
of  wheel,  signifying  to  come  round  a person  with 
smooth  art;  cajole  is  in  French  cajoler  ; to  fawn,  from 
the  noun  fawn,  signifies  to  act  or  move  like  a fawn. 

The  idea  of  using  mean  arts  to  turn  people  to  one’s 
selfish  purposes  is  common  to  all  these  terms : coax  ha« 
something  childish  in  it;  wheedle  and  cajole  that  which 
is  knavish ; fawn  that  which  is  servile. 

The  act  of  coaxing  consists  of  urgent  entreaty  and 
whining  supplication ; the  act  of  wheedling  consists  of 
smooth  and  winning. entreaty ; cajoling  consists  mostly 
of  trickery  and  stratagem,  disguised  under  a soft  ad 
dress  and  insinuating  manners;  the  act  ol fawning 
consists  of  supplicant  grimace  and  anticks,  such  as 
characterize  the  little  animal  from  whfbh  it  derives  its 
name;  children  coax  their  parents  in  order  to  obtain 
their  wishes;  ‘The  nurse  had  changed  her  note,  she 
was  nuzzling  and  coaxing  the  child ; “that’s  a good 
dear,”  says  she.’ — L’Estrangk.  The  greedy  and 
covetous  wheedle  those  of  an  easy  temper;  ‘Rcgulus 
gave  his  son  his  freedom  in  order  to  entitle  him  to  the 
estate  left  him  by  his  mother,  and  when  he  got  into  pos- 
session of  it  endeavouied  las  the  character  of  the  ma> 


526 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES, 


made  it  generally  believed)  to  wheedle  him  out  of  it  by 
the  most  indecent  complaisance.’ — Melmoth  {Letters 
of  Pliny).  Knaves  cajole  the  simple  and  unsuspect- 
ing; ‘I  must  grant  it  a just  judgement  upon  poets, 
that  they  whose  chief  pretence  is  wit,  should  be 
treated  as  they  themselves  treat  fools,  that  is,  be 
cajoled  with  praises.’ — Pope.  Parasites  fawn  upon 
those  who  have  the  power  to  contribute  to  their 
g-atification ; 

Unhappy  he. 

Who,  scornful  of  the  flatterer’s  fawning  art. 
Dreads  ev’n  to  pour  his  gratitude  of  heart. 

Armstrong. 

Coaxing  is  mostly  resorted  to  by  inferiours  towards 
those  on  whom  they  are  dependent;  wheedling  and 
cajoling  are  low  practices  confined  to  the  baser  sort  of 
men  with  each  other;  fawning,  though  not  less  mean 
and  disgraceful  than  the  above-mentioned  vices,  is  com- 
monly practised  only  in  the  higher  walks  of  life,  where 
men  of  base  character,  though  not  mean  education, 
come  in  connexion  with  the  great. 

TO  ADULATE,  FLATTER,  COMPLIMENT. 

Adulate,  in  Latin  adulatus,  participle  of  adulor,  is 
changed  fiom  adoleolo  offer  incense ; flatter,  in  French 
flatter,  comes  from  the  Latin  flatus  wind  or  air,  sig- 
nifying to  say  what  is  airy  and  unsubstantial ; compli- 
ment comes  from  comply,  and  the  Latin  complaceo,  to 
please  greatly. 

We  adulate  by  discovering  in  our  actions  an  entire 
subserviency ; we  flatter  simply  by  words  expressive 
of  an  unusual  admiration  ; we  compliment  by  fair  lan- 
guage or  respectful  civilities.  An  adulatory  address 
is  couched  in  terms  of  feigned  devotion  to  the  object ; 
di  flattering  address  is  filled  with  the  fictitious  perfec- 
iions  of  the  object ; a complimentary  adAiess  is  suited 
to  the  station  of  the  individual  and  the  occasion  which 
gives  rise  to  it;  it  is  full  of  respect  and  deference. 
Courtiers  are  guilty  of  aduZation;  lovers  are  addicted 
Xo  flattery ; people  of  fashion  indulge  themselves  in  a 
profusion  of  compliments. 

Adulation  can  never  be  practised  without  falsehood ; 
Its  means  are  hypocrtsy  and  lying,  its  end  private 
nterest ; ‘ The  servile  and  excessive  adulation  of  the 
senate  soon  convinced  Tiberius  that  the  Roman  spirit 
had  suffered  a total  change  under  Augustus.’— Cum- 
BERi-AND.  Flattery  always  exceeds  the  truth;  it  is 
extravagant  praise  dictated  by  an  overweening  par- 
tiality, or,  what  is  more  frequent,  by  a disingenuous 
temper;  ‘You  may  be  sure  a woman  loves  a man 
when  she  uses  his  expressions,  tells  his  stories,  or 
imitates  his  manner.  This  gives  a secret  delight;  for 
imitation  is  a kind  of  artless  flattery,  and  mightily 
favours  the  principle  of  self-love.’ — Spkctato?,.  Com- 
pliments are  not  incompatible  with  sincerity,  unless 
they  are  dictated  from  a mere  compliance  to  the  pre- 
scribed rules  of  politeness  or  the  momentary  desire  of 
pleasing  ; ‘ I have  known  a hero  complimented  upon 
the  decent  majesty  and  state  he  assumed  after  victory.’ 

-Pope.  Adulation  may  be  fulsome,  flattery  gross, 
compliments  unmeaning.  Adulation  inspires  a person 
with  an  immoderate  conceit  of  his  own  importance  ; 
flattery  mnkes,  him  in  love  with  himself ; compliments 
make  him  in  good-humour  with  himself. 


FLATTERER,  SYCOPHANT,  PARASITE. 

Flatterer,  v.  To  adulate;  sycophant,  in  Greek  avKo- 
<f>dvrr]Si  signified  originally  an  informer  on  the  matter 
of  figs,  but  has  now  acquired  the  meaning  of  an  ob- 
sequious and  servile  person;  parasite,  in  Greek  napd- 
mros,  from  rrapd.  and  airos  corn  or  meat,  originally 
referred  to  the  priests  who  attended  feasts,  but  it  is 
now  applied  to  a hanger-on  at  the  tables  of  the  great. 

The  flatterer  is  one  who  flatters  by  words ; the 
sycophant  and  parasite  is  therefore  always  a flatterer, 
and  something  more,  for  the  sycophant  adopts  every 
mean  artifice  by  which  he  can  ingratiate  himself,  and 
the  parasite  submits  to  every  degradation  and  servile 
compliance  by  which  he  can  obtain  his  base  purpose. 
These  terms  differ  more  in  the  object  than  in  the 
means : the  former  having  general  pu  rposes  of  favour ; 
and  the  latter  particular  and  still  lower  purposes  to 
inswer.  Courtiers  may  be  sycophants  in  order  to  be 
well  with  their  prince  and  obtain  preferment,  but  they 


are  seldom  parasites,  for  the  latter  are  generally  pooj 
and  in  want  of  a meal;  '■Flatterers  are  the  bosom 
enemies  of  princes.’— South.  ‘ By  a revolution  in  the. 
state,  the  fawning  sycophant  of  yesterday  is  converted 
into  the  austere  critick  of  the  present  hour.’— Burke 
The  first  of  pleasures 
Were  to  be  rich  myself;  but  next  to  this 
I hold  it  best  to  be  a parasite. 

And  feed  upon  the  rich. — Cumberland. 

TO  GLORY,  BOAST,  VAUNT. 

To  glory  is  to  held  as  one’s  glory ; to  boast  is  to  se 
forth  to  one’s  advantage ; to  vaunt  is  to  boast  loudly. 
The  first  two  terms  denote  the  value  which  the  in 
dividual  sets  upon  that  which  belongs  to  himself;  the 
last  term  may  be  applied  to  that  which  respects  others 
as  well  as  ourselves. 

To  glory  is  more  particularly  the  act  of  the  mind, 
the  indulgence  of  the  internal  sentiment : to  boast 
and  vaunt  denote  rather  the  expression  of  the  senti 
ment.  To  glory  is  applied  only  to  matters  of  moment , 
boast  is  rather  suitable  to  trifling  points ; vaunt  is  a 
term  of  less  familiar  use  than  either,  being  suited 
rather  to  poetry  or  romance.  A Christian  martyr 
glories  in  the  cross  of  Christ;  ‘ All  the  laymen  who 
have  exerted  a more  than  ordinary  genius  in  their 
writings,  and  were  the  glory  of  their  times,  were  men 
whose  hopes  were  filled  with  immortality.’- Addison. 
A soldier  boasts  of  his  courage  and  his  feats  in  battle; 

‘ If  a man  looks  upon  himself  in  an  abstracted  light, 
he  has  not  much  to  boast  of.’ — Addison. 

Not  that  great  champion 
Whom  famous  poets’  verse  so  much  doth  vaunt, 
And  hath  for  twelve  huge  labours  high  extoll’d 
So  many  furies  and  sharp  hits  did  haunt. 

Spenser 

Olory  is  but  seldom  used  in  a bad  sense,  and  boast 
still  seldomer  in  a good  sense.  A royalist  glories  in 
the  idea  of  supporting  his  prince  and  the  legitimate 
rights  of  a sovereign  ; but  there  are  republicans  and 
traitors  who  glory  in  their  shame,  and  boast  of  the 
converts  they  make  to  their  lawless  cause.  It  is  an 
unbecoming  action  for  an  individual  to  boast  of  any 
thing  in  himself;  but  a nation,  in  its  collective  capacity, 
may  boast  of  its  superiority  without  doing  violence  to 
decorum.  An  Englishman  glories  in  the  reflection  of 
belonging  to  such  a distinguished  nation,  although  he 
would  do  very  idly  to  ioast  of  it  as  a personal  quality; 
no  nation  can  boast  of  so  many  publick  institutions  for 
the  relief  of  distress  as  England. 

TO  EVADE,  EOUIVOCATE,  PREVARICATE 
Evade,  v.  To  escape;  equivocate,  v.  Ambiguity; 
prevaricate,  in  Latin  prcevaricatus,  participle  of  prw 
and  varicor  to  go  loosely,  signifies  to  shift  from  side 
to  side. 

These  words  designate  an  artful  mode  of  escaping 
the  scrutiny  of  an  inquirer;,  we  evade  by  artfully 
turning  the  subject  or  calling  off  the  attention  of  the 
inquirer ; we  equivocate  by  the  use  of  equivocal  ex- 
pressions ; we  prevaricate  by  the  use  of  loose  and 
indefinite  expressions:  we  avoid  giving  satisfaction  by 
evading ; we  give  a false  satisfaction  by  equivocating ; 
we  give  dissatisfaction  by  prevaricating.  Evading  is 
not  so  mean  a practice  as  equivocating : it  may  be 
sometimes  needful  to  evade  a question  which  we  do  not 
wish  to  answer  ; ‘ Whenever  a trader  has  endeavoured 
to  evade  the  just  demands  of  his  creditors,  this  hath 
been  declared  by  the  legislature  to  be  an  act  of  bank- 
ruptcy.’— Blackstone.  Equivocations  are  employed 
for  the  purposes  of  falsehood  and  interest ; ‘ When 
Satan  told  Eve  “Thou  shalt  not  surely  die,”  it  was 
in  his  equivocation,  “Thou  shalt  not  incur  present 
death.”  ’ — Brown  ( Vulgar  Errours).  Prevarications 
are  still  meaner;  and  are  resorted  to  mostly  by  crimi- 
nals in  order  to  escape  detection ; ‘ There  is  no  pre- 
varicating with  God  when  we  are  on  the  very  thresh 
old  of  his  presence  ’ — Cumberland. 

EVASION,  SHIFT,  SUBTERFUGE. 

Evasion  (».  To  evade)  is  here  taken  only  in  the 
bad  sense  ; shift  and  subterfuge  are  modes  of  evasion/ 
the  shift  signifies  that  gross  kind  of  evr.sion  by  whicli 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


^ne  attempts  to  shift  off  an  obligation  from  one’s  self; 
die  subterfuge^  from  subter  under  and  fugio  to  fly,  is 
a mode  of  euasiort  in  which  one  has  recourse  to  some 
screen  or  shelter. 

The  evasion,  in  distinction  from  the  others,  is  re- 
sorted to  for  the  gratification  of  pride  or  obstinacy  : 
whoever  wishes  to  maintain  a bad  cause  must  have  re- 
course to  evasions ; candid  minds  despise  all  evasions , 
‘ The  question  of  a future  state  was  hung  up  in  doubt, 
or  banded  between  conflicting  disputants  through  all 
the  quiiks  and  evasions  of  sophistry  and  logick.’— 
Cumberland.  The  shift  is  the  trick  of  a knave  ; it 
always  serves  a paltry,  low  purpose  ; he  who  has  not 
courage  to  turn  open  thief,  will  use  any  shifts  rather 
than  not  get  money  dishonestly;  ‘When  such  little 
shifts  coBie  once  to  be  laid  open,  how  poorly  and 
wretchedly  must  that  man  needs  sneak,  who  finds 
liiinself  both  guilty  and  baffled  too.’ — South.  The 
subterfuge  is  the  refuge  of  one’s  fears;  it  is  not  re- 
sorted to  from  the  hope  of  gain,  but  from  the  fear  of  a 
loss ; not  for  purposes  of  interest,  but  for  those  of 
character;  he  who  wants  to  justify  himself  in  a bad 
cause,  has  recourse  to  subterfuges ; 

What  farther  subterfuge  can  Turnus  find  1 

Drvden. 

TO  ESCAPE,  ELUDE,  EVADE. 

Escape,  in  French  echapi  er,  comes  in  all  proba- 
bility from  the  Latin  excipio  lo  take  out  of,  to  get  off; 
elude,  V.  To  avoid  } evade,  from  the  Latin  evado,  com- 
pounded of  e and  vado,  signifies  to  go  or  get  out  of  a 
hing. 

The  idea  of  being  disengaged  from  that  which  is 
not  agreeable  is  comprehended  in  the  sense  of  all  these 
terms;  but  escape  designates  no  means  by  which  this 
is  effected  ; elude  and  evade  define  the  means,  namely, 
‘he  efforts  which  are  used  by  one’s  self : we  are  simply 
disengaged  when  we  escape;  but  we  disengage  our- 
selves when  we  elude  and  evade:  we  escape  from 
danger ; we  elude  the  search  : our  escapes  are  often 
providential,  and  often  nanow ; our  success  in  eluding 
depends  on  our  skill;  there  are  many  bad  men  who 
escape  hanging  by  the  mistake  of  a word ; there  are 
man.y  who  escape  detection  by  the  art  with  which 
they  elude  observation  and  inquiry; 

Vice  oft  is  hid  in  virtue’s  fair  disguise. 

And  in  her  borrow’d  form  escapes  inquiring  eyes. 

Spectator. 

It  is  a vain  attempt 

To  bind  the  ambitious  and  unjust  by  treaties ; 

These  they  elude  a thousand  specious  ways. 

Thomson 

‘The  earl  Rivers  had  frequently  inquired  for  his  son 
(Savage),  and  had  always  been  amused  with  evasive 
answers.’ — Johnson. 

Elude  and  evade  both  imply  the  practice  of  art; 
but  the  former  consists  mostly  of  actions,  the  latter  of 
words  as  well  as  actions:  a thief  eludes  those  who  are 
in  pursuit  of  him  by  dexterous  modes  of  concealment; 
he  evades  the  interrogatories  of  the  judge  by  equivo- 
cating replies.  One  is  said  to  elude  a punishment,  and 
to  evade  a law. 


AMBIGUOUS,  EQUIVOCAL. 

Ambiguous,  in  Latin  ambiguus,  from  amhigo,  com- 
pounded of  amho  and  ago,  signifies  acting  both  ways; 
equivocal,  in  ^xewch  equivoque,  Latin  cequivocus,  com- 
posed of  tequus  and  vox,  signifies  that  which  may  be 
applied  equally  to  two  or  more  objects. 

An  ambiguity  arises  from  a too  general  form  of 
expression,  which  leaves  the  sense  of  the  author  in- 
determinate; an  equivocation  lies  in  the  power  of  par- 
ticular terms  used,  which  admit  of  a double  interpre- 
tation : the  ambiguity  leaves  us  in  entire  incertitude 
as  to  W'hat  is  meant ; the  equivocation  misleads  us  by 
the  use  of  a term  in  the  sense  which  we  do  not  suspect. 

The  ambiguity  may  be  unintentional,  arising  from 
the  nitiM-e  both  of  the  words  and  the  things;  or  it 
may  be  employed  to  withhold  information  respecting 
our  views  • vha equivocation  is  always  intentional,  and 
may  be  employed  for  purposes  of  fraud;  ‘ An  honest 
man  will  never  employ  an  equivocal  expression  ; a 
confused  man  may  often  uiXar  ambiguous  ones  without 
anv  design  ’—Blair  The  histories  ofheathen  nations 


5**? 

arc  full  of  confusion  and  ambiguity : the  heathen 
oracles  are  mostly  veiled  by  some  equivocation ; of 
this  we  have  a remarkable  instance  in  the  oracle  o' 
the  Persian  mule,  by  which  Croesus  was  misled  ; ‘We 
make  use  of  an  equivocation  to  deceive  ; of  an  ambi- 
guity to  keep  in  the  dark.’ — Truslkr.  Ambiguous 
may  sometimes  be  applied  to  other  objects  besides 
words ; 

Th’  ambiguous  god,  who  rul’d  her  lab’ring  breast, 
In  these  mysterious  words  his  mind  express’d. 

Some  truths  reveal’d,  in  terms  involv'd  the  rest. 

Dryden. 

‘ The  parliament  of  England  is  without  comparison  the 
most  voluminous  author  in  the  world,  and  there  is  such 
a'  happy  ambiguity  in  its  works,  that  its  students 
have  as  much  to  say  on  the  wrong  side  of  every  ques- 
tion as  upon  the  right.’ — Cumberland.  The  term 
equivocal  may  sometimes  be  employed  in  an  indifferent 
sense;  ‘Give  a man  all  that,  is  in  the  power  of  the 
world  to  bestow,  but  leave  him  at  the  same  time  under 
some  secret  oppression  or  heaviness  of  heart.  You 
bestow  indeed  the  materials  of  enjoyment,  but  you  de 
prive  him  of  the  ability  to  extract  it.  Hence  pros 
perity  is  so  often  an  equivocal  word,  denotir.fj  rr.erely 
affluence  of  possession,  but  unjustly  applied  Vr  tihe  oos 
sessor.’— Blair. 


TO  AVOID,  ESCHEW,  SHUN,  E3  .‘.'DE. 

Avoid,  in  French  eviter,  Latin  evito,  r/itjpounded 
of  e and  vito,  probably  from  viduus  void,  rignifie?  to 
make  one’s  self  void  or  free  from  a thing;  ti/.hew  and 
shun  both  come  from  the  German  schenn^  Swedish 
sky,  &c.  when  it  signifies  to  fly;  elude,  in  Ftench  mu- 
der,  Latin  eludo,  compounded  of  e and  ludo,  signifies  to 
get  one’s  self  out  of  a thing  by  a trick. 

Avoid  is  both  gcnerick  and  specifick ; we  avoid  in  es- 
chewing or  shunning,  or  we  avoid  without  eschewsng 
or  shunning.  Various  contrivances  are  requisite  for 
avoiding ; eschewing  and  shunning  consist  only  of  go- 
ing out  of  the  way,  of  not  coming  in  contact;  eluding., 
as  its  derivation  denotes,  has  more  of  artifice  in  it  than 
any  of  the  former.  We  avoid  a troublesome  visiter 
under  real  or  feigned  pretences  of  ill  health,  prior  en 
gagement,  and  the  like;  we  eschew  evil  company  by 
not  going  into  any  but  what  we  know  to  be  good;  vv® 
shun  the  sight  of  an  offensive  object  by  turning  into  an- 
other road ; we  elude  a punishment  by  getting  out  of 
the  way  of  those  who  have  the  power  of  inflicting  it. 

Prudence  enables  us  to  avoid  many  of  the  eviis  to 
which  we  are  daily  exposed ; ‘ Having  tho<  onghly 
considered  the  nature  of  this  passion,  I have  made  it 
my  study  how  to  avoid  the  envy  that  m?,y  iccrue  to 
me  from  these  my  speculations.’ — STEEi/i.  Nothing 
but  a fixed  principle  of  religion  can  enable  a man  to 
eschew  the  temptations  to  evil  which  lie  in  his  path. 
'Phis  term  is  particularly  applicable  to  poetry  and  the 
grave  style; 

Thus  Brute  this  realm  into  ids  rule  subdued, 

Am’  reigned  long  in  great  felicity, 

Lo-  ‘ -if  his  friends  and  of  his  foes  cscAcwed. 

Spenser. 

Fear  will  lead  one  to  smrn  a madman,  v^hom  it  is  no> 
in  one’s  power  to  bind ; 

Of  many  things,  some  few  I shall  explain  ; 

Teach  thee  to  shun  the  dangers  of  the  main. 

And  how  at  length  the  promised  shonj  to  gain. 

Dryden. 

A want  of  all  principle  leads  a man  to  elude  his  ere 
ditors,  whom  he  wishes  to  defraud ; 

The  wary  Trojan,  bending  from  the  blow, 

Eludes  the  death,  and  disappoints  his  foe.— Pope. 

The  best  means  of  avoiding  quarrels  is  to  aiBoid 
giving  offence.  The  surest  preservative  of  our  inno- 
cence is  to  eschew  evil  company,  and  the  surest  pre- 
servative of  our  health  is  to  shun  every  intemperate 
practice.  Those  who  have  no  evil  design  in  view  will 
have  no  occasion  to  elude  the  vigilance  of  the  law. 

We  speak  of  avoiding  a danger,  and  shunning  a 
danger;  but  to  avoid  it  is  /n  general  not  to  fall  into 
it ; to  shun  it  is  with  care  to  keep  out  of  the  WR» 
of  it. 


m ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


TO  INVENT,  FEIGN,  FRAMli.,  FABRICATE, 
FORGE. 

Invent,  v.  To  contrive ; feign,  v.  To  feign ; frame 
signifies  to  make  according  io  a frame , fabricate,  in 
Latin  fabricatus,  from  faber  a workman,  is  changed 
from  facio,  signifying  to  make  according  to  art;  forge, 
from  tl)e  noun  forge,  signifies  to  make  in  a forge. 

All  these  terms  are  employed  to  express  the  produc- 
tion of  something  out  of  the  mind,  by  means  cf  its  own 
efforts.  To  invent  (v.  To  contrive)  is  the  general  term ; 
the  other  terms  imply  modes  of  invention  under  differ- 
ent circumstances.  To  invent,  as  distinguished  from 
the  rest,  is  busied  in  creating  new  forms,  either  by 
means  of  the  imagination  or  the  reflective  powers  ; it 
forms  combinations  either  purely  spiritual,  or  those 
which  are  mechanical  and  physical:  the  i^oet  invents 
imagery  ; the  plulosopher  niaenfs  mathematical  prob- 
lems or  mechanical  instruments ; ‘ Pythagoras  invented 
the  forty-seventh  proposition  of  the' first  book  of  Eu- 
clid.’— Bartelet. 

Invent  is  used  for  the  production  of  new  forms  to  real 
objects,  or  for  the  creation  of  unreal  objects;  \.o  feign 
‘'V.  To  feign)  is  used  for  the  creation  of  unreal  objects, 
or  such  as  have  no  existence  but  in  the  mind  : a play 
or  story  is  invented  from  what  passes  in  the  world; 
Mahomet’s  religion  consists  of  nothing  but  inventions  : 
the  heathen  poets  feigned  all  the  tales  and  fables 
which  constitute  the  mythology,  or  history  of  their 
deities ; 

Their  savage  eyes  turned  to  a modest  gaze 

By  tire  sweet  power  of  musick ; therefore,  the  poet 

Did  feign  that  Orpheus  drew  trees,  stones,  and  floods. 

Shakspeare. 

To  frame,  or  make  according  to  a frame,  is  a species 
of  invention  which  consists  in  the  disposition  as  well  as 
the  combination  of  objects.  Thespis  was  the  inventor 
of  tragedy:  Psahnanazar /ramed  an  entire  new  lan- 
guage, which  he  pretended  to  be  spoken  on  the  island 
of  Formosa;  Solon /ramed  a new  set  of  laws  for  the 
city  of  Athens; 

Nature  lialh  /earn’d  strange  fellows  in  her  time. 

Shakspeare. 

To  invent,  feign,  and  frame  are  all  occasionally  em- 
ployed in  the  ordinary  concerns  of  life,  and  in  a bad 
sense-,  fabricate  and  forge  axe  never  used  any  other- 
wise. Invent  is  employed  as  to  that  which  is  the  fruit 
of  one’s  own  mind ; to  feign  is  employed  as  to  that 
which  is  unreal ; to  frame  is  employed  as  to  that  which 
retpiires  deliberation  and  arrangement ; to  fabricate, 
from  faber  a workman,  signifying  to  make  in  a work- 
manlike manner,  and  to  forge,  signifying  to  make  as  in 
a forge,  are  employed  as  to  that  which  is  absolutely 
false, 'and  requiring  more  or  less  exercise  of  the  inventive 
power.  A person  invents  a lie,  and  feigns  sorrow ; in- 
vents  an  excuse,  and  feigns  an  attachment.  A story 
is  invented  inasmuch  as  it  is  new,  and  not  before  con- 
ceived by  others,  or  occasioned  by  the  suggestions  of 
others;  it  is/j-amed  inasmuch  as  it  required  to  be  duly 
disposed  in  all  its  parts,  so  as  to  be  consistent ; it  is/a- 
bricaled  inasmuch  as  it  runs  in  direct  opposition  to  the 
actual  circumstances,  and  therefore  has  required  the 
skill  and  labour  of  a workman  ; it  '\s  forged  inasmuch 
as  it  seems  by  its  utter  falsehood  and  extravagance  to 
have  caused  as  much  severe  action  in  the  brain,  as  what 
Is  produced  by  the  fire  in  a furnace  or/or^e;  .‘The  very 
\deaoi  the  fabrication  of  a new  government  is  enough 
to  fill  us  with  honour.’— Burke. 

As  chymists  gold  from  brass  by  fire  would  draw. 

Pretexts  are  into  treason  forg'd  by  law. — Denham. 


FICTION,  FABRICATION,  FALSEHOOD. 

Fiction  is  opposed  to  what  is  real ; fabrication,  as  it 
!8  here  understood,  and/a^seAood  are  opposed  to  what 
is  true.  Fiction  relates  what  may  be,  though  not  what 
is:  fabrication  and  falsehood  relate  what  is  not  as  what 
is,  and  vice  versa.  Fiction  serves  for  amusement  and 
instruction ; fabrication  and  falsehood  serve  to  mislead 
and  deceive.  Fiction  and  fabrication  both  require  in- 
vention : /rtiseAood  consists  of  simple  assertions  of  what 
is  not  true.  The  fables  of  .®sop  are/ct^■o7^s  of  the  sim- 
plest kind,  but  yet  such  as  required  a peculiarly  lively 
fancy  and  inventive  genius  to  produce : the  fabrication 
of  a play  as  the  p*-oduction  of  Shakspeare’s  pen,  was 


once  executed  with  sufficient  skill  to  impose  for  a time 
upon  the  publick  credulity : a good  memory  is  all  that  is 
necessary  in  order  to  avoid  uttering  falsehoods  that  can 
be  easily  contradicted  and  confuted.  In  an  extended 
sense  >f  the  word /cf2o?i,  it  approaches  still  nearer  to  the 
sense  of  fabricate,  when  said  of  the  fictions  of  the  an 
cients,  which  were  delivered  as  truth,  although  admit 
ted  now  to  be  false : the  motive  of  the  narrator  is  vv  bat 
here  constitutes  the  difference ; namely,  that  in  the 
former  c.ase  he  believes,  or  is  supposed  to  believe,  what 
he  relates  to  be  true,  in  the  latter  he  knows  it  to  be 
false.  The  heathen  mythology  consists  princiiially  of 
the  fictions  of  the  poets : newspapers  commonly  abound 
in  fabrication ; ‘ All  that  the  Jews  tell  us  of  their  two- 
fold Messiah  is  a mexe  fiction,  framed  without  as  much 
as  a pretence  to  any  foundation  in  Scripture  for  it.’- 
Prideaux.  ‘ The  translator  or  fabricator  of  Ossian’s 
poems.’— Mason.  Sometimes,  however,  the  term  fa- 
bricate may  be  applied  to  any  effort  of  genius,  without 
regard  to  the  veracity  of  the  f abricator ; ‘With  rea- 
son has  Shakspeare’s  superiority  been  asserted  in  the 
fabrication  of  his  preternatural  machines.’ — Cumber- 
land. 

Asepithets/efffroMs  and  false  are  very  closely  allied ; 
for  what  is  fictitious  is  false,  though  all  that  is  false  is 
not  fictitious : the  fictitious  is  that  which  has  been 
feigned,  or  falsely  made  by  some  one  ; the  false  if 
simply  that  which  is  false  by  the  nature  of  the  thing. 
the  fictitious  account  is  therefore  the  invention  of  an 
individual,  whose  veracity  is  thereby  impeached ; bat 
there  may  be  many  false  accounts  unintentionally  cir- 
culated. 

UNTRUTH,  FALSEHOOD,  FALSITY,  LIE. 

An  untruth  is  an  untrue  saying  ; a falsehood  and  a 
he  are  false  sayings;  untruth  of  itself  reflects  no  dis- 
grace on  the  agent;  it  may  be  unintentional  or  not : a 
falsehood  and  a lie  are  intentional  false  sayings,  differ 
ing  only  in  degree  as  the  guilt  of  the  offender;  a false 
hood  is  not  always  spoken  for  the  express  intention  of 
deceiving,  but  a He  is  uttered  only  for  the  worst  of  pur- 
poses. Some  persons  have  a habit  of  telling/a/se/roods 
from  the  mere  love  of  talking : those  who  are  guilty  of 
bad  actions  endeavour  to  conceal  them  by  lies.  Childreri 
are  apt  to  speak  untruths  for  want  of  understand- 
ing the  vffiue  of  words;  ‘Above  all  things  tell  no  un- 
truth, no,  not  even  in  trifles.’ — Sir  Henry  Sydney. 
Travellers  from  a love  of  exaggeration  are  apt  to  intro- 
duce falsehoods  into  their  narrations;  ‘Many  tempta- 
tions to  falsehood  will  occur  in  the  disguise  of  passions 
too  specious  to  fear  much  resistance.’ — Johnson.  It 
is  the  nature  of  a lie  to  increase  itself  to  a tenfold  de- 
gree ; one  lie  must  be  backed  by  many  more ; ‘ The 
nature  of  a lie  consists  in  this,  that  it  is  a false  signifi- 
cation knowingly  and  voluntarily  used.’ — South. 

Falsehood  is  also  used  in  the  abstract  sense  for  what 
is  false.  Falsity  is  never  used  htit  in  the  abstract 
sense,  for  the  property  of  the  false.  The  former  is  ge 
neral,  the  latter  particular  in  the  application ; the  truth 
or  falsehood  of  an  assertion  is  not  always  to  be  dis- 
tinctly proved ; ‘ When  speech  is  employed  only  as  the 
vehicle  of  falsehood,  every  man  must  disunite  himself 
from  others.’ — Johnson.  The  falsity  oi  any  particu- 
lar person’s  assertion  may  be  proved  by  the  evidence 
of  others ; 

Can  you  on  him  sueh  f alsities  obtrude? 

And  as  a mortal  the  Most  Wise  delude? 

Sandys. 


TRUTH,  VERACITY. 

Truth  belongs  to  the  thing ; veracity  to  the  person : 
the  truth  of  the  story  is  admitted  upon  the  veracity  of 
the  narrator;  ‘I  shall  think  myself  obliged  for  the 
future  to  speak  always  in  truth  and  sincerity  of  heart. 
— Addison.  ‘ Many  relations  of  travellers  have  been 
slighted  as  fabulous,  till  more  frequent  voyages  have 
confirmed  their  veracity.' — Johnson. 


TO  FEIGN,  PRETEND. 

Feign,  in  Latin  fingo  or  figo,  from  the  Greek  xr/yu* 
to  fix  or  stamp;  -pretend,  in  Latin  preetendo,  signifies 
properly  to  stretch  before,  that  is,  to  put  on  the  outside 
These  words  may  be  used  either  for  doing  or  saying  j 
they  are  both  opposed  to  what  is  true,  but  they  difl^w 


f^NGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


629 


the  motive  of  the  agent.  To /e25'ji  is  taken  either 
iii  a had  or  an  indifferent  sense ; to  pretend  always  in 
a bad  sense.  One/e«^ws  in  order  to  gain  some  future 
end ; a person  feigns  sickness  in  order  to  be  excused 
from  paying  a disagreeable  visit ; one  pretends  in  order 
to  serve  a present  purpose ; a child  pretends  to  have 
lost  his  book  who  wishes  to  excuse  himself  for  his 
idleness. 

'io  feign,  consists  often  of  a line  of  conduct;  to  pre- 
tend consists  always  of  words.  Ulysses  feigned  mad- 
ness in  order  to  escape  from  going  to  the  Trojan  war. 
.According  to  Virgil,  the  Grecian  ^inon pretended  to  be 
a deserter  come  over  to  the  Trojan  camp.  In  matters 
ff  speculation,  to  feign  is  to  invent  by  force  of  the 
magination  ; to  pretend  is  to  set  up  by  force  of  self- 
onceit.  It  feigned  by  the  poets  that  Orpheus  went 
«own  into  hell  and  brought  back  Euridice  his  wife; 

To  win  me  from  his  tender  arms. 

Unnumber’d  suitors  came. 

Who  prais’d  me  for  imputed  charms, 

And  felt  or  feign'd  a flame.— Goldsmith. 
iJindel  philosophers  pretend  to  account  for  the  most 
mysterious  things  in  nature  upon  natural,  or,  as  they 
please  to  term  it,  rational  principles ; ‘ An  affected  de- 
licacy is  the  common  improvement  in  those  who  pre- 
tend to  be  refined  above  others.’ — Steelk. 


SPURIOUS,  SUPPOSITIOUS,  COUNTERFEIT. 

Spurious,  in  Latin  spurius,  from  anopa,  because  the 
ancients  called  the  female  spurium;  hence,  one  who 
is  of  uncertain  origin  on  the  father’s  side  is  termed 
spurious}  suppositious,  from  suppose,  signifies  to  be 
supposed  or  conjectured,  in  distinction  irom  being 
positively  known  ; counterfeit,  v.  To  imitate. 

All  these  terms  are  modes  of  the  false ; the  two 
former  indirectly,, the  latter  directly;  whatever  is  un- 
certain that  miglit  be  certain,  and  whatever  is  con- 
jectural that  might  be  conclusive,  are  by  implication 
'.'alse;  that  which  is  made  in  imitation  of  another 
thing,  so  as  to  pass  for  it  as  the  true  one,  is  positively 
false.  Hence,  the  distinction  between  these  terms,  and 
the  ground  of  their  applications.  An  illegitimate  off- 
spring is  said  to  be  spurious  in  the  literal  sense  of  the 
word,  the  father  in  this  case  being  always  uncertain ; 
and  any  offspring  which  is  termed  spurious  falls  neces- 
sarily under  the  imputation  of  not  being  the  offspring 
of  the  person  whose  name  they  bear.  In  the  same 
manner  an  edition  of  a work  is  termed  spurious  which 
comes  out  under  a false  name,  or  a name  different  from 
that  in  the  titlepage ; ‘ Being  to  take  leave  of  England, 
I thought  it  very  handsome  to  take  my  leave  also  of 
you,  and  my  dearly  honoured  mother,  Oxford ; other- 
wise both  of  you  may  have  just  grounds  to  cry  me  up, 
j'ou  for  a fbrgetful  friend,  she  for  an  ungrateful  son,  if 
not  some  spurious  issue.’ — Howell.  Suppositious 
expresses  more  or  less  of  falsehood,  according  to  .the 
nature  of  tlie  thing.  A suppositious  parent  implies 
little  than  a directly  false  parent ; but  in  speaking 
of  thb  origin  of  any  thing  in  remote  periods  of  an- 
tiquity, it  may  be  merely  suppositious  or  conjectural 
.ft  om  the  want  of  information ; ‘ The  fabulous  tales  of 
early  British  history,  suppositious  treaties  and  char- 
ters, are  the  proofs  on  which  Edward  founded  his  title 
to  the  sovereignty  of  Scotland.’ — Robertson.  Coun- 
terfeit respects  rather  works  of  art  which  are  exposed 
to  imitation:  coin  is  counterfeit  which  bears  a false 
stamp,  and  every  invention  which  comes  out  under  the 
sanction  of  the  inventor’s  name  is  likewise  a counter- 
feit if  not  made  by  himself  or  by  his  consent ; 

Words  may  be  counterfeit. 

False  coin’d,  and  current  only  from  the  tongue. 

Without  the  mind. — Southern. 


TO  IMITATE,  COPY,  COUNTERFEIT. 

The  idea  of  taking  a likeness  of  some  object  is  com- 
mon to  all  these  terms;  but  imitate  (a.  To  follow)  is 
the  generick,  copy  {v.  To  copy)  and  counterfeit  {v.  Spu- 
rious) the  specifick:  to  imitate  is  to  take  a general 
likeness;  to  copy,  to  take  an  exact  likeness;  to  coitn- 
terfeit,  to  take  a false  likeness*  to  imitate  is,  therefore, 
almost  always  used  in  a good  or  an  indifferent  sense; 
to  copy  mostly,  and  to  counterfeit  always,  in  a bad 
sense:  to  imitate  an  author’s  style  is  at  all  times 
allow*able  for  one  who  canne-t  <brm  a style  for  himself 


but  to  copy  an  author’s  style  would  be  a too  slaviiih 
adherence  even  for  the  dullest  writer.  To  imitate  is 
applicable  to  every  object,  for  every  external  object  is 
susceptible  of  imitation;  and  in  man  the  imitative 
faculty  displays  itself  alike  in  the  highest  and  the 
lowest  matters,  in  works  of  art  and  in  moral  conduct, 
‘ Poetry  and  musick  have  the  power  of  imitating  the 
manners  of  men.’ — Sir  Wm.  Jones.  To  copy  is  ap- 
plicable only  to  certain  objects  which  will  admit  of  a 
minute  likeness  being  taken ; thus,  an  artist  may  be 
said  to  copy  from  nature,  which  is  almost  the  only  cir 
cumstance  in  which  copying  is  justifiable,  except  when 
it  is  a mere  manual  act;  to  copy  any  thing  in  others, 
whether  it  be  their  voice,  their  manners,  their  lan- 
guage, or  their  works,  is  inconsistent  with  the  inde- 
pendence which  belongs  to  every  rational  agent; 
‘Some  imagine,  that  w'hatsoever  they  find  in  the  pic- 
ture of  a master,  who  has  acquired  reputation,  must 
of  necessity  be  excellent ; and  never  fail  when  they 
copy,  to  follow  the  bad  as  well  as  the  good  things.’ — 
Dhyden.  In  a general  application,  however,  the  term 
copy  may  be  used  in  an  indifferent  sense ; 

The  mind,  impressible  and  soft,  with  ease 
Imbibes  and  copies  what  she  hears  and  sees. 

COWPKR. 

To  counterfeit  is  applicable  but  to  few  objects,  and 
happily  practicable  but  in  few  cases;  we  may  counter- 
feit the  coin,  or  we  may  counterfeit  the  person,  or  the 
character,  or  the  voice,  or  the  handwriting  of  any  one 
for  whom  we  would  wish  to  pass ; but  if  the  likeneisa 
be  not  very  exact,  the  falsehood  is  easily  detected ; 

I can  counterfeit  the  deep  tragedian. 

Speak  and  look  big,  and  pry  on  every  side. 

Shakspkare 


TO  IMITATE,  MIMICK,  MOCK,  APE. 

Imitate,  v.  To  follow;  mimick,  from  the  Greek 
/upof,  has  the  same  origin  as  imitate;  mock,\n  French 
moequer,  Greek  pwKaia  to  laugh  at ; to  ape  signifies  to 
imitate  like  an  ape. 

To  imitate  is  here  the  general  term;  to  mimick  and 
to  ape  are  both  species  of  vicious  imitation. 

One  imitates  that  which  is  deserving  of  imitation, 
or  the  contrary:  one  mimicks  either  that  which  is  not 
an  authorized  subject  of  imitation,  or  which  is  imi- 
tated so  as  to  excite  laughter.  A person  wishes  to 
make  that  his  own  which  he  imitates,  but  he  mimicks 
for  the  entertainment  of  others; 

Because  we  sometimes  walk  on  two. 

I hate  the  imitating  crew. — Gay. 

The  force  of  example  is  illustrated  by  the  readiness 
with  which  people  imitate  each  other’s  actions  when 
they  are  in  close  intercourse:  the  trick  of  mimickry  is 
sometimes  carried  to  such  an  extravagant  pitch  that 
no  man,  however  sacred  his  character,  or  exalted  his 
virtue,  can  screen  himself  from  being  the  object  of 
this  species  of  buffoonery:  to  ape  is  a serious  tliough 
an  absurd  act  of  imitation; 

A courtier  any  ape  surpasses ; 

Behold  him  humbly  cringing  wait 
Upon  the  minister  of  state. 

View  him  soon  after  to  inferiours 
..^ping  the  conduct  of  superiours.— Swift 
To  mimick  is  a jocose  act  of  imitation  ; 

Nor  will  it  less  delight  th’  attentive  sage 
T’  observe  that  instinct  which  unerring  guides 
The  brutal  race  which  mimicks  reason’s  love. 

SOMKRVILLI 

To  mock  is  an  ill-natured,  or  at  least  an  unmeaning,  uci 
of  imitation  ; 

What  though  no  friends  in  sable  weeds  appear. 
Grieve  for  an  hour,  perhaps,  then  mourn  a year, 
And  bear  about  the  mockery  of  wo 
To  midnight  dances. — Pope. 

The  ape  imitates  to  please  himself,  but  the  mimick 
imitates  to  please  others.  The  ape  seriously  tries  ta 
come  as  near  the  original  as  he  can  ; the  mimick  tries 
to  render  the  rmftatzoK  as  ridiculous  as  possible:  the 
former  apes  out  of  deference  to  the  person  aped;  the 
latter  mimicks  out  of  contempt  or  disregard. 

Mimickry  belongs  to  the  merry-andrew  or  buffoon 
aping  to  the  weakling  who  has  no  originality  in  him- 
self SJiow- people  display  their  talents  in  mimicking 


530 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


the  cries  of  birds  or  beasts,  for  the  entertainment  of 
the  gaping  crowd  ; w'eak  and  vain  people,  who  wreh  to 
be  admired  for  that  which  they  have  not  in  themselves, 
ape  the  dress,  the  manners,  the  voice,  the  mode  of 
speech,  and  the  like,  of  some  one  who  is  above  them. 
Jilimickry  excites  laughter  from  that  which  is  bur- 
lesque in  it ; aping  excites  laughter  from  that  which  is 
absurd  and  unsuitable  in  it;  mockery  excites  laughter 
from  the  malicious  temper  of  those  who  enjoy  it. 

TO  FOLLOW,  IMITATE. 

Follow^  V.  To  follow,  succeed;  imitate,  in  Latin 
imitatus,  participle  of  imitor,  from  the  Greek  pipio}  to 
mimick  and  bpoiog  alike,  signifies  to  do  or  make  alike. 

Both  these  terms  denote  the  regulating  our  actions 
by  something  that  offers  itself  to  us,  or  is  set  before  us ; 
but  we  follow  that  which  is  either  internal  or  external ; 
we  imitate  that  only  which  is  external : we  either /ol- 
low  the  dictates  of  our  own  minds  or  the  suggestions 
of  others : but  we  imitate  the  conduct  of  others ; in 
regard  to  external  objects  we  follow  either  a rule  or  an 
example;  but  we  rnrifate  an  example  only:  we  follow 
the  footsteps  of  our  forefathers ; we  imitate  their  vir- 
tues and  their  perfections:  it  is  advisable  for  young 
persons  to  follow  as  closely  as  possible  the  good  ex- 
ample of  thbse  who  are  older  and  wiser  than  them- 
selves; 

And  I with  the  same  greediness  did  seek, 

As  water  when  I thirst,  to  swallow  Greek ; 

Which  I did  only  learn  that  I might  know 

Those  great  examples  which  I follow  now. 

Denham. 

It  is  the  bounden  duty  of  every  Christian  to  imitate 
the  example  of  our  blessed  Saviour  to  tlie  utmost  of 
his  power ; ‘ The  imitators  of  Milton  seem  to  place  all 
the  excellency  of  that  sort  of  writing  in  the  use  of  un- 
couth or  antique  words.’ — Johnson. 

To  follow  and  imitate  may  both  be  applied  to  that 
which  is  good  or  bad : the  former  to  any  action ; but 
the  latter  only  to  the  behaviour  or  the  external  man- 
ners: we  may  follow  a person  in  his  career  of  virtue 
or  vice ; we  imitate  his  gestures,  tone  of  voice,  and  the 
like.  Parents  should  be  guarded  in  all  their  words  and 
actions;  for  whatever  may  be  their  example,  whether 
virtuous  or  vicious,  it  will  in  all  probability  he  followed 
by  their  children : those  who  have  the  charge  of  young 
people  should  be  particularly  careful  to  avoid  all  bad 
habits  of  gesture,  voice,  or  speech ; as  there  is  a much 
greater  propensity  to  imitate  what  is  ridiculous  than 
what  is  becoming. 

TO  COPY,  TRANSCRIBE. 

Copy  is  probably  changed  from  the  Latin  capio  to 
take,  because  we  take  that  from  an  object  which  we 
copy;  transcribe,  in  Latin  transcribe,  that  is,  trans 
over  and  scribo,  signifies  literally  to  write  over  from 
something  else,  to  make  to  pass  over  in  writing  from 
one  body  to  another. 

To  copy  respects  the  matter;  to  tronscrije  respects 
simply  the  act  of  writing.  What  is  copied  must  be 
taken  immediately  from  the  original,  with  which  it 
must  exactly  correspond ; what  is  transcribed  may  be 
taken  from  the  copy,  but  not  necessarily  in  an  entire 
state.  Things  are  copied  for  the  sake  of  getting  the 
contents:  they  are  often  transcribed  for  the  sake  of 
clearness  and  fair  writing.  A copier  should  be  very 
exact ; a transcriber  should  be  a good  writer.  Law- 
yers copy  deeds,  and  have  them  afterward  frequently 
transcribed  as  occasion  requires.  Transcribe  is  some- 
times used  to  signify  a literal  copym  a figurative  appli- 
cation; ‘Aristotle  tells  us  that  the  world  is  copy  ox 
transcript  of  those  ideas  which  are  in  the  mind  of  the 
First  Being,  and  that  those  ideas  which  are  in  the  mind 
of  man  are  a transcript  of  the  world.  To  this  we 
may  add  that  words  are  the  transcript  of  those  ideas 
which  are  in  the  mind  of  man,  and  that  writing  or 
printing  are  the  transcript  of  words.’ — Addison. 

COPY,  MODEL,  PATTERN,  SPECIMEN. 

Copy, from  the  verb  to  copy  (w.  To  copy),  marks  either 
the  thing  from  which  we  copy  or  the  thing  copied;  mo- 
del, in  French  modile,  Latin  modulus  a little  mode  or 
measure,  signifies  the  thing  that  serves  as  a measure,  or 


that  is  made  after  a measure ; pattern,  which  is  a va 
riation  of  patron,  from  the  French  patron,  Latin  pa 
tronus,  signifies  the  thing  that  directs,  specimen,  ir 
Latin  specimen,  from  specie  to  behold,  signifies  wha' 
is  looked  at  for  the  purpose  of  forming  our  judge- 
ment by  it 

* A copy  and  a model  may  be  both  employed  eithei 
as  an  original  work  or  as  a work  formed  after  an  origi- 
nal. In  the  former  sense,  copy  is  used  in  relation  to  im 
pressions,  manuscripts,  or  writings,  which  are  made  tc 
be  copied  by  the  printer,  the  writer,  or  the  engraver . 
model  is  used  in  every  other  case,  whether  in  moralitj 
or  the  arts;  the  proof  will  seldom  be  faulty  when  the 
copy  is  clear  and  correct.  There  can  be  no  good  wri- 
ting formed  after  a bad  copy,  or  in  an  extended  applica- 
tion of  the  terms,  the  poet  or  Che  artist  may  copy  after 
nature ; ‘ lionginus  has  observed  that  the  description  of 
love  in  Sappho  is  an  exact  copy  of  nature,  and  that  aL 
the  circumstances  which  follow  one  another  in  such  a 
hurry  of  sentiments,  notwithstanding  they  appear  re- 
pugnant to  each  other,  are  really  such  as  happen  in  the 
phrensies  of  love.’ — Addison.  No  human  being  has 
ever  presented  us  with  a perfect  mode/ of  virtue;  the 
classick  writers  of  antiquity  ought  to  be  carefully  pe- 
rused by  all  who  wish  to  acquire  a pure  style,  of 
which  they  contain  unquestionably  the  best  models , 
‘Socrates  recommends  to  Alcibiades,  as  the  model  of 
his  devotions,  a short  prayer  which  a Greek  poet  com- 
posed for  the  use  of  his  friends.’-v- Addison. 

Respecting  these  words,  however,  it  is  here  farther 
to  be  observed,  that  a copy  requires  the  closest  imita- 
tion possible  in  every  particular,  but  a model  ought  only 
to  serve  as  a general  rule:  the  former  must  be  literally 
retraced  by  a mechanical  process  in  all  its  lines  and 
figures;  it  leaves  nothing  to  be  supplied  by  the  judge- 
ment or  will  of  the  executor.  A model  often  consists 
of  little  more  than  the  outlines  and  proportions,  while 
the  dimensions  and  decorations  are  left  to  the  choice  of 
the  workman.  One  who  is  anxious  to  acquire  a fine 
hand  will  in  the  first  instance  rather  imitate  the  errours 
of  his  copy  than  attempt  any  improvement  of  his  own. 
A man  of  genius  will  not  suffer  himself  to  be  cramped 
by  a slavish  adherence  to  any  model  however  perfect. 

In  the  second  sense  copy  is  used  for  painting,  and 
model  for  relief.  A copy  ought  to  be  faithful,  a model 
ought  to  be  just;  the  former  should  delineate  exactly 
what  is  delineated  by  the  original;  the  latter  should 
adhere  to  the  precise  rules  of  proportion  observed  in 
(lie  original.  The  pictures  of  Raphael  do  not  lose 
their  attractions  even  in  bad  copies : the  simple 
of  antiquity  often  equal  in  value  originals  of  modern 
conception. 

Pattern  and  specimen  approach  nearest  to  model  in 
signification;  the  idea  of  guidance  or  direction  is  pro 
minent  in  them.  The  model  always  serves  to  guide  in 
the  execution  of  a work  ; the  pattern  serves  either  tc 
regulate  the  work,  or  simply  to  determine  the  choice  • 
the  specimen  helps  only  to  form  the  opinion.  The 
architect  builds  according  to  a certain  model;  ‘A 
fault  it  would  be  if  some  king  should  build  his  mansion- 
house  by  the  model  of  Solomon’s  palace.’ — Hooker 
The  mechanick  makes  any  thing  according  to  a pat 
tern,  or  a person  fixes  on  having  a thing  according  tc 
the  pattern  offered  to  him ; ‘ A gentleman  sends  to  my 
shop  for  a pattern  of  stuff;  if  he  like  it,  he  compares  the 
pattern  with  the  whole  piece,  and  probably  we  bar- 
gain.’—Swirx.  The  nature  and  value  of  things  arc 
estimated  by  the  specimen  shown  of  them ; ‘ Several 
persons  have  exhibited  specimens  of  this  art  before 
multitudes  of  beholders.’ — Addison.  A model  is  al- 
ways some  whole  complete  in  itself;  a pattern  may  be 
either  a whole  or  the  part  of  a whole  ; a specimen  is 
always  a part.  Models  of  ships,  bridges,  or  other 
pieces  of  mechanism  are  sometimes  constructed  fo» 
the  purpose  of  explaining  most  effectually  the  naturt 
and  design  of  the  invention;  whenever  the  make, 
colour,  or  materials  of  any  article,  either  of  conve- 
nience or  luxury,  is  an  object  of  consideration,  it  can- 
not be  so  rightly  determined  by  any  means  as  by  pro 
diicing  a similar  article  to  serve  as  a pattern:  a single 
sentence  in  a book  may  be  a sufficient  specimcyi  of  the 
whole  performance. 

In  the  moral  sense  pattern  respects  the  whole  con 
duct  or  behaviour;  specimen  only  i/idividnal  actions 
The  female  who  devotes  her  time  and  attention  to  tin 

* Vide  Girard : “ Copie,  moddle.” 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES, 


531 


mawgement  of  her  family  and  the  education  of  her 
offspring  is  a pattern  to  tliose  of  liei  sex  who  depute 
the  whole  concern  to  the  care  of  others.  A person 
gives  but  an  unfortunate  specimen  of  his  boasted  sin- 
cerity, who  is  found  guilty  of  an  evasion;  ‘Xeno- 
pnon,  in  tlie  life  of  his  imaginary  prince,  whom  he  de- 
scribes as  a pattern  for  real  ones,  is  always  celebra- 
ting the  philanthropy  or  good-nature  of  his  hero.’ — 
Addison.  ‘We  know  nothing  of  the  scanty  jargon 
of  our  barbarous  ancestors;  but  we  have  specimens 
of  our  language  when  it  began  to  be  adapted  to  civil 
and  religious  purposes,  and  find  it  such  as  might  iiatu- 
tally  be  expected,  artless  and  simple.’ — Johnson. 

EXAMPLE,  PATTERN,  ENS AMPLE. 
Example,  in  Latin  exemplum,  very  probably  changed 
from  exsimulum  and  exsirnulo  or  simulo,  signifies  the 
thing  framed  according  to  a likeness;  pattern,  v.  Copy  ; 
ensample  signifies  that  which  is  done  according  to  a 
sample  or  example. 

All  these  words  are  taken  for  that  which  ought  to  be 
followed:  but  the  example  must  be  followed  generally  ; 
he  pattern  must  be  followed  particularly,  not  only  as 
o what,  but  how  a thing  is  to  be  done : the  former 
serves  as  a guide  to  the  judgement;  the  latter  to  guide 
the  actions.  The  example  comprehends  what  is  either 
to  be  followed  or  avoided ; the  pattern  only  that  which 
is  to  be  followed  or  copied ; the  ensample  is  a species 
of  example,  the  word  being  employed  only  in  the  solemn 
style.  The  example  may  be  presented  either  in  the  ob- 
ject itself,  or  the  description  of  it ; the  pattern  displays 
itself  most  completely  in  the  object  itself ; the  ensam- 
ple exists  only  in  the  description.  Those  who  know 
what  is  right  should  set  the  example  of  practising  it; 
and  those  who  persist  in  doing  wrong,  must  be  made 
an  example  to  deter  others  from  doing  the  same  ; 

The  king  of  men  his  hardy  host  inspires 
With  loud  command,  with  great  examples  fires. 

POPB. 

Every  one,  let  his  age  and  station  be  what  they  may,  may 
aftbrd  a pattern  of  Christian  virtue  ; the  child  may  be 
a pattern  to  his  playmates  of  diligence  and  dutifulness ; 
the  citizen  may  be  a pattern  to  his  fellow-citizens  of 
sobriety  and  conformity  to  the  laws  ; the  soldier  may 
be  a pattern  of  obedience  to  his  comrades;  ‘ The  fairy 
way  of  writing,  as  Mr.  Dryden  calls  it,  is  more  difficult 
than  any  other  that  depends  upon  the  poet’s  fancy,  be- 
cause he  has  no  pattern  to  follow  in  it.’ — Addison. 
Our  Saviour  has  left  us  an  example  of  Christian  per- 
fection, which  we  ought  to  imitate,  although  ive  can- 
not copy  it : the  Scripture  characters  are  drawn  as  en- 
samples  for  our  learning ; 

Sir  Knight,  that  doest  that  voyage  rashly  take, 

By  this  forbidden  way  in  my  despight, 

Doest  by  other’s  death  ensample  take  — Spenser. 

EXAMPLE,  PRECEDENT. 

Example,  v.  Example:  precedent,  from  the  Latin 
precedens  preceding,  signifies  by  distinction  that  pre- 
ceding which  is  entitled  to  notice. 

Both  these  terms  apply  to  that  which  may  be  fol- 
lowed or  made  a rule  ; but  the  example  is  commonly 
present  or  before  our  eyes;  the  precedent  is  properly 
something  past : the  example  may  derive  its  authority 
from  the  individual ; the  precedent  acquires  its  sanc- 
tion from  time  and  common  consent ; we  are  led  by  the 
example,  or  we  copy  the  example;  we  are  guided  or 
governed  by  the  precedent.  The  former  is  a private 
and  often  a partial  affair ; the  latter  is  a publick  and 
often  a national  concern ; we  quote  examples  in  litera- 
ture, and  precedents  in  law ; 

Thames!  the  most  lov’d  of  all  the  ocean’s  sons, 

O could  I flow  like  thee!  and  make  thy  stream 
My  great  example,  as  it  is  my  theme. — Denham. 

At  the  revolution  they  threw  a politick  veil  over  every 
circumstance  which  might  furnish  a precedent  for  any 
future  departure  from  what  they  had  then  settled  for 
ever.’— Burke. 

EXAMPLE,  INSTANCE. 

Example  (a.  Example,  pattern)  refers  in  this  case  to 
he  thing;  instance,  from  the  Latin  insto,  signifies  that 
oich  stands  or  serves  as  a resting  point. 


The  example  is  set  forth  by  way  of  illustration  or 
instruction;  the  instance  is  adduced  Ly  way  of  evi- 
dence or  proof.  Every  instance  may  serve  as  an 
example,  but  every  example  is  not  an  instance.  The 
example  consists  of  moral  or  intellectual  objects ; the 
instance  consists  of  actions  only.  Rules  are  illustrated 
by  examples ; 

Let  me,  my  son,  an  ancient  fact  unfold, 

A great  example  drawn  from  times  of  old. — Pope. 

Characters  are  illustrated  by  instances;  ‘Many  in 
stances  may  be  produced,  from  good  authorities,  that 
children  actually  suck  in  the  several  pa.ssions  and  de- 
praved inclinations  of  their  nurses.’ — Steele.  The 
best  mode  of  instructing  children  is  by  furnishing  them 
with  examples  for  every  rule  that  is  laid  down;  the 
Roman  history  furnishes  us  with  many  extraordinary 
instances  of  self-devotion  for  their  country. 


FIGURE,  METAPHOR,  ALLEGORY,  EMBLEM 
SYMBOL,  TYPE. 

Figure,  in  Latin  jigura,  from  jingo  to  feign,  signifies 
anything  painted  or  feigned  by  the  mind;  metaphor, 
in  Greek  perad^opd,  from  pcTa(pip(ii  to  transfer,  signifies 
a transfer  of  one  object  to  another ; allegory,  in  Greek 
aAAiyyopja,  from  a'AAos  another  thing,  and  dyopeuw  to 
relate,  signifies  the  relation  of  something  under  a bor- 
rowed form  ; emblem,  in  Greek  ep^Xripa,  from  ip(SdXXu 
to  impress,  signifies  the  thing  stamped  on  as  a mark; 
symbol,  from  the  Greek  avpfiuXX(o  to  consider  atten- 
tively, signifies  the  thing  cast  or  conceived  in  the  mind, 
from  its  analogy  to  represent  something  else ; type,  in 
Greek  TtiTrof,  from  Turrw  to  strike  or  stamp,  signifies 
an  image  of  something  that  is  stamped  on  something 
else. 

Likeness  between  two  objects  by  which  one  is  made 
to  represent  the  other,  is  the  common  idea  in  the  sig 
nification  of  these  terms.  Figure  is  the  most  general 
of  these  terms,  comprehending  every  thing  which  is 
Jigured  by  means  of  the  imagination ; the  rest  are  but 
modes  of  the  figure.  The  figure  consists  either  in 
words  or  in  things  generally;  we  may  have  a figure 
in  expression,  a figure  on  paper,  a figure  on  wood  or 
stone,  and  the  like.  It  is  the  business  of  the  imagina- 
tion to  draw  figures  out  of  any  thing;  ‘The  spring 
bears  the  same  figure  among  the  seasons  of  the  year, 
that  the  morning  does  among  the  divisions  of  the  day, 
or  youth  among  the  stages  of  life.’— Addison.  The 
metaphor  and  allegory  consist  of  a representation  bv 
means  of  words  only : the  figure,  in  this  case,  is  any 
representation  which  the  mind  makes  to  itself  of  a re- 
semblance between  objects,  which  is  properly  a figure 
of  thought,  which  when  clothed  in  words  is  a figure  of 
speech : the  metaphor  is  a figure  of  speech  of  the  sim- 
plest kind,  by  which  a word  acquires  other  meanings 
besides  that  which  is  originally  affixed  to  it;  as  when 
the  term  head,  which  properly  signifies  a part  of  the 
body,  is  applied  to  the  leader  of  an  army;  ‘No  man 
had  a happier  manner  of  expressing  the  affections  of 
one  sense  by  metaphors  taken  from  another  than  Mil 
ton.’ — Burke.  The  allegory  is  a continued  metaphor 
when  attributes,  modes  and  actions  are  applied  to  the 
objects  thus  figured,  as  in  the  allegory  of  sin  and  death 
in  Milton;  ‘Virgil  has  cast  the  whole  system  of  Pla- 
tonick  philosophy,  so  far  as  regards  the  soul  of  man, 
into  beautiful  allegories.'' — Addison. 

The  emblem  is  that  sort  of  figure  of  thought  by  which 
we  make  corporeal  objects  to  stand  for  moral  proper- 
ties: thus  the  dove  is  represented  as  the  emblem  of 
meekness,  or  the  bee-hive  is  conceived  to  be  the  emblem 
of  industry ; ‘ The  stork ’s  the  emblem  of  true  piety.’ — 
Beaumont.  The  symbol  is  that  species  of  emblem 
which  is  converted  into  a constituted  sign  among  men  , 
thus  the  olive  and  laurel  are  the  symbols  of  peace,  and 
have  been  recognised  as  such  among  barbarous  as  well 
as  enlightened  nations ; ‘ I need  not  mention  the  just- 
ness of  thought  which  is  observed  in  the  generation  of 
these  symbolical  persons  (in  Milton’s  allegory  of  sin 
and  death).’ — Addison.  The  type  is  that  species  of 
emblem  by  which  one  object  is  made  to  represent  an 
other  mystically ; it  is,  therefore,  .only  employed  in  re- 
ligious matters,  particularly  in  relation  to  the  coming 
the  office,  and  the  detith  of  our  Saviour ; in  this  man 
rier  the  offering  of  Isaac  is  considered  as  a type  of  out 
Saviour’s  offering  himself  as  an  atoning:  sacrifice 


632 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


All  llie  remarkable  events  under  the  law  were  types 
of  Christ.’ — Blair. 

PARABLE,  ALLEGORY. 

Parable^  in  French  parabole,  Greek  Ttapa^oKri  from 
rrapajidXXii)  signifies  what  is  thrown  out  or  set  before 
one,  in  lieu  of  something  which  it  resembles , allegory., 
V.  Figure. 

* Both  these  terms  imply  a veiled  mode  of  speech, 
which  serves  more  or  less  to  conceal  the  main  object 
of  the  discourse  by  presenting  it  under  the  appearance 
of  something  else,  which  accords  with  it  in  most  of  the 
particulars:  theparable  is  mostly  employed  for  moral 
purposes  ; the  allegory  in  describing  historical  events. 

The  parable  substitutes  some  other  subject  or  agent, 
who  is  represented  under  a character  that  is  suitable 
to  the  one  referred  to.  In  the  allegory  are  introduced 
strange  and  arbitrary  persons  in  the  place  of  the  real 
personages,  or  Imaginary  cliaracieristicks  and  circum- 
stances are  ascribed  to  real  persons. 

The  parable  is  principally  employed  in  the  sacred 
writings;  the  allegory  forms  a grand  feature  in  the 
productions  of  the  eastern  nations. 


SIMILE,  SIMILITUDE,  COMPARISON. 

Simile  and  similitude  are  both  drawn  from  the  Latin 
similis  like : the  former  signifying  the  thing  that  is  like ; 
the  latter  either  the  thing  that  is  like,  or  the  quality  of 
being  like : in  the  former  sense  only  it  is  to  be  compared 
with  simile,  when  employed  as  a figure  of  speech  or 
thought ; every  thing  is  a simile  which  associates  ob- 
jects together  on  account  of  any  real  or  supposed  like- 
ness between  them ; but  a similitude  signifies  a pro- 
longed or  continued  simile.  The  latter  may  be  ex- 
pressed in  a few  words,  as  when  we  say  the  god-like 
Achilles;  but  the  former  enters  into  minute  circum- 
stances of  comparison,  as  when  Homer  compares  any 
of  his  heroes  fighting  and  defending  themselves  against 
multitudes  to  lions  who  are  attacked  by  dogs  and  men. 
Every  simile  is  more  or  less  a comparison,  but  every 
comparison  is  not  a simile:  the  latter  compares  things 
only  as  far  as  they  are  alike;  but  the  former  extends 
to  those  things  which  are  different;  in  this  manner, 
there  may  be  a comparison  between  large  things  and 
small,  dlthough  there  can  be  no  good  simile;  ‘There 
are  also  several  noble  similes  and  allusions  in  the  first 
book  of  Paradise  Lost.’ — Addison.  ‘ h as  have  a 
natural  bent  to  solitude  (to  carry  on  the  former  simili- 
tude) are  like  waters  which  may  be  forced  into  foun- 
tains.’— Pope.  ‘Your  image  of  worshipping  once  a 
year  in  a certain  place,  in  imitation  of  the  Jews,  is  but 
a comparison,  and  simile  non  est  idem.’ — Johnson. 


LIKENESS,  RESEMBLANCE,  SIMILARITY, 
OR  SIMILITUDE. 

Likeness  denotes  the  quality  of  being  alike  (v. 
Equal);  resemblance,  itom  resemble,  compounded  of 
re  and  semble,  in  French  sembler,  Latin  simulo,  signi- 
fies putting  on  the  form  of  another  thing;  similarity, 
in  Latin  similaritas,  from  smiZis,  in*  Greek  hpayog 
like,  from  the  Hebrew  *7DD  an  image,  denotes  the  ab- 
stract property  of  likeness. 

Likeness  is  the  most  general,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  most  familiar,  ternt  of  the  three ; it  respects  either 
external  or  internal  properties:  resemblance  respects 
only  the  external  properties;  similarity  on\y  the  in- 
ternal properties : we  speak  of  a likeness  between  two 
persons ; of  a resemblance  in  the  cast  of  the  eye,  a re- 
sembla,nce  in  the  form  or  figure  ; of  a similarity  in  age 
and  disposition. 

Likeness  is  said  only  of  that  which  is  actual;  re- 
semblance may  be  said  of  tliat  which  is  apparent:  the 
likeness  consists  of  something  specifick;  the  resem- 
blance may  be  only  partial  and  contingent.  A thing 
is  said  to  be,  but  not  to  appear,  like  another;  it  may, 
however,  have  the  shadow  of  ^.resemblance : whatever 
things  are  alike  are  dike  in  their  essential  properties; 
but  they  may  resemble  in  a partial  degree,  or  in  certain 
particulars,  but  are  otherwise  essentially  different. 
We  are  most  like  the  Divine  Being  in  the  act  of  doing 
good ; there  is  nothing  existing  in  nature  which  has 
not  certain  points  of  resemblance  with  something  else 

* Yide  Abbe  Girard:  “ Parable,  allegorie.” 


Similarity,  or  similitude,  whiih  is  a higher  term, 
is  in  the  moral  application,  in  regard  to  likeness,  what 
resemblance  is  in  the  physical  sense:  what  is  alike  haa 
the  same  nature ; what  is  similar  has  certain  features 
of  similarity : in  this  sense  feelings  are  alike,  senti- 
ments are  alike,  persons  are  alike;  but  cases  are  simi 
lar,  circumstances  are  similar,  conditions  are  similar. 
Likeness  excludes  the  idea  of  difference;  similarity 
includes  only  the  idea  of  casual  likeness; 

With  friendly  hand  I hold  the  glass 
To  all  promisc’ous  as  they  pass ; 

Should  folly  there  her  likeness  view, 

1 fret  not  that  the  mirror ’s  true. — Moore. 

So,  Caint  resemblance ! on  the  marble  tomb 
The  well-dissembled  lover  stooping  stands. 

Forever  silent  and  for  ever  sad. — Thomson. 

‘ Rochefoucault  frequently  makes  use  of  the  antithesis, 
a mode  of  speaking  the  most  tiresome  of  any,  by  the 
similarity  of  the  periods.’ — Warton.  ‘ As  it  addetn 
deformity  to  an  ape  to  be  so  like  a man,  so  the  simtli 
tilde  of  superstition  to  religion  makes  it  the  more  de- 
formed.’—Bacon. 


LIKENESS,  PICTURE,  IMAGE,  EFFIGY 

In  the  former  article  likeness  is  considered  as  an  ab- 
stract term,  but  in  connexion  with  the  words  picture 
E.;.d  image  it  signifies  the  representation  of  likeness; 
picture,  in  Latin  pictura,  from  pingo  to  paint,  signi- 
fies the  thing  painted;  image,  in  Latin  imago,  con- 
tracted from  imitago,  comes  from  imitor  to  imitate, 
signifying  an  imitation  ; effigy,  in  Latin  effigies,  from 
effingo,  signifies  that  which  was  formed  after  another 
thing. 

Likeness  is  a general  and  indefinite  term;  picture 
and  image  express  something  positively  like.  A like 
ness  is  the  work  of  nature  or  art ; if  it  be  the  work  of 
man,  it  is  sketched  by  the  pencil,  and  is  more  or  lead 
real ; 

God,  Moses  first,  then  David,  did  inspire, 

To  compose  anthems  for  his  heav’nly  choir; 

To  th’  one  the  style  of  friend  he  did  impart. 

On  th’  other  stamp’d  the  likeness  of  his  heart. 

Denham. 

A picture  is  either  the  work  of  design  or  accident;  it 
may  be  drawn  by  the  pencil  or  the  pen,  or  it  may  be 
found  in  the  incidental  resemblances  of  things;  it  ia 
more  or  less  exact ; 

Or  else  the  comick  muse 

Holds  to  the  world  a picture  ot  itself. — Thomson 
The  image  lies  in  the  nature  of  things,  and  is  more  or 
less  striking;  ‘ The  mind  of  man  is  an  image,  not  only 
of  God’s  spirituality,  but  of  his  infinity.’— ^outh.  It 
is  the  peculiar  excellence  of  the  painter  to  produce  a 
likeness;  the  withering  and  falling  off  of  the  leaves 
from  the  trees  in  autumn  is  a picture  of  human  nature 
in  its  decline;  children  are  Irequently  the  very  image 
of  their  parents. 

A likeness  is  that  which  is  to  represent  the  actual 
likeness ; but  an  effigy  is  an  artificial  or  arbitrary  like- 
ness; ‘I  have  read  somewhere  that  one  of  the  popes 
refused  to  accept  an  edition  of  a saint’s  works,  which 
were  presented  to  him,  because  the  saint  in  his  effigies 
before  the  book,  was  drawn  without  a beard.’ — Addi- 
son. It  may  be  represented  on  wood  or  stone,  or  in 
the  figure  of  a person,  or  in  the  copy  of  the  figure. 
Artists  produce  likenesses  in  different  manners,  they 
carve  effigies,  or  take  impressions  from  those  that  are 
carved.  Hence  any  thing  dressed  up  in  the  figure  of 
a man  to  represent  a particular  person  is  termed  his 
effigy. 


TO  CONTRIVE,  DEVISE,  INVENT. 

Contrive,  in  French  controuvcr,  compounded  of  con 
and  trouver,  sigkiifies  to  find  out  by  putting  together; 
devise,  compounded  of  de  and  vise,  in  Latit\  visus 
seen,  signifies  to  show  or  present  to  the  mind ; invent, 
in  Latin  inventus,  participle  of  invenio,  compounded 
of  in  and  venio,  signifies  to  come  or  bring  into  the 
mind. 

To  contrive  and  devise  do  not  express  so  much  as  to 
invent:  we  contrive  and  devise  in  small  matters;  we 
invent  in  those  of  greater  .moment.  Contriving  an^ 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES.  53H 


aevising  respect  the  manner  of  doing  things;  inventing 
compretiends  the  action  and  the  thing  itself;  tlie  former 
are  but  the  new  fashioning  of  things  that  already 
exist ; tlie  latter  is,  as  it  were,  the  creation  of  some- 
thing new:  to  contrive  SiT\d  devise  are  intentional  ac- 
tions, the  result  of  a specifick  effort;  invention  natu- 
rally arises  from  the  exertion  of  an  inherent  power : 
we  require  thought  and  combination  to  contrive  or 
devise  j ingenuity  is  the  faculty  which  is  exerted  in 
inventing ; 

My  sentence  is  for  open  war;  of  wiles 
More  unexpert  I boast  not;  them  let  those 
Contrive  who  need,  or  when  they  need,  not  now, 
Milton. 

The  briskest  nectar 

Shall  be  his  drink,  and  all  th’  ambrosial  cates 
Art  can  devise  for  vvantoti  appetite, 

Furnish  his  banquet. — Nabb. 

Architecture,  painting,  and  statuary,  were  invented 
with  the  design  to  lift  up  human  nature.’ — Addison. 

Contriving  requires  even  less  exercise  of  the 
thoughts  than  we  contrive  on  familiar  and 

common  occasions ; we  devise  in  seasons  of  difficulty 
and  trial.  A centrivance  is  simple  and  obvious  to  a 
plain  understanding:  a device  is  complex  and  far- 
fetched ; it  requires  a ready  conception  and  a degree 
of  art. 

Contrivances  serve  to  supply  a deficiency,  or  iii- 
ciease  a convenience ; devices  are  employed  to  extri- 
cate from  danger,  to  remove  an  evil,  or  forward  a 
scheme : the  history  of  Robinson  Crusoe  derives  consi- 
derable interest  from  the  relation  of  the  various  con- 
trivances, by  which  he  provided  himself  with  the  first 
articles  of  necessity  and  comfort ; the  history  of  robbers 
and  adventurers  is  full  of  the  various  devices  by  which 
they  endeavour  to  carry  on  their  projects  of  plunder, 
or  elude  the  vigilance  of  their  pursuers;  the  history  of 
civilized  society  contains  an  account  of  the  various 
inventions  which  have  contributed  to  the  enjoyment 
nr  improvement  of  mankind. 


DEVICE,  CONTRIVANCE. 

These  nouns,  derived  from  the  preceding  verbs, 
have  also  a similar  distinction. 

There  Is  an  exercise  of  art  displayed  in  both  these 
actions;  but  the  former  has  most  of  ingenuity,  trick, 
or  cunning;  the  latter  more  of  deduction  and  plain 
judgement  in  it.  A device  always  consists  of  some 
invention  or  something  newly  made ; a contrivance 
mostly  respects  the  mode,  arrangement,  or  disposition 
of  things.  Artists  are  employed  in  conceiving  devices  ; 
men  in  general  use  contrivances  for  the  ordinary  con- 
cerns. 

A device  is  often  employed  for  bad  and  fraudulent 
purposes  ; contrivances  mostly  serve  for  innocent  pur- 
poses of  domestick  life.  Beggars  have  various  de- 
vices for  giving  themselves  the  appearance  of  wretch- 
edness and  exciting  the  compassion  of  the  spectator. 
Those  who  are  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  supplying 
their  wants  commonly  succeed  by  forming  contri- 
vances of  which  they  had  not  before  any  conception. 
Devices  are  the  work  of  the  human  understanding 
only;  contrivances  are  likewise  formed  by  animals. 

Men  employ  devices  with  an  intention  either  to 
deceive  or  to  please  others;  ‘ As  I have  long  lived  in 
Kent,  and  there  often  heard  how  the  Kentish  men 
evaded  the  conqueror  by  carrying  green  boughs  over 
their  heads;  it  put  me  in  mind  of  practising  this  de- 
vice against  Mr.  Simper.’ — Steele.  Animals  have 
their  contrivances  either  to  supply  some  want  or  to 
remove  some  evil;  ‘ All  the  temples  as  well  as  houses 
of  the  Athenians  were  the  effects  of  Nestor’s  (the 
architect)  study  and  labour,  insomuch  that  it  was  said, 
“ Sure  Nestor  will  now  be  famous ; for  the  habitations 
of  gods,  as  well  as  men,  are  built  by  his  contrivance.'^' 
—Steele. 


TO  CONCERT,  CONTRIVE,  MANAGE. 

Concert  is  either  a variation  of  consort  a compa- 
nion, or  from  the  Latin  concerto  to  debate  together; 
contrive,  from  contrivi,  perfect  of  contero  to  bruise  to- 
gether, signifies  to  pound  or  put  together  in  the  mind 
was  to  form  a composition;  manage,  in  French  me- 


nager,  compounded  of  the  Latin  maims  and  ago,  sig 
nities  to  lead  by  the  hand. 

There  is  a secret  understanding  in  concerting-, 
invention  in  contriving;  execution  in  managing 
There  is  mostly  contrivance  and  management  in  con 
certing;  but  there  is  not  always  concerting  in  con 
trivance  or  management.  Measures  are  concerten, 
schemes  aie  contrived;  affairs  are  managed. 

Two  parties  at  least  are  requisite  in  concerting,  on« 
is  sufficient  for  contriving  <i.nA  managing.  Concerting 
is  always  employed  in  all  secret  transactions;  contri 
vance  and  management  are  used  indifferently. 

Robbers  who  have  determined  on  any  scheme  of 
plunder  concert  together  the  means  of  carrying  theii 
project  into  execution ; ‘ Modern  statesmen  are  con 
certing  schemes  and  engaged  in  the  depth  of  politicks 
at  the  time  when  their  forefathers  were  laid  down 
quietly  to  rest,  and  had  nothing  in  their  heads  but 
dreams.’— Steele.  Thieves  contrive  various  devices 
to  elude  the  vigilance  of  the  police ; ‘ When  Csesar 
was  one  of  the  masters  of  the  mint,  he  placed  the  figure 
of  an  elephant  upon  the  reverse  of  the  pwblick  money  ; 
the  word  Ciesar  signifying  an  elephant  in  the  Punick 
language.  This  was  artfully  contnned  by  Ciesar;  be 
cause  it  was  not  lawful  for  a private  man  to  stamp  his 
own  figure  upon  the  coin  of  the  commonwealth.’— 
Addison.  Those  who  have  any  thing  bad  to  do 
manage  their  concerns  in  the  dark ; ‘ It  is  the  great  act 
and  secret  of  Christianity,  if  I may  use  that  phrase, 
to  manage  our  actions  to  the  best  advantage.’— Ad 
dison. 

Those  who  are  debarred  the  opportunity  of  seeing 
each  other  unrestrainedly,  concert  measures  for  meet- 
ing privately.  The  ingenuity  of  a person  is  frequently 
displayed  in  the  contrivances  by  which  he  strives  to 
help  himself  out  of  his  troubles.  Whenever  there  are 
many  parties  interested  in  a concern,  it  is  never  so  well 
managed  as  when  it  is  in  the  hands  of  one  individual 
suitably  qualified. 


DESIGN,  PURPOSE,  INTEND,  MEAN. 

Design,  from  the  Latin  designare,  signifies  to  mw  i 
out  as  with  a pen  or  pencil;  purpose,  like  propose 
comes  from  the  Latin  proposui,  perfect  of  propono 
signifying  to  set  before  one’s  mind  as  an  object  of  pur 
suit;  intend,  in  Latin  intendo  to  bend  towards,  signi 
fies  the  bending  of  the  mind  towards  an  object;  mean, 
in  Saxon  maenen,  German,  &c.  meinen,  is  probably 
connected  with  the  word  mind,  signifying  to  have  in 
the  mind. 

Design  and  purpose  are  terms  of  higher  import  than 
intend  and  mean,  which  are  in  familiar  use;  the  latte, 
still  more  so  than  the  former.  The  design  embraces 
many  objects;  the  jBM?7)ose  consists  of  only  one:*  the 
former  supposes  something  studied  and  methodical,  it 
requires  reflection ; the  latter  supposes  something  fixed 
and  determinate,  it  requires  resolution.  A design  is 
attainable  ; n purpose  is  steady.  We  speak  of  the  de- 
sign as  it  regards  the  thing  conceived;  we  speak  of  the 
purpose  as  it  regards  the  temper  of  the  person.  Men 
of  a sanguine  or  aspiring  character  are  apt  to  form  de- 
signs which  cannot  be  carried  into  execution ; who- 
ever wishes  to  keep  true  to  his  purpose  must  not  listen 
to  many  counsellors; 

Jove  honours  me  and  favours  my  designs. 

His  pleasure  guides  me,  and  his  will  confines. 

Pope 

Proud  as  he  is,  that  iron  heart  retains 

His  stubborn  and  his  friends  disdains. 

Pope. 

'The  purpose  is  the  thing  proposed  or  set  before  the 
mind ; the  intention  is  the  thing  to  which  the  mind 
bends  or  inclines:  purpose  and  latewd  differ  therefore 
both  in  the  nature  of  the  action  aiid  the  object;  we 
purpose  seriously;  we  intend  vaguely : we  set  about 
that  which  we  purpose ; we  may  delay  that  which  w« 
have  only  intended;  the  execution  of  one’s  purposi 
rests  mostly  with  one’s  self;  the  fulfilment  of  an  in- 
tention depends  upon  circumstances;  a man  of  a reso- 
lute temper  is  not  to  be  diverted  from  his  purpose  bv 
trifling  objects;  we  may  be  disappointed  in  our  inten- 
tions by  a variety  of  unforeseen  but  uncontrollablf 
events. 

* Vide  Trusler;  “ Intention,  dt  sign.’' 


634 


ENGLISH  SYNONYMES. 


Mean,  which  is  a term  altogether  of  colloquial  use, 
Jitfers  but  little  from  intend,  except  that  it  is  used  for 
more  familiar  objects:  to  mean  is  simply  to  have  in 
the  mind  ; to  intend  i&  to  lean  with  the  mind  towards 
any  thing. 

Purpose  is  always  applied  to  some  proximate  or  de- 
finite object; 

And  I persuade  me  God  hath  not  permitted 
His  strength  again  to  grow,  were  not  his  puipose 
To  use  him  further  yet. 

Intend  and  mean  to  that  which  is  general  or  remote ; 
‘The  gods  would  not  have  delivered  a soul  into  the 
body,  which  hath  arms  and  legs,  instruments  of  doing, 
but  tliat  it  were  intended  the  mind  should  employ  them.’ 
—Sidney. 

And  life  more  perfect  have  attain’d  than  fate 
Meant  me,  by  venturing  higher  than  my  lot. 

Milton. 

We  purpose  to  set  out  at  a certain  time  or  go  a cer- 
tain route;  we  mean  to  set  out  as  soon  as  we  can,  and 
go  the  way  that  shall  be  found  most  agreeable;  the 
moralist  designs  by  Ids  writings  to  effect  a reformation 
in  the  manners  of  men:  a writer  purposes  to  treat  on 
a given  subject  in  some  particular  manner;  it  is  ridi- 
culous to  lay  down  rules  which  are  not  intended  to  be 
kept;  an  honest  man  always  mearrs  to  satisfy  his  cre- 
ditors. 

Design  and  purpose  are  taken  sometimes  in  the 
abstract  sense;  intend  and  mean  always  in  connexion 
with  the  agent  who  intends  or  means  : we  see  a design 
:n  the  whole  creation,  which  leads  us  to  reflect  on  the 
wisdom  and  goodness  of  the  Creator;  whenever  we 
see  any  thing  done  we  are  led  to  inquire  the  purpose 
for  which  it  is  done;  or  are  desirous  of  knowing  the 
intention  of  the  person  for  so  doing:  things  are  said  to 
be  done  with  a design,  in  opposition  to  that  which  hap- 
pens by  chance;  they  are  said  to  be  done  for  s.  purpose, 
in  reference  to  the  immediate  purpose  which  is  ex- 
pected to  result  from  them.  Design,  when  not  ex- 
pressly qualified  by  a contrary  epithet,  is  used  in  a bad 
sense  in  connexion  with  a particular  agent;  purpose, 
intention,  and  meaning  in  an  indifferent  sense:  a de- 
tigning  person  is  full  of  latent  and  interested  designs; 
His  deep  design  unknown,  the  hosts  approve 
Atrides’  speech. — Pope. 

There  is  nothing  so  good  that  it  may  not  be  made  to 
•erve  ih^  purposes  of  those  who  a^e  bad; 

Change  this  purpose. 

Which,  being  so  horrible,  so  bloody,  must 
Lead  on  to  some  foul  issue. 

The  intentions  of  a man  must  always  be  taken  into 
the  account  when  we  are  forming  an  estimate  of  his 
actions ; ‘ f wish  others  the  same  intention  and  greater 
successes.’— Temple.  Ignorant  people  frequently 
mean  much  better  than  they  do. 

Nothing  can  evinca  greater  depravity  of  mind  than 
aesignedly  to  rob  another  of  his  good  name ; when  a 
person  wishes  to  get  any  information  he  purposely 
directs  his  discourse  to  the  subject  upon  which  he 
desires  to  be  informed  ; if  we  unintentionally  incur  the 
displeasure  of  another,  it  is  to  be  reckoned  our  mis- 
fortune rather  than  our  fault ; it  is  not  enough  for  our 
endeavours  to  be  well  meant,  if  they  be  not  also  well 
directed ; 

Then  first  Polydamus  the  silence  broke. 

Long  weigh’d  the  signal,  and  to  Hector  spoke : 
How  oft,  my  brother ! thy  reproach  I bear. 

For  words  well  meant  and  sentiments  sincere. 

Pope. 


DESIGN,  PLAN,  SCHEME,  PROJECT. 

Design,  v.  To  design ; plan,  in  French  plan,  comes 
from  plane  or  plain,  in  Latin  planus,  smooth  or  even, 
signifying  in  general  any  plane  place,  or  in  particular 
.he  even  surface  on  which  a building  is  raised  and  by 
flin  extended  application  the  sketch  of  the  plan,:  surface 
of  any  building  or  object;  scheme,  in  Latin  schema, 
Greek  Gxhpa  the  form  or  figure,  signifies  ihe_  thing 
drawn  out  in  the  mind ; project,  in  Latin  projectus, 
from  projicio,  compounded  of  pro  and  jacio,  signifies 
*0  cast  or  put  forth,  that  is,  the  thing  proposed. 

Arrangement  is  the  idea  common  to  these  terms 


the  design  includes  the  thing  that  is  to  be  broughi 
about;  the  plan  includes  the  means  by  which  it  is  to 
be  broughi  about : a designv/ns  formed  in  the  lime  of 
James  I.  for  overturning  the  government  of  the  coun 
try ; the  plan  by  which  this  was  to  have  been  realized, 
consisted  in  placing  gunpowder  under  the  parHameiit 
house  and  blowing  up  the  assembly ; ‘ Is  he  a prudent 
man,  as  to  his  temporal  estate,  that  lays  designs  only 
for  a day  without  any  prospect  to  the  remaining  part 
of  his  life  V — Tillotson.  ‘ It  was  at  Marseilles  that 
Virgil  formed  the  plan,  and  collected  the  materials,  of 
all  those  excellent  pieces  which  he  afterward  finished: 
— Walsh. 

A design  is  to  be  estimated  according  to  its  intrinsick 
worth ; a plan  is  to  be  estimated  according  to  its  rela- 
tive value,  or  fitness  for  the  design  : a design  is  noble 
or  wicked ; a plan  is  practicable : every  founder  of  a 
charitable  institution  may  be  supposed  to  have  a good 
design;  but  he  may  adopt  an  erroneous  plan  for  ob- 
taining the  end  proposed. 

Scheme  and  project  respect  both  the  end  and  the 
means,  which  makes  them  analogous  to  design  and 
plan : the  design  stimulates  to  action ; the  flan  de- 
termines the  mode  of  action : the  scheme  and  project 
consist  most  in  speculation:  the  design  and  plan  ate 
equally  practical,  and  suited  to  the  ordinary  and  im- 
mediate circumstances  of  life  : the  scheme  and  project 
are  contrived  or  conceived  for  extraordinary  or  rare 
occasions : no  man  takes  any  step  without  a design  ; 
a general  forms  the  plan  of  his  campaign  ; adventu- 
rous men  are  alwaysforming  scAemes  forgaining  money; 
ambitious  monarchs  are  full  of  projects  for  increasing 
their  dominions ; 

The  happy  people  in  their  waxen  cells 

Sat  tending  publick  cares,  and  planning  scheme$ 

Of  temperance  for  winter  poor.— Thomson. 

‘ Manhood  is  led  on  from  hope  to  hope,  and  from  pro 
jeet  to  project.' — Johnson. 

.ScAe7rte  and  project  differ  principally  in  the  magni- 
tude of  the  objects  to  which  they  are  applied;  the 
former  being  much  less  vast  and  extensive  than  lha 
latter : a scheme  may  be  formed  by  an  individual  for 
attaining  any  trifling  advantage ; projects  are  mostly 
conceived  in  matters  of  state,  or  of  publick  interest ; 
the  metropolis  abounds  with  persons  whose  inventive 
faculties  are  busy  in  devising  schemes,  either  of  s 
commercial,  a literary,  a philosophical,  or  politica 
description,  by  which  they  propose  great  advantages 
to  the  publick,  but  still  greater  to  themselves  ; the  pro 
ject  of  universal  conquest  which  entered  into  the  wild 
speculations  of  Alexander  the  Great,  did  not,  unform 
nately  for  the  world,  perish  at  his  death. 

TO  PURPOSE,  PROPOSE. 

We  purpose  (v.  To  design)  that  which  is  near  at 
hand,  or  immediately  to  be  set  about ; we  propose  that 
which  is  more  distant : the  former  requires  the  setting 
before  one’s  mind,  the  latter  requires  deliberatiorl  and 
plan.  We  purpose  many  things  which  we  never  think 
worth  while  doing:  but  we  ought  not  to  propose  any 
thing  to  ourselves,  which  is  not  of  too  much  import- 
ance to  be  lightly  adopted  or  rejected.  We  purpose. 
to  go  to  town  on  a certain  day ; 

When  listening  Philomela  deigns 
To  let  them  joy,  and  in  thought 

Elate  to  make  her  night  excel  their  day. 

Thomson. 

We  propose  to  spend  our  time  in  a particular  study 
‘There  are  but  two  plans  on  which  any  man  can 
propose  to  conduct  himself  through  the  dangers  and 
distresses  of  human  life.’— Blair. 


INTENT,  INTENSE. 

Intent  and  intense  are  both  derived  from  the  vero 
to  intend,  signifying  to  stretch  towards  a point,  or  tc 
a great  degree:  the  former  is  said  only  of  the  person 
or  mind;  the  latter  qualifies  things  in  general:  a per 
son  is  intent  when  his  mind  is  on  the  stretch  towards 
an  object;  his  application  is  intense  when  his  mind  is 
for  a continuance  closely  fixed  on  certain  objects : cold 
is  intense  when  it  seems  to  be  wound  up  to  its  highest 
pitch;  ‘ There  *is  an  evjf  spirit  continually  active  ano 


KNGLiSH  SYNONYr/iES 


534 


mten,.  tc  seduce.  —South  ' Mutual  favours  naturally 
beget  an  intense  affection  in  generous  minds.’— Spec- 
tator. 

SAKE,  ACCOUNT,  REASON,  PURPOSE,  END. 

These  terms,  all  employed  adverbially,  modify  or 
connect  propositions:  hence,  one  says,  for  his  sake,  on 
his  account,  for  this  reason,  for  this  purpose,  and  to 
this  end. 

Sake,  which  comes  from  the  word  to  seek,  is  mostly 
said  of  persons;  what  is  done  for  a person’s  sake  is  the 
same  as  because  of  his  seeking  or  at  his  desire ; one 
may,  however,  say  in  regard  to  things,  for  the  sake  of 
good  order,  implying  what  good  order  requires : account 
is  indifferently  employed  for  persons  or  things ; what 
is  done  on  a person’s  account  is  done  in  his  behalf, 
and  for  his  interest;  what  is  done  on  account  of  indis- 
position is  done  in  consequence  of  it,  the  indisposition 
being  the  cause : reason,  purpose,  SiWA  end  are  applied 
to  things  only : we  speak  of  the  reason  as  the  thing 
that  justifies;  we  explain  why  we  do  a thing  when 


we  say  we  do  it  for  'uis  or  tliax  reason  : we  speak  of 
the  purpose  and  the  end  by  way  of  explaining  the 
nature  of  the  thing : the  propriety  of  measures  cannot 
be  known  unless  we  know  ihe  purpose  for  which  they 
were  done ; nor  will  a prudent  person  be  satisfied 
to  follow  any  course,  unless  he  knows  to  what  end  it 
will  lead. 


EXPEDIENT,  RESOURCE. 

The  expedient  is  an  artificial  means;  the  resouice 
is  a natural  means:  a*  cunning  man  is  fruitful  in 
expedients;  a fortunate  man  abounds  in  resources: 
Robinson  Crusoe  adopted  every  expedient  in  order  to 
prolong  hise.xistence,at  a time  when  his  rcsor/rces  were 
at  the  lowest  ebb;  ‘When  there  happens  to  be  any 
thing  ridiculous  in  a visage,  the  best  expedient  is  for 
the  owner  to  be  pleasant  upon  himself.’ — Steele. 
‘Since  the  accomplishment  of  the  revolution,  Frenct 
has  destroyed  every  resource  of  the  slate  which 
pends  upon  opinion.  — Burke. 


THS  mD. 


) 


\ 


^ ' 


